DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DlBECTOR

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 233

WATER RESOURCES

OP THE

BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY

BY

GEORGE CHARLTON MATSON

WITH A CHAPTER ON THE

QUALITY OF THE WATERS

BY

CHASE PALMER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1909
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 233

WATER RESOURCES

OF THE

BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY

BY

GEORGE CHARLTON MATSON

WITH A CHAPTER ON THE

QUALITY OF THE WATERS

BY

CHASE PALMER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1909
CONTENTS.

Page.

Water resources of the Blue Grass region, by George C. Matson.............. 7

Introduction.......................................................... 7

Historical sketch..................................................... 9

Need of the investigation .............................................. 10

Geology.............................................................. 11

Geologic history.................................................. 11

Classification of rocks. ............................................. 13

Ordovician system................................................. 18

St. Peter sandstone........................................... 18

Highbridge limestone.......................................... 18

Lexington limestone......... ................................ 19

Winchester limestone................. ....................... 19

Eden shale.................................................... 20

Maysville formation.......................................... 21

Richmond formation........................................... 22

Silurian-Devonian system.......................................... 22

Panola formation.............................................. 22

Devonian system. ................ ............................... 23

Ohio shale. .................................................. 23

Carboniferous system.............................................. 23

Waverly shale..".............................................. 23

Tertiary system................................................... 24

Irvine formation........ ..................................... 24

Quaternary system ............................................ ... 24

Glacial deposits............................................... 24

Bowlder clay.............................................. 24

Loess. ................................................... 25

Glacial gravels............................................ 25

Alluvium. ................................................... 26

Geologic structure................................................. 26

The Jessamine dome. ......................................... 26

Faults........................................................ 27

Joints and bedding planes...................................... 28

Physiography. ....................................................... 28

Altitude of the surface............................................ 28

Lexington peneplain.............................................. 29

Cretaceous peneplain............................................. 29

Caverns........................................................... 29

Soils.................................................................. 30

Classification...................................................... 30

Distribution...................................................... 31

Texture.......................................................... 33

Drainage.......................................................... 34

Chemical composition............................................. 34

3
4 CONTENTS.

Water resources of the Blue Grass region Continued. Page.

Surface waters........................................................ 36

Ohio River....................................................... 36

Kentucky River................................ ................. 37

Licking River.........................'........................... 38

Minor streams.................................................... 39

Underground waters................................................... 39

The source........................................................ 39

Conditions of occurrence........................................... 39

The water table................................................ 39

Water in sand, gravel, and sandstone........................... 41

Water in limestone,........................................... 42

Joints and bedding planes.................................. 42

Formation of caverns...................................... 42

Small water passages....................................... 44

Water in shale................................................ 45

Water in interbedded limestone and shale....................... 45

Special conditions in the Blue Grass region....................... 46

Water in the Highbridge and Lexington limestones.......... 46

Water channels........................................ 46

Wells................................................. 47

Quality of the water.................................... 48

Water in the Winchester limestone......................... 49

Water in the Eden shale.................................... '49

Water in the Maysville and Richmond formations............ 51

Water in the Panola formation.............................. 52

Water in the Ohio shale..................................... 53

Water in the Waverly shale................................ 54

Water in the alluvium..................................... 54

Amount of underground water....................................... 56

Modifying factors.............................................. 56

Rainfall................................................... 56

Topography............................................... 60

Soils.. ..'.. ................................................ 60

Amount of water in the earth's crust............................. 62

Artesian water..................................................... 63

General principles............................................. 63

Artesian wells in the Blue Grass region.......................... 64

Recovery of underground water..................................... 66

Natural recovery............................................... 66

Artificial recovery..............................'................ 68

Wells..................................................... 68

Well casings.............................................. 70

Methods of raising water................................... 70

Collection and storage of rain water..................................... 71

Cisterns........................................................... 71

Reservoirs........................................................ 72

Municipal water supplies.............................................. 73

Sources of supply.................................................. 73

Surface water................................................. 73

Underground water............................................ 73

Comparative value of underground and surface supplies.............. 74

Pollution of underground water in the Lexington limestone........... 75

Notes on city supplies............................................. 82
CONTENTS. 5

Water resources of the Blue Grass region Continued. Page.

Mineral waters of the Blue Grass region................................. 86

Character of the waters............................................ 86

Production _...................................................... 90

County conditions...................................................... 90

Anderson County................................................... 90

Boone County...................................................... 92

Bourbon County.................................................. 97

Boyle County..................................................... 99

Bracken County.................................................... 102

Campbell County.................................................. 104

Carroll County.................................................... 106

Clark County..................................................... 108

Fayette County................................................... Ill

Fleming County.................................................... 116

Franklin County.................................................. 118

Gallatin County. .................................................... 121

Garrard County.................................................... 123

Grant County...................................................... 126

Harrison County.................................................. 128

Henry County.................................................... 130

Jessamine County................................................. 132

Kenton County................................................... 136

Madison County................................................... 138

Mason County...................................................... 141

Mercer County..................................................... 143

Nicholas County.................................................. 145

Oldham County................................................... 146

Owen County....... '. ............................................... 148

Pendleton County.................................................. 149

Roberfson County................................................. 150

Scott County....................................................... 152

Shelby County..................................................... 155

Trimble County.................................................... 157

Woodford County.................................................. 159

Wells and well records.................................................. 160

Quality of the underground waters of the Blue Grass region, by Chase Palmer. 184

Introduction-......................................................... 184

Acknowledgments...................................................... 184

Industrial uses of water................................................ 185

Importance of quality.............................................. 185

Steam making..................................................... 185

Corrosion and scale............................................. 186

Salutary effect of scale......................................... 186

Action on boilers of ordinary minerals in water.................. 188

Correctives of scale............................................. 190

Soap making....................................................... 191

Laundering........................................................ 192

Ice manufacture................................................... 194

Brewing and distilling............................................. 195

Comparative hardness of Blue Grass waters............................... 197

Field assays of water................................................... 199
6 CONTENTS.

Quality of the underground waters of the Blue Grass region Continued. PageMedicinal waters....................................................... 20c

General characters.................................................. 20c

Crab Orchard Springs .............................................. 204

Kiddville Epsom water............................................ 20?

Olympian Springs................................................. 20?

Estill Springs..................................................... 20f

Keo-Me-Zu Springs................................................. 207

Lower Blue Lick Springs.......................................... 207

Upper Blue Lick Springs........................................... 210

Table waters.......................................................... 21C

Analyses............................................................... 212

Index.................................................................... 217

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE I. Map of the Blue Grass region.............................. ....... 7

II. A, Winchester limestone, Winchester, Ky.; B, Lexington limestone,

Paris, Ky...................................................... 20

III. A, Kentucky River gorge south of Camp Nelson, Ky.; B, An open

sink hole in Clark County, Ky.................................. 3f

FIGURE 1. A perched spring................................................ 40

2. Diagram of a cavern, showing different levels of the underground

stream....................................................... 4"

3. Diagram showing difference in conditions of adjacent wells in limestone. ........................................................ 47

4. Map showing average annual rainfall in eastern part of the United

States........................................................ 57

5. Diagram of a cavern, showing how sediment may be deposited by

the underground stream ...................................... 76

6. Diagram of a cavern, showing how sediment may be obtained by the

underground stream.......................................... 76
U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 233 PLATE 1

LEGEND

Waverly shale

Bluish shale and

sandstone

Ohio shale

Black carbonaceous

shale

Panels formation 

Brnwn limestone, blue 

shale, and yellow limtstotie

Maysville and Richmond

formations

Blue limestone* and

shales

Eden shale

i including; Garrard sandstone member) 

Blue xhate. shaly sandstone, nnd thin beds of 

limestone

Lexinffton and Winchester

limestones

Blue or gray limextones 

with some blue shale

Highbridge limestone

Heavy-tedded drab or

yrny limestones

Fault

GEOLOGIC MAP OF THE BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY Geol°8y by Geor«e c Matson

SECTION ALONG LINE A-B
WATER RESOURCES OF THE BLUE GRASS REGION,

KENTUCKY.

By GEORGE CHARLTON MATSON.

INTRODUCTION.

The area described in this report comprises about 7,225 square 

miles in northeastern Kentucky, lying between parallels 38° and 40° 

north latitude and meridians 83° and 86° west longitude. It includes the major portion of what is commonly known as the "Blue 

Grass region/' together with small areas of the more mountainous portions of the State, and covers the following counties: Anderson, Boone, 

Bourbon, Boyle, Bracken, Campbell, Carroll, Clark, Fayette, Fleming, Franklin, Gallatin, Garrard, Grant, Harrison, Henry, Jessamine, 

Kenton, Madison, Mason, Mercer, Nicholas, Oldham, Owen, Pendleton, Robertson, Scott, Shelby, Trimble, and Woodford. It is bounded 

on the north and west by Ohio River; on the east and south by 

portions of the boundary lines of the marginal counties. (See PL I.)

Geographically the Blue Grass region forms part of the Appalachian Plateau, which extends from the eastern edge of the Allegheny 

Mountains and the Cumberland Plateau westward to the Mississippi 

lowlands. Because this part of the Appalachian Plateau is drained 

by Ohio River, Campbell" suggested that it be called the Ohio 

Basin. The northwestern boundary of the Ohio Basin was regarded 

as extending from Mississippi River near Cairo across Illinois, Indiana, 

and Ohio to the west end of Lake Erie.

No systematic study of the occurrence of underground water in 

Kentucky was made prior to the summer of 1906, when such work was 

assigned by the United States Geological Survey to the author of this 

paper, who completed field and office work within the following year; 

but it should not be inferred that no earlier observations were made. 

Numerous references to the occurrence of water are found in the early 

reports of the State Geological Survey, by Dr. David Dale Owen. 

Underground waters, especially the mineral springs of the region, are 

discussed in some detail in the reports issued while Prof. N. S. Shaler 

was state geologist. Many observations on the mineral springs of 

Kentucky were made by W. M. Linney while John R. Proctor was

a Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No. 46), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1898, p. 1.

7
8 INTRODUCTION.

state geologist. Since the beginning of the present Kentucky Geological Survey, of which Prof. Charles J. Norwood is director, the 

underground waters have been studied by Prof. Arthur M. Miller 

and others, and a recent report by Prof. August F. Foerste discusses 

the waters of the Silurian and Devonian formations of the eastcentral part of the State. Chemical studies of Kentucky waters were 

begun about the middle of the last century by Dr. Robert Peter, 

chemist of a university at Lexington, Ky., and when the first Geological Survey of Kentucky was organized Doctor Peter was appointed 

its chemist. After his death he was succeeded by his son, Dr. Alfred 

M. Peter. Any adequate discussion of the work done by these men 

is impracticable; the magnitude and great value of the work will be 

evident to all who examine the various reports of the Kentucky Geological Survey and the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station.

In 1904 Dr. Chase Palmer began a chemical study of the waters of 

Kentucky, Salt, Dix, and Green rivers. This work was continued in 

1905 and Doctor Palmer then extended Ms investigations to the underground waters of the State. The results of part of his work are presented in the chemical chapter which forms part of this report. Incidental references to the water resources are found in all the histories 

of the State, but the most important publications about the water 

resources of the Blue Grass region are the various reports of the Geological Survey of Kentucky and the annual reports of the Agricultural Experiment Station. The information in regard to the quality 

of the water is especially voluminous. This information consists 

largely of analyses made by Dr. Robert Peter, chemist of the first and 

second geological surveys of the State, and his son, Dr. A. M. Peter, 

chemist of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. A part of 

the information given in the state reports has been compiled for 

publication in this paper, but most of it is in such form that it can not 

readily be arranged for presentation. A list of the principal reports 

dealing with Kentucky waters is presented herewith, and to these 

publications the reader is referred for further information.

LIST OP PAPERS CONTAINING INFORMATION IN REGARD TO KENTUCKY WATERS.

Geological Survey of Kentucky. 

David Dale Owen, director.

Report for 1854-55. 1856.

Second Report, for 1856-57. 1857.

Third Report, for 1856-57. 1857.

Fourth Report, for 1858-59. 1861. 

N. S. Shaler, director.

Reports of Progress, 1874-75, vol. 1, new series, 1876.

Reports of Progress, 1877, vol. 2, new series, 1877.

Reports of progress, 1877, vol. 3, new series, 1877.

Report of Progress, 1878, vol. 4, new series, 1878.

Report of Progress, 1880, vol. 5, new series, 1880.
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 9

Geological Survey of Kentucky Continued. 

John R. Proctor, director.

Geology of Garrard County, by W. M. Linney. 1882. 

Geology of Mercer County, by W. M. Linney. 1882. 

Geology of Clark County, by W. M. Linney. 1884. 

Geology of Mason County, by W. M. Linney. 1885. 

Geology of Fleming County, by W. M. Linney. 1886. 

Geology of Henry County, by W. M. Linney. 1887. 

Geology of Shelby County, by W. M. Linney. 1887. 

Geology of Oldham County, by W. M. Linney. 1887.

Chemical analyses, A, 1884, by Robert Peter, chemist, and John H. Talbot 

and A. M. Peter, chemical assistants.

The first, second, and third chemical reports of the Geological Survey 

of Kentucky; reprinted from vols. 1, 4, and 5, new series. 

Chemical report, A, vol. 2, 1885, by Robert Peter, chemist, and A. M. Peter, 

assistant chemist.

Contains the fourth chemical report of the Geological Survey of Kentucky; 

reprinted from vol. 5, new series (pp. 5-93). 

Chemical report, A, vol. 3, 1888. 

C. J. Norwood, director.

The oil and-gas sands of Kentucky, by J. B. Hoeing. Bull. No. 1, 1905. 

The lead and zinc bearing rocks of central Kentucky, by Arthur M. Miller.

Bull. No. 2, 1905. 

Chemical report of the coals, clays, mineral water's, etc., of Kentucky, by

Robert Peter. Bull. No. 3, 1905.

The Silurian, Devonian, and Irvine formations of east-central Kentucky, with 

an account of their clays and limestones, by Aug. F. Foerste. Bull. No. 

7, 1906.

Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. 

First Annual Report. 1888. 

Seventh Annual Report. 1894. 

Eighth Annual Report. 1895. 

Tenth Annual Report. 1897. 

Eleventh Annual Report. 1898. 

Twelfth Annual Report. 1899. 

Thirteenth Annual Report. 1900. 

Fourteenth Annual Report. 1901. 

Fifteenth Annual Report. 1902. 

Sixteenth Annual Report. 1903. 

Seventeenth Annual Report. 1904. 

Eighteenth Annual Report. 1905.

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

The pioneers of Kentucky entered the State through the mountain passes to the east, bringing with them, perforce, the barest necessities of life, and were compelled to rely on game for a large part of 

their food supplies. These early settlers found that certain saline 

springs were frequented by large game, and that these springs or the 

traces (trails) leading to them formed the best hunting grounds.

The sites of Boonesboro (founded by Daniel Boone) and Harrodsburg, the first settlements in the State, were chosen because of their 

proximity to good springs, and one of the springs near Boonesboro 

furnished salt water, which doubtless attracted deer and other wild
10 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

animals. The same reason determined the location of scores of the 

early settlements and nearly all the important cities and towns of 

the State. Some of the Kentucky springs, such as Bryant Station 

Spring and Lower Blue Lick Spring, were later made famous in connection with the struggles of the settlers against the Indians, and 

still later large springs formed objective points for the armies of both 

Bragg and Buell.

Practically all the old mansions of the Blue Grass region were 

built where spring water was accessible, but when the inhabitants 

began to build houses upon the divides many wells and cisterns were 

dug. Doubtless the disastrous cholera epidemics of the first half of 

the eighteenth century stimulated the digging of cisterns, and during 

the last generation many have been constructed. In favorable 

localities the drilled wells have largely supplanted the dug wells,, 

but they will probably never supplant the cisterns.

The early industrial enterprises of the Blue Grass region consisted 

of mills and distilleries, many of which relied upon springs for their 

water supplies; but with the development of the country, the establishment of new routes of travel and new centers of trade, and the 

enlargement of the industrial enterprises, the spring supplies became 

inadequate and many of them have been abandoned. At the present 

time much water for industrial use is drawn from streams or wells, 

although springs continue to hold a very important place, and in 

some localities drilled or driven wells are used.

As already indicated, the villages grew up about springs from 

which each family drew enough water for its individual needs; but 

when the villages came to install public supplies, they commonly 

sought either well or surface water, until at present only one city, 

Georgetown, takes its water supply from a spring. While it has 

usually proved impracticable to use either wells or springs for 

municipal supplies, many of the smaller towns have public wells or 

springs which furnish water for a number of families.

NEED OF THE INVESTIGATION.

The great need for definite information in regard to the water 

resources of the country has long been evident to both practical and 

scientific men, and in the Blue Grass region the subject has keen 

interest for sanitarians, householders, manufacturers, and civic 

communities.

In Kentucky, as elsewhere, the occasional outbreaks of waterborne diseases, such as typhoid fever, have-emphasized the necessity of 

obtaining pure water supplies or preventing the pollution of present 

supplies. Hundreds or even thousands of dollars have been wasted 

in unsuccessful attempts to procure water by drilling deep wells, 

and the usefulness and the safety of many city supplies have been
GEOLOGY. K 11

seriously impaired by improper location or faulty construction of 

wells. Two examples of useless drilling may be cited. At one place, 

where water was needed for the irrigation of flowers, an attempt was 

made to obtain a supply by drilling about 600 feet into a rock formation that furnishes large quantities of water in only a few places, 

and never furnishes water of the quality needed except within about 

100 feet of the surface; and an attempt was made to supply water 

for a small city by sinking a well to a depth of nearly 2,000 feet in a 

locality where there was no possibility of procuring enough fresh 

water from a single well to supply more than two or three families, 

and where no water suitable for a city supply could be found more than 

100 feet below the surface. Obviously a knowledge of these conditions would have effected great saving in time and money.

The problem of procuring water for industrial purposes is recognized as of great importance, particularly when a large amount of 

water of a certain quality or of a definite range of temperature is 

required. Many manufacturing plants have been located with an 

absolute disregard of the suitability of the available water supply, 

and the owners have subsequently found the cost of procuring the 

needed water one of their heaviest burdens. It is probable that 

some factories in the Blue Grass region will, in the course of a few 

years, be forced to pipe water from a considerable distance or move 

their entire plants.

In some parts of the area water for stock is obtained directly from 

springs and streams, and in other localities dams are built to impound surface water. Many stockmen, however, realize that stagnant water is inferior in quality, and some have already drilled wells 

to supply their stock; others would undoubtedly adopt the same 

means if they had any assurance that water of satisfactory quality 

could be obtained. A few have selected poor locations for the wells 

and have obtained inadequate supplies of water of unsatisfactory

quality.

GEOLOGY.

GEOLOGIC HISTORY.

The rocks which underlie the Blue Grass region comprise formations 

belonging to the early periods of geologic history. The systems 

represented are known to geologists as Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, 

Carboniferous, etc. The rocks belonging to each of these groups are 

further subdivided into the formations which are mentioned in the 

accompanying table and in the subsequent pages of the text. In 

the table the name of the oldest formation is placed at the bottom 

and the succeeding formations are arranged in regular order. This 

arrangement is a most satisfactory one, because when undisturbed 

the formations lie one upon another like the leaves of a book. However, in this case the leaves are great masses of stone in the form of
12 WATEES OF BLUE GEASS EEGION, KENTUCKY.

clay, sand, shale, sandstone, and limestone, sometimes nearly homogeneous, but more often mixed together or arranged in successive 

beds from a fraction of an inch to several feet in thickness.

All the older formations of the Blue Grass region were deposited 

in water, and are therefore called sedimentary rocks. A careful 

study of these rocks will reveal many interesting facts concerning 

their history. Embedded in the limestones and shales are many 

shells, which represent the organic life which existed in the water 

while the rocks were being deposited. Some of these shells appear 

much like those which now live in the seas, while many others may 

be connected with forms now living by examining the rocks of successive geologic ages and noting the gradual modifications which 

have taken place. The relation between the shells of organisms 

now living in marine waters and those found embedded in the rocks 

of the Blue Grass region, together with many other facts, show that 

the formations were deposited beneath the sea. Although it is 

difficult to restore the outlines of the ancient ocean in which the 

geologic formations of the Blue Grass region were deposited, the composition of the rocks gives much information concerning the depth 

and character of the waters. As most of the shells must have 

belonged to organisms which lived in shallow water, the depth of 

the sea could not have been very great. This conclusion would also 

be reached by a consideration of the nature of the material comprising the rocks themselves. The worn character of some shells 

bears testimony of such wave action as would take place- only in 

shallow water, and the presence of sand and mud, which have since 

been consolidated into sandstone and shale, is evidence of shallow 

water and the proximity of land to supply such sediments. The 

great thickness of some of the limestone shows the existence of long 

periods when the seas were comparatively free from sediment and 

animal life flourished and decayed, leaving their calcareous shells to 

be consolidated into rock. In the Blue Grass region the earlier 

formations appear to have been deposited in comparatively clear 

waters, for the older rocks are largely limestone. The younger formations were laid down in seas which were often muddy, and hence 

sandstones and shales predominate.

After the deposition of the limestones, sandstones, and shales of the 

Blue Grass region, the rocks were raised above sea level in the form 

of a low dome. Probably the arching of the strata had been begun 

at an earlier date, but it culminated about the close of the deposition 

of the Carboniferous rocks. The apex of this dome lies in Jessamine 

County, and hence it is known as the "Jessamine dome." From the 

apex the rocks dip gradually outward, sinking at the rate of a few 

feet per mile. In places the forces which produced the doming disrupted the rocks and caused the severed ends of the beds to slip past
GEOLOGY. ' 13

each other. Such breaks are known as faults, and the Kentucky 

River fault, which is shown in a solid line on the accompanying map, 

is an excellent example. Other smaller faults occur in various parts 

of the region. Following the doming came a long period of erosion, 

which reduced the surface to a low plain, known to geologists as a 

peneplain. Subsequent uplift permitted the dissection of the early 

peneplain and the formation of another at a lower level. The early 

peneplain is represented by the tops of the mountains which border 

the Blue Grass region, and the younger one by the uplands which 

surround Lexington. This upland, which is known as the Lexington 

peneplain, was formed during the portion of geologic time known as 

the Tertiary. The meandering streams of Tertiary time deposited 

broad belts of gravel, sand, and clay in their shallow valleys, and the 

remnants of these deposits constitute the Irvine formation. Since 

the deposition of the Irvine formation the Blue Grass region has been 

subjected to erosion, and the streams have cut deep channels, of 

which the Kentucky River gorge is an excellent example.

At the beginning of the Quaternary there was a great change in 

climatic conditions, which permitted the formation of a vast sheet 

of ice in northeastern North America. This ice sheet existed in the 

glacial period, and at the time of its maximum extent its southern 

border reached beyond Ohio River into Kentucky. After the ice 

had melted from the United States, there were other glacial invasions, which extended into northern Ohio, but did not reach as far 

south as Kentucky. During one of these glaciations, which is known 

as the Towan, a deposit of buff-colored silt was spread over a narrow 

strip of land south of Ohio River from the vicinity of La Grange 

to Fort Thomas. This silt, which is called loess, is an important 

surface formation in the area mentioned.

A later glaciation, known as the Wisconsin, extended into Ohio. 

The waters derived from the melting of this ice sheet spread broad 

terraces of sand and gravel in the Ohio Valley. These terraces may 

be seen in the Ohio Valley, where they form broad flats above the 

level flood plains of the stream.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS.

The name Blue Grass region has been restricted by some authors 

to the area in which rocks of Ordovician age occur at the surface, 

but the area described in this report includes also formations belonging to the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous systems. The 

Ordovician formations, however, cover so large a part of the region 

that they are discussed more fully than those belonging to the other 

systems.

The following table shows the sequence, character, and thickness

of the geologic formations found in the Blue Grass region and the

amount and character of the water supply furnished by them.
TABLE 1. Geologic column in Blue Grass region

System.

Quaternary.

Tertiary.

Carboniferous.

Devonian.

Formation.

Alluvium.

Gravels (Wisconsin).

Loess (lowan).

Till (Ulinoian).

Irvine.

Newman limestone.

Waverly shale.

Ohio shale.

Character and thickness.

Sand and gravel along principal streams; coarse 

clayey gravel along small streams.

Sand and gravel in the valleys of the streams. 80 to 

120 feet thick.

Buff loesslike silt, but lacking characteristic texture of loess. Up to 6 feet thick.

Red or yellow pebbly clay; locally of assorted sands 

and gravels. 5 to 300 feet thick.

Yellow or red clays, sands, and gravels. 3 to 12 feet 

thick.

Occurs in small areas on Waverly shale. Not important in this region.

100 feet or more of blue shale, covered by interbedded shales and hard, even-bedded greenish 

sandstones. Contains concretionary iron oxide at 

one or more horizons. 300 feet thick.

Thin-bedded carbonaceous black shale. 150 feet 

thick.

To shallow 

Small supplies.

Unimportant.

Sands and gravels fur

abundance to a few w

Rarely water-bearing; 

localities.

The sandstone furnish

water at its junction 

ing shale. The shale 

Yields an abundance 

ized water. The mo

waters are sulphur

alum.
Silurian.

Ordovician.

Panola.

Richmond.

Maysville.

Usually a cherty magnesian limestone with some 

shale beds. 30 feet thick.

Blue shales and yellow limestones, in places containing chert. Locally includes some sandstone. 

Varies greatly in thickness, with a maximum 

of 60 feet. Includes sediments of Niagaran and

Heavy-bedded arenaceous limestones, gray or blue, 

weathering to buff: about 10 feet of dense calcareous shale in the lower part. Locally an impure 

sandstone. 60 feet thick.

Blue or dove-colored nodular limestones and blue 

shale, the shale beds predominating. 125 feet 

thick.

Interbedded blue limestone and shale. Shale predominates in northern part of the region, but 

heavy beds of limestone occur farther south. 80 

feet thick.

Interbedded blue limestones and shales, the alternate layers usually thin and nodular. In general 

the shales predominate, and the limestone layers 

are in places thin and shaly. Some moderately 

heavy beds of limestone occur at certain horizons, 

but the usual thickness of single beds is less than 

1 foot. 230 feet thick.

Furnishes considerab

limestone rests on s

hard and contains m

The limestones furni

hard water containi

shales supply some 

springs and shallow 

Furnishes an abunda

limestone areas an

stone is not too sha

contains considerabl

Furnishes moderate 

water.

Where heavy beds of 

surface, good suppli

obtained from spring

This formation yields 

of hard water. W

most favorable wher

tains most limeston

face. Contains man

ate size, and shallow 

successful.
TABLE 1. Geologic column in Blue Grass region Con

System.

Ordovician.

Formation.

Eden shale.

Winchester limestone.

Lexington limestone.

Character and thickness.

In southern part of region upper beds are of shaly 

sandstones, in some places concretionary, called 

the Garrard sandstone member; lower part is 

same as the Eden farther north. In northern part 

of region the formation consists of blue shales, containing some sandy layers and local beds of limestone. Maximum thickness of the Garrard sandstone member is about 150 feet, and it gradually 

thins northward. 200+ feet thick.

Blue and gray limestones with some blue shales. 

Limestone layers commonly rough and in some 

places having waved upper surface. 60+ feet 

thick.

Gray crystalline limestone, usually lighter colored 

and more cherty than the underlying limestone. 

(Flanagan chert member.) 75 feet thick.

Lower 10-35 feet consisting of light-drab argillaceous 

limestone with shale beds, overlain by 100 feet of 

gray or blue thin-bedded nodular limestone, separated by thin partings of shale; at the top 20-60 

feet of subcrystalline, gray, siliceous sand and 

locally phosphatic limestone. 194 feet thick.

Heavy-bedded coarse-grained crystalline cherty 

limestone; usually gray. 30 feet thick.

To shallow 

The sandstone suppli

tities of water in so

shale supplies small 

Moderate quantities of 

Yields an abundance 

springs and wells

large underground s

large springs.

Supplies an abundanc

springs and wells.

Yields considerable ha
Highbridge limestone.

St. Peter sandstone.

Dense fine-grained gray or light-drab limestone, 90 

feet thick, near the base; covered by several feet 

of soft fine-grained limestone containing calcite 

crystals and some pyrite. The upper 20 to 40 feet 

dove-colored fine-grained limestones, containing 

many calcite crystals and separated by layers of 

shale a few inches to 4 feet thick. The top layer 

usually a light-gray crystalline limestone. Near 

the top a bed of soft unctuous green clay.

Dense fine-grained limestones, arranged in heavy 

even beds; light dove-colored to gray. Dolomitic 

at the top and bottom and containing many 

seams of dolomite through the entire series. 20 

to 30 feet thick.

Dense fine-grained massive limestone, in places 

partly crystallized. Usually dark drab or dovecolored. Heavy bedded, but with some shaly 

partings. 285 feet thick.

Known only from well records. Limestone resembling the overlying beds; rarely shale. 100+ feet 

thick.

A siliceous limestone, not exposed and known only 

from well records. Occurs at horizon of St. Peter 

sandstone.

Considerable hard wa

shallow wells.

Some hard water for s

wells.

Yields considerable ha

and shallow wells i

gorge. Contains som
18 WATEKS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM. 

ST. PETER SANDSTONE.

At a depth of 100 feet or more below the oldest rocks seen at the 

surface in Kentucky, the dark, fine-grained limestones of the surface 

formation are underlain by a greenish or white sandstone or sandy 

limestone, the transition, as indicated by the well records, being 

abrupt. This underlying formation has been called Calciferous by 

the Kentucky geologists, but it is correlated and usually identified 

with the St. Peter sandstone of the Mississippi Valley by most geologists working north of Ohio River. Well records indicate that 

beneath the Blue Grass region the St. Peter is composed largely of 

fine-grained siliceous limestone, whose thickness has not been determined in Kentucky, but wells that have been drilled to a depth of 

500 to 700 feet below its top show no marked change in the character 

,of the rock.

HIGHBRIDGE LIMESTONE.

The fine-grained limestone exposed in the Kentucky River gorge 

in the Richmond quadrangle was named by Campbell 0 the Highbridge, and Miller 6 subsequently included under this name all the 

rocks exposed in Kentucky lying below the top of Campbell's Highbridge limestone. As thus defined, the Highbridge comprises 400 

feet of massive drab or dove-colored fine-grained limestone, in some 

places so even grained that it resembles lithographic stone. As a 

rule, however, it contains crystals of calcite, and near the top some 

of the layers are largely crystalline. About 100 feet beneath the 

top it is divided into two readily distinguishable parts by dolomitic 

layers. The lower limestone is nearly always heavy bedded, but the 

most of the layers of the upper limestone are thin and interbedded 

with shale beds ranging in thickness from 1 inch to 4 feet.

The great thickness of the Highbridge limestone appears to indicate deposition in comparatively clear water, but toward the close 

of this period of deposition land-derived sediments predominated at 

frequent intervals, during which the thin shale beds of the upper 

limestone were formed.

The Highbridge limestone is exposed in the Kentucky River gorg?- 

from below Frankfort to a short distance above Camp Nelson, and 

some isolated exposures are found in Madison, Clark, and Fayette 

counties, where the Kentucky River fault brings the upper division 

of the Highbridge to the surface. The formation is also exposed in 

the valleys of some of the tributaries of Kentucky River. Thus it 

extends along Dix River to a short distance south of the line between 

Boyle and Lincoln counties; along Clear Creek in Jessamine County,

"Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No. 46), Geol. Atlas U. S., TJ. S. Geol. Survey, 1898. 

6 Miller, Arthur M., The lead and zinc bearing rocks of central Kentucky: Bull. Kentucky Geol. Survey 

No. 2,1905, pp. 10-16.
GEOLOGY. 19

" outh of Troy; along Jessamine Creek to a point within 5 miles of 

Yicholasville; along Hickman Creek to a point just north of Union 

'tills; along Boone Creek to a point just east of Athens. On the 

smaller tributaries the Highbridge limestone seldom extends more 

'.han 5 miles from the river. It does not appear on the upland 

except in the southern part of Jessamine County.

LEXINGTON LIMESTONE.

As originally defined by Campbell,® the Lexington limestone 

included 140 to 160 feet of strata resting on the Highbridge lime- 

"tone and covered by 50 feet of cherty limestone, which was mapped 

as the Flanagan chert. More extensive atratigraphic and paleontologic work led Miller 6 to include the Flanagan chert with the Lexing- 

'.on limestone. Under this definition the formation consists of 200 

'"eet or more of coarse-grained blue or gray limestones, in some places 

containing shaly partings and thin beds of bluish shale. The lime- 

°tones are in part thick bedded and in part thin bedded and nodular. 

At various localities nodules and lenses of chert occur in the upper

 "0 to 75 feet of the formation.

The Lexington limestone represents deposition in comparatively 

clear water, but with occasional sediments, which gave rise to the 

"hale beds. Plate II, B, shows a section of the formation.

The formation is found over a large area in the region surrounding 

Lexington, and it is generally considered the basis of the finest blueq^rass soils. The northern line of the Lexington limestone passes 

across Harrison, Bourbon, Scott, and Franklin counties; the western 

line lies a few miles west of Kentucky Kiver from Franklin County 

' o Boyle County; the southern line crosses northern Garrard and 

tadison counties; and the eastern line extends through Clark and 

bourbon counties. In a part of this central area it is covered by the

 iext younger formation, the Winchester limestone. Small exposures 

of Lexington limestone are also seen at various points along Ohio

?iver from above Belmont to below Moscow, but in this region the 

(!ormation does not lie high enough above the stream to reach the

evel of the upland. The upper beds of the Lexington limestone are 

: mportant water-bearing strata.

