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                        Road Safety Audit Toolkit for Federal Land Management Agencies and Tribal Governments


            
            In This Section
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                Chapter 2: What are Common Safety Issues and Potential Countermeasures?
This chapter describes potential safety issues identified on Federal and Tribal lands as well as a list of potential low-cost countermeasures for addressing these issues.  A basic prioritization methodology is also discussed.

What Types of Safety Issues Might I Encounter?

Most issues on or adjacent to Federal and Tribal lands have both an engineering and behavioral element.  For example, traffic types and volumes may be inconsistent with the intended roadway design due to changes in the functionality of the roadway and land use in surrounding areas.  This may result in a roadway serving mostly commuter traffic, an increase in heavy vehicular traffic, or seasonal traffic peaks and variations.  As such, shoulder widths and roadsides may not adequately address the increased risk to drivers.  From a behavioral standpoint, lack of awareness of the intended purpose of the roadway may result in motorists not applying the appropriate driving techniques for the conditions.  Furthermore, driver expectancy of other road users such as pedestrians and bicyclists may not reflect the intended usage.

The RSA team should determine the safety issues while considering the infrastructure and the behavior elements.  Table 2 illustrates common safety issues and behavioral aspects relating to these issues on or near Federal and Tribal lands listed by roadway element. The RSA team is charged with determining specific roadway and behavioral issues for the specific project they are assessing.  The documents in the Resource Materials section provide further detail with regard to the issues presented here and to other potential safety hazards that an RSA team should be aware of when conducting a field review.

What are Common Countermeasures?

Table 2 also presents common countermeasures that may be used to address road safety issues on or near Federal and Tribal lands.  This list is not comprehensive; it is intended to provide general guidance to typical countermeasures.  Note that the countermeasures identified in this list are primarily low-cost engineering measures, although a few relatively high-cost options are included because they are considered to be “proven” countermeasures.  A few specific education and enforcement measures are identified as well, but a more general discussion of how to incorporate education, enforcement, and EMS countermeasures is provided in the following section.  The documents in the Resource Materials section provide a much wider and detailed range of potential countermeasures and their effectiveness and should be used as guidance when considering safety measures during the RSA process.

***Table 2: Common Safety Issues and Countermeasures***

**Topic Area**
			**General Issues**
			**Example Observations**
			**Example Countermeasures****Cross-section**
			Limited pavement width
			Narrow or no paved shoulders
			Improve/stabilize unpaved shoulders

			Install safety edge

			Install new paved shoulders or widen existing paved shoulders

			Install centerline or edgeline rumble strips or rumble stripesPavement edge drops
			Vertical pavement edge drops greater than two inches**Horizontal curves**
			Sharp curves
			Limited sight distance
			Install advance curve warning (with/without advisory speed)

			Install centerline and edgeline pavement markings

			Improve delineation (e.g., chevrons, post-mounted delineators)

			Upgrade existing signs (size, retroreflectivity, location)

			Improve skid resistance with high-friction treatment (e.g., NovaChip, microsurfacing, etc.)Inadequate superelevationVarious levels of delineation
			Inconsistent and old signingFaded pavement markings; no edgelines**Roadside hazards**
			Common roadside hazards located in close proximity to the roadway
			Trees, rocks, utility poles, guide wires
			The order of preference for treating roadside hazards (from most preferred to least preferred) ***(1)*** is to:

			Remove the obstacle.
				Redesign the obstacle so it can be safely traversed.
				Relocate the obstacle to a point where it is less likely to be struck.
				Reduce impact severity by using an appropriate breakaway device.
				Shield the obstacle with a longitudinal traffic barrier designed for redirection or use a crash cushion.
				Delineate the obstacle if the above alternatives are not appropriate.***(1)*** American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).  *Roadside Design Guide.*  2002 3rd Edition with 2006 Chapter 6 Update.Steep embankmentsDrainage features (inlets, headwalls, culverts)Large bodies of water
			Walls and barriers**Intersections**
			Lack of driver expectancy
			Sight distance to the intersection
			Inconsistent and old signing
			Enhance driver expectation of intersections (e.g., advance pavement markings and/or signs, lateral rumble strips)

			Provide adequate sight distance to intersection

			Enhance conspicuity of signs and pavement markings (size, retroreflectivity, location, number)