WINCHESTER LIMESTONE.

The name Winchester is applied in this report to the series of interbedded blue limestones and shales resting on the Lexington limestone. 

As described by Campbell in the Kichmond folio, the Winchester 

;mestone included 200 to 230 feet of blue shales and limestones,

a Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No. 46), Geol. Atlas U. 8., U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1898. 

6 Miller, Arthur M., The lead and zinc bearing rocks of central Kentucky: Bull. Kentucky Geol. Survey 

' T o. 2,1905, pp. 16-22,
20 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

extending from the top of the Flanagan chert to the base of his 

Garrard sandstone. The Winchester of Miller's report on the lead 

and zinc bearing rocks of central Kentucky represents the lower 40 

feet of the rocks which Campbell called Winchester. Later work 

indicates that the use of the term Winchester to include the entire 

series of limestones and shales between the Lexington limestone and 

Campbell's Garrard sandstone is open tp objection. At least the 

lower part and possibly the whole of Campbell's Garrard sandstone 

is to be correlated with the upper portion of the Eden shale at Cincinnati. Indeed, when traced northward the lower part of this sandstone gradually gives place to the Eden shale. Although the uppe^ 

boundary of this sandstone, as developed on the. eastern side of the 

Cincinnati arch, appears to fall within the beds usually classed with 

the lower division of the Maysville, it is thought advisable to adopt 

the classification which makes the Garrard sandstone a member of 

the Eden shale and restricts the name Winchester to the shaly limestone of late Trenton age which underlies, the Eden shale.

The rocks of the Winchester limestone are much like those of th«. 

Lexington, except that the proportion of shale is larger. (See PL II, 

A.) At several localities the top of the formation is marked by the 

base of a current-formed bed of limestone, 18 inches or more in thickness, which shows marked cross lamination and contains fragments of 

the underlying rock. Many bits of crinoid stems in the layer have 

led to its being called the "crinoidal layer." In the valley of Licking River this layer appears to rest on the Winchester, but, according 

to Mr. Ulrich, opposite Cincinnati it rests on the lower part of the 

Lexington. Thus there appears to be a marked unconformity above 

the Winchester. The maximum thickness of the Winchester limestone is probably somewhat greater than the thickness given by 

Miller.

The Winchester appears to represent a period during which frequent alternations of clear and muddy water gave rise to a series of 

interbedded limestones and shales. The numerous shale beds make 

the Winchester a rather poor water-bearing formation, but where it 

is at the surface it usually yields enough water for domestic and 

farm uses.

The Winchester is exposed along Ohio River on the eastern and 

western sides of the Blue Grass region. A narrow band of it surrounds the central area of Lexington limestone, and large exposures of it are found within that area.

EDEN SHALE.

The rocks of this formation, where typically developed, comprise 

about 250 feet of blue shale containing thin scattered beds of blue 

limestone. In the valley of Ohio River at Cincinnati the Eden
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 233 PLATE II

A. WINCHESTER LIMESTONE, WINCHESTER, KY.

B. LEXINGTON LIMESTONE, PARIS, KY.
GEOLOGY. 21

shale is locally separated from the underlying Lexington limestone 

by a few feet of gray shale containing characteristic Utica fossils. 

Near the southern border of the Blue Grass region the upper part of 

the formation is composed of the sandy shale and sandstone which, 

as already stated, were called by Campbell a the Garrard sandstone 

and are here called Garrard sandstone member, following the later 

definition which makes them a part of the Eden shale. The thickness of the Garrard sandstone member is variable, the maximum 

being about 150 feet. The thickness of the Eden shale where it 

includes the Garrard sandstone member also varies, but it is in no place 

more than 300 feet. Some of the limestone layers of the Eden have 

a wavy upper surface, which appears to be due to ripple marks 

formed during the deposition of the rock.

At the beginning of the deposition of the Eden shale a large amount 

of land-derived sediment appears to have been carried into the Ordovician sea. Evidence as to the source of the land-derived sediments forming the earlier beds is lacking, but the character of the 

Garrard sandstone member suggests that during the deposition of 

the upper part of the Eden shale considerable coarse sediment was 

being supplied from some land area to the south. The deposition of this coarse material continued throughout a large part of the 

period and into the earlier part of the Maysville.

The Eden shale is exposed along Ohio River and its principal 

tributaries and forms a rim from 15 to 30 miles wide around the 

central area of Lexington and Winchester limestones. The boundary 

between the Eden and the Maysville is difficult to map accurately 

because the Eden shale usually appears in the stream valleys within 

the areas of Maysville, and the Maysville at many places caps the 

hills of Eden shale some distance beyond the generalized boundary.

MAYSVILLE FORMATION.

The Maysville formation comprises a series of interbedded blue 

limestones and shales more than 200 feet thick. Few of the beds of 

limestone exceed 4 to 6 inches in thickness, and toward the top of 

the formation many of the beds are sandy. Evidence indicates that 

the Maysville formation is separable into several subdivisions, but 

the lithologic variations are as a rule so gradual that the writer 

found it impracticable to draw satisfactory lines in the time at his 

disposal. In general the proportion of shale beds is high in the lower 

and middle parts of the formation, but below the middle and near 

the top some heavy beds of limestone occur that are sufficiently 

thick to permit the formation of small caverns.

The transition from the conditions which existed during the deposition of the Eden shale appears to have been gradual, so that the

a Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No. 46), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1898.
22 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

lower portion of the Maysville consists of shale in the northern part 

of the area and sandstone in the southern part. The limestone bed? 

of the Maysville were deposited during short periods when the sea 

was comparatively clear.

The Maysville formation is exposed over a large area in the BlueGrass region. It forms a rim about the central area of the Lexingtor 

limestone, reaching Ohio River on the north and extending nearly 

to the mountains on the south.

RICHMOND FORMATION.

The Richmond formation is probably separable into at least three 

members, but in this report only two subdivisions are recognized. 

The lower part of the formation consists of blue or dove-colored evenbedded limestone, containing much interbedded shale: Commonly 

the shale is the predominating rock, and in some places, especially 

on the east side of the Jessamine dome, the rock appears to be almost 

entirely composed of sandy shale. The upper division of the Richmond consists of greenish to buff* sandy limestones or calcareous 

sandstones, with some beds of shale. Near Ohio River the upper beds 

are largely limestone, but toward the south they give place to arenaceous limestones and sandstones which show a marked banding or 

exposure to the weather. Apparently some of the rocks classified 

as Medina by the early surveys of Kentucky belong to the upper 

division of the Richmond. Exposures of the limestone of the Richmond formation are to be seen in the vicinity of Milton, and they 

extend southward beyond the southern line of Oldham County.

The Richmond was observed at various points on the east and 

west sides of the Cincinnati arch. It forms a band of varying width 

about the south and west sides of the Maysville area, and it is well 

developed outside the Maysville areas on the east side of the Cincinnati arch.

SILURIAN-DEVONIAN ROCKS. 

PANOLA FORMATION.

The rocks of Silurian and Devonian age in the area under discussion are sufficiently distinct to admit of separation into at least 

four formations, but with the exception of the Ohio shale, their 

thickness and areal extent are insufficient to permit their discrimination on a map of the scale here employed. For this reason the 

name Panola formation, which was proposed by Campbell, is used 

for the Silurian and Devonian rocks lying between the top of the 

Richmond formation and the base of the Ohio shale.

The Panola formation includes representatives of Niagaran anc1 

Onondaga age. The basal beds of Niagaran age consist of a heavybedded yellow limestone followed by interbedded limestone and blue
GEOLOGY. 23

shale. At some localities these beds contain low-grade iron ore. 

Niagaran time appears to be represented on the eastern side of the 

Cincinnati arch by 10 to 20 feet of blue shale containing more or less 

intercalated yellow limestone, but the corresponding formation on 

the west side consists mainly of several feet of heavy magnesian 

limestone which in places contains a little chert.

The strata of Onondaga age consist of 15 feet of buff magnesian 

limestone, with some thin beds of shale near the base. Some of the 

layers of this limestone contain numerous nodules of chert, and 

locally it is crowded with fossil corals.

The variations in the thickness and character of the members of 

the Panola formation the many alternations from limestone to 

shale suggest frequent changes in the conditions of deposition, 

especially those of the Niagaran strata. Some of the differences in 

thickness may be due to irregularities in the fate of deposition, but 

others are probably to be accounted for by supposing that an unconformity exists between the Silurian and Devonian. No detailed 

study was, however, made of outlying parts of the area, where these 

rocks are exposed.

DEVONIAN SYSTEM. 

OHIO SHALE.

This formation consists of a thinly laminated, black, carbonaceous 

shale, which reaches a maximum thickness of about 150 feet in 

Fleming County and thins westward toward the west edge of Boyle 

County, where it passes outside the Blue Grass area. In the eastern 

part of the region few of the exposures exceed a few miles in width 

and in Boyle County the width is less than a mile. The formation 

is the equivalent of the Chattanooga shale farther south.

The relation of the Ohio shale to the underlying Devonian limestone was seen at several points. In some places the transition from 

the limestone to the shale is abrupt; in others it is by interbedding 

of the limestone and shale. The Ohio shale appears to have been 

deposited during a period when the sea was gradually encroaching 

upon the land. The fine sediments and the plant remains of this 

formation suggest that the sea was shallow and the adjacent land 

low.

CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 

WAVEKLY SHALE.

 The Waverly shale, which has a maximum thickness of 300 feet, 

includes about 100 feet of dense blue shale, which passes upward 

into interbedded shale and sandstone. Near the base of the shale 

are numerous concretions of iron carbonate which weather to a 

reddish brown. In most places the sandstones have a greenish or
24 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

bluish tinge and they are commonly even bedded, but in some localities they are decidedly concretionary. Some beds of limestone occur 

on the tops of the mountains, but the areas are so small that they 

are not shown in the geologic map of the region

TERTIARY SYSTEM. 

IRVINE. FORMATION.

The valleys of the principal streams in the Blue Grass region present certain peculiarities which are worthy of note. All the large 

streams flow in steep-walled canyons, many of which have been cut 

300 to 400 feet below the level of the uplands. Bordering the canyon 

valleys are broad rock shelves which are but little lower than the 

surrounding uplands and which were formed at a time when the 

streams flowing across the surface of the upland had so little fall 

that they meandered widely. These streams left along the rock 

shelves deposits of yellow and gray unconsolidated sand, gravel, and 

clay, which were called by Campbell a the Irvine formation and 

were referred tentatively to the Neocene. That the materials in 

these deposits were derived in part from the formations near the 

headwaters of the streams is shown by the occurrence of pebbles 

from those formations.

The Irvine formation occurs in isolated patches along Licking 

River in Fleming, Nicholas, Robertson, Harrison, Pendleton, Grant, 

and Campbell counties. Along Kentucky River the deposits were 

noted in Madison, Jessamine, Woodford, and Franklin counties, 

and they doubtless occur in the other counties bordering the river 

above Franklin County. They were not observed below the western 

boundary of Franklin County, although they probably occur there.

QUATERNARY SYSTEM. 

GLACIAL DEPOSITS.

The deposits of glacial age in the Blue Grass region include the 

unassorted bowlder clay, the loess, and the assorted glaciofluvial 

gravels that form the terraces in the Ohio Valley.

Bowlder clay. On the upland the bowlder clay is composed of 3 

to 10 feet of red or yellow clay containing fragments of limestone, 

chert, and granitic rocks. The clay appears to be reworked residual 

material, and the limestone and chert are largely of local origin, but 

the granitic rocks are rare and must have been brought from beyond 

the northern boundary of the United States.

The eastern boundary of the bowlder-clay deposit extends northward from the southern line of Oldham County to the east bluff of 

Ohio River at Carrollton, passing a few miles east of La Grange and

a Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio-(No. 46), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1898.
GEOLOGY. 25

Bedford. From Carrollton it extends northward, passing near Richwood, Boone County,- and Buffington, Kenton County, and finally 

terminating at Ohio River near Fort Thomas. From Fort Thomas 

southward the boundary coincides very closely with the Ohio Valley 

to Augusta, at which point it swings eastward into Ohio. This 

boundary marks the farthest extent of the Illinoian ice sheet.

In the Ohio Valley, as shown by Leverett,0 are deposits of partly 

assorted till which in some places rise to a considerable height above 

the river. The most conspicuous of these deposits are the glacial 

conglomerate at Split Rock, near Bellevue, Boone County, and a 

similar conglomerate at Augusta, in Bracken County. At Split Rock 

the conglomerate rises 250 to 300 feet above the Ohio, but at Augusta 

its height is only about 175 feet. Leverett mentions also that a 

morainic deposit on the east edge of the Ohio Valley at Carrollton 

occupies a sag in the hills between Kentucky and Ohio rivers and 

has a width of less than a mile, and a height of 200 ± feet above 

Ohio River.

The bowlder clay is correlated with the Illinoian drift farther west. 

Between the period of its deposition and the next glacial invasion 

there was a long interval known as the Sangamon interglacial epoch, 

during which the Illinoian drift deposits were probably more or less 

modified by erosion and weathering, but it is difficult to obtain evidence of these changes, because exposures are rare.

Loess. The material classified as loess consists of 2 to 4 feet of 

buff loam, which rests on the till of the upland. As a rule, it contains 

more clay than typical loess and it lacks the loess texture. It closely 

resembles the residual clay of the region and can hardly be distinguished from the clay except where it rests on the till. The loess 

lias usually been considered a deposit formed during the closing stage 

of the lowan glaciation.

The deposition of the loess appears not to have been followed by 

any extensive topographic changes in the Blue Grass region. Some 

erosion has doubtless taken place, but the most noticeable change on 

the loess-covered area is seen in the numerous small sink holes where 

the glacial deposits are underlain by limestone beds.

Glacial gravel. Glacial gravel forms terraces along Ohio River on 

the border of the Blue Grass region. It consists of 80 to 120 ± feet 

of coarse sand and gravel deposited from the waters supplied by the 

melting of the Wisconsin ice sheet. The materials composing this 

deposit are sand containing pebbles of limestone, sandstone, and the 

various granitic rocks which were carried by the glacier.

A deposit of sand and gravel, which ranges from 10 to 80 feet in 

thickness and which appears to be in part glacial and in part posta Leverett, Frank, Glacial formations and drainage features of the Erie and Ohio basins: Mon. U. S. 

Geol. Survey, vol. 41,1902, pp. 25-58.
26 WATEKS OF BLUE GKASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

glacial, is found along all the large streams of the region. Along 

Kentucky and Licking rivers fragments of terraces which rise to about 

the altitude of the glacial terraces are seen at many places. These 

deposits were probably made at the time when the terraces were 

being formed in the Ohio Valley.

Three well-defined terraces are recognizable at various points along 

Ohio River, but as in all of them the material is of fairly uniform 

character, the terraces have no effect upon the water capacity of the 

deposits. However, the depth to water in the glacial gravels is 

naturally greatest upon the highest terrace. A difference in the 

quality of the water has been reported in some localities, but on careful study it appeared that the variations in quality were due to the 

distance from the river and had no relation to the heights of the 

terraces.

ALLUVIUM.

On Ohio, Kentucky, and Licking rivers below the level of the 

glacial terraces are deposits of sand and gravel which are of recent 

origin. These deposits are nowhere extensive, and they exceed 50 

feet in thickness at but few places.

Where the streams from the upland emerge in the valleys of the 

rivers they usually build alluvial fans, consisting of fragments of the 

country rock mixed with sand and clay. These alluvial fans are 

largest along Ohio River, but they also occur along the other large 

streams.

Many of the small streams of the region are bordered by narrow 

belts of coarse alluvium, which consist largely of partly rounded fragments of limestone mixed with more or less clay.

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE. 

JESSAMINE DOME.

The rocks of the Ohio Basin are not extensively folded and most 

of them dip slightly toward the northwest. The most important 

structural feature of the region is the broad arch, commonly known 

as the Cincinnati anticline. This arch extends from Nashville northeastward through Lexington nearly to Cincinnati, north of which it 

divides, one branch continuing northward, the other turning toward 

the northwest. South of Cincinnati the arch is separable into twc 

broad domes; one of these culminates near Nashville, Tenn.; the 

apex of the other is in Jessamine County in central Kentucky. The 

Jessamine dome, as it has been called, has been so completely beveled 

by erosion that its dome structure has no apparent effect upon the 

surface, which is a broad plain deeply trenched by some of the larger 

streams. The erosion of this dome has exposed the Ordovician rock? 

which underlie the Blue Grass region. Outward from the apex of 

the dome the formations are successively younger, except where the
GEOLOGY. 27

regular order of the succession is broken by faults which have brought 

younger formations into abnormal contact with the older.

From the apex of the Jessamine dome the rocks dip gently outward 

in all directions, but the dip varies greatly in different directions, 

indicating that the dome is not symmetrical, and on the southern 

side the regularity of the dip is broken by faulting. From the apex 

of the dome along the crest of the uplift to Belmont, on Ohio River, 

the dip does not exceed 5 or 6 feet per mile; toward the north it is 

only 8 or 10 feet per mile; but the dips toward the east and west are 

much greater; the dips toward the northeast and northwest are about 

25 to 30 feet, and toward the east and west nearly 50 feet per mile. 

The dips toward the south can not be satisfactorily determined 

because of the faulting, which has produced considerable displacement 

of the beds.

FAULTS.

The greater number of the faults of the Blue Grass region are strike 

faults; that is, the fault planes are parallel to the strike of the rocks. 

The most conspicuous fault is the Kentucky River fault, which 

extends from Clark County to Garrard County. It has a maximum 

throw of about 400 feet, which brings the Highbridge limestone into 

contact with the Garrard sandstone member of the Eden shale. 

Where this fault was observed, the movement appears to have been 

along a series of parallel planes, and at its eastern end near Ruckerville, as pointed out by Campbell,0 the fault is represented by a 

slight fold. Another fault extends from Kentucky River northeastward near Ruckerville and into Bath County. The maximum movement along this fault plane is about 300 feet. Other faults are known 

to occur in Garrard and Madison counties, but in few of these is the 

displacement large.

Near Moberly there is a fault which runs parallel to the direction 

of dip a dip fault.0 The amount of displacement at this place is 

sufficient to bring the Ohio shale into contact with the Ordovician 

formations.

A strip of Eden shale extends from eastern Jessamine County 

northeastward across Fayette County. This strip of shale, which 

is from one-eighth to one-fourth mile wide, represents a place where 

two parallel faults have brought the Eden shale down into the area 

of Lexington limestone.6 In northeastern Franklin County are two 

faults, which extend a considerable distance across the line into Scott 

County. 6 These two faults inclose a small fault block similar in origin to the one near Lexington. Other faults are known to occur in 

various parts of the region.

a Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No, 46), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1898. 

6 Miller, A.M., The lead and zinc bearing rocks of central Kentucky: Bull. Kentucky Geol. Survey No. 

2,1905, p. 7.
28 WATEES OP BLUE GRASS KEGIOH, KENTUCKY.

The geologic history of the Cincinnati arch has been long and complex, but a comprehensive discussion is beyond the scope of this 

paper. In general, it may be inferred that there were periods of partial emergence from beneath the sea, followed by more or less complete 

resubmergence. There is reason to believe that the faulting dates 

from the final emergence, which probably occurred during Carboniferous time. This question has been fully discussed by Miller in Bulletin 5 of the Kentucky Survey.

JOINTS AND BEDDING PLANES.

In the Blue Grass region there are two well-developed series of vertical joints at approximately right angles to each other. These joints 

have general north-south and east-west directions and are apparently 

very persistent. The spacing of the joints is somewhat irregular, 

and consequently it is difficult to state what interval there may be 

between joints at any given point.

Besides the joints, there are between the layers of rock numerous 

horizontal planes of separation known as " bedding planes." The spacing of the bedding planes varies from a fraction of an inch in the Eden 

shale to several feet in parts of the Highbridge limestone. The variation depends entirely on the thickness of the beds of rock, and consequently the number of bedding planes is greater in the shales than 

in the limestones.

In limestones and shales the joints and bedding planes have an 

important relation to the occurrence of underground water.

In rocks freshly exposed bedding planes and joints are usually but 

a small fraction of an inch in width; but near the surface the joints 

are wider, especially in the limestones, where they may be represented 

by caverns several feet wide. Within a few feet of the surface these 

openings are commonly filled with residual clay, and it is by the gradual removal of the limestone and the consequent enlargement of the 

cavern that the numerous sink holes of the region are formed. The 

enlargement, for obvious reasons, is most common along the lines 

where joints and bedding planes meet.

PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

ALTITUDE OF THE SURFACE.

Altitudes within the Blue Grass region have an extreme range of 

about 1,100 feet, and the transition from one level to another is usually abrupt. The general altitude is between 800 and 1,000 feet above 

sea level. The higher points of the area, underlain by Ordovician 

rocks, rise to a nearly uniform altitude of 1,000 feet above sea level, 

while the lowest point, less than 400 feet above sea, is on Ohio
PHYSIOGKAPHY. 29

River at the southwest corner of Oldham County. On the southern 

margin of the area the hills of Mississippian rocks rise to an altitude 

of nearly 1,500 feet above sea level.

LEXINGTON PENEPLAIN.

The general attitude of the surface on the area of Ordovician rocks 

is that of a broad plain, above which the hills of the southern part of 

the area rise abruptly and into which the large streams have cut deep, 

narrow gorges. The smaller streams have not been able to lower their 

channels fast enough to keep pace with the main streams, and hence 

they enter the main streams with a very steep gradient, in places 

broken by falls and rapids.

There is locally an apparent parallelism of the plain surface and the 

bedding of the Ordovician rocks, which might suggest that the uniform height of the plain was due to a layer of hard rock; but when 

traced any considerable distance the surface is seen to cut across 

rocks of different ages and varying degrees of hardness.

To a nearly level surface produced by subaerial denudation the 

name "peneplain" is given, and the peneplain formed by the erosion 

of the Ordovician rocks was called by Campbell 05 the Lexington peneplain.

CRETACEOUS PENEPLAIN.

On the southern margin of the area the hills rise to a fairly uniform 

height of 500 feet above the Lexington peneplain, and this has led to 

the belief that they are remnants of an earlier peneplain. No part of 

the surface of this older peneplain is visible to-day, but its existence 

is inferred from the uniformity in the height of the hills, which are 

capped by rocks of different lithological character. This peneplain 

was referred by Campbell 6 to the Cretaceous.

CAVERNS.

In limestone rocks of uniform character and similar jointing, the 

rate of cavern formation depends largely upon the topography. 

Where the surface is rolling a smaller percentage of the rainfall enters 

the ground than where it is flat. Thus, the Lexington peneplain, 

with its nearly level surface, must have furnished exceptionally 

favorable conditions for the formation of caverns and the development of underground drainage systems

The flat-topped remnants of the peneplain in Woodford, Franklin, 

and Fayette counties have the largest underground systems of drainage and supply the most copious springs of the region. Unfortunately,

a Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No. 46), Qeol. Altlas U. 8., U. S. Qeol. Survey, 1898. 

6 Op. cit.
30 WATEES OP BLUE GEASS EEGIOJST, KENTUCKY.

few of these caverns are accessible, and their size and the extent of 

their ramifications can be inferred only by the size of the springs and 

the number and size of the sink holes. On these flat-topped divides 

there is practically no surface drainage, and the topography is marked 

by a series of sink holes which receive a large part of the rainfall. It 

is probable that before the uplifting of the Lexington peneplain a 

large part of the surface was drained by underground streams, just 

as the divides are at the present time, and that the Neocene was the 

period when the formation of caverns was most rapid. Before the 

peneplain was uplifted the surface drainage was probably limited to 

the large streams and their principal tributaries. With the uplifting 

of the peneplain the surface drainage became more extensive and the 

areas of underground drainage were gradually restricted, but the 

formation of new caverns and the enlargement of the old has continued down to the present time.

SOILS.

. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.

Since the time of the first settlement the Blue Grass region has "been 

famous for its excellent soils, but considering the 'region as a whole 

the soils vary greatly in different localities, the finest types occurring 

in areas where the Lexington limestone forms the surface rock.

On the basis of origin the soil of the Blue Grass region may be said 

to include two types residual and transported. The residual soils 

have resulted from the decomposition of the underlying rock and 

remain where they were formed. The transported soils are made up 

of disintegrated or decomposed rock particles and have been brought 

to their present position by the action of wind, water, or ice.

The sand dunes that occur in limited areas along the Ohio Valley 

and possibly the loess in the northern part of the region represent 

wind-transported soils. Some writers, however, would class the 

loess with water-transported soils.

The sands and gravels along the rivers form water-transported soils 

and are the result of mechanical disruption rather than chemical 

decomposition. In the valleys of Licking and Kentucky rivers these 

soils consist of assorted materials derived from the residual soils of 

the upland, but along Ohio River they were deposited by the flood 

waters which came from the melting of the continental ice sheet. As 

would be expected, the soils of the Ohio Valley are composed of the 

disintegrated fragments of various kinds of rock.

As the rocks of the region include limestones, sandstones, and shales, 

it might be expected that each kind of rock would yield a residual soil 

distinctive in type, but this is not always the case. Residual soils 

from limestones are largely due to solution, and this chemical action
SOILS. 31

leaves behind it the insoluble sand and clay which was in the original 

rock. A soil derived from the calcareous shale may be much the 

same as one derived from a clayey limestone, and a calcareous sandstone may produce a soil which differs little from one derived from a 

siliceous limestone. The formation of thie limestone soils requires the 

decomposition of a large amount of the original rock, for the sand and 

clay which make the soil usually form but a small percentage of the 

rock. The formation of soils from the shales or sandstones requires 

little besides the mechanical disintegration of the rock and very slight 

loss of volume results.

The statement made by many geologists that, as the residual soils 

are derived from the underlying rock, a geologic map is a good soil 

map, may or may not be true, depending entirely upon the units 

chosen as a basis for mapping If the formation mapped is in part 

siliceous limestone and in part argillaceous limestone, the soils from 

these two phases of the same formation may differ from each other 

more than they differ from the soils derived from sandstones and 

shales, respectively.

The classification of soils into types niay also be based on texture, 

structure, color, content of organic mattejr, topography, and similarity 

of origin. The most important properties used in determining the 

soil type are the texture, which depends on the size of the soil particles, 

and the structure, which depends on the arrangement of these particles. 

Where a number of types are so closely related in source of material, 

method of formation, topographic position, and color that they grade 

one into another, they form a soil series. The soil series of the Ordovician limestones and interbedded shales has been called by the 

United States Bureau of Soils" the Hageitstown series.

In the Blue Grass region the types based on texture include stony

clay, loam, and clay, and there are in a idition phases of sandy loam

and small areas of clay loam. The correlation of the Blue Grass soils

derived from the Ordovician formations

but they represent various textures wiich agree roughly with the 

textures of the different types in the Hagerstown series.

DISTRIBUTION OF' SOILS.

The stony clay is found over considerable areas of the Eden shale

and Maysville and Richmond formations

containing many fragments and occasional outcrops of limestone, and

it occurs on the valley slopes in eroded 

tioned. This soil produces good crops

has not yet been completed,

It consists of a clayey soil

areas of the formations menof corn, wheat, and tobacco,

but its stony character and its marked tendency to erode adapts it 

better to grass and timber.

a V. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Soils, Soil Survey Field Book, 1906, pp. 124-127.
32 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

The sandy loam found in the Ohio Valley is formed from the alluvium of the terraces. In some parts of the Ohio Valley the sand 

of the terraces has been reworked by the winds and formed into 

ridges and dunes. The sandy loam also occurs on the sandstones of 

the Waverly shale and in places on the Garrard sandstone member of 

the Eden shale, this phase being derived from the disintegration of 

the sandstones. In the Ohio Valley this soil occupies areas of slight 

relief and is subjected to little erosion, but the residual soils of the 

sandstones commonly occur in deeply dissected areas and are subject to rapid erosion. Soil of this type is well adapted to truck farming, but is rather too light and sandy for general farming. The sandy 

loam of the Garrard sandstone member of the Eden shale is said to 

produce good crops where the land is not too hilly for successful 

cultivation.

The loam soils of the Blue Grass region occur on the Lexington 

and Highbridge limestones, and in limited areas on the more calcareous phases of the Maysville and Richmond formations. Small 

areas of loam are also found in the Ohio Valley. The upland loam 

is derived from the decomposition of the Ordovician limestones, and 

is the finest blue-grass soil. It has gently rolling topography and 

is adapted to a large variety of crops, the principal ones being blue 

grass, corn, wheat, tobacco, and hemp. This soil, especially where 

derived from the Lexington limestone, produces fine blue-grass pastures, and on it are located the breeding farms which have made 

Kentucky famous for fine horses. The small areas of loam in the 

Ohio Valley are well adapted to general farming, but they do not 

equal the upland areas in value.

The clay soils occupy large areas on the Maysville and Richmond 

formations, the Eden shale, the Winchester limestone, and SiluroDevonian rocks, and small areas also occur in the Ohio Valley. 

These soils vary greatly in value, the best types being formed from 

the decomposition of the rocks of the Maysville, Richmond, and 

Winchester formations. The topography of the areas of clay soil 

varies greatly. The best soils are usually situated in the gently 

rolling areas. On the soils derived from the Winchester limestone 

corn, tobacco, hemp, and grass are the principal crops. The Maysville and Richmond soils produce excellent crops of corn, wheat, and 

tobacco, some of the hilly areas being noted for their fine, white, 

burley leaf. The soils derived from the Siluro-Devonian limestones are excellent, being well adapted to general farming and 

producing good crops of corn, wheat, and grass. The shales of the 

Siluro-Devonian formations, however, yield a very poor soil, which 

is used for general farming. The Eden shale usually occupies hilly 

areas, and its soils are among the poorest in the region. They are 

subject to rapid erosion and are best adapted to the production of
SOILS. 33

Trass and timber. In many parts of the area the attempts to farm 

^hese soils are being abandoned, and they are being converted into 

pastures.

The loesslike silt-loam soils are intermediate in texture between 

^he loam and clay loam. They consist largely of silt, with clay and* 

sand and smaller quantities of materials of a coarse grade. These 

soils occupy a strip along the uplands bordering Ohio River and are 

ocally of considerable value for agricultural purposes, especially in 

northern Boone County. In most places the area occupied by these 

soils does not exceed 4 or 5 miles in width, and it is nearly everywhere underlain by glacial materials, although it reaches a short 

distance beyond the glacial boundary and laps over the area of 

-esidual soils. The material is ordinarily not more than 3 feet thick, 

although in some places it may be 5 or 6 feet thick.

TEXTURE.

The great value of the soils of the Blue Grass region has been attributed to the composition of the rocks from which they are derived, 

">ut there are many other factors that affect their value. The most 

important of these are the texture and the drainage. The texture of 

the soil depends upon the size of its particles, and this is determined 

"vy means of a mechanical analysis: The following table shows the 

^ize of the soil particles in the Hagerstown soil types as determined 

by such analyses. Although the samples for these analyses were 

not all taken from the Blue Grass region, they are believed to be 

c airly representative of the principal soil types which occur on the 

Ordovician rocks of the area. The presence in the soil of a small 

amount of carbonate of lime causes the aggregation of some of the 

^oil particles, and thus their character is slightly modified, but the 

aggregation is probably not sufficient to make any great change in 

the physical composition of the soil.

Even when a liberal allowance is made for the increased size of the 

soil grains due to aggregation of the smaller particles, it is clear that 

the openings in such fine-grained material must be very small. These 

small openings prevent the soil from absorbing water rapidly, but 

give it a great capacity for retaining moisture and bringing it wjthin 

the reach of the plant roots by capillary action. The small size of 

the pores also brings the ground water in contact with a large amount 

of soluble material and thus favors the solution of the phosphorus 

and other elements of plant food contained in the rocks. 

88942 IRR 233 09 3
34 WATEES OF BLUE GEASS BEGION, KENTUCKY. 

TABLE 2. Textures of the Hagerstown soil types.

[Compiled from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils Field Book, 1906, pp. 124-127.]

Hagerstown stony loam: 

Soil........................

Hagerstown stony clay: 

Soil........................

Subsoil.....................

Hagerstown sandy loam: 

Soil ........................

Hagerstown loam: 

Soil...............

Hagerstown clay loam: 

Soil.............. .. .....

Hagerstown clay: 

Soil.......:................

Fine 

gravel, 

2-1 mm.a

62 

2

1 

1

1 

0

5

1 

3

1

0

Coarse 

sand, 

1-0.5 mm.

4 

3

6 

3

3 

3

3

2

2 

1

Medium 

sand, 

0.5-0.25 

mm.

3

2

5 

2

8 

4

3

2

2 

2

2 

1

Fine 

sand, 

0.25-0.1 

mm.

6 

4

10 

5

24 

14

7 

0

5

4

9

6

Very fine 

sand, 

0.1-0.05 

mm.

11

7

5

4

15 

9

10

8

9 

10

8 

5

Silt, 

0.05-0.005 

mm.

52 

38

29 

28

32 

31

46 

38

64 

51

41 

29

Clay,' 

0.005 mm. 

or less.

22

4*

4>

5?

13 3^

2? 

39

16

23

3? 5<5

« The figures at the top of the columns refer to the diameter of the soil particles.

b The figures in the various columns give the percentage of the grains of different diameters.

DRAINAGE.

Another factor which influences the value of the soils of the Blue 

Grass region is the excellent underclrainage provided by the crevices 

and channels in the rock. Indeed, if it were not for the removal of 

the excess of moisture through the underground drainage channels 

the fine-grained soils of the region would soon become so filled with 

water that plant growth would be greatly hindered.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

The remarkable fertility of the Blue Grass region soils has generally 

been attributed to the compounds of phosphorus contained in considerable quantities in the Ordovician limestones. Although the 

value of the phosphates is unquestioned, other elements are recognized as important to soil fertility. Carbon, one of the principal 

elements which enter into the composition of plants, is supplied 

chiefly by carbonic acid from the air. Oxygen and hydrogen, the 

other elements which are abundant in plants, are supplied by water. 

In addition to the elements mentioned above, certain other substances, the most important including calcium, magnesium, sulphur, 

iron, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, must be obtained from 

the earth. Some of these are needed by plants in such small quantities that most soils contain an ample supply, but the last three are 

of such essential value that it may become necessary to add them to 

poor soils in order to produce large crops.

The following table of analyses shows that the elements whicl' 

enter into plant composition are so abundant in most Kentucky 

soils that it is unnecessary to add fertilizers. The amount of nitrogen
SOILS. 35

in the soils was not determined, but as it is largely supplied by organic 

matter, it is safe to conclude that where the analysis of Blue Grass 

soils shows a large amount of organic matter, the supply of nitrogen 

will usually be ample. In many soils this organic matter represents 

the accumulation of long ages preceding the advent of civilized man 

and the beginning of cultivation in this region. As the nitrogen is 

required to produce plants, careful treatment is necessary to restore 

nitrogen or organic matter to the soil.

The phosphorus and potash in most of the soils were supplied by 

the decomposition of the calcareous rocks of the region, and the 

amount of each was determined by the composition of the original 

rock. Thus, the decomposition of the phosphatic limestones has 

produced soils rich in phosphorus. The amounts of potash and phosphorus (stated as phosphoric acid in the tables) should be compared 

with the amounts in Hilgard's averages of 466 soils from the humid 

region of the United States, which are also shown in the table. The 

States represented in making up Hilgard's averages and the number 

of analyses of soils from each are as follows: North Carolina, 20; 

South Carolina, 11; Georgia, 40; Florida, 7; Alabama, 50; Mississippi, 97; Arkansas, 38; Kentucky, 185; and Louisiana, 18. Although 

Kentucky soils averaged outnumber those from any other State, the 

best Kentucky soils were not included, because it was desired to use 

only those soils which were not derived from limestone.

A careful comparison of the analyses of Kentucky soils and the 

averages given by Hilgarcl shows that Kentucky soils as a whole are 

richer than the average in those mineral elements which support 

plants. While the siliceous Waverly and siliceous mudstone (probably Eden shale) soils are low in the elements of plant food, the soils 

of the Lexington (Trenton) and Panola ("Corniferous") formations 

are very much richer than the average, and practically all of the 

analyses appear to represent soils which are better than the average 

given by Hilgard. In comparing the analyses of the soils of the 

Blue Grass region with each other the superiority of the Lexington 

(Trenton) soils is very evident. From an examination of the list of 

analyses used in making the averages, it appears probable that some 

analyses of Winchester and Maysville limestone soils were included 

in the averages of Lexington (Trenton) soils. This, since the Winchester and Maysville limestone soils are, in general, poorer than 

those of the Lexington (Trenton), probably means that the averages 

are lower than if the analyses were entirely from the Lexington soils. 

Notwithstanding this fact, the analyses show that the soils are very 

rich in plant food, and experience has shown that their natural productivity is high.
36 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY. 

TABLE 3. Chemical composition of Kentucky soils.a

Average of 3 Ohio ValAverage of 21 QuaterAverage of 10 Waverly

Average of 9 black slate

Average of 15 "CornifAverage of 16 Upper SiAverage of 11 siliceous 

mudstone (middle

Average of 32 Trenton 

("Blue") limestone

Averse of 6 Birdseye

Average of 234 KenAverage for humid reMoisture.

2.51

2.27

4.65

Insoluble residue.

88.10

89.91

80.13

83.52

82.40

86. 55

73.38

85.80

84.63

Organic 

and volatile matter.

2.94

4.10

5.93

5.07

6.23

4.78

6.21

4.45

4.47

3.64

Oxides 

of aluminum, 

iron, and 

manganese.

9.84

6.94

4.29

10.59

9.06

10. 49

7.06

11.20

6.51

8.00

7.56

Calcium carbonate 

(CaCOs).

0.10

.37

.14

.48

.47

.32

.10

.45

.36

6.20

Magnesium 

oxide 

(MgO).

0.19

.29

< 

.26

.52

.63

.42

.60

.64

.38

.34

99

Phosphoric anhydride 

(PiOs ).

0.12

.12

.10

.23

.28

.19

.16

.33

.21

.18

.11

Potash 

(K2 0), 

extracted by 

acids.

0.45

.28

.15

.18

.34

.24

.16

.40

.18

.26

.22

a. Peter, Robert, The composition of the soils, limestones, clays, and marls of Kentucky: Kentucky Geol. 

Survey, 2d ser.,pt. 13, vol. 5, 1885, p. 113.

6 Hilgard, E. W., A report on the relation of soil to climate: Weather Bureau Bull. No. 3, 1892, p. 30. 

The figures given above are adapted from Hilgard's table; lime (presumably CaO) has been calculated to 

CaCOs for comparison with Peter's figures.

The Panola ("Corniferous") soil appears to be exceptionally good 

and to approach most nearly the high average of the Lexington limestone soils. The Highbridge (Birdseye) and Panola (Upper Silurian) 

soils have about the same general composition, although derived 

from rocks which widely differ in age, in appearance, and probably 

also in composition. It is interesting to note that the Ohio shale 

(black shale) soils, which have often been considered very poor, 

approach the average soils in composition. In one of the early 

reports of the Kentucky Geological Survey a Doctor Peter attributed 

the low productivity of this soil to the presence of too much water 

and suggested the use of lime to render the clay more porous, so that 

the excess of moisture could escape. The loess soils, which are fair 

when measured by the standards of the average soils, are considerably 

poorer than the Lexington (Trenton) soils.

SURFACE WATERS.

OHIO RIVER.

The Ohio makes a bend northward around the Blue Grass region, 

flowing north of west from Maysville to Cincinnati and approximately southwest from Cincinnati to the southern boundary of OldPeter, Robert, Chemical analyses, A, pt. 2, Kentucky Geol. Survey, 1883, p. 101.
SURFACE WATERS. 37

ham County, and forming a partial boundary of 10 out of 30 counties. Only a small portion of the area, however, drains directly into 

the Ohio, most of the drainage passing first to one of the principal 

tributaries. Where the river borders this region its channel is a 

trench cut into the Ordovician rocks to a depth of 350 to 400 feet 

and varying in width from one-fourth mile to 1 \ miles. The variation 

in width of the Ohio channel is the result of the formation of a single 

stream channel out of a number of segments of different streams and 

tributaries.

Between Maysville and Louisville, 11 a distance of 198 miles, the 

Ohio falls 54 feet, an average fall of 0.27 foot, or somewhat more than 

3 inches, to the mile; but the rate of fall of the river is not uniform, 

varying from 0.2 foot to at least 5 feet to the mile in different parts 

of its course, increase in fall commonly occurring where the river 

crosses the old rock divides. The velocity of the stream is variable 

but is nowhere high.

Most of the small streams of the region are steep walled and have 

very high gradients, and the consequent rapid run-off causes correspondingly rapid fluctuations in the amount of water entering the 

main streams. Floods are very common on the Ohio, the gage records at Cincinnati showing that the river has passed the danger line 

(50-foot stage) just 23 times in the forty-six years previous to 1906. 

The highest stage during this period was 71.1 feet, in February, 1884, 

and the lowest was less than 2 feet. The extreme range is therefore 

nearly 70 feet, but the usual range is probably not much more than 

25 feet. The highest floods, as a rule, occur in winter in February 

or later and are caused by the melting of the snow. A second rise, 

produced by the summer rains and ordinarily less than the one occurring in the winter, takes place in May or June. The autumn rains 

produce a third rise, which is comparatively small. The date of the 

autumn rise is uncertain, as it may come in November or not until 

late in December. The lowest river stages are, as a rule, reached in 

August or September, and they generally extend into October. As 

a result of recent work by the United States Government, the Ohio 

is now navigable along the borders of the Blue Grass region, even at 

very low water.

KENTUCKY RIVER.

Kentucky River rises in the "mountainous part of the State and 

flows in a general northwesterly direction across the Blue Grass region, 

passing near the apex of the Jessamine dome. Where the river crosses 

the resistant Highbridge limestone its gorge is generally but little 

wider than the stream, and in many places the river flows between

a Gannett, H., Profiles of rivers in the.United States: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 44, 

1901, pp. 41-43.
38 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

perpendicular walls of the limestone 300 feet or more in height. A 

characteristic view of this gorge is shown in Plate III, A. At various 

points above Frankfort the stream is bordered by rock terraces bearing narrow strips of alluvium, in most places composed of fine sand 

with a few layers of pebbles. Below Frankfort the alluvial deposit? 

are more extensive, locally forming bands more than one-fourth mile 

wide. In areas where the Kentucky flows through rocks of the Maysville, Eden, and Winchester formations the slope of the channel is as 

a rule comparatively gentle. The contrast between the precipitous 

walls formed by the Highbridge limestone and the gentle slopes of the 

walls in the Maysville formation is beautifully shown on the northern 

edge of Madison County, where, by reason of the Kentucky River 

fault, the river passes abruptly from one of these formations to the 

other. On the one side of the fault the cliffs are so steep that it is 

impossible to ascend them; on the other side fields of corn extend 

down the gently sloping walls to the flood plain of the river. This 

change from one type of valley to the other is repeated several times 

as the river meanders back and forth across the fault line.

From Frankfort to the mouth of the river, a distance of 65 miles, 

the Kentucky falls 42 feet, or 7.2 inches to the mile; between Frankfort and Beattyville, a distance of 189 miles, the fall is 184 feet, or at 

the rate of nearly 1 foot to the mile. Throughout the Blue Grass 

region the gradient of this stream is comparatively low, but toward 

the mountains it increases rapidly.

The largest tributaries of the Kentucky in the Blue Grass region 

are Dix River and Eagle Creek, both of which have higher gradients 

than the main stream at the points of junction. The fall of Dix River 

from a point west of Lancaster to the mouth of the stream, a distance 

of 10 miles in a direct line, is not far from 300 feet. The minor 

branches of the Kentucky and its principal tributaries have very 

steep gradients, some of them descending 300 feet or more from the 

level of the upland to the main stream in a distance of 3 or 4 miles. 

As a result of the high gradients the streams show quickly the effects 

of rains, the water reaching maximum heights within a very short 

time after a storm. Floods are very common on the Kentucky, 

though the range in stage is probably not great as compared with 

that of the Ohio at Cincinnati.

LICKING RIVER.

Licking River heads at the edge of the mountains and flows in a 

direction slightly west of north into Ohio River opposite Cincinnati. 

This stream has cut through the Ordovician rocks to the Lexington 

limestone and the channel is in many places steep walled, but it is, as 

a rule, bordered by deposits of alluvium, especially along the lower 

course of the stream.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 233 PLATE III

A. KENTUCKY RIVER GORGE SOUTH OF CAMP NELSON. KY.

B. AN OPEN SINK HOLE IN CLARK COUNTY, KY.
THE WATER TABLE. 39

The gradient of Licking Valley has not been determined, but it is 

apparently somewhat greater than that of Kentucky River. The 

tributaries of the Licking, like those of the other streams of the region, 

have very steep slopes.

MINOR STREAMS.

A small strip along the western edge of the Blue Grass region is 

drained by Salt River. The streams belonging to the Salt River system are all small, most of them flow only a part of the year, and all of 

them fluctuate rapidly with the amount of rainfall.

UNDERGROUND WATERS.

THE SOURCE.

The water that falls upon the land in the form "of rain or snow either 

sinks into the earth or flows off over the surface. The part which 

sinks into the ground and is held by the rocks is known as ground 

water; that which flows off over the surface, together with the 

ground water returned to the surface streams, forms what is called 

the run-off. A part of both ground water and run-off is returned to 

the atmosphere and another part is consumed in chemical and 

organic work.

It is easy to understand that the shallow wells derive their supplies 

from rainfall, for the process of absorption by the more or less porous 

soils may be observed, and in many places in the Blue Grass region 

the storm waters may be seen entering the underground channels 

through sink holes. The connection between rainfall and the water 

supplied by deep wells is not, however, so apparent, and it is indeed 

possible that the saline waters furnished by some of the deep wells 

were taken into the rocks from the ocean during the process of deposition; but disregarding the origin of the very saline waters, it may 

be said that all of the water found in shallow wells, and much of that 

in deep wells, is derived directly from rainfall.

CONDITIONS OF OCCURRENCE. 

THE WATER TABLE.

The water that sinks into the earth descends until it reaches a 

level where the underlying rocks are already completely saturated. 

This level is known as the water table, and its form and depth beneath the surface vary with the amount of rainfall, the relief of the 

surface, and the resistance which the rocks offer to the movement of 

the water. In arid regions of low relief the water table lies far 

beneath the surface, and its form is only slightly convex, the convexity being greatest in the materials that offer the most resistance 

to the passage of the water. The variation in convexity, which is
40 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION,, KENTUCKY.

due to the resistance offered by the rock to the movement of the 

ground water, is explained by the fact that a greater slope of the 

water surface is needed to overcome an increased resistance. IE 

humid regions of considerable relief the water table reproduces with 

lesser magnitude the inequalities of the land surface. The greater 

the rainfall and resistance the nearer the approach of the water 

table to the surface.

Wherever the water table intercepts the surface, as along the valleys of the streams, seeps or springs are formed, and the lowering of 

the stream channels will depress the water table except where impervious materials, such as shales, are encountered. Where the 

porous material rests on dense materials, such as shale or clay, the 

depression of the water table ceases, and as the stream deepens its 

channel springs are left perched on the side of the valley. Veatch a 

has given the name "perched water tables" to the water tables that 

are left above the dense materials by the deepening of the stream

FIGURE 1. A perched spring.

channels. It is proposed to extend the term "perched" to include 

springs formed where such water tables intersect or emerge at the 

surface. Perched springs are common at the contact of some of the 

sandstone beds of the Waverly shale with the underlying shale beds. 

They may also occur at certain points along the larger streams where 

beds of sand and gravel rest on clay.

In a large part of the Blue Grass region there is no general water 

table, but a water table exists in the sandstones of the Waverly 

shale, in alluvial materials along the larger streams, and in some 

partly saturated glaeial sands and gravels on the uplands of northern 

Boone and Kentoii counties. Locally, in various parts of the upland, 

a porous residual soil allows the formation of a ground-water level, 

but these areas are small and their supply of water is likely to fail 

during a very dry season.

The passages through which the ground waters move vary with 

the character of the rock, and in order to understand undergroundwater conditions it is necessary to consider the mode of occurrence

"Veatch, A. C., Underground water resources of Long Island, N. Y.: Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey 

No. 44, 1906, pp. 57-58.
WATEB IK SAND, GRAVEL, AND SANDSTONE. 41

of water in the different kinds of rocks and in rocks of different sorts 

arranged in alternate layers differing in thickness.

WATER IN SAND, GRAVEL, AND SANDSTONE.

In sand the water moves through the small spaces between the 

grains; hence the coarser or more porous the material the larger 

the passages and the greater the amount of water they will transmit.

Slichter a explains the effect of the size of the sand grains on the 

movement of water as follows:

If the particles of sand or gravel which make up the water-bearing medium are 

well rounded in form, the pores are somewhat triangular in cross section and the 

diameter of the individual pores is only one-fourth to one-seventh the diameter of the 

soil particles themselves. Thus if the individual grains of sand average 1 millimeter 

in diameter, the pores through which the water must pass will average only onefourth to one-seventh of a millimeter in diameter. If to a mass of nearly uniform 

sand particles larger particles be added, the effect on the resistance to the flow of 

water will be one of two kinds, depending principally upon the ratio which the size 

of the particles added bears to the average size of grains in the original sand. If the 

particles added are only slightly larger than the original sand grains, the effect is to 

increase the capacity of the sand to transmit water, and the more particles of this kind 

that are added the greater will be the increase in the capacity of the sand to transmit 

water. If, however, large particles are added, the effect is the reverse. If particles 

seven to ten times the diameter of the original sand grains be added, each of the new 

particles tends to block the course of the water. Thus, for example, a large bowlder 

placed in a mass of fine sand will tend to block the passage of the water. As more and 

more of the large particles are added to a mass of uniform sand, the rate of flow of 

water through it will be decreased until the amount of the large particles equals about 

30 per cent of the total mass. From this time on the adding of the large particles will 

: ncrease the capacity of the whole to transmit water, until if a very large quantity of

*he large particles be added, so that the original mass of fine particles becomes relatively negligible, the capacity to transmit will approach that of the mass of the large 

particles alone. These facts have an important bearing upon the capacity of gravels

*o furnish water to wells or to transmit water in the underflow of a river. The presence 

of large particles is not necessary to be interpreted as indicating a high transmission 

capacity of the material, for this is indicated only when the large particles constitute 

a large fractional per cent of the total mass, as would be the case where the large 

^articles equal 40 or 50 per cent of the whole.

Sandstone, having had some of the passages closed by the cementng material that binds the grains together, is less porous than sand 

composed of grains of the same size and shape. Sandstone therefore offers much greater resistance to the movement of water and 

transmits a relatively smaller amount than sand. This condition is 

often partly offset by the joint and bedding planes which may furnish 

channels for the passage of considerable water.

The motion of underground water is controlled by the factors that 

govern the motion of surface water resistance and slope. As the

« Slichter, Charles S., Field measurement of the rate of movement of underground waters: Water-Supply 

Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 140, 1895, pp. 10-11.
42 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

water which moves in tiny threads between the grains of sand meets 

with a great deal of resistance it advances but a few feet a day; 

with the same gradient a surface stream, because of the comparatively slight resistance offered by the channel, will move several 

miles in the same length of time.

WATER IN LIMESTONE.

JOINTS AND BEDDING PLANES.

Limestone rocks are as a rule traversed by at least two sets of vertical joints which make approximately right angles with each other, 

and a third set of partings at right angles to these joints form the 

bedding planes of the rocks. The spacing of joints is ordinarily fairly 

uniform over considerable areas, and the interval between them ie 

commonly to be measured in feet; but where the rocks have been 

deformed the joints are more numerous. The bedding planes exhibit 

very little uniformity of arrangement; an interval of a few inches may 

be followed by one of much greater magnitude.

Some limestones are sufficiently porous to absorb considerable 

quantities of water, but most of them are too dense to yield water for 

wells or springs. The water which comes from limestones is usually 

that which has found its way in along more or less enlarged joints or 

bedding planes, the enlargement being due to the solvent action of 

water. Obviously the places where water circulates most readily 

will, other things being equal, suffer most loss by solution, but differences in the solubility of the rock may offset the effect of rapid circulation. Doubtless the most common line of rapid solution is at the 

intersection of a prominent bedding plane and a more or less oper 

joint.

FORMATION OP CAVERNS.

Not only is slight resistance to solution offered along certain lines> 

but in certain spots, owing to the presence of numerous open joints 

or to the solubility of the rock, very large chambers "domes" are 

formed. It is noticeable that "domes" are the points at which considerable water enters the underground channel. This water, coming 

fresh from the surface, is charged with a great amount of carbonic 

acid and it attacks the limestone about the point of entrance; as it 

flows farther and farther from the point of entrance it loses its power 

to dissolve the rock, because it has gradually picked up as large an 

amount of calcium carbonate as it can carry.

As the belt of rapid solution is restricted to the zone of active water 

circulation, the formation of caverns takes place largely above the 

level of the surface streams that receive the underground drainage; 

but this does not imply that there is no deep-seated solution or that
WATER IN LIMESTONE. 43

active circulation may not extend slightly below the level of surface 

drainage. As solution progresses some parts of the walls and roof of 

the solution cavities collapse and sink holes are formed. If the 

channel beneath the point of collapse is large in proportion to the 

amount of material which falls, the sink is usually an open hole; but 

if the amount of fallen material is sufficient to clog the channel, the 

sink appears as a rounded depression that has no outlet. The fallen 

material may obstruct the opening so that the stream appears at the 

surface, or it may leave a passage which will allow the drainage to 

continue underground. In this event the gradual wearing of the 

stream may remove enough of the fallen material to form an open sink. 

In the process of deepening its valley a stream lowers the base-level 

of its tributaries and thus affords them an opportunity to degrade 

their channels. When the tributaries flow in caverns they lower their 

channels along some joint plane, and the process goes forward most 

rapidly along some particular line in the same manner as during the

FIGURE 2. Diagram of a cavern, showing different levels of the underground stream.

formation of the original cavern. At certain places where there is 

rapid downward movement from the old to the new channel more or 

less rounded openings develop. These openings provide a passage 

from the old to the new cavern and are usually called "pits." They 

often form beneath the domes, their location being determined in part 

by the presence of initial crevices and in part by the same condition 

that produced the dome, namely, the entrance of surface water bearing 

considerable free carbonic acid. (See A, B, fig. 2.) Doubtless the 

formation of caverns, and especially of pits and domes, is aided 

by the mechanical action of the water, especially where it contains 

sediment.

As long as the lower channel or the passages leading to it are comparatively small the old cavern retains a large part of the drainage. 

With the enlargement of the new cavities the old channel receives less 

and less of the original drainage, until it is entirely deprived of its 

original headwaters except during storms, and at last, when the new
44 WATERS OP BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

channels have become sufficiently enlarged,, the old channel receives 

only the drainage of its local tributaries.

Migration from higher to lower levels may take place at successive 

periods, leaving a series of abandoned channels at different levels. 

The course of the underground stream at each successive stage probably deviates more or less from the course of the abandoned channel. 

Moreover, the course may not lie in a single channel, but passages 

may divide and reunite, forming a more or less extensive network 

of channels.

After a section of the underground stream has been abandoned the 

amount of water entering the old channel becomes less and less until 

it is chiefly confined to small seeps. At this stage much of the water 

is removed by evaporation, so that solution gives place to deposition, 

the principal deposit being calcium carbonate. At first deposition is 

rapid, because the crevices are large enough to supply all the water 

that can be evaporated; but gradually, as the openings become closed, 

the rate of deposition decreases. The deposits present a great variety 

of forms which add to the beauty of the caverns. The most common 

types, the stalactite and stalagmite, are familiar to all who have 

visited caverns. The stalactite begins as a thin film of calcium carbonate around the edge of a drop of water which evaporates on the 

roof of the cavern. Upon this film as a nucleus successive additions 

are made until the stalactite resembles a giant icicle suspended from 

the roof of the cavern. The accumulations of calcium carbonate 

which form where the water evaporates on the floor of the cavern are 

known as stalagmites. By the union of stalactites and stalagmites 

pillars are formed.

If a shale bed is encountered by the water in its downward progress 

a cavern is usually formed above it, and if the shale bed is some distance above the level of the surface stream which receives the drainage from the cavern the water may emerge from the cliff above the 

surface stream. The mechanical wear of the underground stream 

may remove the shale at some point, and thus permit the formation 

of another cavern nearer the level of the surface stream. If the 

shale bed is of considerable thickness the downward migration of 

the water may be permanently obstructed. The lowering of the 

channels of the surface streams usually takes place much more 

rapidly than the lowering of the underground streams. In consequence of this fact the underground streams may remain considerably above the level of the surface streams even where there are no 

beds of shale or other dense material to prevent downward migration.

SMALL WATER PASSAGES.

In all limestone regions there are water passages below the levels 

of the surface streams. In some places the openings are simply small
WATER IN INTERBEDDED LIMESTONE AND SHALE. 45

pores in the limestone, but in the Blue Grass region they appear to 

be channels which closely resemble the caverns. Vein deposits are 

formed in these passages, and where exposed by erosion they present 

forms closely resembling those found in ordinary caverns. When 

penetrated by drilling the small water passages supply an abundance 

of water which is usually under considerable head, indicating that the 

channel is covered by impervious rock. The direction of movement 

in these channels probably conforms roughly to the dip of the rock, 

which in the Blue Grass region is away from the apex of the Jessamine dome. . In this region these channels usually contain water that 

is more highly mineralized than that of the caverns.

WATER IN SHALE.

Shale, being composed largely of clay, contains practically no 

available water except that found in the joints and bedding planes. 

The number and character of the joints and bedding planes in shale 

vary in different formations and in different parts of the same formation. The water that enters the joints of the shale passes downward 

to the zone at which these openings practically cease and then moves 

laterally until it reaches the point of emergence. Near the surface 

the bedding planes may be sufficiently open to allow, the passage of 

considerable water, but at moderate depths they are closed so that 

they transmit little or no water.

WATER IN INTERBEDDED LIMESTONE AND SHALE.

The amount and mode of occurrence of underground water in 

interbedded limestone and shale vary greatly with the relative 

amounts of the two kinds of rocks and the relations they bear to 

each other and to the surface. In a formation with a high percentage of limestone and thin scattered beds of shale the underground 

circulation is essentially the same as that in pure limestone; in a 

heavy deposit of shale containing thin beds of limestone underground 

water occurs essentially as in shales. For the sake of simplicity consideration will here be restricted to the occurrence of water in a series 

consisting of equal parts of shale and limestone arranged in alternating layers not exceeding 6 inches in thickness. Under such conditions the surface water may penetrate the rocks by passing along 

the joints which cross the beds, or it may follow along a joint in one 

or more beds, thus conforming to the dip of the rock. Probably in 

most such formations the actual movement combines these two 

methods. Water enters a joint near the surface and percolates 

downward until its course is obstructed by the gradual decrease in 

the width of the opening. If there were no means of escape laterally 

the movement would cease as soon as the crevice was filled; but in
46 WATEES Or BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

general a lateral movement along the joint allows a slow movement 

of the water. The lateral movement naturally follows the largest 

crevice, and this may lead to frequent change from one series of 

joints to the other, or the movement may continue along a single 

joint.

The movement of the water tends to enlarge the joints by mechanical wear, but as the circulation is usually slow the amount of enlargement is slight. The solvent power of the water tends to enlarge the 

joints along the beds of limestone, but as these beds are thin the 

height of the channel produced by solution is small.

The tendency of the shale to sink into any cavity which may be 

formed by solution restricts the width of the channel. The lenticular 

shape of many of the limestone beds presents another obstacle to the 

formation of underground passages by solution. As a result of all 

these factors the underground channels in interbedded shales and 

limestones are small.

Where the downward movement of the water is checked by a 

heavy bed of shale the water usually follows the dip of the shale bed, 

and under some conditions this movement may be away from the 

surface stream. An example of such movement was noted in northwestern Franklin County. Where the water follows the dip it if1 

generally confined by the overlying shale and it continues its underground course until it reaches some point of escape at lower level.

The occurrence of springs above the level of the main streams was 

mentioned in connection with the formation of caverns, but it needr 

special mention here because such springs are very common in formations consisting of interbedded limestones and shales. The water 

which enters the joints passes downward until it reaches a layer of 

shale which contains no crevice, and follows this layer to the point at 

which it emerges at the surface. The most usual course for the 

water which supplies these springs is along the contact of a limestone 

layer with the underlying shale. These springs are most common 

along Ohio River, but they occur also along the other streams in the 

Blue Grass region. Their height above the streams varies from p, 

few feet on some of the smaller streams to more than 300 feet along 

the Ohio and other large rivers. These springs have the same topographic position as the perched springs, but the mode of occurrence 

of the water is different.

SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN THE BLUE GRASS REGION.

WATER IN THE HIGHBBIDGE AND LEXINGTON LIMESTONES.

Water channels. The Highbridge limestone forms the surface rocl* 

in but few localities in the Blue Grass region, and in those areas the 

topography is rugged and the soils are as a rule thin. The formation
SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN THE BLUE GRASS REGION. 47

therefore contains but few large underground streams; most of the 

water channels in it are small. Along Kentucky River gorge, however, some of the channels form good-sized caverns, those best known 

being at Glasses Mill, Valley View, Highbridge, and Camp Nelson.

The Lexington limestone, except in the vicinity of large surface 

streams, occupies areas having gently rolling topography and a heavy 

deposit of porous soil. These conditions favor the occurrence of a 

large amount of underground water and the development of extensive systems of underground drainage, and the formation contains 

innumerable small channels and many large caverns. Indeed, most 

of the counties in which this limestone covers a large area can boast 

one or more caverns. The best known, and probably the largest of 

these, is the Russell cave, in Fayette County, which is reported to 

have been explored for nearly a mile. Several of the other caverns 

in the Lexington limestone have been explored shorter distances. 

Most of these caverns contain streams, many of which give rise to 

large springs. Few of the caverns are accessible except in dry 

weather, and none of them are highly ornamented by stalactites or

FIGURE 3. Diagram showing difference in conditions in adjacent wells in limestone.

other deposits. The small underground channels that lie above the 

level of surface drainage also give rise to many springs. Below the 

level of the surface drainage the underground channels in the Lexington limestone are apparently small, but most of them seem to be full 

of water, while the channels nearer the surface are practically never 

entirely filled.

Wells. The Highbridge limestone is penetrated by but few shallow 

wells and most of the deep wells sunk in it obtain mineral water. 

More than 95 per cent of the drilled wells of the upland obtain water 

from the Lexington limestone. The possibility of procuring water 

depends entirely on the chance of encountering one of the underground channels. In some localities few wells fail to procure an adequate supply; in others many failures are reported. The mode of 

occurrence of the mineralized waters makes it uncertain whether they 

will be encountered in any particular well, and in two wells located 

near together they may be found at very different depths (fig. 3).
48 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

In general they may be looked for at less depth in the valleys than on 

the hills, but to this rule there are likely to be many exceptions. 

Wherever the Lexington and Highbridge limestones are covered by 

younger formations they yield only the highly mineralized waters. 

Ignorance of this fact has led to the sinking of deep wells in the areas 

of Maysville limestone with the hope of obtaining waters for domestic 

and industrial uses. Such wells are almost certain to be failures.

Quality of the water. The water in the channels which are situated 

above the level of the surface drainage is practically always hard, 

but the hardness varies with the amount of rainfall, being greatest 

in dry weather and least after heavy rains. This condition is readily 

explainable, for in dry weather nearly all the water seeps in through 

the soil and the velocity of the underground stream is low, while during heavy rains much water enters through open sinks and the stream 

velocity is high. When the water enters from the soil, the subsoil, 

or the underlying rock it contains carbonic acid, which enables it to 

dissolve the material in the residual deposits and the limestone. The 

slow movement in the underground channel facilitates solution, but 

when the water enters through open sinks it contains less carbonic 

acid and the rapid movement of the flood waters does not favor solution. The substances most commonly found in the shallow waters 

are calcium and magnesium, but a number of other substances are 

present in smaller quantities.

The plane of separation between the shallow and dee]) waters coincides roughly with the levels of surface drainage, rising slightly above 

the level of the surface streams toward the divides and sinking 

slightly below the streams in the valleys. Where the surface streams 

flow in canyons the deep waters are often found above the levels of the 

surface streams. The deep waters in the Lexington and Highbridge 

limestones always contain considerably more mineral matter in solution than the shallow waters, and some of them appear to contain 

alkaline carbonates. (See analyses Nos. 24 and 25, p. 212.) These 

highly mineralized waters, which for the sake of brevity will be 

termed "mineral waters," occur in small areas of porous limestone or 

in channels that pass below the levels of the surface drainage. Rapid 

movement of the underground water is prevented by the situation of 

the channels and porous rock, and in many places the water is probably stationary; thus the water may remain in contact with the rock 

for a long time and dissolve out much mineral matter. Such waters 

are especially likely to be brackish or salt and to contain hydrogen 

sulphide or petroleum.

Practically all the channels are supplied with water from the surface, and when penetrated by wells the mineralized water may be 

replaced by the ordinary hard limestone water after the well has been 

pumped for a time. The length of time required to make this change
SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN THE BLUE GKASS REGION. 49

varies from two or three weeks to a year or more, being influenced by 

the rate of pumping, the size of the channel, and the distance of the 

well from the point at which the water enters the ground. Rarely the 

character of the water does not change after long-continued pumping.

The numerous joints in the limestone probably furnish a natural 

means of escape for the mineral waters, but the amount escaping from 

a channel must as a rule be less than that taken out by an ordinary 

well. The almost universal connection of the channels with the surface, which is indicated by the entrance of surface water after pumping, 

shows that the water is probably derived from meteoric sources, the 

mineralization being due, as suggested, to the slow circulation of the 

water arid the great length of time it remains in contact with the soluble materials of the limestone.

Within 10 or 15 miles of Kentucky River the shallow waters have 

been moving downward during the erosion of the gorge of that stream. 

This movement, which has been accomplished in the manner described 

under the occurrence of waters in limestone, has made it possible to 

procure some ordinary hard water below the level of the surface 

streams. Where the channel containing the mineral water has been 

severed by the deepening of the main stream and water from the surcace allowed to enter, the result has been the same as when one of 

these channels has been penetrated by a well and the mineral water 

".asbeen removed by pumping.

The general movement of the deep water appears to be in the 

direction of the dip of the rocks, and consequently the mineral waters 

of the region pass outward from the central area of the Highbridge 

and Lexington limestones. This outward movement carries the 

mineral waters into those areas where the Lexington and Highbridge 

limestones lie beneath the younger geologic formations.

WATER IN THE WINCHESTER LIMESTONE.