			Improve line of sight at the intersection/provide clear sight triangles

			Reduce conflict points by installing turn lanes and consolidating driveways (access management)

			Provide lighting

			Consider roundaboutsObstructions in the sight triangle
			Sight distance at the intersectionDriver behavior
			Poor gap acceptance at stop-controlled intersections**Lighting**
			Roadway and intersection lighting
			Inadequate or lack of lighting
			Limited visibility of pedestrian/bicycle traffic; also, animals/wildlife
			Install/improve lighting along roadway or at intersections**Pedestrians and bicyclists**
			Lack of designated facilities for pedestrians and bicyclists
			No sidewalks or shared use paths and limited shoulders
			Lack of designated crossings
			Provide designated pedestrian and bicycle facilities

			Install or widen paved shoulder to a minimum of four feet for use by pedestrians and bicyclists

			Construct a shared use path

			Enhance driver awareness of pedestrians, bicyclists, and crossings (e.g., warning signs, pavement markings, standard and/or hybrid signals)

			Provide median refuge areas

			Provide educational information to road users with regard to safe use

			Enforce pedestrian and bicycle lawsDriver behavior
			Lack of driver awareness of pedestrians and bicyclistsPedestrian and bicyclist behavior
			Lack of familiarity with road network and safety issues (tourists)**Animals**
			Open range livestock
			Roadside grazing
			Enhance driver awareness of animals and animal crossings (e.g., signs)

			Install animal/wildlife fencing to reduce the number of potential conflict points

			Construct wildlife crossings (i.e., overpasses and underpasses) along primary migratory/feeding routes

			Enact and enforce laws to prohibit grazing within the right-of-way

			Educate owners about animal control laws and liabilityWildlife
			Annual migration routes**Speed management**
			High vehicle speeds
			Limited enforcement due to large jurisdictions
			Coordinate with local enforcement to conduct targeted speed enforcement

			Consider alternative measures (e.g., speed trailers)

			Install gateway treatments at the entrances to towns**Vehicle mix**
			All Terrain Vehicles (ATVs)/Snowmobiles

			Trucks and buses
			ATVs or snowmobiles on and along the roadway
			ATVs or snowmobiles crossing the roadway
			Trucks and buses interacting with other road users, especially non-motorized
			Provide educational information to road users with regard to safe operating/use

			Install warning signs and markings to indicate ATV/snowmobile crossings

			Inform ATV/snowmobile riders of appropriate/designated trails

			Coordinate with local enforcement

			Support educational campaigns by enforcing ATV/snowmobile operations

			Provide sidewalks or shared-use paths to separate non-motorized road users**Access to facilities and communities**
			Location
			Limited sight distance/awareness of facilities
			Access along high-speed roads
			Inadequate pedestrian / bicycle accommodations
			Enhance driver awareness of facilities/communities (e.g., advance warning signs and/or guide signs, gateway treatments)

			Clear sight triangles at entrances/exits

			Separate turning vehicles by installing left- and/or right-turn lanes

			Install shared use path or provide an adequate shoulder to separate pedestrians and bicyclists from motor vehicle traffic

			Conduct a parking study

			Identify current occupancy and determine needed capacity

			Identify opportunities to provide better connectivity between parking facilities and pedestrian/bicycle generatorsParking
			Limited capacity (spillover)

			Lack of connectivity to destinations

How Can I Incorporate Education, Enforcement, and EMS Countermeasures?

Safety issues cannot be completely addressed through engineering alone.  The other “E’s” include education, enforcement, and emergency medical services (EMS).  The RSA team should encourage and suggest measures that consider all “4 E’s” to address specific safety issues.  Communication and coordination among the “E’s” is essential to ensuring safety is addressed at a comprehensive level.  The agencies conducting RSAs may need to regularly assemble representatives from each of the “4 E’s” to ensure that countermeasures and strategies are complementing one another.  Some examples of education, enforcement, and EMS countermeasures are presented below; *NCHRP Report 622* provides a more complete description of countermeasures that may aid education, enforcement, and EMS safety strategies (see Resource Materials section for complete reference).  Although the report is based on countermeasures targeting a State Highway Safety Office audience, the information provided may be applicable to safety issues observed by Federal and Tribal agencies.