Water is found in the Winchester limestone under conditions 

"osembling those in the Lexington limestone, except where the formation contains a high percentage of shale. Channels of sufficient 

rnze to be called caverns are not known in this formation, but where 

'he limestone layers are exposed at the surface they yield, as a rule, 

considerable water.

The shallow waters of the Winchester are the ordinary hard waters 

of limestone rocks; the deep waters are saline and locally contain 

>ydrogen sulphide.

WATER IN THE EDEN SHALE.

The outcrops of Eden shale occur in areas of rugged topography 

unfavorable for the absorption of large amounts of water. The formation presents three phases: (1) Nearly pure shale, (2) interbeddedf 

88942 IRR 233 09 4
50 WATERS OP BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

shale and limestone, and (3) sandstone. All of these rocks except 

the sandstone yield on weathering a dense residual clay which storer 

considerable moisture, but allows only a small portion of it to reach 

the underground channels. The residual materials of the sandstone 

are porous loams or sandy loams, through which considerable water 

passes to the underlying rocks.

In the shaly phase of the formation the water occurs in numerous 

joints, few of which, however, are large. The bedding planes are 

practically everywhere too compact to yield water. The amount of 

water afforded by the shale is usually small and the supply is quickly 

reduced by dry weather. The water is also liable to pollution from 

surface drainage and much of it is of poor quality.

The interbedded phase varies from nearly pure shale to shale containing numerous limestone layers, and the water conditions vary 

correspondingly. The most abundant supplies of water are obtained 

where one or more beds of limestone occur near the surface. In such 

places the water comes chiefly from the enlarged joints in the beds of 

limestone.

The sandy phase of the formation the Garrard sandstone member varies from slightly sandy shale to nearly pure sandstone, with 

shaly sandstones predominating. The more shaly parts of the sandstone yield very little water except along the joints, and the amount 

is variable. The sandstones, where not too firmly cemented, yield 

moderate quantities of water, and where exceptionally thick the supplies may be large. The concretionary sandstone is, as a rule, too 

dense to be water bearing.

The joints of the Eden shale seldom present openings which yield 

water at depths greater than 25 feet, and the depth of wells should not 

exceed 35 feet. Moreover, experience has shown that the largest 

supplies occur near the surface. Dug wells are more successful than 

drilled wells, because they intersect a larger number of joints. No 

deep wells obtain water from this formation. As the water comes 

from the immediate vicinity of the well and receives practically no 

purification, great care should be exercised to guard the wells fron 

pollution.

Springs are numerous in the Eden shale, but none of them are of 

large volume and few can withstand the effect of drought. Some 

exceptionally good springs were observed in the sandstones of Garrarl 

County.

The water of the shaly phase of the Eden contains only a small 

amount of mineral matter and is moderately hard, but where limestone beds occur the mineral content of the water is increased and the 

hardness may be equal to that of the shallow limestone waters. 

Much of the water of the sandy phase of the Eden is nearly free from
SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN THE BLUE GBASS BEGION. 51

mineral matter and is called "soft/' but the presence of lime in the 

sandstone may cause it to yield hard water.

WATER IN THE MAYSVILLE AND RICHMOND FORMATIONS.

The outcrops of the Maysville and Richmond formations have a 

gently rolling surface over considerable areas, and the topography 

thus favors the retention of residual soils and the absorption of large 

quantities of water. The soils are somewhat porous where they are 

derived from the limestone layers of the formations, but are dense 

where they result from the disintegration of the shales, and they 

therefore have lower storage capacity for water than the soils of most 

limestone areas.

Underground water occurs in the Maysville formation essentially 

as in interbedded limestones and shales. The more shaly parts of 

the formation present conditions much like those in shale; where the 

formation contains heavy beds of limestone which are near the surface, 

the underground water conditions resemble those in limestones. 

Thus, although certain parts of the Maysville contain but little more 

water than the Eden shale, there are other parts in which small 

caverns are found, and these parts supply considerable water. The 

presence of the caverns is usually indicated by a number of small 

sinks, which are especially noticeable near Burlington, in Boone 

County, although they may also be found in many other parts of the 

area. Locally, these heavy beds of limestones are capped by several 

feet of shale, and where this occurs the limestones receive very little 

water. Such conditions obtain in the vicinity of Richmond, Madison 

County.

Water conditions in the Richmond formation are much like those 

in the Maysville, but as at many places the Richmond carries much 

shale the amount of its underground water is locally small. The 

heavy beds of limestone in the upper part of the Richmond afford 

conditions favorable for the formation of caverns, and numerous sinks 

and springs indicate the presence of large underground channels. 

This phase of the Richmond formation is practically restricted to 

western Trimble and Oldham counties.

Drilled wells in the Maysville and Richmond formations have been 

remarkably successful in some localities, a well in the vicinity of 

Flemingsburg, Fleming County, affording a conspicuous example. 

In general, however, there is small chance of obtaining enough water 

for a farm from drilled wells in either of these formations. It is 

seldom advisable to sink a well more than 50 feet, and 100 feet should 

be the maximum, because in the interlaminated limestones and shales 

of the two formations the number and size of the openings decrease 

rapidly with increasing depth. Almost everywhere the water that
52 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS EEGION, KENTUCKY.

comes from them from a depth more than a few feet below the bottoms of the neighboring creeks is likely to contain both salt and 

sulphur in moderate quantities.

Dug wells in the Maysville and Richmond formations usually procure sufficient water for a farm at depths ranging from 10 to 35 feet, 

the most common depths being 20 to 35 feet. Most of these wells 

are affected by the weather and many of them fail during a protracted drought.

Springs are numerous in both formations, but few of them are 

large. Many of the springs are perennial, and during a dry season 

maintain sufficient volume to furnish water for several families.

Water obtained from these formations above the level of the surface drainage is hard; that obtained below the level of the surface 

drainage is, as a rule, mineralized. Where the water emerges in some 

surface stream near the point where it enters the ground the underground circulation is so short that only a moderate quantity of 

mineral matter is dissolved. Where the dip of the rocks carries the 

water below the level of the neighboring surface stream the prolonged underground course allows the water to become highly charged 

with mineral matter, and if the rocks contain much organic matter 

such water will usually contain hydrogen sulphide, produced by the 

decomposition of the organic matter. The presence of hydrogen 

sulphide and large percentages of mineral matter in the water of wells 

that draw their supplies from depths below the levels of the surface 

drainage is thus explained. After water has been drawn from such 

wells for a considerable time the underground circulation may become 

more rapid and the amount of mineral matter and hydrogen sulphide 

may be lessened. The same result is brought about by the gradual 

removal of the amount of available mineral and organic matter along 

the underground channel. These highly mineralized waters have 

sometimes been regarded as residual sea water, but this theory is 

probably incorrect. In some places the Richmond formation contains magnesian limestones, and the water obtained from this phase 

of the rock contains considerably more magnesia than is usually 

present in hard waters.

WATER IN THE PANOLA FORMATION.

The limestones and shales of the Panola formation, as a rule, occupy 

areas of low relief, but in some localities they have been rather deeply 

dissected. The soils derived from the limestones are generally 

sufficiently porous to absorb considerable water, but those from the 

shales are commonly quite dense. Both topography and soils favor 

the occurrence of considerable underground water.

The limestones of the Panola are the principal water-bearing rocks. 

In some places, as in Fleming County, these rocks consist in part of
SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN THE BLUE GRASS REGION. 53

single beds of limestone alternating with beds of shale; but in other 

places, as in Clark, Madison, Oldham, and Trimble counties, the 

beds of limestone have an aggregate thickness of several feet. Even 

where the limestone beds are thin they generally yield considerable 

water. Where the limestone beds are thick the movement of the 

underground water is essentially the same as in the Lexington and 

Highbridge limestones. A few caverns have been reported in this 

formation, but they do not appear to be very numerous. One of the 

most interesting of these caverns is on Jeptha Knob, in Oldham 

County.

The shales of the Panola are locally traversed by numerous small 

joints that permit the entrance of considerable water; hence many 

shallow wells are successful and small springs are numerous.

Wells dug in the limestones of the Panola usually yield ample 

supplies of water for household or farm use. Drilled wells have also 

been successful, especially on the west side of the Jessamine dome 

in Oldham and Jefferson counties. The water is almost invariably 

encountered in the crevices of the limestone at its junction with the 

underlying shale.

The limestones of the Panola are highly magnesian, and the water 

which they contain is charged with magnesium in addition to the 

calcium and other salts that all limestone waters carry. Sulphur 

and salt are entirely lacking in these limestone waters, but zinc has 

been noted. The character of the water is shown by the' analyses 

of the Anita Spring water and the water of the Royal Magnesian 

Spring.

The water from the shales of the Panola usually contains a large 

amount of mineral matter, especially Epsom salts and other sulphates. These waters are not extensively used within the area 

covered by this report, though there is a resort at Kiddville where 

an Epsom well obtains its water from this formation. At Crab 

Orchard, outside the area, the Epsom water has been used in the 

manufacture of Epsom salts, which have had an extensive sale. 

The mineral matter in these waters is believed to have been derived 

in part from the Ohio shale which lies above the limestones.

WATER IN THE OHIO SHALE.

In the Ohio shale water occurs chiefly in the joints, which are 

especially numerous near the surface and usually afford openings a 

fraction of an inch wide. The width of the joints diminishes downward, but they have been known to supply water at a depth slightly 

exceeding 50 feet. The bedding planes probably supply no water, 

except near the surface.

The soil of the Ohio shale is in most places sufficiently porous to 

allow considerable water to enter the underlying rock. Where the
54 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

formation occupies flat or moderately rolling areas it generally 

receives much of the water which is absorbed by the soil; where the 

surface is steep very little water enters the rock. On the mountain 

sides, however, where the sandstones of the Waverly shale overlie 

the Ohio, some of the water that comes from these sandstones enters 

the joints of the shale in its passage down the slope.

Wells in the Ohio shale are uniformly successful, the supplies of 

water being obtained at depths less than 50 feet. Where the formation is exposed many drilled wells have obtained sufficient water for 

the use of one or more families. Springs are numerous and some of 

them have been utilized as health resorts.

The water derived from the Ohio shale is highly mineralized, 

sulphur, alum, and chalybeate waters being especially characteristic 

types. Springs of Epsom and salt waters also occur.

WATER IN THE WAVERLY SHALE.

The shaly layers of the Waverly shale, which occupy the almost 

perpendicular sides of the mountains, furnish practically no water; 

but numerous springs of soft water that occur on the mountain side 

derive their supplies from the sandstone layers and shallow wells in 

the areas where the sandstones are exposed at the surface yield an 

abundance of water, although the rock is, as a rule, rather firmly 

cemented.

WATER IN THE ALLUVIUM.

Water occurs in the alluvium as in sands and gravels. The deposit 

is in most places sufficiently coarse to yield an abundance of water, 

but at one locality in northern Boone County the water-bearing sands 

are so fine that it is practically impossible to keep them from clogging 

the pumps.

The water in the alluvium is derived in part directly from rainfall 

and in part from springs and surface streams, although the rainfall 

probably furnishes the greater part. Each surface stream which 

emerges from the upland contributes to the water supply of the alluvium, unless its channel is lined with clay, which prevents the escape 

of the water, and some of the smaller streams lose a large part of 

their water in this way. Springs which emerge from the upland 

formations, either above or below the surface of the alluvium, also 

contribute to its water supply.

Under normal conditions the water table (see p. 39) of the alluvium slopes toward the main stream, and the water moves toward 

the stream to emerge in springs and in seeps along the channel. When 

the river rises the slope of the water table near its channel may be 

reversed, and the movement of the water may be from the river into the 

alluvium. This reversal of the normal movement is only temporary,
SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN THE BLUE GRASS KEGION. 55

as the supply of water which the alluvium receives from the rainfall 

and from other sources soon raises the water table and reestablishes 

its normal slope toward the river. When a well near the river bank 

is pumped rapidly the slope of the water surface between the well 

and the river may be reversed so that the well draws some water 

from, the river. This reversal of the slope of the water surface is 

due to the formation of a cone-shaped depression of the water table 

in the vicinity of the well. After the pumping ceases the water 

table rises and the ground water resumes its normal movement 

toward the river. The effect of the entrance of river water into 

the gravel along Ohio River has been noted at several points. Its 

presence may usually be detected in analyses by the small amount 

of mineral matter obtained in water near the river. The difference 

is shown by 'the analyses of the water from the wells of the Augusta 

steam laundry and the Augusta electric-light plant (p. 212). The 

steam laundry well is within about 10 rods of the river, and the well 

of the electric-light plant is several blocks distant. The difference 

is also illustrated by the behavior of the water in steam boilers. 

The water from the laundry well causes no scale, but the water from 

the well of the electric-light plant produces a large amount of scale, 

even after it has been passed through a heater which removes much 

of the mineral matter.

The quality of water in the alluvium varies greatly in different 

localities, and it may be expected to vary at any point as the conditions which govern the source of supply at that point change. 

The water that falls upon the alluvium percolates downward through 

the sand and gravel, dissolving lime and other materials which make 

it slightly hard. Water that is derived from the upland streams 

enters the gravel bearing whatever materials it has in solution. In 

the Blue Grass region the streams flow over formations that contain 

much limestone, and the water naturally carries a considerable 

amount of material dissolved from these calcareous rocks. The 

springs emerging from the formations through which the river valley 

is excavated contribute water carrying mineral matter that has been 

dissolved from these formations, and springs from different formations or even from different parts of the same formation may yield 

water differing greatly in quality. An example of the effect of spring 

water on the composition of the ground water of the alluvium was 

noted at South Ripley. At this locality Ohio River has cut nearly to 

the base of the Eden shale, and this formation or the underlying 

Winchester limestone probably supplies the salt water which gives 

the ground water in the alluvium at South Ripley a brackish taste.
56 WATEES OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY. 

AMOUNT OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 

MODIFYING FACTORS.

RAINFALL.

The amount of underground water is influenced by several important factors, among which may be mentioned the quantity and 

character of the rainfall, the nature of the topography, the presence 

or absence of vegetation, and the character, condition, and thickness 

of the residual soil mantle.

Adequate rainfall is essential to abundance of ground water, but 

even when the rainfall is heavy the amount of water that enters the 

ground is greatly influenced by the rate of precipitation. Obviously, 

the conditions most favorable for absorption of water by the ground 

are slow precipitation and high temperature. The slow precipitation 

permits the water to enter the ground, and the high temperature 

facilitates its downward percolation. With decrease in temperature 

or increase in the rate of precipitation the percentage of rainfall that 

is absorbed is decreased and'the amount of run-off is increased. If 

the precipitation takes the form of snow and falls upon a warm earth, 

its gradual melting may afford especially favorable conditions for 

the absorption of water; when the snow melts rapidly the amount of 

wT ater that is absorbed is usually small.

The annual rainfall in the Blue Grass region varies from 40 to 50 

inches, the precipitation being greatest in the southwestern part of 

the region and diminishing gradually toward the northeast corner 

of the State. A map prepared by Alfred J. Henry a shows an annual 

precipitation of 45 to 50 inches in the southern part of the area and 

of 40 to 45 inches in the northern part. The line on the map (fig. 4) 

separating these two belts of unequal rainfall crosses the counties 

bordering Ohio River in a northeastward direction until it reaches 

the latitude of Frankfort, and then bears eastward, passing north of 

Frankfort, to the east side of Licking River, where it turns to the 

southeast and extends beyond the southern boundary of the region. 

Lexington and Cincinnati, with mean annual rainfall of 44.38 and 

39.87 inches, respectively, typify the conditions prevalent throughout the greater part of these two divisions. These figures represent 

the average rainfall as deduced from observations carried on over a 

number of years, but the actual precipitation for a single year may 

vary widely from the mean. An inspection of the following table 

(No. 4) shows that in the ten years from 1897 to 1906 the departure 

from the normal has exceeded 10 inches five times at Lexington and 

three times at Cincinnati. The maximum departure from the normal 

for any part of the area was 20.62 inches at Cincinnati in 1901. The

a Chart 12, U. S. Weather Bureau.
AMOUNT OP UNDERGROUND WATER. 57

maximum departure at Lexington was 16.66 inches in 1904. Both 

of these departures were below the normal and mark periods of drought 

in their respective sections. The rainfall for the two years of drought

FIGURE 4. Map showing average rainfall in eastern part of United States, in inches.

and for the two intervening years is given in Table 5. These droughts 

were not the result of the annual variation from the normal, but 

were caused by the continuation of a period of marked deficiency in
58 WATEES OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

rainfall through three or four consecutive months. The drought of 

1901, according to the figures given in Table 5, was most severe 

locally, but did not cover so wide an area as that of 1904. It was 

confined to a narrow strip along Ohio River and lasted from August 

to November. The drought of 1904 extended over much of the 

upland and was most marked in the last part of November and early 

part of December. It began as early as August in some parts of the 

area, and October was the driest month ever recorded in the region.

TABLE 4. Annual precipitation, in inches, and departure from the normal for four 

stations of the United States Weather Bureau, 1896-1906.

Year.

1896..................

4897..................

1898..................

1899..................

1900..................

1901..................

1902..................

1903..................

1904..................

1905..................

1906..................

Lexington.

Rainfall.

43.29 

49.19 

59.41 

40.24 

33. 67 

30.31 

36.10 

30.70 

28.72 

44.17 

42.59

Departure from 

normal.

- 1.67 

+ 2.30 

+14. 67 

- 2.76 

-10.58 

-13.29 

- 8.28 

-13.68 

-16.66 

- 0.21 

- 1.79

Cincinnati.

Rainfall.

34.48 

43.89 

38.97 

34.69 

27.79 

17.99 

37.30 

34.69 

29.54 

38.69 

40.83

Departure from 

normal.

+ 4.00 

- 0.90 

 4.94 

-11.20 

-20.62 

- 2.57 

- 5.15 

-10. 33 

- 1.18 

+ 0.96

Frankfort.

Rainfall.

46.73

42.88

36.38

43.01 

38.42 

32.55 

46.91 

52.39

Departure from 

normal.

- 2.40

- 7.01

+ 1.38 

- 3.71 

-10. 65 

+ 5.84 

+ 11.32

Shelbyville.

Rainfall.

46.54 

48.58 

52.73 

41.14 

48.23 

34.78 

38.35 

38.46 

32.18

51.64

Departure from 

normal.

- 0.15 

+ 3.00 

+ 7.84 

- 3.73 

+ 2.12 

-10.42 

- 6.12 

- 5.84 

-11.54

+ 7.35

TABLE 5. Monthly precipitation, in inches, and departure from the normal at Lexington 

and Cincinnati, from 1901 to 1905.

[Compiled from the reports of the U. S. Weather Bureau.]

Year.

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905

Station.

Lexington...... ...

January.

a _o"8

'S

1PH

0.87 

1.49 

2.10 

4.77 

2.05 

1.68 

2.66 

1.92 

1.80 

2.04

1s>"&

IS5 3 S & 

& 

P

 2.15 

-2.16 

-1.36 

+0.95 

-1.41 

-2.14 

-0.80 

-2.90 

-1.66 

-1.78

February.

S

"(3

!&

£

1.35 

0.62 

0.38 

0.90 

5.76 

6.16 

2.66 

2.38 

1.76 

1.13

|

§|

11

& 

O

-2.17 

-2.73 

-3.31 

-2.80 

+2.09 

+2.46 

-1.03 

-1.32 

-1.93 

-2.57

March.

§ "8

!&

PH

2.01 

2.23 

1.47 

2.92 

4.97 

3.24 

8.17 

4.75 

2.46 

5.87

1.

ll

tS 0

ft fl 

0

-1.60 

-2.78 

-1.83 

-1.98 

+ 1.67 

-1.66 

+4.87 

-0.15 

-0.84 

+0.97

April.

§

 i

 4-S

ft

1

&

1.93 

4.52 

2.87 

1.27 

3.49 

3.29 

2.28 

3.08 

3.14 

2.87

I

§1 

£1 ft fl

ID

o

-0.95 

+ 1.14 

-0.33 

-2.45 

+0.29 

-0.43 

-0.92 

-0.64 

-0.06 

-0.85
AMOUNT OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 59

TABLE 5. Monthly precipitation, in inches, and departure from the normal at Lexington 

and Cincinnati, from 1901 to 1905 Continued.

Year. Station.

June. July. August.

1901

1902

1903

1904

1905

Cincinnati. 

Lexington. 

Cincinnati. 

Lexington. 

Cincinnati. 

Lexington. 

Cincinnati. 

Lexington. 

Cincinnati. 

Lexington.

1.62

2.66

5.54

2.43

3.83

1.75

3.70

2.60

9.52

5.54

-1.70

-1.15 

+2.13

-1.06 

+0.42

-1.74 

+0.29

-0.89 

+6.11 

+2.05

2.27

3.70

5.25

5.19

3.27

2.71

2.60

2.51

2.36

3.31

-1.69

-0.50 

+0.85 

+0.94

-1.13

-1.54

-1.80

-1.74

-2.04

-0.94

1.44

2.61

3.47

2.33

2.31

2.62

0.80

3.13

1.04

4.94

-2.05

-1.57 

+0.09

-2.77

-1.07

-2.48

-2.58

-1.97

-2.34

-0.16

0.88

3.74

0.65

1.89

2.75

1.49

0.41

2.44

4.66

4.11

-2.66

-0.35

-3.07

-1.63

-0.97

-2.03

-3.31

-1.08 

+0.94 

+0.59

Year. Station.

September. October. November. December. Total.

1901

1902

1903

1904

1905

Cincinnati. 

Lexington. 

Cincinnati. 

Lexington. 

Cincinnati. 

Lexington. 

Cincinnati. 

Lexington. 

Cincinnati. 

Lexington.

0.92

2.18

4.26

2.60

1.78

0.81

1.28

1.71

1.54

3.20

-1.43

-0.41 

+1.84 

+0.06

-0.64

-1.73

-1.14

-0.83

-0.88 

+0.66

0.59

1.33

2.77

2.11

1.31

2.12

0.89

0.57

4.85

3.45

-1.68

-0.78 

+0.33

-0.11

-1.13

-0.10

-1.55

-1.68 

+2.41 

+1.23

0.74

1.73

3.29

3.09

1.45

2.84

0.34

0.53

2.75

3.58

-2.59

-1.05

-0.01

-0.63

-1.85

-0.88

-2.96

-3.19

-0.55

-0.14

3.37

3.50

5.25

6.60

1.72

1.99

3.75

3.10

2.81

4.13

+0.41 

+0.40 

+2.10 

+3.20

-1.43

-1.41 

+0.60

-0.30

-0.34 

+0.73

17.99

30.31

37.30

36.10

34.69

30.70

29.54

28.72

38.69

44.17

-20. 62

-13.29

- 2.57

- 8.28

- 5.15

-13.68

-10.33

-16.66

- 1.18

- 0.21

Deficient precipitation lessens the quantity of water supplied by 

springs and shallow wells, but does not affect the supplies from deep 

wells. The effect of low rainfall is especially noticeable in the autumn 

months, when the precipitation is normally small. The time required 

for deficiency of rainfall to affect the amount of ground water varies 

with the quantity of water in the ground at the beginning of the 

drought, and the effect in different parts of the area varies with the 

nature of the materials in which the water is stored. In general, it 

may be said that a drought of two months usually causes a marked 

diminution in the amount of ground water; and if it continues for 

three or four months, the water supplies of the area are noticeably 

depleted.

When the amount of precipitation is much above the normal, the 

soil becomes saturated and the excess runs off over the surface. As 

the surface of the Blue Grass region is rolling, this excess moisture 

escapes readily.
60 WATERS OP BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

During the spring and summer months much of the rainfall comes 

in the form of thunder showers. As a rule, these add comparatively 

little to the underground water supply, because the rapid precipitation favors run-off rather than absorption. In some parts of the area, 

however, open sinks abound, and in these localities a considerable 

part of the water falling during thunderstorms may enter the underground channels directly. The frequency of thunderstorms in the 

Blue Grass region is shown by the fact that in the ten years from 

1895 to 1904 the Lexington station reported an average of 21 thundershowers for the three months from June 1 to August 31. Such 

storms also occur during other parts of the year, but less frequently.

TOPOGEAPHY.

Many investigators have assumed that, aside from its effect on the 

form of the water table, topography bears no relation to underground-water problems; but in reality the influence of topography on 

the amount of underground water is so marked that it is often possible to determine with considerable accuracy, from a study of the 

character of the surface of an area only, whether wells in a given 

locality are likely to have large or small yields.

A much greater amount of water is absorbed where the surface is 

level than where it is uneven, the level surface favoring absorption 

because the water flows off more slowly, and thus remains for a longer 

time in contact with the soil; a rolling surface favors rapid run-off. 

The influence of sink-hole topography 011 the quantity of ground 

water is especially noticeable, for while this topography is in itself 

an indication of the presence of underground streams, it also favors 

the absorption of large amounts of water.

The character of the topography also affects the thickness of the 

residual materials, for in many places on the rolling areas much of 

the decomposed rock has been removed by erosion, and wherever 

the thickness of the soil is reduced its storage capacity is lessened.

The permeability of soil depends largely upon its texture, a coarsegrained soil being, as a rule, much more permeable than a fine-grained. 

The capacity of the soil to retain moisture also depends upon its 

texture, the storage capacity of the finer soils being much larger than 

that of the coarser. The water which enters coarse sand passes 

through it rapidly, because of the large spaces between the grains; 

but that which is absorbed by clay is held by the capillary attraction 

of the small passages.

Although a coarse sand will readily absorb a large amount of water, 

it will retain only about 15 per cent of its volume; while a clay, which 

absorbs water more slowly, will retain more than 40 per cent.
AMOUNT OP UNDERGROUND WATER. 61

By referring to Table 3 (p. 36) it will be seen that the soils of the 

Blue Grass region are very fine grained and hence have a large capacity for storing moisture. Determinations made by King a of the 

per cent of pore space and the approximate effective diameter of 

soil particles are given in the following table:

TABLE 6. Approximate effective diameter of soil particles.

Type of soil.

Do...............................

Do...............................

Do...............................

Do...............................

Locality.

Oasis, Wis........

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

Depth of material.

6-12 inches........

Percentage 

of pore 

space.

38. S3

34.64

44.87

44. 15

29.96

Approximate 

effective diameter of soil 

grains.

Millimeter.

. 04777

fi99f¥\

01402

. 01111

.02619 05°3

These soils are not precisely the same as those of the Blue Grass 

region, but the table is valuable because it shows the porosity of 

loam, clay, and sandy soils. Actual measurements of the amount of 

water in the soils at Lexington and Greendale, Ky., were made by 

the United States Bureau of Soils. 6 These measurements include 

the surface soil to a depth of 12 inches and were made daily from 

May 18 to July 31, 1895. The maximum amount of water in the 

soils was found to be slightly more than 21 per cent of the total 

weight. The general range was about 13 to 21 per cent, and the 

lower limit was about 10 per cent. As these measurements were 

made at a time when frequent rains insured saturation of the soil, the 

maximum probably represents nearly the full water capacity of the 

soil.

The percentage by weight is only about one-half as great as the 

percentage by volume; hence, if reduced to percentage by volume, 

the maximum amount of moisture would be about 42 per cent and 

the range about 20 per cent. An examination of the table shows 

that the percentage of pore space diminishes in the subsurface materials, so that the average porosity of the residual materials at Lexington and Greendale is probably somewhat less than would be indicated by the table. The amount of reduction might bring the maximum as low as 35 to 40 per cent.

No measurements of the amount of water in other soils have been 

made, but assuming a porosity approximately the same as that for 

the soil types given in the table above, the clay would have a 

pore space of about 40 to 45 per cent of its volume and the sandy

" King, F. H., Nineteenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1897-98, pp. 213-214. 

6 Soils and soil moisture: U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulls. 1, 2, and 3, May, June, and July, 1895.
62 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

loam of about 30 to 35 per cent of its volume. As the silt loam has 

more silt and less clay than loam, its amount of pore space would 

probably be somewhat smaller than was found in the soils at Lexington and Greendale. The silt loam is of small extent and is underlain by gravelly loam or fine sand. Its porosity is probably slightly 

greater than that of the sandy loam.

From the above estimates of porosity it appears that even if the 

amount of water absorbed equaled only three-fourths of the total 

pore space, the residual deposits of the Blue Grass region would still 

hold a high percentage of moisture. The fact has an important bearing on the available water supply of the region, for the Ordovician 

limestones are too dense to yield water, and the water supplied to 

the shallow wells and springs during dry weather must be derived 

from the residual materials.

The residual materials in the Blue Grass region range in thickness 

from a few inches up to about 30 feet, the most common thickness 

being 3 to 5 feet and the average probably less than 6 feet. From 

this mantle of decomposed rock the transition to the solid rock below 

is rather abrupt. The importance of the residual material to the 

water supply does not depend upon its yielding water directly to 

wells, for this it does in but few places. Its real function is to store 

the rainfall and deliver it gradually to the underground channels. 

If the rocks of the Blue Grass region were laid bare the water from 

each rainfall would either enter the cracks at once or flow off over 

the surface at a rate determined by the slope, and in a comparatively 

short time all the water would have escaped, leaving the surface dry 

except where small pools were formed in depressions. Under such 

conditions springs would flow only a short time after each rain, 

because the rocks of the Ordovician formations have little or no 

storage capacity for moisture. The capacity of the residual soil to 

absorb moisture has already been mentioned. The small thickness 

of the residual mantle, however, prevents the storage of large quantities of water. As the porosity and thickness of the soil vary with 

the character of the rock from which it is derived, the water capacity 

of .the soils of the different formations or of different parts of the 

same formation varies widely.

AMOUNT OF WATER IN THE EARTH'S CRUST.

Several attempts have been made to estimate the total amount of 

water in the earth's crust, but none of the results are universally 

accepted. To reach a conclusion it is necessary to estimate the 

average thickness of the various kinds of rock which compose the 

outer 6 miles of the earth and to compute the average amount of 

water contained in each kind of rock. The results obtained can not
ARTESIAN WATEE. 63

be applied to any particular region, for they represent only the average condition for the whole earth, and as the results are not locally 

applicable their practical value is small.

The discussion has had, however, a practical bearing, in that it has 

called attention to the erroneous belief that an abundance of water 

can be obtained anywhere by drilling deep enough. In many places 

it has been found that the amount of water diminishes with increase 

of depth, and probably in nearly all places the amount of water below 

the first 2,000 or 3,000 feet is very small.

The quantitative estimates of the amount of water in the earth's 

crust vary from one-hundredth to one-half of the volume of the 

ocean. The smallest of these estimates was made by Fuller.0 This 

estimate may be stated in another way by saying that the onehundredth of the volume of the ocean means sufficient water to cover 

the entire surface of the earth to a depth of nearly 100 feet.

ARTESIAN WATER. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

The term " artesian " is derived from the name of a town in France, 

Artois, where the first important flowing wells were sunk. In this 

country the term has been used in so many different ways that it is 

often impossible to say just what particular kind of a well is meant. 

Some authors use artesian to designate only wells that flow; others 

apply it to any well in which the water is under hydrostatic pressure, 

so that it will rise above the level at which it is encountered; still 

others use the term to designate any deep well.

The desirability of securing uniformity of usage for the term 

"artesian" led Fuller to attempt to give it a precise meaning, and he 

proposed the following definitions: 6

The artesian principle (which may be considered as identical with 

what is often known as the hydrostatic principle) is the principle in 

virtue of which water confined in the materials of the earth's crust 

tends to rise to the level of the water surface at the highest point 

from which pressure is transmitted. Gas as an agent in causing the 

water to rise is expressly excluded from the definition.

Artesian pressure is the pressure exhibited by water confined in the 

earth's crust at a level lower than its static head.

Artesian water is that portion of the underground water which is 

under artesian pressure and will rise if encountered by a well or other 

passage affording an outlet.

a Fuller, M. L., Total amount of free water in the earth's crust: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Qeol. Survey 

No. 160, 1906, pp. 59-72. *

b Fuller, M. L., The significance of the term "artesian:" Water-Supply Paper 11, S. Qeol, Survey No 

160, 1906, pp. 14-15,
64 WATEES OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

An artesian system is any combination of geologic structures 

such as basins, planes, joints, faults in which waters are confined 

under artesian pressure.

An artesian basin is a basin of porous bedded rock in which, as a 

result of synclinal structure, the water is confined under artesian 

pressure.

An artesian slope is a monoclinal slope of bedded rocks in which 

water is confined beneath relatively impervious covers owing to the 

obstruction of its downward passage by the pinching out of the porous 

beds, by their change from a pervious to an impervious character, 

by internal friction, or by dikes or other obstructions.

An artesian area is an area underlain by water under artesian 

pressure.

An artesian well is any well in which the water, when encountered, 

rises under artesian pressure.

The conditions commonly producing artesian wells are:

1. A porous bed or an open plane or channel to permit the entrance 

and passage of water.

2. An impervious cap to prevent the upward escape of the water.

3. An inclination of the water-bearing bed or passage.

4. A suitable exposure of the water-bearing beds or passages above 

the level of the surface at the well to permit the entrance of water.

5. An adequate rainfall to furnish the water.

6. An absence of openings which will permit the ready escape of 

water at a level below the well.

It was formerly believed that an impervious bed below the waterbearing horizon was an essential condition, but such a bed is not 

everywhere necessary because the rocks below may be saturated with 

water. Under certain conditions, also, the impervious bed above 

the water horizon may be dispensed with, for the interlocking grains 

in the layer of sands above the water may offer more resistance to 

its upward movement than is offered by the well. Even a porous 

bed may not be necessary to furnish artesian conditions, for artesian 

wells may be obtained where the water is in joints, solution channels, 

bedding planes, or other open passages. The inclination of the 

water-bearing beds may not everywhere be necessary, for the pressure 

may be supplied by the entrance of the water at a level above that at 

which it is encountered and by its downward passage through joints 

or other openings which cross the beds.

ARTESIAN WELLS IN THE BLUE GRASS REGION.

Flowing wells are not common in the Blue Grass region, but artesian wells wells in which the water is under artesian pressure 

are found in many parts of the area. The wells which encounter the
ARTESIAN WELLS IN THE BLUE GRASS REGION. 65

mineral water of the limestones are practically all artesian, and in a 

few localities where the wells are located in stream valleys the mineral water rises above the surface. Flowing wells of this class are 

found near Lexington, in Fayette County, near Harrodsburg, in 

Mercer County, and near Smitsonville, in Harrison County. The 

amount of water yielded by all these wells is small and the water is 

highly mineralized, being sulphureted and often brackish. The 

pressure of the escaping hydrogen sulphide gas in these waters may 

aid in producing the flow, the gas acting in the same manner as air 

which is forced into a well when an air-lift pump is used, but it is 

improbable that the gas pressure is sufficient to appreciably affect the 

height to which the water will rise. It is probable that the water in 

these wells does not enter at the outcrop of the beds under which it is 

moving, but finds its way in at various points along the underground 

streams through joints which reach the surface. The high mineral 

content of the water indicates that it has had a long underground 

course.

The shallow water in the limestone areas may be under artesian pressure wherever the underground channels are partly or wholly obstructed below the well, and if the water enters at a point higher than 

the surface at the well a flow may be obtained. No flows of this kind 

have been observed in the region.

The region is without large synclinal folds, and therefore contains no 

artesian basins. The flowing wells in the valleys of the large streams 

appear to belong to a structure intermediate between an artesian 

slope and an artesian basin. The rock in which this water occurs 

the St. Peter sandstone has been called both a sandstone and a 

siliceous limestone. It appears probable that some layers of this rock 

are very sandy while others are highly calcareous, but as the formation is known in this region only from well records its character is not 

?asy to determine. It transmits water with a facility that suggests 

ihat it is either an open sandstone or a very porous limestone.

The effective head of the water in the St. Peter is 580 feet above 

sea level at the Murray well in Frankfort and 590 feet in the valley of 

")hio River near Cincinnati. Flowing wells that reach this formation 

ire located at Covington, Newport, Latonia, Frankfort, Boston, and the 

~)ld Crow distillery near the Woodford-Franklin County line. Flowng wells may be obtained in any part of the Ohio River channel where 

t borders the Blue Grass region and in the valleys of the principal 

ributaries of the Ohio where they have cut Jbelow about 590 feet above 

ea level. The flowing-well area would therefore include practically 

dl of the gorge of Kentucky River within the Blue Grass region and 

he channel of Licking River for some distance above Falmouth, as 

yell as the lower parts of some of the smaller valleys tributary to 

88942 IRR 233-09 5
66 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

these streams. Flowing wells may also be obtained in the lower parts 

of the small valleys tributary to Ohio River.

The quality of the water from the St. Peter, which is shown by 

analysis No. 11, page 212, unfits it for domestic or industrial uses.

The water has been used for cooling in distilleries, but it has been 

found to corrode the condensing pipes very rapidly, and their frequent 

renewal is necessary. It is highly esteemed as a medicinal water and 

has proved valuable where a strong salt-sulphur water is required. 

It is also a valuable water for stock. The well at Boston is located 

in a pasture where ordinary spring water is abundant, but the stock 

will, it is reported, drink only the salt-sulphur water. The water 

from the well at Frankfort has been used for drinking. Wells should 

not be located near dwellings, for the hydrogen sulphide has a very 

disagreeable odor and is injurious if breathed for any considerable 

period. It has also an injurious effect on metal and on varnished 01 

painted woodwork. A well located at the Hemingray glass factory 

in Covington was plugged because the residents of the neighborhood 

objected to having their furniture and silverware damaged by the 

sulphurous gas.

The source of the pressure which causes the water of the St. Pete] 

to flow is not definitely known. It has been suggested that the wate] 

enters from the upland and passes downward through joints and othei 

open passages into the sandstone, but many facts render this explanation highly unlikely. The hypothesis that the Jessamine dome o: 

central Kentucky might be the source of the pressure is also inade 

quate, as the mouths of the flowing wells are from 200 to 300 feel 

above the top of the St. Peter in the apex of the dome. A third and 

according to present knowledge, the most reasonable explanation ii 

that the water enters the sandstone in southern Wisconsin and north 

ern Illinois and that the pressure is transmitted from those areas.

It has been rather generally supposed that the water of the St. Pete 

is sea water, which was stored in the rocks at the time of their depo 

sition. Adherents of this theory explain the fact that the St. Pete 

water is less saline than sea water by assuming that the percentage o 

salt has been decreased by the addition of surface waters. Althougl 

this theory has certain points in its favor, it is believed that the lonj 

underground journey of the water through rocks more or less cal 

careous is quite sufficient to explain its present qualities.

RECOVERY OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 

NATURAL RECOVERY.

Much of the water that sinks into the earth returns to the surfac 

under the influence of gravity, capillarity, and by the action of plants 

Sometimes one of these forces acts alone, but more often two of ther
RECOVEEY OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 67

are combined, and under some conditions one of the forces may 

oppose another. Capillary action, though usually not apparent, k 

very important, because it brings much water to the surface, where 

it is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation, or within the reach 

of the roots of plants, where it is absorbed. The water taken from 

the soil by plants is built into their tissues or evaporated through 

their leaves. This last process is usually called transpiration. Here 

gravity acts against the upward movement of the water caused by 

capillarity. Gravity combines with capillarity to bring the water to 

the surface at the foot of a slope. Capillary action causes the water 

to move more rapidly through the pores of the unconsolidated materials where the movement is downward under the influence of gravitation, the relative importance of gravitation and capillarity depending 

entirely on the size of the pores through which the water moves. If 

these pores are small, gravitation is much less important than capillary 

action; if they are large, gravitation is the principal cause of the 

movement of the water. Where water comes to the surface through 

open crevices or caverns, the movement is due wholly to gravity, but 

the weight of a column of water in the crevice or channel may cause 

the water to move upward in some parts of its course.

The water which is brought to the surface under the influence oi 

capillarity alone is distributed over such a large area that it is rapidly 

absorbed by the atmosphere. That which is taken up by plants is 

given to the atmosphere either directly by transpiration or by evaporation when the plant decays. These processes go on so gradually 

that most of the water which is removed by them passes off as 

vapor. This fact has usually caused the influence of plants and 

capillarity on the amount of underground water to be disregarded, 

but in many regions the amount which is removed by these agencies 

probably equals 40 to 50 per cent of all the water absorbed by the 

soil.

Water which comes to the surface under the influence of gravity or 

the combined influence of gravity and capillarity emerges either in 

the form of springs or seeps.

Seepage is supplied by water from the pores of the rock and not 

from definite channels. It occurs wherever the level of the water 

table (p. 39) rises above the surface, as along the margins of streams, 

or where the surface and underground drainage is defective. The 

seepage which occurs along the margin of the streams forms but a 

small part of the whole, for the water also enters the channels of the 

streams below the water level. In the Blue Grass region water may 

be seen seeping from the rocks along the banks of the Ohio and other 

streams or in the depressions where the surface is comparatively 

level and the underlying rock is impervious. Many seeps on the upland
68 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

are utilized for stock and sometimes for domestic purposes by digging 

a hole in which the water may collect.

The water which emerges at any point in sufficient volume to form 

a stream is called a spring. Springs are formed by water coming 

from underground streams or by the concentration of percolating 

water at one point. It is difficult to distinguish sharply between 

seeps and springs supplied by percolating water, for with variations 

in the amount of ground water the springs may diminish in volume 

until they become mere seeps, or the seepage may increase in volume 

until springs are formed. In such cases the name "intermittent 

spring" has been used, but this term is also applied to certain springs 

formed by underground streams.

In the Blue Grass region springs form a very important source of 

water for domestic and industrial uses, but they are especially important as sources of water for stock. They occur in all parts of the 

region and in all the geological formations, but large springs are 

numerous only in the Lexington and Highbridge limestones.

A hole excavated about a spring or seep is commonly called a pool. 

Pools are usually walled with rock or cement and serve as reservoirs 

for storing ground water. Some of the pools in the Blue Grass region 

are 10 feet or more in depth. On one side an opening is left through 

which the animals may enter the water, and the floor of the pool is 

made to slope from the entrance so that the animals may reach the 

water as its surface recedes during dry weather.

ARTIFICIAL RECOVERY.

The artificial recovery of underground water is accomplished by 

means of wells, which may be classified as dug, driven, bored, and 

drilled.

Wells excavated by pick and shovel or by blasting and removing 

solid rock are called "dug wells." A well of this type is especially 

adapted to rock formations whose water supply is scanty or is unevenly distributed, for it furnishes a large surface for the entrance of 

water and a correspondingly large storage capacity. Dug wells are 

easily constructed in materials which are sufficiently compact to 

prevent caving of the sides; in looser materials some sort of wall 

must be provided. In solid rock the work of excavation is greatly 

increased by the necessity for blasting. In the Ohio Valley the early 

wells were dug, some of them to a depth of 50 or 60 feet or even 

more. On the uplands most of the dug wells are 20 to 30 feet deep, 

though many are less than 20 feet and a few exceed 30 feet. A few 

wells were dug and blasted to a depth of 100 feet. Dug wells are
EEOOVERY OF UNDEEGEOUND WATEE. 69

especially liable to pollution because it is difficult to entirely exclude 

impure surface water. The dug wells vary in diameter from 3 to 5 

feet, but in some localities, where a large storage capacity is desired, 

some of the dug wells are 25 to 30 feet in diameter.

Many driven wells have been sunk in the sands and gravels along 

Ohio River, and a few have been sunk in similar materials in the 

gorge of Kentucky River. Such wells are adapted only to unconsolidated sands and gravels, and hence there are none on the uplands.

Bored wells are excavated with an auger and, like driven wells, are 

adapted only to loose materials. A few bored wells have been sunk 

in the gravels along Ohio River. As the well is deepened an iron 

pipe the size of the hole is driven into the bore to prevent the walls 

from caving. In some wells a strainer is placed in the lower end of 

the pipe; but in others the pipe is driven down to within 8 or 10 

feet of the bottom of the hole and the water enters through the sand 

or gravel below the end of the pipe. This method of sinking wells 

is slow, and unless the well is cased to the bottom the lower part of 

the bore is apt to fill in a very short time.

Drilled wells are put down by machinery of various sorts. In the 

Blue Grass region two types of machinery have been used. In the 

Ohio Valley at Covington a few wells have been sunk by means of a 

rotating pipe with loose steel shot at the cutting end. This method 

gives a core of rock nearly as large as the inside diameter of the pipe 

and thus enables the driller to judge the nature of the materials. On 

the up ands the churn drill is used. This drill depends for its effectiveness on the impact of a heavy steel bit which is raised and dropped 

in the liole. The drills are operated by horse power or by steam or 

gasoline engines. They are especially adapted to such rocks as are 

found in the region.

The Type known as the diamond drill, which uses diamonds set in 

the bontom of the pipe instead of the loose shot, is not used in the 

Blue Grass region.

In u:iconsolidated materials the jet process is often used. In this 

process a stream of water is forced into the hole to loosen and wash 

out the material. An iron casing is forced in as fast as the hole is 

excava

The cost of drilling wells in the Blue Grass region ranges from 50 

cents to $2 a foot, depending upon the diameter of the well and the 

of competition between drillers, the average being about $1 a 

Driven and bored wells also cost about $1 a foot, the range

amoun 

foot, 

being \ 

readily 

thirty i

rom 75 cents to $2.50. The cost of dug wells can not be 

ascertained, because few have been sunk within the last 

ears and most of the old ones were excavated by day laborers.
70 WATERS OP BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

WELL CASINGS.

Dug wells in unconsolidated materials are commonly walled with 

rock, which is rarely well cemented. Where the wells enter rock the 

casing is usually used above the rock, but in some places where the 

residual soil is thin no casing is used. The rock walls would be 

materially improved by cementing them firmly together and to the 

rock below, as this would exclude a large amount of surface water. 

In the Ohio River valley the wells which have been bored, driven, or 

drilled are all cased with iron pipe.

The drilled wells on the upland are also cased with iron pipe, which 

extends only to the solid rock. These wells might be rendered safer 

from pollution by taking greater precaution to make a water-tight 

joint between the casing and the rock. Where the soil is thin this 

oould be done by digging down to the rock and cementing the casing 

to it, but where the loose material is several feet thick it would be 

more convenient and economical to use rubber washers, such as are 

used in oil wells.

Certain wells might be improved by casing off supplies of polluted 

surface water from underground streams near the surface; and some 

of the deep wells which have encountered both fresh and brackish 

waters could be improved by plugging the well below the supply of 

fresh water. In a few wells where water escapes through cracks or 

crevices above the point where the supply was encountered the head 

would be increased by extending the casing below the opening through 

v,rhich the water escapes.

METHODS OP RAISING WATER.

All artificial recovery of underground water except that by flowing 

wells requires the use of some method of raising the water to the 

surface. In some dug wells a bucket is used, the water being drawn 

up by a rope attached to a windlass. Rarely an old-fashioned well 

sweep is employed, or the bucket may be raised from the well by 

band without the use of any apparatus.

Chain or valve pumps are used in many wells. The chain pump 

is held in high favor because a great part of the water which it raises 

falls back into the well and thus affords a certain amount of aeration 

for the water.

In the drilled, driven, and bored wells force pumps are commonly 

used. Hand power is the most usual method of pumping, but windmills or engines are used where large supplies are required. Windmills have not everywhere proved satisfactory, especially on the large 

stock farms, and many of them are being replaced by gasoline engines. 

Steam engines are used to pump water for industrial plants where a 

constant supply is needed. A few hot-air engines are also used for
COLLECTION AND STORAGE OF RAIN WATER. 71

raising water in the Blue Grass region, and under certain favorable 

conditions "air lifts" have been installed.

COLLECTION AND STORAGE OF RAIN WATER.

CISTERNS.

Rain water is collected and stored in cisterns, ponds, and reservoirs. Where a small amount of water is needed it is usually collected from roofs and stored in cisterns. This method of procuring 

water for domestic use prevails throughout the upland areas of the 

Blue Grass region, and as cistern water is comparatively free from 

mineral matter it is usually considered more desirable than underground water.

Cisterns are ordinarily excavated to a depth of 10 to 20 feet, and 

where the materials are unconsolidated the cisterns are walled. In 

some parts of the Blue Grass region the wall is made of brick laid 

in cement, but the wall material most commonly used is stone. A 

stone wall, however, is satisfactory only where great care is taken to 

secure a perfect joint. Cisterns in rock are not walled, but the 

cement is applied to the rock, and if the rock contains water-bearing 

crevices the cement wall is apt to be too weak to withstand the hydrostatic pressure of the water outside the cistern. Under such circumstances the cistern should be walled just as if it were in unconsolidated materials. In some cisterns where the rock is exceptionally 

solid no cement is used, but the omission of the cement is hardly safe, 

because practically all rock admits some ground water into the 

cistern or allows some of the rain water to escape. Moreover, the 

rain water which is stored in uncemented cisterns gradually dissolves mineral matter from the rock and becomes hard.

Rain water collected after roofs and spouts have been thoroughly 

washed is practically free from inorganic matter. The desired washing is usually accomplished by allowing the first water which falls to 

escape through a waste valve. After the roof and pipes have been 

cleansed the waste valve is closed and the water is allowed to enter 

the cistern. This method is inconvenient, especially if the rainfall 

comes in the night, but it is desirable if the cistern water is to be 

kept pure and wholesome. During dry weather objectionable 

material of various sorts, such as dust that may contain germs of 

dangerous disease, leaves, or twigs, lodges on the roof or in the eaves 

troughs. Eaves troughs especially need constant attention, for 

they are frequently the nesting places of birds. Roofs should be 

kept painted to prevent the growth of moss and the accumulation 

of filth in the cracks.

Small filters are much used to purify the water before it enters the 

sistern, but their efficiency has frequently been overestimated.
72 WATERS OF BLUE GKASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

Filters such as those here described may be used to remove some of 

the suspended matter which may have been derived from unclean 

roofs or water spouts, but they can not be depended upon to free the 

water.from the organic matter which is apt to cause disease. The 

filter in most common use consists of a tin cylinder, 2 to 3 feet high 

and 18 to 24 inches in diameter, partly filled with alternating layers 

of charcoal and sand or with charcoal alone. Above this material 

is a screen which catches the leaves and fragments of wood that may 

be washed from the roof. Filters of this type are valuable only when 

they are kept clean and the filtering materials are renewed frequently. A filter of another type is excavated in the ground and 

walled like a cistern. The filter is made large enough to hold the 

water from a single storm and is connected with the cistern by a passage placed some distance above the bottom of the filter. The sediment collects below the level of the connecting passage and may be 

removed through a manhole at the top of the filter chamber. The 

filtering materials are so arranged that all the water entering the 

cistern must pass through them. Like the materials used in other 

filters they should be frequently renewed or they will become filled 

with foreign matter and their efficiency will be reduced. These 

large filters are more expensive than the others, but when properly 

constructed and cared for they are much more effective.

RESERVOIRS.

Reservoirs built to impound surface waters are numerous throughout the upland areas of the Blue Grass region. These reservoirs 

furnish water of good quality, both for city supplies and for farm use, 

As a rule the water is not highly mineralized, but it is likely to be turbid, especially where the catchment area is cultivated. In selecting a 

site for a reservoir it is best to choose some place where the area of the 

water surface will be reduced to a minimum, as the smaller the area 

the smaller the loss by evaporation. The best location is in a comparatively narrow valley with a steep gradient, which will permit 

the construction of a deep and narrow reservoir. In some such 

places, however, the rock beneath the selected site is found to be so 

badly fissured that it would be impossible to prevent leakage. 

Under such conditions another location must be sought. In the 

country districts these artificial reservoirs, or ponds form a very 

important source of water for stock.

For city supplies it is often necessary to build more than one 

reservoir, and such reservoirs may be arranged o-ne above another 

on the same stream. This arrangement has three distinct advantages : It allows the collection of a supply of water during wet weather 

amply sufficient to last through a drought; in its passage from one 

reservoir to another the water receives some aeration; and the upper
SOURCES OP MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY. 73

reservoir catches most of the sediment and thus lowers the turbidity 

of the water at the point of intake in the lower reservoir.

MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY.

In the Blue Grass region both underground and surface waters are 

used for city supplies. The surface water is taken from rivers or 

small streams. The underground water is taken from streams in 

limestone, the supplies being obtained from wells which penetrate 

the channel of the stream or from springs at the point where the 

underground water reaches the surface.

SURFACE WATER.

The important sources of surface water for the region are Ohio 

River and its principal tributaries, or the small streams that enter 

these tributaries. Some of the small streams which are utilized for 

city supplies flow only a part of the year, and hence it is necessary to 

build storage reservoirs.

The surface water is ordinarily used without attempt to free it 

from the suspended matter present, though settling basins or filter 

plants have been constructed in a few places. Where more than one 

storage reservoir is available it is possible to utilize the uppermost as 

a settling basin, but the sediment may be so fine that much of it will 

reach the lower reservoir where the intake is located.

The sanitary character of the surface water varies greatly. Ohio 

River water is probably the most objectionable, because it receives 

the sewage of a number of cities above the region. The other rivers 

receive less sewage, but all of them flow through regions more or 

less densely populated.. The water which is taken from small streams 

varies in character, according to the local conditions. One supply 

is from a stream which receives no drainage from farms, but all the 

other supplies are from streams which are to some extent polluted.

UNDERGROUND WATER.

In some localities the limitations imposed by nature make it impossible to procure enough underground water of a suitable quality for 

a city supply. Certain geologic formations of the Blue Grass region 

will not yield enough water at any one place for a city, while others 

contain water which is too highly mineralized for ordinary use. In 

fact, there are only two geologic formations the Lexington limestone and the alluvium of the Ohio Valley which will furnish enough 

underground water of suitable quality for a city, and neither can be 

relied upon to supply a large settlement. Water from the Lexington
74 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

limestone is fit for use only when it is obtained above the level of surface drainage, and enough water for a public supply can be obtained 

only in certain localities where underground drainage is extensively 

developed.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF UNDERGROUND AND SURFACE

SUPPLIES.

Although most people prefer underground water to surface water, 

the preference is seldom based upon a careful consideration of the 

relative merits of the two supplies. Water from the alluvial gravels 

of the Ohio Valley is little utilized as a source of supply, because of 

its proximity to the river, from which a large quantity of water may 

be easily obtained. The Lexington limestone supplies considerable 

water in some localities where surface water can not be obtained without constructing storage reservoirs. The water from the gravels is 

probably freer from pollution than surface water, because it undergoes filtration in its passage through the sand; but it contains considerable mineral matter, which must be removed before it is suitable 

for some industrial uses. The surface water is often polluted by 

sewage and surface drainage, and ,hence its sanitary condition is 

doubtful. It also contains a large amount of suspended matter, 

which unfits it for certain purposes. The polluting substances and 

suspended matter may be removed from the surface water by filtration, and the dissolved mineral matter in the water from the gravel 

may be precipitated by the use of softening compounds. As it 

usually costs more to soften water than to filter it, the surface water 

may be regarded as more satisfactory for municipal and industrial 

purposes than the water from the gravels.

Wherever the Lexington limestone yields large supplies, the water 

is derived from streams flowing in caverns, and these underground 

streams do not differ from surface streams in any essential particular 

except that they are partially covered by a roof of limestone capped 

by a few feet of clay.

As the underground streams are partly covered, they probably 

receive less objectionable drainage than the surface streams. This 

is counterbalanced by the fact that the drainage basin of the surface 

stream is well known, and hence it is possible to discover sources of 

pollution. The courses of the underground streams and their tributaries are little known, and it is not often possible to protect them 

against pollution. There is, moreover, small chance for the water 

in the underground stream to be purified by natural means. Therefore the surface streams usually form a more desirable source of supply than the underground streams. The water from either source 

should, as a rule, be filtered before it can be regarded as safe.
POLLUTION OP GROUND WATER. 75

For industrial uses the surface waters have a decided advantage 

Dver those from the limestone, because they contain much less min3ral matter in solution. It is true that the underground waters from 

the Lexington limestone are well adapted to certain industries; but 

bhey would need to be softened before they could be utilized for all 

purposes.

POLLUTION OF UNDERGROUND WATER IN THE LEXINGTON

LIMESTONE.

In the preparation of this section on the pollution of underground 

waters in the Lexington limestone an attempt has been made to 

avoid, as far as possible, all strictly scientific and technical discussions, such as the efficiency of natural purification of waters and the 

value of various artificial methods of purification. Because of a 

desire to make the discussion as useful as possible, stress is placed upon 

the simple methods of tracing underground streams and determining 

possible sources of pollution.

The shallow water from the Lexington limestone is used for city 

supplies, and is fairly satisfactory. Certain features of this aquifer, 

however, suggest the possibility of pollution. Though it is possible 

to state certain general facts bearing on the subject of pollution, 

it is necessary to deal with each individual case strictly on its merits. 

The most important generalization is that the water which flows in 

limestone channels is not completely purified by its passage through 

those channels. There is a popular idea that water is purified by 

passing a short distance underground, a belief based partly on the 

effect of sand or sandstone on the water that traverses them. In 

close-grained, water-bearing rocks the purification is in part mechanical and takes place because the openings between the sand grains 

are very small; in other words, in removing objectionable matter 

the sand acts much like a filter. But when water flows through 

channels in limestone there is no filtration, and probably but little 

natural purification. The flow of water in limestone channels may 

be compared with its movement through ordinary water mains, and 

the chances for purification are about equal in the two cases. As 

there is little chance for natural purification of limestone waters, it 

becomes desirable to prevent pollution, and this can best be accomplished after the source of the polluting matter and the methods by 

which it reaches the water are thoroughly understood.

Persons using underground water are apt to consider its appearance 

and temperature indications of purity, for it is generally believed that 

water which is clear and cold is pure. No such belief is warranted by 

the facts, for some of the most dangerously polluted waters are both 

clear and cold.
76 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION,, KENTUCKY.

Certain waters will be rejected as unfit for use because of the 

occurrence in them of straw or other visible materials of organic 

origin, and the wisdom of such rejection is too apparent to need 

comment. The presence of suspended matter in water is often taken 

as an indication of the entrance of surface water through an open 

sink hole, but such conclusion also may be erroneous.

From an inspection of the accompanying diagrams it will be seen 

that the presence or absence of sediment can not be considered a safe

FIGURE 5. Diagram of cavern showing how sediment may be deposited by the underground stream.

indication of the presence or absence of surface drainage. In the 

diagram (fig. 5) sediment-laden surface water entering at A may be 

so retarded in the chamber B that it deposits its suspended matter 

and passes through the constricted channel C, to emerge at D comparatively clear. In this case the water, though free from sediment, 

may contain considerable surface drainage in some other form. In 

figure 6, absolutely uncontaminated water in its passage round the 

fallen material from the closed sink A may obtain sediment and 

emerge at B so turbid as to cause the erroneous deduction that there 

is a direct connection with surface drainage.

The conditions represented by these two figures are transitory, for 

the chamber B (in fig. 5) will soon become partly filled with silt

FIGURE 6. Diagram of cavern showing how sediment may be obtained by the underground stream.

so that the water passing through the channel C will transport a 

considerable amount of sediment, while the gradual removal of 

material (in fig. 6) from the sink A will soon form an open hole. 

Such conditions may also be intermittent. In any case it is wise to 

refrain from drinking underground water which contains silt or clay, 

for while these materials in themselves are seldom injurious, they 

may indicate the presence of surface drainage which has received 

little or no natural purification. It must not be inferred that all
POLLUTION OF GROUND WATER. 77

surface drainage is harmful, but it is well to bear in mind the possibilities of pollution by such drainage, and if any part of the surface 

drainage comes from a city or from dwellings/ the water should be 

rejected.

It was formerly thought that a sanitary analysis of water was a 

reliable means of determining its potability, but this dependence upon 

chemical tests has little by little proved to be unsafe. For this 

reason a careful examination of the drainage basin to discover possible 

sources of pollution is recommended as more reliable than chemical 

or bacteriological examinations of the water. On this subject Dole 0 

says:

In brief summary it may be said that careful study by practical sanitarians of the 

chemical and bacteriological results of analyses, made not in one small section alone 

but all over the country, has failed to show that laboratory methods can be depended 

upon to detect pollution. On the other hand, sanitary survey strikes directly at the 

source of the evil pollution and affords definite bases for its removal or for protection against it.

The futility of sanitary analyses is illustrated by several examples 

given by Leighton. 6 One citation is of especial interest to inhabitants of the Blue Grass region, because the samples of water were 

taken from Kentucky River. In this case one sample of water was 

taken from Kentucky River at the intake of the Frankfort waterworks and another was taken from the same stream below the outlets 

of the city sewers. Both samples-were taken on the same date and 

were judged by the standards usually employed in determining the 

potability of water. The conclusion reached by Leighton ° is:

The important feature * * * is that here is a water, or a dilute sewage, taken 

below the sewers of a city of 20,000 inhabitants showing practically the same, if not 

a better, condition, according to the interpretation standards, than another sample 

taken from the stream above the sewers.

This conclusion should not be taken as a condemnation of the 

city supply of Frankfort, for it merely shows the absurdity of relying 

upon sanitary analyses alone to determine the potability of water.

A satisfactory method of determining the potability of water is 

by means of a sanitary survey of the watershed from which the 

supply is drawn. Such survey, including as it does an examination 

of the entire watershed from which the supply is taken, makes practicable the determination of the sources of polluting matter and the 

adoption of measures to prevent contamination. Wherever streams 

flow through inhabited areas considerable objectionable matter is 

certain to enter the water and pollution can not be entirely prei Dole, R. B., Sanitary inspection versus sanitary analysis: Proc. Am. Pub. Health Assoc., vol. 31, pt. 1, 

1905, p. 00.

6 Leighton, M. O., The futility of a sanitary water analysis as a test of potability: Biological studies by the 

pupils of Wm. Thompson Sedgwick, Boston, 1906, pp. 30-53.

"Idem., p. 43.
78 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

vented. For this reason filtration is desirable; but the dangers from 

such pollution may be minimized by the use of ordinary care in the 

disposal of sewage and other waste materials.

Sanitary surveys of small surface streams may be made with considerable ease, but similar examinations of underground streams are 

attended with more or less difficulty. In order to ascertain the possible sources of pollution in an underground stream in limestone, it 

is first necessary to determine the location of the channels of the 

main stream and its tributaries. The course of the underground 

system may usually be inferred from the general slope of the surface 

and the position of sink holes. The location of minor tributaries is 

often so uncertain that it is necessary to go over the probable drainage 

basin with great care. In addition to examining the areas which 

from their surface slope are associated with the underground stream, 

it is advisable to survey the territory immediately adjoining them, 

because some underground streams pass beneath surface divides.

Besides considering the course of the underground stream it is also 

necessary to know how surface drainage reaches it. The water in 

the limestones flows in well-defined channels, to which it gains access 

either by seepage through the soil or directly through open sink holes. 

A portion of the water which enters the soil is almost certain to find 

its way to some underground stream, either directly or through some 

of the numerous crevices which traverse the limestone, and although 

it may receive some filtration and oxidation in its passage through the 

soil, reliance can not safely be placed upon this method of purification. 

The water which passes through the open sink holes carries with it 

much of the objectionable matter it may have obtained in its passage 

over the surface of the ground. Whatever purification this water 

undergoes takes place as the result of oxidation, bacterial action, etc., 

in the stream; and it is doubtful if the changes to which such objectionable matter is subjected are sufficient to render recently polluted 

water potable.

In the United States tracing the course of underground streams 

has received little attention, but in Europe, especially in the vicinity 

of Paris, much work of this sort has been done. A summary of investigations made by the city of Paris is presented by Dole ° in WaterSupply Paper No. 160, and the reader is referred to that publication 

for a discussion of the results.

The common method of tracing underground streams in limestone 

is to introduce some substance into the underground channel at a 

convenient place and then to determine the presence or absence of 

the material thus added by examining samples of water from the 

underground stream at another place more or less removed from the

"Dole, R. B. r Use of fluoresceln in the study of underground waters: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol, 

Survey No. 160,1906, pp. 73-85,
POLLUTION OF GEOTJND WATER. 79

point of initial introduction. Sometimes chemical salts are dissolved 

in water and introduced into the underground stream either directly 

through open holes or by seepage through the soil. Compounds 

which have been used are chlorides of sodium, calcium, or ammonium, 

potassium nitrate, and compounds of lithium or of iron. After the 

introduction of one of these substances chemical tests for its presence 

are made at frequent intervals in samples of water taken from the 

well or spring under study. For various reasons sodium chloride has 

been found to be most satisfactory and it is commonly used in preference to the other compounds. Successful experiments have also been 

made by coloring the water with solutions of potassium permanganate, fuchsine, Congo red, methylene blue, and fluorescein. Such 

substances as flour, starch, sawdust, leaves, oil, or cultures of bacteria 

may be suspended in the water and samples from the suspected spring 

or well water may be examined to determine their presence or absence. 

The choice of the material to be used depends largely on local conditions. Oil and other substances which float on the water are satisfactory only where there are no quiet reaches of water and no marked 

constrictions in the channel to delay their progress. In some streams 

they have proved satisfactory, while in others they have given negative results, and they are most useful in connection with other tests.

The use of fluorescein, one of the coal-tar products, is especially 

recommended, because this dye is not easily affected by the substances 

usually occurring in ground waters, and its color may be detected in 

very dilute solutions. According to Dole's abstract, a solutions containing 1 part of fluorescein to 10 billion parts of water will show, with 

the proper apparatus, the characteristic color of the fluorescein.

Salt or fluorescein may be placed in the underground stream and 

tests for their presence made at wells or springs at frequent intervals. 

In this way the time required for the substance to traverse the distance between the point of introduction and the places where samples 

are taken may be determined. If desired, the sampling may be continued until the water returns to its normal condition. It is usually 

best to take samples of water from as many sources as possible in 

order to determine the underground water conditions over an extended 

area. After the water has returned to its normal condition the testing 

materials may be introduced at some new locality and samples taken 

as before. This process can be repeated until the sources of the 

underground water are determined. It will usually be found that 

the stream receives tributaries from different directions in about the 

same manner as surface streams.

In choosing a spot for the introduction of the testing materials, 

preference is naturally given to places where there is free access to 

the underground channels, either through sink holes or through wells.

a Op. cit,
80 WATERS O¥ BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

In such places the fluorescein solution may be poured into the stream. 

The most satisfactory method of introducing salt is in the form of a 

strong brine, which may be allowed to flow into the stream. Where 

open sink holes or wells are not available, the fluorescein or brine is 

usually placed in a shallow depression and allowed to enter the underground stream by percolation through the soil. In order to determine 

whether a cesspool drains into the underground stream, the identifying 

material is usually placed in the cesspool and tests are then made to 

determine its presence in the stream.

The use of salt in tracing underground drainage requires a certain 

amount of chemical knowledge and some skill in the use of chemical 

apparatus, because it is not usually practicable to introduce enough 

of the material for recognition except by chemical examination. 