**Education** – All road users must be aware of the safe and proper way to use roads.  Due to the unique characteristics of Federal and Tribal land roadways, users need to be made aware of safe travel practices and potential hazards.  Example methods of transferring this information include postings on the internet, brochures provided at visitor’s centers, and video messages.  Additional information on effective education strategies may be acquired through outreach groups such as Tribal Technical Assistance Programs (TTAPs).

**Enforcement** – Laws are intended to control the operation of road users.  Enforcing speed limit and compliance with signal/sign indications, as well as correcting wrong-way riding and impaired driving create a safer travel environment for all road users.  Staffing and funding constraints may limit the ability of a Federal or Tribal land agency to provide comprehensive enforcement; however, efforts should be made to target specific issues or frequent or high-risk behaviors. This can be done by identifying prevalent factors that contribute to crashes along the roadway of interest and targeting behaviors that relate to those issues. For example, if alcohol was determined to be a primary contributing factor in 50 percent of fatal and injury crashes along a specific route, it may be appropriate to deploy a checkpoint to combat drinking and driving; this could be further targeted by identifying the time of day and day of week when this behavior is most likely to occur.

Page 14 photo. This image shows two men in reflective vests walking along a roadside. Their vests indicate that one is a member of law enforcement and the other is a member of a State Department of Transportation.

***Law enforcement on RSAs is helpful to identify safety issues as well as to suggest targeted enforcement countermeasures.***

**Emergency Medical Services**– The rural nature of many roadways on or near Federal or Tribal lands may play a major role in limiting the ability to provide timely medical treatment to people injured in a crash.  Factors contributing to response time include the ability of other motorists to identify a crash and to notify emergency personnel, the ability of emergency personnel to quickly respond to the scene, and the ability to quickly transport the victim(s) to a trauma center.  Adequate cell phone service coverage and routine patrols are a few methods that can help save a life in the event of a serious injury.

How Do I Prioritize Issues?

A prioritization process is useful for identifying the most pressing safety needs based on the findings of the RSA team.  Table 3 is a matrix that can be used in the prioritization process.  In general, issues associated with more frequent crashes and higher severity levels tend to be given higher priority.  The prioritization can be based on historical crash data, expert judgment (provided by the RSA team), or a combination of the two.

***Table 3: Issue Prioritization Matrix***

**Frequency of Crashes**
			**Severity of Crashes*****Possible/Minor Injury***
			***Moderate Injury***
			***Serious Injury***
			***Fatal******Frequent***
			Middle-High
			High
			Highest
			Highest***Occasional***
			Middle
			Middle-High
			High
			Highest***Infrequent***
			Low
			Moderate
			Middle-High
			High***Rare***
			Lowest
			Low
			Middle
			Middle-HighFor many RSAs conducted in rural areas, reliable crash data are not available.  Anecdotal information (e.g., from maintenance, enforcement call logs, land owners) and evidence of conflicts and crashes (e.g., skid marks and fence strikes) help to create a more complete picture of potential hazards, but cannot be quantified with any certainty.  In these cases, the likely *frequency*and *severity*of crashes associated with each safety issue are qualitatively estimated, based on the experience and expectations of RSA team members.  Expected crash *frequency*can be qualitatively estimated on the basis of exposure (how many road users would likely be exposed to the identified safety issue?) and probability (how likely was it that a collision would result from the identified issue?).  Expected crash *severity*can be qualitatively estimated on the basis of factors such as anticipated speeds, expected collision types, and the likelihood that vulnerable road users would be exposed.  These two risk elements (frequency and severity) are then combined to obtain a qualitative risk assessment.
      
  Book traversal links for Chapter 2: What are Common Safety Issues and Potential Countermeasures?
      ‹ Chapter 1: How Do I Conduct an RSA?
                    Up
                    Chapter 3: How Do I Establish an RSA Program? ›
                
                Book:Road Safety Audit Toolkit for Federal Land Management Agencies and Tribal Governments
              Introduction
                Chapter 1: How Do I Conduct an RSA?
                Chapter 2: What are Common Safety Issues and Potential Countermeasures?
                Chapter 3: How Do I Establish an RSA Program?
                Chapter 4: How Do I Incorporate RSAs in the Planning Process?
                Chapter 5: What’s Next?
                Resource Materials U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

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