Fortunately the test for salt is simple enough to be readily understood 

by those who are not specialists in the subject. It is made by determining the amount of chlorine present in the water both before and 

after the addition of salt (sodium chloride), and the procedure for 

this estimate is that in common use among water analysts, namely, 

titration with silver nitrate solution, using potassium chromate indicator. The method is outlined in detail by Leighton.0

The amount of salt necessary for any given test depends largely 

upon the mode of introduction into the underground channel and the 

volume of the stream. Where the salt can be poured into open 

sinks, it is possible to get satisfactory results with a smaller amount 

than where it is necessary to depend upon percolation through soil. 

In the examination of the big spring at Georgetown, Ky., from 2 to 

4 barrels of salt were used with good results; and as this is one of 

the largest springs in the Blue Grass region, it appears probable that 

the maximum amount given above should be ample for the examination of most of the underground streams in the area. However, for 

such streams as those that emerge at the large spring at Spring Station 

or at Russell Cave, it might be necessary to use from 6 to 10 barrels 

in order to procure decisive results.

Fluorescein could doubtless be used in tracing the course of the underground streams in the limestones of the Blue Grass region, and 

because the test employed in detecting its presence in water is so 

simple its use is attended with fewer difficulties than the use of salt. 

It is introduced into the underground streams either directly through 

wells or open sink holes or by percolation through soil. In alkaline 

waters a strong solution of fluorescein gives a red color by transmitted light and appears green by reflected light. If the solution is 

very dilute, the red color is not detectible, but the green color is 

very powerful. An apparatus called a fluoroscope, described in 

Water-Supply Paper 160, has been devised for recognizing small

a. Leighton, M. O., Field assay of water; Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 151,1905,-50 pp. 49.
POLLUTION OF GBOUND WATER. , 81

quantities of the dye in samples of water. This instrument is very 

simple, consisting merely of long, colorless glass tubes plugged at one 

end by stoppers blackened with plumbago. The tubes are filled with 

the samples of water, and the presence of fluorescein is demonstrated 

by a greenish tinge of the sample when it is viewed by reflected light. 

Oil, fragments of wood, and sodium chloride were used in studying 

one of the underground streams of the Blue Grass region. The materials were put into the stream through an open sink about oneeighth of a mile from its point of emergence in a spring. The oil 

appeared at the spring in one hour, the chloride of sodium in seven 

hours, and the wood fragments had not appeared after a lapse of 

several days. Salt is satisfactory for use in streams having a daily 

flow of a few million gallons or less; but its introduction is impracticable in very large streams such as those found in some caverns.

Water from small channels in limestone may generally be considered safe provided care is taken to guard against local pollution; 

but the source of the water in the streams in large caverns should be 

sought. Whether an underground stream for a city supply is safe 

3r not depends entirely on the local conditions. The first questions 

to be decided are the source and the direction of flow of the water. If 

ihe underground stream clearly does not receive polluted water, it 

nay be regarded as a safe source of supply; but if the stream passes 

Deneath or near the city, the intake should be located on the upstream side of the town. The importance of taking the supply from 

ibove the town is recognized when dealing with surface streams, 

3ut it is sometimes disregarded when the stream is beneath the sur- 

:ace. Not infrequently belief in the natural purification of underground water leads to carelessness in locating the intake. Occadonally the fact that there are several feet of solid limestone or beds 

>f "soapstone" above the underground stream gives the impression 

hat local drainage is excluded. Such idea is wholly erroneous, 

>ecause the so-called solid limestone or the soapstone contains many 

:racks and crevices, which allow the surface water to enter the 

mderground channel.

If water from limestone caverns is used, a sanitary survey is desir- 

,ble to determine the course of the stream and the sources from 

rhich it obtains its supply. In a question of potability it is much 

>etter and far safer to make a practical inspection of the drainage 

,rea, as outlined in the preceding pages, than to place reliance upon 

. chemical analysis of the water.

The practice of putting rubbish, barnyard filth, etc., into sink 

ioles should be abandoned. Still more reprehensible is the custom 

f running sewage into sink holes, thus converting the underground 

hannels into natural sewers. This practice, by no means uncomlon, is often defended by the claim that the water in limestone 

88942 IRE 233 09 6
82 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

channels beneath the city is unfit for drinking. The correctness of 

this claim can not be disputed, but there are persons ignorant of the 

danger who continue to use the underground water. Moreover, 

those living at some distance from the city may take water from the 

polluted stream.

NOTES ON CITY SUPPLIES.

The Covington water system, which is the largest in the Blue 

Grass region, takes its supply from Ohio River. The water is 

pumped to a settling reservoir on the upland. From the settling 

reservoir it passes to a storage reservoir and thence to the distributing reservoir. Considerable sediment collects in the settling basin, 

Ohio River water contains some inorganic matter in solution; but the 

amount is not sufficiently large to render the water unfit for industrial uses.

The Cynthiana water supply is taken from Licking River. The 

water is pumped to a reservoir and distributed under gravity pres 

sure to the city. The sediment in the water could be readily removec 

by the use of a mechanical filter. The small amount of inorganic 

matter held in solution does not render the water objectionable fo 

use in boilers.

The Danville water supply is drawn from Dix River, and is reporte< 

to be satisfactory. There is no great danger of pollution, and as th 

water is filtered, its sanitary condition is guarded.

The Falmouth water supply is taken from Licking River. Th 

water is so turbid that it is not suitable for domestic uses; but it i 

drunk by stock and utilized in some industries.

Frankfort is the only city which takes its supply from Kentuck 

River. There are no large cities on the Kentucky above Frankforl 

but considerable waste from distilleries is allowed to enter the rive] 

The water of the Kentucky, like that of other streams in the regior 

is very muddy during a large part of the year, and could be improve 

by filtration.

The Maysville water supply is pumped from Ohio River. Th 

reservoir is situated on the upland above the town, at ari altitud 

sufficient to give a very strong pressure in the city. The qualit 

of the water is much the same as that of the river above Covingto 

and Newport.

The Newport Water Company uses Ohio River water. Th 

water is very turbid and its sanitary quality during a large part < 

the year is doubtful. The water is pumped to a reservoir on tl 

upland and distributed to the city by gravity.

Lancaster has constructed an impounding reservoir on a snu 

stream. The watershed of this stream is not cultivated and 

uninhabited. The water is pumped directly from this reservoir in 

the mains.
NOTES OF CITY SUPPLIES. 83

Lexington has a water supply which gives universal satisfaction. 

The water is impounded in three reservoirs, placed one above another on the same stream. The upper reservoirs serve as settling 

basins when the stream is high and the water turbid. Before being 

pumped into the mains the water is aerated and filtered. The water 

is used in nearly all of the manufacturing plants of the city.

The water supply of Paris is taken from a creek. A mechanical 

filter is used to remove sediment from the water. The supply is 

ample for the prospective needs of the city and should prove very 

satisfactory.

The Richmond Water Company takes its supply from a small stream 

which receives very little drainage of an objectionable character.

The water supply of Shelbyville is taken from Clear Creek. Unfortunately, the water is not always as clear as might be expected 

from the name of the source.

The supply for the city of Winchester is taken from two reservoirs constructed on a small stream. It is ample for all purposes.

The Lawrenceburg supply is taken from wells sunk in the Lexington limestone. The water is reported to be slightly hard, but it is 

satisfactory for use in boilers.

The Nicholasville supply was formerly taken from a reservoir on 

a small stream. It is now pumped from wells which are sunk at 

the edge of the reservoir, and these wells probably draw considerable 

water from the reservoir. This water is said to be slightly hard 

and to form a small amount of scale in boilers.

Georgetown is supplied with water from a large spring located 

on the west edge of the city. The water is moderately hard and 

forms some scale in boilers. The volume of the spring is always 

large, but it fluctuates greatly, rising rapidly after a rain and subsiding again in a short time. The water contains considerable 

sediment after a rain, and the character of the sediment suggests 

that surface drainage enters through open sinks.

The water supply of Berea College is derived from ten springs 

issuing from the sandstones of the mountains. Each spring is 

surrounded by a cement reservoir. The water is conveyed from 

these reservoirs to a 6-inch main, which conducts it to the college 

grounds. The combined flow of the ten springs is about 100 gallons 

per minute, and their altitude above the town gives a gravity 

pressure of 95 pounds per square inch. The water has been analyzed 

at the college and is reported to contain less mineral matter than 

water taken from cisterns. Springs like those that supply Berea 

College are numerous, and similar supplies could be installed in 

many of the towns near the mountains.

Table 7 gives the available information concerning the municipal 

water supplies of this region.
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NOTES ON CITY SUPPLIES. 85

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86 WATERS OP BLUE GBASS EEGION,, KENTUCKY.

MINERAL WATERS OF THE BLUE GRASS REGION. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATERS.

The underground waters of the Blue Grass region vary widely in 

composition, the amount of inorganic matter in water ranging from a 

few hundred to several thousand parts per million. Although the 

kind of mineral matter is determined by the character of the soil and 

rock through which the water has passed, certain mineral ions, such 

as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and the carbonate and sulphate radicles, are common to most of the waters of 

the region. This is to be accounted for by the fact that the substances 

mentioned are to be found in the soils and rocks of all parts of the 

region and that they are all more or less soluble in the ground waters. 

Many of the waters, especially those from the Ordovician rocks, contain small quantities of some of the rarer elements, such as boron, 

strontium, lithium, and iodine.

The most common type of mineral water in the Blue Grass region 

is the alkaline water which contains carbonates of lime, magnesia, 

sodium, and potassium, together with other carbonates and sulphates. 

These waters are found in nearly all parts of the area and are commonly designated hard waters.

Hydrogen sulphide occurs in most of the deep waters of the Ordovician area and in some of the waters from the Ohio shale. In the 

waters of the Ordovician rocks the hydrogen sulphide is often accompanied by petroleum or asphaltic material, suggesting that it is 

derived from the decomposition of organic matter. The sulphuretted 

waters from the Ohio shale probably derive their hydrogen sulphide 

from the decomposition of the sulphide of iron, which is abundant in 

the shale.

Salt is a very common constituent in the deep-seated waters of the 

Blue Grass region and it also occurs in some of the waters from the 

Ohio shale. Its frequent association with hydrogen sulphide has led 

to the use of the term "salt-sulphur" for such waters as those from 

the St. Peter sandstone and some of the waters from the Highbridge 

and Lexington limestones. Besides the salt-sulphur waters, salt 

waters which are free from hydrogen sulphide also occur.

Some of the waters of the Silurian and Devonian formations contain magnesium sulphates and are known as epsom waters. Sodium 

carbonate (glauber salts) is also common in some of the waters from 

the Devonian and Silurian shales. Various other mineral substances 

are known to occur in the waters from the Ohio shale, the most 

prominent being the iron which occurs in the Chalybeate Springs. 

The iron appears in the springs in the form of the hydrous oxide,
MINERAL WATERS. 87

which is probably formed by oxidation of the iron compounds 

present in the spring water.

The wells which penetrate the St. Peter sandstone obtain strong 

salt-sulphur water, known locally as "Blue Lick" water. The water 

is often used for medicinal purposes. The wells which are best 

known are located at Newport, Boston Station, and Frankfort. At 

Sanders a well which probably penetrated this formation procured a 

salt-sulphur water which is said to contain a notable quantity of 

lithia. This water is sold under the name of the Eagle Valley 

Lithia Water.

Water is being sold from a number of wells in the Lexington limestone, and, judging from the mode of occurrence and the analyses, 

there are many others which might supply marketable water. The 

best known mineral waters from wells in this formation are the Lexington Lithia water and the Renfro water. The former contains 

considerable lithia and the latter contains both lithia and sulphur.

One of the best known of the medicinal waters is the "Blue Lick" 

water which comes from the Lower Blue Lick Springs. This water 

has a large sale and has been known throughout the South for more 

than half a century. It also has a large sale in the northern half of 

the country. The composition of the water, as shown by the analyses, 

has not changed materially in the last fifty years.

Salt-sulphur water is obtained from the Upper Blue Lick Spring, 

the Big Bone Springs, the Sanders Sulphur Spring, Drennon Springs, 

and from many other springs in various parts of the region.

So remarkable is the general resemblance between the Blue Lick 

water and the water of the St. Peter sandstone that it has often been 

suggested that the Blue Lick water comes from the St. Peter. Aside 

from the fact that both are salt-sulphur waters, there is little reason 

to believe that they have the same origin. Their mode of occurrence suggests that the Blue Lick Springs may derive their water 

from either the Winchester or the Lexington limestone. In support 

of this'idea it may be said that the Blue Lick water resembles somewhat the deep waters of these limestones, though the resemblance is 

due rather to such constituents as salt, sulphur, and other elements 

common to many of the Blue Grass waters rather than to the less 

common compounds, such as are mentioned in the chemical discussion (p. 207) under the head of Lower Blue Lick Springs. No evidence was noted that would suggest that a fault existed at the Blue 

Lick Springs, and in the absence of faulting it does not appear 

probable that the waters of the St. Peter sandstone would rise 

through the Lexington and Highbridge limestones which overlie the 

St. Peter.
88 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

Big Bone Springs supplies a strong salt-sulphur water which, as 

already stated, resembles the Blue Lick water. There were originally 

three springs at this locality. A well which was drilled at one of 

these springs is reported to have encountered salt-sulphur water at 

depths of 150 and 500 feet. This well now flows through a wooden 

pipe which rises 4 feet above the ground, and since it has been drilled 

one of the original springs has nearly ceased to flow. The water 

which is now being sold comes from this well. From the well logs 

(see report of Boone County, p. 163) it appears probable that the Big 

Bone Springs water originally came from the Lexington or Highbridge limestones, and these formations now supply the water which 

is obtained from the flowing well.

The limestone of the Maysville formation furnishes very little 

water of commercial value. At Bufnngton there are three springs, 

belonging to J. S. Haynes, which supply water for a small health 

resort, known as Keo-Me-Zu Springs. These springs are situated 

within a radius of 20 feet, but they present certain differences in 

composition. The only other locality where the Maysville formation 

is known to furnish water of commercial value is at Beechwood, 

Owen County. The Beechwood Spring really a shallow well furnishes water containing a large amount of magnesium, apparently in 

the form of magnesium sulphate.

The Silurian shales furnish mineral waters at Crab Orchard, just 

outside the area mapped, but they are not important within the 

Blue Grass region. They are the source of some mineral water in 

eastern Clark County, and possibly in some of the neighboring counties. The upper limestone beds of this series furnish an abundance 

of water in localities where they are not deeply buried beneath the 

Waverly shale. Some of the springs from the limestone of the Panola 

formation are being extensively used, the most prominent being the 

Anita and Royal-Magnesian springs. The waters of these springs are 

not sold as mineral waters, but they find a ready market as pure 

drinking waters. Other springs from this formation are known near 

the western margin of the area and at various points on the eastern 

side of regions in the vicinity of Waco and elsewhere.

The Ohio shale furnishes valuable mineral waters at various points 

in central Kentucky. Within the area mapped the most important 

localities are Linietta Springs, at Junction City, and Alum Springs, 

4^ miles west of Junction City, Boyle County; Fox Springs, Fleming 

County; Dripping Springs, Garrard County; Kiddvilleand Oil Springs, 

Clark County. Outside the area mapped are some very important 

springs which have been included in this report Estill Springs, 

Olympia Springs, and Crab Orchard Springs. These resorts were 

not visited by the writer. Both the occurrence and the character 

of the waters are fully described in several of the reports of the
MINERAL WATERS. 89

Kentucky Geological Survey. The Olympia Springs were discussed 

by Linney in his report on the geology of Bath County, from which 

the following statement is taken: a

These springs are situated near the head of Mud Lick Creek, 1\ miles from the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad, at Olympia station, and consist of a salt well, a salt-sulphur 

well, black-sulphur well, two chalybeate springs, and a well and a spring whose waters 

are alkaline saline. Some of these have been known and used nearly since the first 

settlers came to this part of the State. The geological position of these waters is the 

same which gives rise to the majority of mineral waters in the State. They arise from 

near the union of the rocks of the Corniferous limestone with the black slate. This is 

a horizon in which magnesian limestones, clay shales, salt, sulphide, carbonate and 

other forms of iron, and minute quantities of other minerals are found in close proximity. Water penetrating the rocks dissolves the mineral matters in various proportions, new combinations are formed, and thus originate these various mineral springs.

In his report on the geology of Lincoln County, Linney gives the 

following facts relating to the source of the Crab Orchard Springs and 

the Crab Orchard salts: 6

In Lincoln County there are a large number of mineral springs. Some of these, 

situated in and near Crab Orchard, have old and extended reputations. These springs 

furnish several classes of water.

The black slate everywhere contains more or less of the sulphides of iron. These 

compounds, by their decomposition, furnish a variety of sulphur, and sulphur 

and chalybeate waters among which salt-sulphur and black-sulphur are the most 

common.

The lower Subcarboniferous shales furnish some weak springs of chalybeate, but the 

best water of that kind issues from a layer in the Upper Silurian, which contain oxides 

of iron.

In the Crab Orchard shales are a number of springs and seeps which furnish magnesian waters. Weak alum waters are known at a few places, while salt water has 

been obtained in the county in boring wells for other purposes.

Crab Orchard salts is a name given to a peculiar variety of epsomite Epsom salt or 

magnesian sulphate which is manufactured from the Crab Orchard shales of the 

Upper Silurian in Lincoln and Garrard counties. They differ from the common type 

of other magnesian salts, so well known to commerce as a medicine, in containing a 

number of other ingredients which enhance their value.

This strip of country, in which these shales predominate, and the manufacture of 

these salts is conducted, is an irregular one, about '13 miles in length, and from a few 

hundred yards to 2 miles in breadth. They lie on a slope in the rocks to the southeast, and are from 16 to 40 feet in depth. Through all this line and thickness they are 

impregnated with the minerals which characterize the salts.

The origin of this deposit is an interesting question, worthy of investigation. That 

the shales and the minerals contained in them were thrown down from solution during 

the evaporation of the ocean water in shallow basins, raised above the sea level, is 

hardly to be accepted, as the differences in the shale and the interstratification of 

limestone would require other conditions for their formation. It seems more probable 

that the materials for the shales were swept in and deposited in protected places by 

currents, and that afterward these minerals, which had been contained in the magnesian layers of the Upper Silurian and Devonian series, were carried down this slope, 

and found in those shales the conditions for their deposition and preservation.

a Linney, W. M., Reports on the geology of Bath and Fleming counties: Geol. Survey Kentucky, 1886, 

pp. 36,37. 

6 Linney, W. M., Report on the geology of Lincoln County, Geol. Survey Kentucky, 1882, pp. 29-32.
90 WATEES OF BLUE GEASS EEGIOF, KENTUCKY.

A bulletin of the Kentucky Geological Survey, by A. F. Foerste, 

received after the preparation of the body of this report, discusses the 

mineral waters of the Ohio shale as follows: a

It has been stated that the table of contents of the waters from a mineral spring is 

but an index of the various geological strata through which its waters have passed and 

of the mineral bodies with which they have come in contact. In this sense, the 

Devonian black shales should be of special interest to the people of Kentucky, since 

a considerable part of the springs which are visited, more or less for their medicinal 

virtues, issue from the black shales. Among these may be mentioned the Fox Springs, 

8 miles east of Flemingsburg, in Fleming County; the Olympian Springs, in the southeastern part of Bath County; the Oil Springs, about a mile northeast of Indian Fields, 

in the northeastern part of Clark County; the Estill Springs, about a mile north of Irvine, 

in Estill County; Hale's well, about 4 miles southeast of Stanford, in Lincoln County; 

the Linietta Springs, northwest of Junction City, in Boyle County; Alum Springs, 

2 miles farther west, in Boyle County; the Sulphur Springs, 3 miles southeast of Lebanon, in Marion County; and numerous other springs, less known but with waters containing the same ingredients.

PRODUCTION OF MIN.ERAL WATERS.

The total sales of mineral water from the Blue Grass region 

approximate $200,000 annually. Of this amount, about one-fourth 

is derived from the sale of table waters and the remainder from the 

sale of medicinal waters. Apart from the sales, considerable water 

is consumed at the springs where there are hotels.

COUNTY CONDITIONS.

ANDERSON COUNTY.

SUEFACE FEATUEES.

Anderson County is located near the western border of the Blue 

Grass region. Its western boundary is formed by Kentucky River, 

wjiich here flows in a trench more than 400 feet below the upland 

and so narrow that the river occupies nearly the entire width of the 

gorge.

The surface of the upland near the Kentucky is broken by deep 

canyons where the tributary streams have cut into the limestone 

formations. A short distance back from the river the surface becomes 

gently rolling, exhibiting shallow valleys separated by rounded 

divides. Toward the western boundary the valleys are deeper and 

narrower and the areas of level upland are much smaller.

A narrow strip along the eastern edge of the county is drained by 

small streams tributary to the Kentucky within the county, and a 

small area in the northern part by streams that join the Kentucky 

in Franklin County. The central part of Anderson County is drained

aFoerste, A. F., The Silurian, Devonian, and Irving formations of east-central Kentucky: Bull. 

Kentucky Geol. Survey No. 1, 1906, p. 255.
ANDERSON COUNTY. 91

by Salt River, which enters from the south, flows northward to a 

point a few miles southwest of Lawrenceburg, then takes a southwesterly course to Van Buren, where it leaves the county. This 

stream receives no large tributaries within the county except Crooked 

Creek, which flows along the western border of the county and joins 

the Salt near Van Buren. A small area in the southwestern part of 

the county is drained by two tributaries of Chaplin River Beaver 

and Sulphur creeks.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual materials of Anderson County consist of yellow or red 

clays from 2-to 8 feet thick, the average thickness being probably less 

than 3 feet. These soils yield water in few localities to wells, but they 

store considerable quantities and supply it gradually to the crevices 

in the underlying rock. A deposit of sand containing pebbles of 

chert the alluvium which has been transported from the hills to the 

southward and deposited wherever the gorge was wide enough to 

permit its accumulation is found in narrow; discontinuous strips 

along Kentucky River. Such alluvial deposits supply water in 

abundance to springs and driven wells.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The geologic formations appearing at the surface in Anderson 

County include the Highbridge limestone, which is exposed in the 

Kentucky River gorge; the Lexington limestone, which forms a part 

of the upper walls of the gorge and extends out a short distance on 

the upland, and which is also exposed in the valley of Salt River 

from the southern line of the county to the point where the river 

makes the bend toward the southwest; the Winchester limestone, 

which lies in narrow strips outside the areas of Lexington limestone 

and occupies a large area in the central part of the county; and the 

Eden shale. It is possible that rocks belonging to the Maysville 

formation may occur on some of the higher hilltops near the western 

boundary of the county, but no evidence of their presence has been 

obtained.

In areas where they appear at the surface the Highbridge, Lexington, and Winchester limestones furnish considerable hard water to 

springs and shallow wells. At depths varying from 50 to 100 feet, 

however, the Lexington and Highbridge yield salt and salt-sulphur 

water; and highly mineralized water, usually containing salt and sulphur, is also obtained from wells in the Winchester limestone which 

have been sunk below the level of the surface streams. The Eden 

shale usually occurs on the slopes or tops of hills and in such situations
92 WATERS OF BLUE GKASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

that it furnishes only small quantities of water to springs and shallow 

wells; below depths of 30 to 35 feet it contains practically no water. 

The St. Peter sandstone underlies the county and will furnish flowing wells in the gorge of Kentucky River and probably in the lower 

parts of some of its tributaries. The water from this horizon is, 

however, highly mineralized, and is in addition saturated with hydrogen sulphide gas.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

The water for city supplies and manufacturing in Anderson County 

is obtained from drilled or dug wells, cisterns, and springs.

Drilled wells are numerous in the eastern part of the county, especially near Tyrone, McBrayer, and Lawrenceburg, the city last 

named obtaining its supply from wells sunk in the Lexington limestone. The drilled wells vary in depth from 40 to 80 feet, although 

a few of them obtain water at 25 feet or less. Sulphur water is 

encountered at various depths, ranging from 25 to 30 feet in the 

valleys of some of the tributaries of Salt River to over 100 feet near 

Kentucky River.

Dug wells are found in all parts of the county, but they are more 

numerous in the western part. Few of them exceed 30 feet in depth, 

and they are apt to fail in times of drought. The water is of good 

quality except where the wells are located too near buildings.

Cisterns also are extensively used in all parts of the county, and 

in the western part they form the best sources of supply for domestic 

purposes, but many are in use in the eastern part, where good well 

water is available.

Springs are numerous throughout the county, but they vary greatly 

in size, being large in the eastern half of the county and small in the 

western half. As the spring water is usually hard, it is used but 

little for domestic purposes. A number of springs are, however, used 

for manufacturing, and a part of the supply for the village of Tyrone 

eomes from a spring in the Kentucky gorge.

Most of the underground water used for manufacturing conies 

from the Winchester and Lexington limestones.

BOONE COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Boone County, one of the most northerly counties of the Blue Grass 

region, is bordered on the north and west by Ohio River, whose 

channel here occupies a steep-sided gorge.

The surface of the county is a plateau, deeply trenched by narrow 

gorges near the river, but nearly level in the interstream areas, which
BOONE COUNTY. 93

are occupied in large part by flat-topped divides. Altitudes within 

the county have an extreme range of over 500 feet from about 420 

feet above sea level along the Ohio to more than 940 feet on the 

highest parts of the upland. The descent from the level of the 

upland to the river is usually precipitous, and the small streams, 

which as a rule make the descent within a distance of 3 or 4 miles, 

have very steep gradients. The larger tributaries have cut deep 

channels for a distance of several miles back from the river.

The Ohio receives in this county water from many small tributaries 

and from three creeks of considerable size Woolper, Gunpowder, 

and Big Mud Lick. These creeks not only drain the greater part of 

Boone County, but small areas outside of it. The drainage basin of 

Woolper Creek is largely north and west of Burlington; Gunpowder 

Creek receives the drainage of the south-central part of the county; 

and the southern end of the county drains into Big Mud Lick Creek, 

either directly or through Big Bone Creek.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCO NSOLID ATE D MATERIALS.

Above the rock in the southern part of the county is a deposit of 

residual clay, averaging 5 or 6 feet in thickness, which has been produced by the weathering limestones and shales of the Maysville. It 

varies in color from yellow to brownish red, and is usually dense 

where it was derived from the shales and more porous where the 

original rock was limestone. The porosity of these limestone soils 

seldom equals that of the loam derived from the Lexington limestone 

in Fayette County. The residual materials do not furnish water 

directly to wells and springs in this county, but they store the moisture and give it to the crevices and channels in the rock from which 

the wells and springs draw their supplies.

The northwestern part of the county is capped by a loesslike 

silt (see silt-loam soil, p. 33) to an average depth of 2 or 3 feet, with 

a maximum of about 6 feet. Beneath the silt is glacial drift, a few 

feet thick, composed largely of residual clay containing fragments of 

limestone and pebbles of chert, with occasional bowlders of granite. 

In the vicinity of Bullittsville and Hebron the glacial drift consists 

of water-deposited sand and gravel, but this phase is apparently 

restricted to the ancient channel of a small stream which existed 

before the deposition of the drift.

In the valley of Middle Creek there is a deposit of sand and gravel 

which locally exceeds 40 feet in thickness and which is not known to 

extend beyond the boundaries of the drainage basin. Above the 

gravel of this deposit, which has in some places been cemented into
94 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

a hard conglomerate, is a layer of sand several feet thick, capped 

by 5 or 6 feet of loesslike silt. The drift rests upon the "original 

surface, which it has modified very little.

In the Ohio Valley near Bellevue the glacial drift forms well-defined 

knolls which rise to nearly 250 feet above the gravel terraces which 

border the river. In some places the residual soil has been very 

little disturbed. The drift has about the same color as the residual 

material from which it was largely derived.

The glacial deposits over most of the county serve the same purpose as the residual materials that is, they store the water and supply 

it to openings in the rock below. The glacial materials are as a rule 

somewhat less porous than the residual, but they are much thicker 

and therefore hold a greater volume of water. Where the drift 

consists of sand and gravel it supplies water for both wells and springs. 

Rock springs, from the conglomerate in Middle Creek Valley, are 

.very well known throughout the western part of the county. In 

the vicinity of Bullittsville and Hebron the glacial gravels supply 

remarkably pure soft water to half a dozen wells and a number of 

springs.

The hillside slopes underlain by Eden shale are usually covered by 

a mass of talus, composed of blocks of limestone with more or less 

silt or clay. The streams are constantly transporting this material 

toward the river, but the accumulation usually goes on more rapidly 

than the removal. The deposition of the material at the points 

where the tributary streams enter the main valley gives rise to alluvial 

fans. The talus deposits supply moderate quantities of water to 

springs and shallow wells.

The alluvium along the small streams is usually made up of coarse 

angular or subangular fragments mixed with silt or clay, the large 

fragments predominating to such an extent that the material is very 

porous. It contains large quantities of water in wet weather, but the 

supply is apt to be exhausted during periods of drought.

In the Ohio Valley the alluvial deposits are also very porous and 

they absorb a large amount of water, receiving not only that which 

falls directly upon the surface of the gravel but much drainage from 

the upland. These deposits furnish, at depths of 80 to 110 feet, an 

abundance of water which, although moderately hard, contains less 

inorganic matter than the water from the limestones.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The surface rocks of Boone County include the Winchester limestone, which outcrops in the Ohio Valley and in the lower course of 

the tributaries of the Ohio; the Eden shale, which is exposed on the 

stream slopes for a distance of several miles back from the river but 

which does not reach the surface on the upland; and the Maysville
BOONE COUNTY. 95

formation, which is at the surface over all the upland portion of the 

county. It is possible that the Lexington limestone forms a part of 

the channels of the streams near the southeast corner of the county, 

but important exposures of this rock are not found in the county.

The Winchester limestone in this region is from 40 to 50 feet thick 

and is exposed only in the lowest parts of the valleys. In some of 

the smaller stream valleys it may yield fresh water, but in most 

localities the water from this horizon is brackish and in many places 

it is sulphurous. Its quality would in general render it unfit for 

domestic or industrial uses.

The Eden shale, which overlies the Winchester limestone with a 

thickness of about 300 feet, furnishes practically no water for either 

springs or wells.

Overlying the Eden shale are the rocks of the Maysville formation, 

which comprise a series of interlaminated limestones and shales somewhat exceeding 200 feet in thickness. In the northern half of the 

county, especially in the vicinity of Burlington and Florence, the 

heavy bedded limestones of this series contain some caverns, not 

large enough to permit exploration, but indicated by numerous small 

sink holes. In this part of the county underground water conditions 

are greatly favored by the porosity and unusual thickness of the loose 

materials above the limestone. In the southern part of the county, 

where the shales of the formation are the predominant surface rock, 

the amount of underground water is smaller, although locally the 

occurrence of limestone beds furnishes more favorable conditions. 

The residual materials in this part of the county, being derived from 

argillaceous rocks, are rather heavy clays, and although they have 

great storage capacity they furnish only moderate quantities of 

water to the underlying rocks.

Wells in the limestone of the Maysville formation obtain water at 

depths ranging from 10 to 35 feet, but the amount of water varies 

greatly from time to time. The underground channels fill quickly 

after a rain, but the supply is soon lessened by dry weather, and 

during periods of drought the shallow wells and many of the springs 

may be dry. Where the upland borders the Ohio Valley numerous 

springs emerge from the contact of the limestone beds with the 

underlying shale layers. Many of these springs are situated 300 or 

400 feet above the-river; but there is, of course, no foundation in fact 

for the popular belief that they lie on the highest points of land, for 

the water comes from higher areas a short distance back from the 

river. The water found in the rocks of the Maysville formation 

contains considerable amounts of inorganic matter, but is not too hard 

for ordinary uses.

The Highbridge and Lexington limestones are under cover in this 

county, but where they were penetrated in drilling for oil near Big
96 WATEES OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

Bone Springs some salt water and considerable gas were found. 

Here, as elsewhere in the Blue Grass region, the water in these formations occurs in channels which may or may not be encountered 

in drilling; but as neither formation supplies fresh water where it is 

buried beneath younger rocks, it is useless to drill into them for 

water for domestic or industrial purposes.

The St. Peter sandstone underlies Boone County at depths varying from less than 900 feet in the deeper valleys to 1,400 feet on the 

upland, but it has not been reached by any deep wells. It would 

furnish flowing wells in all the valleys which are cut below about 590 

feet above sea level, including the Ohio Valley and the lower courses 

of its principal tributaries, but it is safe to say that the quality of 

the water would be the same as at Frankfort and Cincinnati, where 

the formation furnishes the strong salt-sulphur water commonly 

known as "blue lick" water.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

In the Ohio Valley wells penetrating the alluvium have been uniormly successful except at Taylorsport, where a fine sand was 

encountered which caused the abandonment of two wells. The 

Boone County distillery takes its entire water supply from the alluvium. On the upland, however, drilled wells have been unsuccessful, either failing to obtain any water or finding brines. A well 

drilled to a depth of 200 or 300 feet at Walton found no water, but 

encountered considerable gas. At Florence a drilled well between 

150 and 200 feet deep obtained a small supply of water, said to be 

brackish, and attempts to increase the amount by exploding dynamite in the well were unsuccessful.

The following record of one of the three deep wells drilled for oil 

near Big Bone Springs was supplied by Mr. Geer, the driller:

Record of drilled well near Big Bone Springs.

Feet. 

Soapstone (very white) and limestone.................................... 0-100

Hard limestone; strong flow of salt water at 105 feet; small flow of gas at

160 feet............................................................... 100-160

Limestone (light colored); strong flow of gas at 165 feet, and small flows of 

gas at 177 and 193 feet................................................ 160-500

A few feet of "slate," followed by limestone (alternating light and dark).... 500-800

An incomplete set of samples from another well at the same locality 

was identified by E. O. Ulrich as follows:

Feet. 

Lower Lexingtoii limestone (Hermitage and Logana)...................... 150-240

Curdsville............................................................... 240-288

Tyrone................................................................. 288-330
BOURBON COUNTY. 97

A well drilled at one of the Big Bone Springs is reported to have 

obtained sajt water at 150 and 500 feet. The flow was so strong 

that drilling was stopped. The water from the well has the same 

properties as that of the springs and is now being sold as Big Bone 

Spring water.

Shallow dug wells are numerous on the upland areas of Boone 

County and afford considerable water, though many of them fail in 

dry weather. Few wells have been dug in the last quarter of a century, and except in the northern part the old wells are gradually 

being abandoned in favor of cisterns, which provide most of the 

water for domestic use, some being in use even in the Ohio Valley 

where underground water is abundant.

BOURBON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Bourbon County is located in the east-central part of the Blue 

Grass region. Its surface is a gently rolling plateau, crossed by 

streams which flow in broad, shallow valleys. Through the central 

part of the county Stoner Creek, a tributary of Licking River, has 

cut a channel more than 2£)0 feet deep, but over a large part of the 

area the relief does not exceed 100 feet. The long, narrow ridge 

which rises abruptly above the surrounding country in the southeastern part of the county received from the early settlers the name 

"Cane Ridge."

Stoner Creek receives the drainage from the entire county except 

small areas near the eastern and northern boundaries. The principal tributaries of this creek in Bourbon County are Strodes Creek, 

Coopers Run, Flat Run, and Townsend Creek. The northern and 

eastern parts of the county are drained by Hinkston Creek, which 

receives within the county several small tributaries, the largest being 

Boones Creek.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The large streams of Bourbon County are bordered by narrow 

strips of alluvium, composed of assorted sands and gravels, but the 

formation covers too small an area to be important as a water bearer.

The residual soils of the county consist of the porous loams and 

clays common to the Blue Grass region. They are usually about 

3 feet thick, but in exceptional localities the thickness may be somewhat greater. These soils store moisture which is transmitted to the 

underlying rocks and assists in maintaining their water supply during 

dry weather.

88942 IRR 233 09 7,
98 WATERS OF BLUE GKASS REGION, KENTUCKY. 

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The rock formations of Bourbon County include the Lexington and 

Winchester limestones and the Eden shale.

The Lexington limestone forms the surface rock over a large part 

of the county west of the east side of Stoner Creek Valley and yields 

an abundance of hard water for springs and wells. Most of the wells 

obtain water at depths of 100 feet or less, but those which penetrate 

below the level of the surface streams or enter the Highbridge limestone may find salt-sulphur waters. Some of the springs in this 

county are exceptionally large and have fairly uniform flow.

The Winchester limestone is exposed in a narrow strip along the 

west and northwest boundaries of the county and covers a large area 

bordering the Lexington limestone in the eastern part of the county. 

Where this formation is at the surface it furnishes moderate quantities of hard water. It might also furnish water for deep wells, but 

such water would be too highly charged with salt and sulphur to be 

fit for ordinary uses.

The Eden shale covers the high ridges and hills in the southeastern 

part of the county and caps some of the hills in the northwestern 

part, and small exposures are also found in the northeastern part of 

the area. It furnishes little water except to springs and shallow wells.

The St. Peter sandstone, which underlies the county, would furnish an abundance of salt-sulphur water, but none of the wells would 

flow, and except in the bottoms of the valleys the water would 

probably not come within 200 feet of the surface.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

The water supply of Paris, the county seat, is taken from a stream 

near the city, and since the installation of a filter plant this supply 

ranks as one of the best in the Blue Grass region. In addition to the 

municipal supply, many cisterns and a few drilled wells are in use at 

Paris, and a large spring in the western part of the city supplies water 

for a number of families. Since the underground stream which supplies this spring passes under a thickly inhabited part of the city, the 

water can scarcely be regarded as safe, even though its use does not 

appear to be injurious.

Several hundred wells, ranging in depth from 30 to more than 100 

feet, have been drilled in Bourbon County, and in most localities they 

have been very successful; but in a few places they have obtained no 

water, and some wells near Shawhan encountered strong brine which 

was unfit for use. Salt-sulphur waters are usually found at depths 

ranging from 30 feet in some of the valleys to 100 feet or more on the 

hills.
BOYLE COUNTY. 99

Dug wells are numerous throughout the county, but they are gradually being abandoned in favor of cisterns, from which the water for 

domestic use is commonly obtained. The average depth of the dug 

wells does not exceed 35 feet. Two deep wells in this county, one 

about 80 feet and the other 120 feet, were sunk by digging and blasting. As the residual clay is in few places more than 20 feet thick, 

the amount of rock which had to be removed must have made the 

sinking of these wells a difficult task.

The cisterns in general use are as a rule well constructed, and they 

receive such excellent care that they form very satisfactory sources of 

supply. The use of cisterns and a small hand engine for fire protection in the small towns of the county is strongly recommended.

Besides the spring at Paris, four other springs in the county supply 

large quantities of water, and springs of moderate size are found on 

nearly every farm. Several of the large plantations are supplied

with water pumped fron

distributed to the buildin *s by gravity pressure.

BOYLE COUNTY.

SURFACE FEATURES.

The surface of Boyle County, on the southern border of the Blue

versified. On the eastern boundary of the 

ing between nearly perpendicular walls of 

limestone in a gorge cut to a depth of more than 300 feet below the

Grass region, is greatly d 

county is Dix River,

level of the gently rolling

southward nearly to the li 

South of the Louisville 

Southern Railroad is a de

Dix River receives the

drained bv the tributaries

springs to reservoirs or standpipes and

upland, which extends from the river westward to beyond Perryville and from the northern line of the county

tie of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, 

nd Nashville and west of the Cincinnati 

>ply dissected area belonging to the mounainous province. The mountains here are somewhat lower than

ass region, and few of them rise more than 

level of the upland. From the upland to 

ion is usually abrupt, though the hills on

farther east in the Blue G 

250 to 300 feet above the 

the mountains the transi 

the upland appear to be highest near the mountains.

Irainage of the eastern part of the county,

its principal tributaries being Balls Branch, Wilson Run, and Harrod 

Branch. A small area in the southeastern part of the county is

of the Hanging Fork, and the southwestern

part drains to Salt River through North Rolling Fork and its tributaries. The northern half of the county, west of Atoka, is drained 

3y Salt and Chaplin rivers, which head in the mountainous area of 

;he county, and, after flowing northward for several miles, turn 

westward to the Ohio.
100 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY. 

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual soils of Boyle County vary with the character of the 

underlying rock. On the shales of the Eden, Panola, and Ohio 

formations they consist of dense, heavy clays, at few places thicker 

than 2 or 3 feet; on the limestone formations they are usually much 

lighter and approach loam in texture; on the Waverly shale, which 

occupies only the mountain tops, they were derived from the sandstone layers, and consequently they have the texture of a sandy loam.

The unconsolidated materials in this county furnish directly little 

well or spring water; but here as elsewhere in the Blue Grass region 

the residual soils store considerable moisture and transmit it gradually to the crevices in the underlying rocks. The thin layers of 

gravelly alluvium found along some of the larger streams supply 

moderate quantities of water in the neighborhood of the streams.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The rocks exposed at the surface in Boyle County include the 

Highbridge, Lexington, and Winchester limestones, the Eden shale, 

limestones and shales of the Maysville formation, the blue shales and 

limestones of the Panola formation, and the Ohio and Waverly 

shales, and the county is divisible into water provinces depending 

entirely on the character of the surface rocks.

The Highbridge limestone is exposed in the gorge of Dix River and 

in the lower parts of some of its tributaries and furnishes fresh watei 

only along that stream.

The Lexington limestone forms the upper part of Dix River gorge, 

covers a large part of the upland between Dix and Salt rivers, and is 

also exposed along the headwaters of Chaplin River. The Winchestei 

limestone forms a narrow band south of the Lexington limestone 

from Dix River to the Cincinnati Southern Railway, and west of this 

railroad it spreads over broad areas on the upland along the headwaters of Salt and Chaplin rivers and on the divides between these 

streams. West of Perryville the Winchester limestone reaches 

nearly to the Washington County line, and northwest of Danville it 

occupies some small areas near the Mercer County line. The areas 

underlain by both the Lexington and Winchester limestones present 

very favorable conditions for springs and wells, and drilled wells 

usually obtain an abundance of water at depths less than 100 feet, 

Water found in either formation, however, below the level of the 

surface streams is occasionally salt and is in many wells sulphurous, 

sulphur water having been found in some wells 50 feet deep.

Outside of the Winchester limestone is the Eden shale, with the 

Garrard sandstone member occupying the upper 100 feet. The
BOYLE COUNTY. 101

Eden shale forms a narrow band north of the mountains and covers 

considerable areas between the headwaters of Salt and Chaplin 

rivers and to the south and west of Perryville. The shale layers of 

the Eden furnish small quantities of water, and the sandstones, which 

are somewhat better water-bearers than the shales, furnish fair quantities of soft water for both springs and shallow wells. The Eden 

shale furnishes no water for deep wells.

The limestones and shales of the Maysville formation occupy a 

narrow strip, 1 to 2 miles wide, along the northern edge of the mountains and some narrow belts along the large streams in the southwestern part of the county. In most localities these rocks furnish 

enough water for domestic and farm use. They contain few large 

springs, but small ones are numerous and shallow wells are uniformly 

successful. They might also yield water for deep wells.

The Panola formation includes blue shales and limestones, which 

are overlain by the Ohio shale. The principal exposures of these 

formations in Boyle County lie along the northern side of the mountains and border the valleys of North Rolling Fork and Scrub Grass 

creeks. The formations are feebly developed, and few of the exposures exceed half a mile in width. At Johnson City, however, the 

black shale occupies a strip a little over a mile wide. In some parts 

of the county the Ohio shale is less than 40 feet thick. The water 

supplied by these formations is abundant, but is usually highly mineralized, alum, sulphur, iron, and magnesia being common constituents. In one locality salt water has been obtained from the Ohio 

shale.

The Waverly shale covers a" large part of the area south of the 

Louisville and Nashville and west of the Cincinnati Southern railroads, 

its sandy beds forming the tops of the mountains. The thickness of 

the formation exceeds 300 feet in but few places in this county. The 

sandstone layers of the Waverly supply an abundance of soft water 

where they are exposed at the surface, and it is this formation that 

furnishes the numerous springs of so-called freestone water in the 

mountains. Few wells have been sunk in the Waverly, and deep 

wells in this formation would be unsuccessful.

The St. Peter sandstone underlies all of Boyle County and will 

probably yield flowing wells in some parts of Dix River gorge. The 

water from this formation is of the well-known "blue lick" type of 

the region.

DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES.

Springs, drilled or dug wells, and cisterns furnish the water for 

domestic supplies in this county. Underground water conditions 

are especially favorable in the valley of Salt River, where there are 

many drilled wells. In Perry ville, for example, there are about 100
102 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

drilled wells, ranging in depth from less than 25 to more than 100 

feet, with an average depth of less than 50 feet. These wells obtain 

water from the Winchester and Lexington limestones. At Mitchellsburg two drilled wells, about 100 feet deep, obtain water from the 

Panola formation, and springs and shallow wells in this formation 

will in most localities yield sufficient water for farm use. Several 

different kinds of mineral water are obtained from the Ohio shale at 

Junction City, Alum Springs, and Slielby City. At Mitchellsburg 

this shale supplies considerable white sulphur water, but the other 

types common to the formation have not been found at this place.

Dug wells are common throughout the county, but they are gradually being abandoned in favor of cisterns or drilled wells a change 

which would appear to be most desirable, as the drilled wells and 

cisterns, when properly constructed and cared for, are much less 

likely to be contaminated by impure surface water than are the dug 

wells.

BRACKEN COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Bracken County borders Ohio River in the southeastern part of the 

Blue Grass region. The altitude of Ohio River at the northwestern 

corner of the county is about 440 feet above sea level, and the higher 

parts of the county rise to a height of about 450 feet above the river. 

South of Brooksville there are some areas of level land, but elsewhere 

erosion has carved the surface into steep-walled valleys, separated by 

narrow divides.

The northern part of the county is drained by Locust Creek and 

other small tributaries of Ohio River. Licking River touches the 

southwest corner of the county, and the North Fork of the Licking 

forms the southern boundary and receives the drainage from nearly 

all of the southern half of the county. Its principal tributary within 

the county is Camp Creek. Kindale Creek, which heads near the 

southwest corner of Bracken County, crosses Harrison County and 

enters the Licking River north of Falmouth.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual materials of Bracken County consist of clays, yellow 

or reddish, and usually thin and stony on account of the great amount 

of erosion to which they have been subjected since the removal of the 

forests. In the northeastern part of the county, where the surface is 

nearly level, the residual clay is in places more than 3 feet thick. 

The glacial deposits of the county are restricted to the Ohio Valley, 

where they are represented by such materials as the conglomerate 

near Augusta. The terrace gravels rise to an altitude of 75 to 80 feet
BE AC KEN COUNTY. 103

above the river, and have the same general character here as in other 

counties of the Blue Grass region. Where they rest on dense rocks 

which are free from open crevices the residual materials yield a little 

water to springs and wells; elsewhere they supply water to the crevices 

in the underlying rock.

The alluvial deposits along the streams furnish an abundance of 

hard water, which is usually obtained by sinking drilled wells. Many 

springs issue from the alluvium along the banks of the Ohio, and wells 

procure large supplies at depths ranging from 80 to 110 feet.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The surface rocks of Bracken County include the Lexington limestone, which is exposed in the stream beds and on the lower parts of 

the slopes, in most places less than 100 feet above the streams; the 

Winchester limestone, exposed along the main Licking River, North 

Fork, Ohio River, and along the lower courses of the tributaries which 

enter these streams; the Eden shale, which occupies the slopes of the 

valleys and covers a considerable area on the upland, the most extensive exposures being found near the southwestern corner of the 

county; and the Maysville formation, found capping the highest hills, 

covering considerable areas of the upland in the northeastern part of 

the county. The Maysville formation is represented in this county 

chiefly by the lower members, but some of the limestone beds which 

outcrop on the eastern edge of the county probably belong near the 

middle of the group.

The Lexington limestone will probably furnish no fresh water in 

Bracken County, but it may yield salt or salt-sulphur water.

Where the Winchester limestone is exposed in the valleys of the 

streams it furnishes moderate quantities of hard water. In most parts' 

of the county, however, it will not yield fresh water, though deep 

wells may obtain from it salt-sulphur water.

In localities where it forms the surface rock the Eden shale yields 

moderate quantities of hard water to springs or shallow wells. Deep 

wells which penetrate this formation obtain either inadequate supplies or none at all.

The St. Peter sandstone underlies this county at depths ranging 

from less than 1,500 feet on the upland to about 1,000 feet in the 

Ohio Valley. This formation contains salt-sulphur water under sufficient head to give flowing wells in the valley of Ohio River and the 

lower parts of some of the large tributary streams. The Highbridge 

limestone, which rests on the St. Peter, will probably supply nothing 

but salt or salt-sulphur water in this part of the Blue Grass region.
104 WATERS OP BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY. 

DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES.

Water for domestic purposes is obtained in this county from springs, 

dug, drilled, or bored wells, and from cisterns, the cisterns forming 

the most satisfactory source of supply.

A few very successful wells have been sunk in the alluvium of the 

Ohio Valley, the only failure resulting from locating the well too 

near the valley wall, where rock was encountered. A drilled well at 

Cummins Brothers' mill furnishes a large supply of water which is 

very satisfactory for use in the boiler of the mill. At Brooksville 

several unsuccessful wells have been sunk, and it does not appear 

probable that much fresh water can be obtained by drilling. An oil 

well sunk on the outskirts of the town encountered a small amount 

of hard water near the surface and strong salt-sulphur water at a 

greater depth.

Dug wells from 20 to 30 feet deep and springs of moderate size are 

common on the upland, and they furnish an abundance of water 

during a wet season, but both springs and wells are apt to fail in 

dry weather. Some of the springs in the valleys of the small streams 

yield brackish sulphur water. Along the banks of the Ohio springs are 

numerous when the stream is low, but they are usually submerged 

during high water.

CAMPBELL COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Campbell County, lying between Licking and Ohio rivers, comprises the narrow belt of lowland along these streams and the upland 

area between them. The upland consists of a deeply dissected 

 plateau with narrow interstream areas. Ohio River, where it borders 

the county, has an altitude of less than 540 feet above sea level, and 

the highest points on the upland are about 400 feet above the river. 

Licking River is somewhat higher than the Ohio, and the valleys of 

both streams have precipitous sides. Along the Licking, southwest 

of Alexandria, at a height of nearly 200 feet above the stream, is a 

rock terrace capped with a few feet of Tertiary sand containing 

pebbles of chert derived from the younger geologic formations to the 

south.

The principal streams of the county are Philips Creek, a tributary 

of Licking River, and Twelvemile Creek, a tributary of the Ohio. A 

number of smaller tributaries join each of the rivers. These tributary 

streams have very steep gradients, many of them descending 200 or 

300 feet in a distance of 3 or 4 miles.
CAMPBELL COUNTY. 105

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The rock formations of Campbell County underlie a thin mantle of 

unconsolidated, yellow or reddish-brown soil. In some places near 

the Ohio River this material contains fragments of rock and is probably of glacial origin, but over most of the county it has been weathered from the underlying rock. The residual soil is largely clay over 

the shale areas, but over the limestone areas it has the texture of 

loam.

These residual clays contain considerable water, but they yield 

very little directly to wells or springs. They serve, however, a 

valuable purpose in storing moisture and feeding it to the crevices in 

the underlying rocks.

Alluvial terraces of sand and gravel with a maximum thickness 

somewhat exceeding 110 feet, are found along Ohio River, where 

they reach an altitude of over 550 feet above tide. The alluvium in 

the Licking Valley also consists of sand and gravel, but the percentage 

of sand is greater than along the Ohio Valley and the deposit is not so 

thick. A thin deposit of coarse alluvium containing fragments of limestone with some clay, is usually found bordering the small streams. 

Along Licking River the rock terraces carry a deposit of porous sandy 

gravel, which was probably at one time nearly continuous, but much 

of which has been removed by erosion, so that it now appears only 

in small isolated patches.

The alluvium of the Ohio Valley is very porous and contains a large 

amount of water. A number of wells obtain water from these beds at 

depths of 80 to 110 feet, and the height of the water in the wells 

usually varies with the stage of the river. The rise and fall of the 

water is most marked in wells which penetrate coarse gravel near the 

bank of the stream, and the fluctuations usually lag behind the corresponding stages in the river. Many springs emerge from the 

alluvium just above the level of the river. The water from these 

gravels is moderately hard, but the degree of hardness varies considerably.

The alluvium along Licking River supplies water to springs along 

the river bank, and it would also furnish water to wells. The quality 

of the water is practically the same as that in the sand and gravel of 

Ohio River. The alluvium of the small streams furnishes some water 

in wet weather, but the supply is likely to fail in periods of drought.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Lexington and Winchester limestones are largely under cover 

in this county. Where exposed in the bottoms of the small valleys 

they supply moderate quantities of hard water, but where buried
106 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

under the younger formations they usually furnish only brackish 

water, which may contain considerable hydrogen "sulphide.

The Winchester is overlain by from 250 to 300 feet of shales, with 

occasional beds of limestone, which represent the Eden shale. These 

rocks form the lower slopes of the stream valleys and rise to the 

upland near the borders of the county, and furnish small quantities 

of hard water to shallow wells and springs.

Above the Eden shale are the interbedded limestones and shales of 

the Maysville formation, which make the surface rocks over a narrow 

belt in the center of the upland portion of the county. Near the 

center of the county the limestone beds of the Maysville are the predominant surface rocks.

The rocks of the Maysville formation furnish the water supplies 

for shallow wells on the upland. Underground channels are numerous, and hence underground water conditions are good; but near 

the rivers, where, the more shaly portions of the lower part of the 

Maysville are at the surface, the underground channels are smaller 

and the water conditions less favorable. In the central part of the 

county rocks of the Maysville yield water to many good springs and 

wells, but outside the central area the springs are smaller and the wells , 

as a rule obtain small supplies. All the water from the MaysviJle 

formation is hard.

The Highbridge limestone is under cover in this county, but if penetrated by deep wells it would probably yield nothing but strongly 

mineralized water.

The St. Peter sandstone underlies Campbell County at depths of 

900 to 1,000 feet in the Ohio Valley and 1,400 to 1,500 feet on the 

upland. It yields a strong salt-sulphur water, under head sufficient 

to give flowing wells in the valleys of Ohio and Licking rivers and in 

the lower parts of the valleys of the small streams which enter these 

rivers.

CARROLL COUNTY.

SURFACE FEATURES.

Carroll County is in the western part of the Blue Grass region, with 

the Ohio River forming its northern boundary. The upland surface 

of the county is a deeply eroded plateau with narrow divides and 

steep-sided valleys, the highest parts rising to an elevation of about 

900 feet above tide or more than 450 feet above the Ohio. Along 

Eagle Creek, which forms the southeastern boundary of the county, is 

a well-developed rock terrace.

Kentucky and Little Kentucky rivers, which enter the Ohio in this 

county, have cut deep, narrow channels across it. The most important of the numerous smaller streams of the county are McCoots
CAREOLL COUNTY. 107

Creek, a tributary of Ohio River, and Whites Run and Eagle Creek, 

tributary to the Kentucky.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

A large part of the upland is covered by a few feet of heavy clay 

derived from the decomposition of the underlying rock, which usually 

contains much shale. On the upland west of the divide which separates the tributaries of Ohio River from those of other streams, the 

surface is mantled by glacial deposits consisting of residual clay 

mixed with fragments of limestone with occasional pebbles and 

bowlders of other rocks. East of Carrollton, in a gap in the rock 

ridge which separates the valleys of Ohio, and Kentucky rivers, the 

till forms a well-defined ridge less than one-half a mile wide a which 

appears to be a moraine. This moraine presents a nearly flat top, 

which is apparently due to a capping of loess like silt. The residual 

and glacial materials furnish very little water directly to wells, but 

they serve a valuable purpose in storing water and supplying it to the 

crevices in the underlying rock.

A heavy deposit of alluvium, consisting of sands and gravels which 

were deposited by waters from the melting of the Wisconsin ice sheet, 

is found in the Ohio Valley and fills the valley to a depth of slightly 

more than 100 feet, its surface forming terraces which rise to a height 

of nearly 100 feet above the stream. Wells 80 to 120 feet deep obtain 

an abundance of water in this deposit.

Along Eagle Creek and Kentucky River are thin deposits of alluvial 

sands and gravel which rise about 80 feet above the streams. The 

alluvium of Kentucky River furnishes a large quantity of water at 

depths of 100 feet or less, but that along Eagle Creek is in few places 

more than 30 feet thick and furnishes only moderate quantities of 

water. The thin deposits of coarse alluvium found along smaller 

streams is in most places but a few feet thick, and it yields water only 

during wet weather. The water obtained from all the alluvial 

deposits is moderately hard, but it is suitable for domestic use, and 

along Ohio and Kentucky rivers it is used for industrial purposes.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Winchester limestone is exposed in the valleys of all the principal streams in Carroll County, occupying the lower slopes, and above 

the Winchester, reaching to the lower parts of the upland, is the Eden 

shale. Resting on the Eden shale are the limestones and shales of 

the Maysville formation, which cover all the higher parts of the

a Leverett, Frank, Glacial formations of the Erie and Ohio basins: Mon. U. S. Geol, Survey, vol. 41, 

1902, p. 257.
108 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS EEGION, KENTUCKY.

upland. The Maysville and Richmond formations of this county 

contain a high percentage of shale, except in areas south of the Kentucky River, where the upper part of the Richmond consists of several 

feet of massive limestone.

The Winchester limestone furnishes some fresh water for shallow 

wells located in the valleys, but over the greater part of the county 

it will furnish nothing but salt-sulphur water. The water of the saltsulphur spring at Sanders, which comes from this formation, closely 

resembles the famous "Blue Lick" water but contains less mineral 

matter. This may be due to the entrance of surface water.

The Eden shale furnishes little water except near the surface, and 

wells and springs in this formation are apt to fail in dry weather.

The limestone layers of the Maysville and Richmond formations 

furnish water for the shallow wells and springs on the upland, the 

supply usually being ample for a farm, except in very dry weather. 

Most of the wells obtain water at depths less than 35 feet, and it is 

practically useless to sink wells deeper than 50 feet in the areas 

covered by these rocks. The water from the limestones of the Maysville and Richmond formations is hard, but is satisfactory for domestic use. The massive limestone of the Richmond formation supplies 

considerable water in many places.

Experience has shown that the Lexington and Highbridge limestones, when buried beneath the younger formations, as they are in 

Carroll County, furnish salt or salt-sulphur water, and it is useless to 

attempt to obtain fresh water from them.

The St. Peter sandstone, which should be reached at depths of 900 

to 1,000 feet in valleys of the streams bordering this county, will 

furnish flowing wells of salt-sulphur water in the valleys of Eagle 

Creek and Ohio and Kentucky rivers. On the upland the St. Peter 

lies deeper, and the water does not have sufficient head to force it to 

the surface.

CLARK COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Clark County is situated on the southern edge of the Blue Grass 

region. The surface is greatly diversified, varying from the gently 

rolling, nearly level, areas in the western and northern parts, with the 

streams flowing in broad shallow valleys and the divides flat topped 

or slightly rounded, to the rugged area in the southeast corner of the 

county, where the mountains rise 300 to 400 feet above the level of 

the upland. Along the southern boundary of the county the surface 

is cut by the deep narrow gorges of the tributaries of Kentucky River, 

and local variations in relief are found as that river passes from areas 

of easily eroded rocks where the slopes are gentle to areas in which 

the rocks are more resistant and form vertical cliffs.
CLAEK COUNTY. 109

The drainage of Clark County is divided almost equally between 

Licking and Kentucky rivers, the watershed which separates the two 

systems passing nearly east and west through Winchester. From 

the district north of this line the drainage is carried to Licking River 

through Stoner Creek, which heads a few miles east of Winchester. 

The principal tributaries of Stoner Creek in Clark County are Donelson Creek, Pretty Run, and Strodes Creek. The principal tributaries 

of Kentucky River within the county are Howards Creek, Twomile 

Creek, Fourmile Creek, and Upper Howards Creek. Boones Creek, 

on the western boundary of the county, and Lulbegrund Creek, on 

the eastern boundary, are important tributaries of Kentucky River 

which drain small areas of Clark County.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The unconsolidated materials consist of residual clays and loams 

on the shale and limestone areas of the upland and of alluvial sands 

and gravels in the gorge of Kentucky River. As in other counties of 

the region, the residual soils yield no water directly to wells, but they 

furnish considerable moisture to crevices in the underlying limestone. 

The alluvial sands and gravels in the gorge of Kentucky River would 

probably provide excellent supplies for shallow wells.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Highbridge limestone is exposed in the walls of the gorge of 

Kentucky River and in the lower parts of the tributary streams in 

the southwestern part of the county. Where it appears at the surface in the southern part of the county it will supply moderate quantities of hard water for springs and wells, but elsewhere in the county 

it will yield only salt or salt-sulphur waters.

The Lexington limestone is exposed over large areas along Strodes 

and Stoner creeks and on the upland in the southwestern part of the 

county, and some small exposures are also found in the stream valleys 

south of Winchester. Where this limestone is at the surface it furnishes an abundance of hard water for springs and wells, but at 

depths of about 50 feet in the valleys and 100 feet on the uplands 

it furnishes salt or salt-sulphur water. In the northeastern part of 

the county the salt-sulphur water is encountered in some wells at a 

depth of less than 50 feet. Some of the springs in this formation in 

the northwestern part of the county are exceptionally strong, and 

most of the drilled wells have been successful.

The Winchester limestone occupies a narrow strip along the boundary of the Lexington exposures and covers a large area in the northwestern part of the county, and furnishes moderate quantities of hard
110 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

water for springs and shallow wells. In wells exceeding 50 feet in 

depth the water is usually strongly saline, and in some of them it is 

sulphurous.

The Eden shale occupies a large area in the central and eastern 

parts of this county, the Garrard sandstone member reaching a thickness of more than 100 feet. The formation furnishes small quantities of hard water to shallow wells, but drilled wells obtain no water 

from it below a depth of 25 to 30 feet. Most of the springs in the 

Eden shale are weak, and many of them fail during dry weather.

Rocks of the Maysville formation cover a large part of the southeastern and eastern parts of the county, and the higher hills in the 

southeastern part of the county are capped by a deposit of sandy 

shales containing some beds of earthy limestone which may represent the Richmond formation. The Maysville and Richmond rocks 

furnish considerable water for springs and shallow wells, but few deep 

wells obtain any large supplies of water from them.

The Panola formation, which outcrops over a large area in the 

southeastern part of the county, consists of about 50 feet of limestone 

containing interbedded shale, in many places sandy, overlain by 

about 5 feet of yellow magnesian limestone. The limestone layers 

of the Panola yield in some localities considerable water for springs 

and shallow wells, but the water is usually strongly charged with 

magnesia.

The Ohio shale occurs in the same localities as the Panola formation, but the areas are somewhat more restricted. The Waverly 

shale is exposed in the southeastern part of the county, but its areal 

extent is small. The Ohio shale and the shales of the Panola formation furnish a large variety of mineral waters, the most common types 

being alum, chalybeate, and sulphur. In the eastern part of the 

county some of the springs from these shales supply medicinal waters 

for a health resort.

The St. Peter sandstone underlies Clark County and will probably 

yield flowing wells in Kentucky River gorge north of the large fault, 

and possibly in the region south of the fault. On the upland the 

water would come within 300 or 400 feet of the surface in but few 

localities. In this county, as elsewhere in the Blue Grass region, the 

water would be highly saline, and consequently unfit for domestic or 

industrial uses.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES.

The rocks of Clark County dip gently toward the southeast, the 

only important structural feature being the large faults in the southern part of the county. One of these extends from about a mile 

north of Ruckerville in a direction slightly south of west to a point 

about a mile north of Valley View, Kentucky River crosses this fault
FAYETTE COUNTY. Ill

six times on the southern line of the county, and thus the fault plane 

is alternately in Clark and Madison counties. Near Ruckerville this 

fault is represented by a small fold that gives place to a fault with a 

gradually increasing displacement toward the west, until it reaches 

a maximum of nearly 400 feet near Cleveland.

Another fault begins at Kentucky River below Jacksons Ferry and 

extends northeastward into Montgomery County near Kiddville. 

The maximum displacement along this fault is less than that of other 

faults, but it amounts to nearly 300 feet. In both of these faults the 

rocks on the northern side of the fault plane have been lifted with 

relation to those on the south. In the fault first mentioned the 

Highbridge limestone on the north side of the fault has been brought 

to the level of the Garrard sandstone member of the Eden shale on 

the south, and in the other fault the upper part of the Lexington 

limestone on the north side reaches the level of the Garrard sandstone 

member on the south.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL, SUPPLIES.

The water for Winchester, the only large city in Clark County, is 

taken from reservoirs on a small stream a few miles from the city, 

and the supply is ample for all the prospective needs of the community.

Many good springs are found in all parts of the county, the largest 

being in the northern half, but few of them supply more water than is 

needed for a single farm.

Drilled wells, ranging in depth from less than 50 to more than 125 

feet, are numerous in the vicinity of the Lexington and Eastern Railroad junction and to the north and west of Winchester. At Winchester and eastward along the Lexington and Eastern Railroad salt 

and salt-sulphur waters predominate, while to the north and west of 

Winchester ordinary hard water is usually obtained. In the southern 

part of the county there are few drilled wells, though some were 

reported at Kiddville, where they obtain mineral water. The many 

dug wells in the county are not much used, except when other sources 

of supply fail.

FAYETTE COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Fayette County lies in the very heart of the Blue Grass region. On 

its southern boundary is the gorge of the Kentucky, and except near 

this river, where many of the streams have cut narrow channels 

200 or 300 feet deep, the country is essentially a plateau with a gently 

rolling surface, presenting, however, considerable diversity. Variations in altitude of 50 to 100 feet within short distances are many,
112 WATEES OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

and the extreme range within the county is more than 500 feet, for 

there is fully that difference between the surface of the Kentucky and 

that of the highest parts of the upland.

The drainage of the entire county is into Kentucky River. That 

of the southeastern corner reaches the river through Boone Creek; 

that of the south-central part through East Hickman and Little Hickmaii creeks; and that of the north-central and northern parts through 

Elkhorn Creek, which is formed by the union of three branches 

North Elkhorn, South Elkhorn, and the town branch and which 

joins the Kentucky in the northern part of Franklin County. From 

the source of North Elkhorn Creek to the point where the water enters 

Kentucky River the distance is nearly twice as great as is the distance 

from the source of the same stream to Kentucky River on the south. 

The direction of the streams seems to have been established by the 

original slope of the surface of the Lexington peneplain and by the 

course of the underground drainage, which developed before the peneplain was uplifted. The divide between the northward and southward flowing streams extends from Brannon northeastward to 

Lexington, and thence southeastward past Chilesburg. The flat 

areas along this divide and along the divides between the other stream 

valleys form the catchment areas for underground streams. The best 

defined of these streams flows through Russell Cave, but there are 

many smaller ones. The presence of the underground channels is 

indicated by numerous sinks and springs.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATEES.

ITNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The rocks nearest the surface in Fayette County are overlain by 

residual material, usually red or yellow, varying in thickness from a 

few inches to more than 25 feet, the average being probably 5 or 6 

feet. On the Lexington and Highbridge limestones the soil is made 

up of the comparatively insoluble constituents of these rocks; on the 

Eden and Winchester formations it is made up in part of the insoluble 

constituents of the limestone layers and in part of the fragments into 

which the many shale layers of these formations break up on being 

exposed to weathering. The soils on the Lexington and Highbridge 

limestones are for the most part loamy, but those on the Winchester 

limestones and Eden shales usually contain a large amount of clay. 

In the residual clay on the Lexington limestone there are many 

nodules of chert arranged in bands, much as they were in the original 

rock. As the underlying limestone has been removed by solution the 

soil has settled, the most marked settlings taking place along the 

joints where the water circulated freely and the limestone was dissolved rapidly. This unequal sinking has caused the chert beds
FAYETTE COUNTY. 113

to bend down at the joints, leaving a series of arches over the heavy 

blocks of limestone. Because the solution along the joints was 

unequal the amount of downward curvature varies, and in some places, 

where the roof of a cavern has fallen, the chert is entirely gone.

Except in the city of Lexington, few wells obtain water from the 

residual material, but the material serves a valuable purpose in 

storing water and feeding it gradually to the underground streams 

in the limestone.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The rocks of Fayette County are all of Ordovician age, the formations ranging from the Eden shale down to and including part of the 

Highbridge limestone. The greater part of the surface is made up 

of the Lexington limestone, but the Winchester limestone lies at the 

surface over considerable areas in the northwestern and southeastern 

parts of the county. In the extreme southeastern corner the Highbridge limestone is exposed in an area a few square miles in extent. 

A strip of Eden shale several miles long and less than half a mile 

wide extends in a northeast-southwest direction through the center 

of the county. These rocks lie in an almost horizontal position, and 

except for the faults that have brought the Eden shale into contact 

with the Lexington limestone they have been subjected to very little 

disturbance.

The principal water-bearing formation in the county is the Lexington limestone, which supplies many springs, some of them of large 

size, and most of the drilled and dug wells. The waters of this limestone are of two kinds hard waters, with short underground courses, 

yielded by the shallow wells and by practically all of the springs; and 

mineral waters, usually alkaline, many of them containing salt, sulphur, and other mineral matter in noticeable quantities, supplied by 

many of the drilled wells in different parts of the county. Of these 

the flowing well on the Hisle farm is a noteworthy example. Underground drainage is favored by the topography of the area near Lexington and in the north half of the county, and in these areas water 

is abundant; elsewhere it is found in smaller quantities, but there 

are few farms on the Lexington limestone area without at least one 

good spring, and some of the farms have a large number of springs.

The Highbridge limestone furnishes considerable quantities of water 

for dug and drilled wells and a few springs of moderate size, but its 

surface is too deeply dissected to allow the formation of large underground streams. In quality the water is practically the same as that 

in the Lexington limestone, and ordinary hard waters and mineral 

waters are most important.

88942 IRR 233 09 8
114 WATERS OF BLUB GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

The Winchester limestone is of slight importance as a water bearer 

except in the southeastern part of the county, for the layers of shale 

separating the limestone beds prevent the formation of extensive 

underground channels. Shallow wells in this formation yield hard 

water, but some of the deeper wells penetrating it obtain salt-sulphur 

water.

The Eden shale is so dense as to be almost impervious, and the 

water supplied by it is always meager in quantity and often poor in 

quality.

The St. Peter sandstone underlies Fayette County, but the depth 

at which it would be reached is not certainly known. The horizon 

that supplies the flowing well at Frankfort was reached at a depth 

of 900 feet. In the Kentucky gorge, on the southern boundary of 

the county, the depth to this horizon would probably be less than 

900 feet. It is doubtful if the St. Peter sandstone would furnish a 

flowing well in the Kentucky River gorge, and as the head of the water 

from the St. Peter is only about 580 feet above sea level, no wells 

drilled on the upland to this formation would flow. The water from 

the St. Peter is too highly mineralized for domestic or industrial 

uses, but it is considered valuable for medicinal purposes. Its composition is shown by the analysis of the water from the Old 76 

distillery. (See p. 212.)

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL SUPPLIES.

The only public supply in the county is in the city of Lexington 

(see list on p. 85), but the private supplies of the stock farms rival 

the best city supplies in efficiency and in detail of construction. 

Many of the smaller farms provide water for stock by means of 

ponds constructed to retain surface water, but most of the large 

farms use underground water, either from springs or wells. In some 

places the spring water is merely impounded, but in others it is 

pumped to a tank from which it is distributed to the different parts 

of the farm. The wells in most common use are of the drilled type 

and range in depth from 30 to nearly 300 feet. The height to which 

the water rises varies greatly in different wells, and wide variations 

in the quantity and quality of the supply are also shown. The only 

flowing well noted in the county is on the Hisle farm.

The uncertainty of wind power has led to the adoption of the 

gasoline engine for pumping water on most of the large stock farms.

The water of the shallower drilled wells is apt to be hard, with 

much lime and magnesia and smaller quantities of other mineral 

compounds, while that of many of the deeper wells is alkaline, containing more or less salt and sulphur and other less noticeable ingredients. Although these general qualities are ascribed to the shallow 

and deep wells, respectively, it does not follow that all deep wells
FAYETTE COUNTY. 115

contain highly mineralized waters or that shallow wells never supply 

them. The difference appears to be based on the relation of the 

underground stream to the surface drainage. Attention is called to 

the chemical analyses (Nos. 24 and 25, p. 212) of the remarkable alkaline water of the well at the depot of the Cincinnati Southern Railway in Lexington.

A few wells, ranging in depth from 15 to 30 feet, dug and blasted 

into the rock, are still used in this county to supply water for stock 

and domestic purposes. The water from these wells is always hard, 

the supply is apt to fail during periods of drought, and they are subject to pollution by surface water. They can not therefore be 

regarded as forming an entirely satisfactory source of supply. Most 

of the rock wells extend down to the solid limestone, and as a rule 

the water seeps in from the earth or cracks in the rock, although in 

some wells a definite underground stream is encountered. A good 

example of this is furnished by a 15-foot well at Athens, in which 

the water rises nearly to the top within a few hours after each rain 

and then gradually falls until it reaches its normal level with a depth 

of 3 feet.

On most farms the water for drinking is obtained from cisterns, 

and on some of them the entire domestic supply is drawn from this 

source. The cisterns are as a rule well cemented and many of them 

are provided with filtering devices. Chain pumps are in high favor 

because of the aeration resulting from the falling back into the well 

of much of the water raised. Such aeration is, however, of doubtful 

value, and the use of chain pumps allows dust and insects to get 

into the water and increases the possibility of contamination. More 

effective filtration and the adoption of pumps that will exclude foreign matter are greatly to be desired.

Cisterns also form the chief source of supply for most of the small 

towns in various parts of the county. In some settlements of more 

than a hundred people only one or two wells may be in use.

In the city of Lexington, in addition to the public supply, many 

cisterns and a few wells furnish water for domestic purposes. The 

danger of pollution of underground waters in a city like Lexington is 

great, and the use of such waters for domestic supplies can not be too 

strongly condemned. The underground drainage appears to converge toward the town branch of Elkhorn Creek, and the wells outside 

the city should be comparatively free from contamination by city 

sewage. If the custom of allowing city sewage to enter the underground channels were entirely discontinued, the quality of the underground waters wpuld undoubtedly be improved; but the danger of 

pollution by surface drainage would still remain and the waters would 

probably never be entirely safe for domestic use.
116 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

FLEMING COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Fleming County, located on the eastern edge of the Blue Grass 

region, includes on its eastern border a strip 6 or 8 miles wide belonging to the mountainous part of the State. The topography of this 

strip is rugged, the flat-topped mountains rising abruptly 400 to 500 

feet above the valleys, which are from 1 to 2 miles wide. West of the 

mountains is a belt of country 10 to 15 miles wide whose gently rolling 

surface presents broad interstream areas separated by shallow valleys.

The southern and a large part of the western boundary of the 

county is formed by Licking River, which receives the drainage of the 

southern part of the county through Fox and Locust creeks and many 

smaller streams, and of the central part through Fleming Creek, 

which enters the river just west of the Robertson County line. These 

streams flow in valleys cut from 100 to 300 feet below the surface of 

the upland and separated by divides in many places only a few rods 

wide. The drainage of the northwestern part of the county reaches 

the Licking through Johnson, Elk, and Buchanan creeks, and that 

of the northern and northeastern parts enters the North Fork of the 

Licking through a number of small streams.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual materials of Fleming County vary with the geologic 

formations from which they were derived. On the Eden shale the 

soil is a thin, stony, yellow or reddish clay; on the rocks of the Maysville and Richmond formations brownish or reddish clays are found, 

which are usually thicker and more porous than the clays derived 

from the shale formations; on the Silurian and Devonian shales the 

deposits are dense, light-colored clays. The Silurian limestones decompose to a rather porous red clay. The Waverly shale occurs only 

on the slopes of the mountains and is covered with coarse debris 

which has fallen or been washed down the hillsides; the sandstone of 

the Waverly disintegrates to a light sandy loam, which is in most 

places very porous.

The residual materials furnish no water to wells or springs except 

where they rest on dense rocks like the Eden or Siluro-Devonian 

shales, but where underlain by limestone formations they may store 

considerable water, which is, in part, supplied to the crevices in the 

rock.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Along the western edge of the county the Winchester limestone is 

exposed in the valleys of Licking River and its principal tributaries 

but not far from Sherburne its eastward dip carries it below the
FLEMING COUNTY. 117

drainage levels. In the valleys of the streams where it forms the 

surface rock this formation yields some hard water for wells, but in 

other parts of the county water obtained from it will contain salt and 

salt-sulphur compounds.

Along the streams and on the upland in the western part of the 

county the Eden shale forms the surface rock, but few of its exposures 

are more than 3 or 4 miles wide. This shale furnishes some water 

for springs and shallow wells, which are, however, apt to fail in dry 

weather. At depths of 30 feet or more below the surface it yields 

no water.

East of the exposures of Eden shale is a belt of limestone of the 

Maysville formation, which passes beneath the Richmond formation 

along a line extending from a point south of Tilton northeastward to 

about a mile east of Flemingsburg, and thence northward to the north 

line of the county. The eastern, boundary of the Richmond formation follows Licking River from the east line of the county to a point 

near Wyoming, Bath County, and thence passes northward in a. 

sinuous line west of Grange City, Millsboro, and Poplar Plains and 

east of Flemingsburg and Mount Gilead. The Richmond extends 

much farther east in the valleys than on the uplands, and some narrow 

bands or isolated exposures of it are found east of the line just mentioned. The limestones of the Maysville formation provide exceptionally good conditions for underground water and in most places 

furnish an abundance of hard water for springs and shallow wells. 

Drilled wells 'may encounter gas or water containing petroleum or 

hydrogen sulphide gas at depths of 60 to 150 feet. The rocks belonging to the Richmond formation as a rule present less favorable conditions for underground water than those of the Maysville, because of 

the high percentage of shale they contain; but most of the springs in 

this formation yield moderate amounts of hard water, and most of the 

shallow wells obtain good supplies.

Above the rocks of the Richmond formation and covering all the 

rest of the county except the mountainous areas are the shales and 

limestones of the Silurian and Devonian periods, consisting, in 

ascending order, of about 25 feet of yellow magnesian limestones containing beds of shale in the lower and upper parts, nearly 100 feet 

of blue shale, and 150 feet of black carbonaceous shale. In some 

localities a thin deposit of concretionary iron ore is found at the top 

of the lower shale bed; and at one locality about 5 feet of yellow 

magnesian limestone was observed at the base of the black shale, but 

neither of these deposits appears to be widely distributed in the county. 

Linney correlated the lower shales and limestones to within a few feet 

of the black shale with the Silurian; the black shale with the beds of 

limestone at the base he considered Devonian.05 The blue shale of this.

a Linney, W. M., Geology of Bath and Fleming counties: Geol. Survey Kentucky, 1886, pp. 67-77.
118 WATERS OP BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

series presents unfavorable conditions for underground water, though 

some wells derive a little water from the unconsolidated materials 

above it. The limestones usually furnish shallow wells with an 

abundance of hard water, commonly containing considerable magnesia. The black (Ohio) shale supplies many springs of highly 

mineralized water, usually containing either alum or sulphur.

Above the Ohio shale is a greenish, even-bedded sandstone, about 

180 feet thick, with many interbedded shale layers. This sandstone 

caps the mountains, and being more resistant than the shale below, 

it prevents rounding of the slopes. The sandstone, with its interbedded shale, was called sub-Carboniferous sandstone by Linney a 

and Waverly shale by Campbell.6 The Waverly shale yields an 

abundance of soft water, supplying the well-known "freestone" 

springs so numerous along the mountain sides. It is probable, also, 

that the spring water of the Ohio shale was originally absorbed by 

the Waverly shale and became mineralized after emerging from that 

formation during its passage through the joints in the shale.

The Lexington and Highbridge limestones and the St. Peter sandstone are deeply buried in Fleming County, but would yield salt 

and salt-sulphur waters to deep wells. The water from the St. Peter 

would probably rise nearly to the surface in the valley of Licking 

River at the western boundary of the county, but it is doubtful if 

surface flows could be obtained except near the northwest corner of 

the county, where a small area is less than 590 feet above sea level.

FRANKLIN COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Franklin County, which lies in the southern part of the Blue Grass 

region, includes two distinct topographic provinces which coincide 

closely with the exposures of different geologic formations. That 

part of the county lying east of Kentucky River and south of a line 

drawn from Switzer to the Kentucky just north of the mouth of 

Elkhorn Creek is an upland province, with a gently rolling surface 

of low relief; the rest of the county, west of the river, is deeply dissected by innumerable valleys separated by narrow ridges. In general, the transition from one of these provinces to the other is gradual. 

Altitudes within the county have a range exceeding 400 feet.

Kentucky River crosses this area from north to south, receiving 

the drainage of the county through Elkhorn and Benson creeks and 

numerous smaller streams. From the south line of the county to the 

mouth of Elkhorn Creek the walls of the Kentucky gorge are precipitous; from this point to the northern end of the county a wella Linney, W. M., Geology of Bath and Fleming counties: Geol. Survey Kentucky, 1886, pp. 78, 79. 

6 Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No. 46), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1898.
FRANKLIN COUNTY. 119

defined rock terrace, from 80 rods to 1 mile wide, rises to an altitude 

of about 500 feet above sea level. Above this terrace the valley walls 

rise abruptly to the level of the upland. This broad terrace is well 

developed along Elkhorn Creek, where it reaches an altitude of over 

600 feet above tide. Along the Kentucky south of the mouth of 

Elkhorn Creek, where the terrace may be observed at several points, 

it is as a rule less than one-half mile wide. In some places this terrace 

surrounds hills that have been separated from the upland by the 

erosion of the streams. Such isolated remnants of the upland may 

be seen at Bethel Church on Elkhorn Creek and at Gratz and Frankfort on Kentucky River. The separation of these hills from the 

upland appears to have taken place in part isince the formation of the 

rock terrace, for the channels surrounding them have been excavated 

below the level of the terrace.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

XJNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual materials on the limestone areas of the county comprise brownish or reddish loams derived from the decomposition of 

the underlying rocks; on areas underlain by shale they consist of 

stiff yellow or red clays. These materials furnish little water for 

wells or springs except where they are underlain by relatively impervious rock, and even in such places the supply is small and is apt to 

fail in dry weather.

Along Kentucky River and on the limestone terraces that border 

the principal streams are considerable areas of sandy alluvium which 

yield large quantities of water to springs. Few wells have been sunk 

in the alluvium in Franklin County, but those drilled obtained an 

abundance of moderately hard water at depths ranging from 50 to 

80 feet. This deposit will furnish large quantities of water only in 

places where it extends below the level of the river; where it rests 

upon the limestone terraces the water escapes through channels in 

the rock.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Highbridge limestone is exposed along Kentucky River from 

the southern line of the county to a point about 9 miles beyond 

Frankfort, where its dip carries it below water level. In localities 

where it forms the surface rock it furnishes hard water for shallow 

wells; but where it is covered by other formations it yields brines 

which are as a rule charged with sulphur.

The Lexington limestone forms most of the surface rock from the 

southern line of the county to Switzer and on the terraces along the 

principal streams, and is also exposed along Benson Creek from 

Kentucky River to the west line of the county. In most places it
120 WATEKS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

contains many water-bearing channels which supply an abundance 

of water for both springs and wells, and nearly all the large springs of 

the county get their water from this formation. Many of the wells 

sunk fcelow the level of the surface streams, however, obtain salt or 

salt-sulphur water, and water of this character may be expected in 

the Lexington limestone where it is covered by younger formations.

A narrow strip bordering the exposures of Lexington shows the 

Winchester limestone, and the formation is also exposed in a large 

area east of Kentucky River in the southern part of the county. In 

most localities where it forms the surface rock the Winchester furnishes moderate quantities of hard water to springs and shallow wells; 

but wells which penetrate the limestone to depths below the level of 

the surface drainage obtain salt or salt-sulphur.

The Eden shale is exposed over a large part of the county west of 

Kentucky River and north of Elkhorn Creek on the east side of the 

river, and furnishes small quantities of water for springs and shallow 

wells. Farther below the surface, however, this rock is too dense to 

yield water.

The limestone of the Maysville formation may occur on some of the 

high hills near the Shelby County line, but it is not extensively developed in Franklin County.

The St. Peter sandstone lies at a depth of 790 feet in Kentucky 

River gorge near the southern line of the county and 900 feet at 

Frankfort. On the upland the maximum depth to this formation 

would probably be less than 1,500 feet. Flowing wells of saltsulphur water can be obtained from the St. Peter wherever the altitude of the surface is less than 580 feet above sea level.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES.

. The rocks of Franklin County dip slightly toward the southwest and 

present no interesting structural features except the faults in the 

northern and eastern areas. In the eastern part of the county are 

two faults which extend from south of Stamping Ground northwest 

into Franklin County. The area between these faults has been 

dropped so that the Eden shale is brought into contact with the 

Lexington limestone. Prof. Arthur M. Miller has informed the 

writer that there is another small fault west of Kentucky River in 

the northern part of Franklin County.

DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES.

Dug or drilled wells, springs, and cisterns supply the greater part 

of the water used in Franklin County. The water supply of Frankfort is taken from Kentucky River, and as no cities are located on the 

river above that city the supply should be satisfactory. A large 

amount of sediment in the water renders it somewhat objectionable
GALLATIN COUNTY. 121

for some purposes, but this sediment might be removed at comparatively small expense by the use of a mechanical filter.

The alluvium of the Kentucky gorge formerly supplied water for 

a number of wells at Frankfort, 80 to 110 feet deep, but these wells 

have nearly all been closed in accordance with the advice of the 

health officers.

Drilled wells from 50 to 150 feet deep are numerous, and most of 

them yield excellent supplies, though the water of some of the deeper 

wells is-sulphurous. In the vicinity of Jett there are nearly a score of 

drilled wells. At Frankfort drilled wells have been less successful, 

and some absolute failures are reported. The Murray well at Frankfort is 1,250 feet deep and encountered a strong flow of salt-sulphur 

water in the St. Peter sandstone at a depth of 900 feet. The water 

from this well was formerly sold for medicinal purposes, but the sales 

gradually diminished until the enterprise was abandoned. As the 

water undoubtedly has considerable value in the treatment of certain 

diseases of the organs of digestion and excretion it should find a 

ready market.

Many cisterns are used in the areas of the county underlain by the 

Eden shale, for the water furnished by this formation is in some 

places poor in quality, is meager in quantity, and the supply is apt 

to fail entirely in very dry weather.

GALLATIN COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Gallatin County occupies a jiarrow area between Ohio River and 

Eagle Creek in the northwestern part of the Blue Grass region. 

Except along the streams, where level strips of alluvium are found, the 

surface of the county is a deeply dissected plateau, with altitudes 

ranging from 445 feet above sea level at the Ohio River level to more 

than 900 feet on the upland. A rock terrace along the valley of 

Eagle Creek has an altitude of about 530 feet above sea level. Leveret.t a mentions an abandoned valley nearly 650 feet above'sea level, 

which passes from Eagle Creek, 2 miles north of Glencoe, to Ohio River 

just north of Warsaw, and is closely connected with a similar valley 

which extends northward to the South Fork of Big Bone Creek.

A narrow belt on the east side of the county drains into Eagle 

Creek, but the principal drainage is into Ohio River through Stephens 

Creek, Craigs Creek, the South Fork of Big Bone Creek, and numerous 

smaller streams. All of these streams descend from the level of the 

upland to the Ohio within a very few miles, and most of the valleys 

have precipitous slopes.

a Leverett, Frank, Glacial formations of the Erie and Ohio basins: Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 41, 

1902, pp. 114-115.
122 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The glacial deposits in Gallatin County consist of patches of clay 

containing some pebbles, and are practically restricted to the area 

draining to Ohio River.

The residual materials that cover so large a part of the county are 

made up of yellow to reddish clays which have been derived from 

rocks containing a large percentage of shale, and hence they are 

usually heavy. Where the residual materials rest on the Eden shale 

they supply a little water to wells. They also feed water to underlying rocks from whose crevices the wells and springs of the upland 

draw most of their supplies.

The usual deposit of alluvium, which is here arranged in three terraces lying at altitudes of 450, 470, and 495 feet above tide, is found 

in the Ohio Valley. An alluvial deposit consisting of sand with a few 

pebbles occurs in the valley of Eagle Creek, and thin patches of 

alluvium were observed on the terrace bordering Eagle Creek and in 

the abandoned channels which extend from this creek to Ohio River 

and Big Bone Creek. The alluvium of the Ohio Valley supplies 

large quantities of moderately hard water at depths ranging from 60 

to 110 feet, and a number of springs emerge from it along the banks 

of the river. The alluvium along Eagle Creek furnishes some water 

for springs and shallow wells, but the supplies from these sources are 

very little utilized.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Lexington and Highbridge limestones are deeply covered by 

younger formations over the greater part of Gallatin County, though 

the Lexington is exposed along Ohio River in the vicinity of Warsaw. At such depths these formations furnish only salt or saltsulphur water, unfit for any ordinary purposes.

The Winchester limestone occupies the lower slopes of the Ohio 

Valley and is also exposed along Eagle Creek on the east side of the 

county and in the valley of Big Bone Creek on the northern boundary. 

In the valleys of the streams where it is at the surface this limestone 

yields to shallow wells a supply of ordinary hard water, such as is commonly found in limestones; in localities where it is deeply covered, as 

over a large part of the county, its water is salt and as a rule contains 

sulphur.

The Eden shale occurs in the valleys of all the large streams and 

reaches well up toward the upland over a large part of the county. 

This formation yields practically no water to deep wells, and the 

moderate supply for shallow wells enters as a rule at or near the base 

of the unconsolidated materials.
GAERAED COUNTY. 123

The lower members of the Maysville formation cover the higher 

parts of the upland in Gallatin County. These rocks contain much 

shale and the underground channels are small. Except in very dry 

weather, however, they supply sufficient water for farm use, most of 

the wells being less than 35 feet deep. Springs are numerous in this 

formation, and some of them flow during the driest seasons.

The St. Peter sandstone probably lies 700 to 900 feet deep in the 

valleys of the principal streams and would undoubtedly yield saltsulphur water, such as it supplies elsewhere in the region, under 

sufficient head to flow in the valleys of Ohio Eiver and Eagle Creek 

where they border Gallatin County.

G.ARRARD COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Garrard County is on the southern edge of the Blue Grass region, 

its northern boundary being formed by Kentucky Eiver and a part 

of its western boundary by Dix Eiver. The surface of the northwestern and central parts of the county is gently rolling, except near 

the boundaries, where the streams have cut deep, narrow gorges from 

100 to 400 feet below the level of the upland; that of the northeastern part is deeply dissected by numerous streams, whose deep 

Talleys are separated by narrow divides; and that of the southern end 

is diversified by mountains which rise abruptly to a height of nearly 

500 feet above the level of the broad intervening valleys. Some of 

the finest blue grass land of the region is found in the northern end 

of this county.

The drainage of the eastern part of the county passes into Kentucky 

Eiver through Paint Lick Creek; that of the central part reaches the 

Kentucky through Sugar, Davis, and Cane creeks and several smaller 

streams. The drainage of the western and northern parts of the 

county is to Dix Eiver, chiefly through Boones, Drakes, and Coopers 

creeks.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual materials in Garrard County exhibit wide variation 

in texture,, and consequently they differ greatly in water capacity in 

different parts of the county. On the Lexington and Winchester 

limestones and the limestones of 'the Kichmond formation they are, 

as a rule, rather heavy clays, having high storage capacity, but for 

the most part they supply the water to crevices in the underlying 

rock rather than directly to wells. On the Eden and Siluro-Devonian 

shales the residual materials supply small quantities of water directly 

to springs and wells. On the Garrard sandstone member of the Eden
124 WATERS OP BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

and on the Waverly shale the residual materials consist chiefly of 

sand, and they absorb considerable moisture, which readily sinks into 

the underlying rock.

Narrow strips of alluvium, in some places more than 50 feet thick, 

consisting of coarse sand containing layers of chert pebbles, are found 

along Kentucky River. The alluvium supplies abundant water for 

springs. A well sunk into it across the river from Camp Nelson 

obtained water at a depth of 50 feet.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Highbridge limestone reaches its maximum thickness of 400 

feet in the northern part of the county across the river from Camp 

Nelson, and its upper layers are found near the top of the Kentucky 

gorge. It is exposed along the northern line of the county to a point 

about 2 miles above Camp Nelson and along Dix River nearly to the 

.head of the gorge. Some excellent springs are found in this limestone along Kentucky River, and it might also yield water for shallow wells in the bottom of the gorge. On the upland, where it is 

covered by younger formations, it will yield no fresh water, but salt 

and salt-sulphur water can be obtained in it in some places.

The Lexington limestone is found in. the Kentucky gorge above 

the Highbridge, and it forms the bottom of the gorge from the eastern end of the Highbridge exposure to the northeast corner of the 

county. It is also exposed along Dix River, in the valleys of Sugar 

and Paint Lick creeks, and over a large part of the upland in the 

western part of the county. This formation supplies water for springs 

along Kentucky River and in various places where exposed on the 

upland. Shallow wells on the upland also usually obtain an abundant supply of hard water, but deep wells drilled in it obtain highly 

mineralized salt and salt-sulphur waters.

The Winchester limestone forms part of the valley slopes in the 

northeastern part of the county and is exposed in a narrow band 

bordering the upland areas of the Lexington. Where it forms the 

surface rock it furnishes moderate quantities of hard water, but 

below the level of the surface streams and where it is covered by 

younger geologic formations its waters, as a rule, contain salt or salt 

and sulphur.

The Eden shale is exposed over a large area in the northeastern 

part of Garrard County and extends in a narrow band along the 

eastern edge of the Winchester limestone from about a mile east of 

Camp Dick Robinson southward to Dix River. The shale member 

of this formation yields small quantities of water to springs and 

shallow wells, but none to deep wells. The sandstone member also 

is in most places rather a poor water bearer, yielding little water 

except in localities where it is exposed at the surface. In the east-
GABEAED COUNTY. 125

ern part of the county, however, some of the- more sandy layers 

furnish considerable water for springs and shallow wells.

The Maysville and Richmond formations are exposed over a large 

area between the northern edge of the mountains and a sinuous line 

drawn from Paint Lick to Camp Dick Robinson, and they are seen 

also in the valleys of some of the streams in the southern part of the 

county. They include nearly 200 feet of interbedded limestones and 

shales and about 100 feet of sandy limestones and shales. It seems 

possible that the sandy shales and possibly some of the upper beds 

of limestone belong to the Richmond formation. In the south-central part of the county the limestones of the Maysville are in many 

places very pure and the beds are unusually thick. They contain 

many subsurface channels, which afford favorable conditions for 

underground water, springs are numerous, and shallow wells are 

uniformly successful. The water of some of the deeper wells is, 

however, brackish or sulphurous.

The rocks of the Richmond formation are more shaly than those 

of the Maysville, and underground water conditions are less favorable, but springs and wells deriving water from them nevertheless 

yield ample supplies for farm use.

The Panola formation is exposed in a narrow band on the northern 

edge of the mountainous district and along some of the streams 

within it, and it occupies areas of considerable size west of the mountains. The shales of the Panola yield little water, but the limestone 

layers carry large quantities of water containing lime, magnesia, and 

other inorganic material.

The Ohio shale forms a narrow belt along the mountainous area 

and appears on a few isolated hills in the southwestern part of the 

county. This rock is generally traversed by joints which admit 

large quantities of water, and consequently numerous springs and 

shallow wells are supplied by it. The water in this formation is 

everywhere highly mineralized alum water, chalybeate water, and 

sulphur being the most common types furnished by it.

The Waverly shale occupies the tops of the mountains in the 

southeastern part of the county. It has a maximum thickness exceeding 300 feet. The shale beds of the Waverly contain very little 

water, but the sandstones which cap nearly all the hills contain 

abundant supplies of soft water, which emerges in springs at the top 

of the underlying shale.

The St. Peter sandstone underlies the entire county and will furnish flowing wells in the lower part of Dix River gorge and in the 

gorge of Kentucky River north of the large fault. Here, as elsewhere 

in the region, the water of the St. Peter would be of such quality as 

to unfit it for ordinary purposes.
126 WATERS Or BLUE GRASS REGION,, KENTUCKY. 

STRUCTURAL FEATURES.

The only important structural features exhibited by the rocks of 

Garrard County are the faults which occur in the northern and southern areas. The west end of the Kentucky River fault enters this 

county just south of Camp Nelson and extends southwestward several miles to the point at which it finally disappears. The displacement along this fault in Garrard County is less than 200 feet. The 

existence of two faults is shown by Campbell a in the southeastern 

part of the county. The maximum displacement of one of these 

faults has brought the Waverly shale into contact with the Panola 

formation. The presence of faults at the base of Burdetts Knob 

was noted by Owen b during the first geologic survey of the State.

DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES.

Springs and dug or drilled wells form the principal sources of 

water supply for all domestic purposes in Garrard County. Springs 

are everywhere numerous, and they present considerable variety in 

composition. Soft water is reported in the vicinity of Point Leavell 

and Buckeye and at various places in the mountains; sulphur, chalybeate, epsom, and alum springs are common along the northern side 

of the mountains, and an alum spring occurs at the foot of Burdetts 

Knob. Springs of ordinary hard water are found in the northern 

and central parts of the county, and in the southern part of the 

county are some magnesian springs.

Sufficient water for a farm is as a rule obtained by dug wells less 

than 35 feet deep. In the western part of the county and near Paint 

Lick, Hyattsville, and Cartersville are a number of drilled wells 

ranging in depth from 60 to 100 feet. Near Cartersville drilled wells 

obtain sulphur water at depths of 25 to 50 feet. At Lancaster a drilled 

well sunk to a depth of 1,100 feet in an effort to procure a supply for 

the city obtained a small supply of fresh water near the surface and 

a large flow of salt-sulphur water at a depth of several hundred feet. 

The supply of Lancaster is now taken from a small stream which 

receives no objectionable drainage, and the water is very satisfactory, 

but considerable water is still used from shallow wells. It is doubtful 

if any of the well water is as pure as the city supply.

GRANT COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Grant County is in the north-central part of the Blue Grass region. 

A narrow ridge, known as "Dry Ridge," with a maximum altitude of 

somewhat more than 950 feet, crosses the county from north to south

a Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No. 46), Geol. Atlas TJ. S., TJ. S. Geol. Survey, 1898. 

6 Owen, David Dale, Third Kept., Geol. Survey Kentucky, 1877.
GRANT COUNTY. 127

and forms the divide between the tributaries of Eagle Creek and 

those of Licking River. The divides between the smaller streams are 

as a rule somewhat lower, but have a nearly uniform height, which 

represents the approximate levelof the plateau which has been dissected. The streams all flow in narrow steep-sided valleys which 

have been carved in the plateau.

Crooked, Fox, and Grassy creeks, tributaries of Licking River, 

receive practically all the drainage of the area east of Dry Ridge. 

Eagle Creek, which crosses the western edge of the county, receives 

the drainage of it's western half. Its principal tributaries in Grant 

County are Tenmile, Clarks, and Grassy creeks.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Residual soil formed by the breaking up of the underlying rock 

covers the surface of the county. Near the northern end of the 

county, where the original rock contained many limestone layers, 

the soil approaches a loam in texture, but farther south, where shales 

predominated, the decomposition product is a heavy clay. In but 

few places is the residual clay more than 3 or 4 feet thick, and in 

many localities it is only a few inches thick.

Small patches of alluvium occur along all the large streams, but it 

is for the most part coarse material which was derived from the decomposition of the rocks on the slopes. A rock terrace along Eagle Creek 

is covered by a thin deposit of sandy alluvium.

Both the alluvium and the residual clay store considerable water 

and supply it gradually to the underlying rock, but they yield little 

water directly to wells. An exception to this rule is found where 

these unconsolidated materials rest on dense shale, for in such places 

the water is obtained directly from the loose material or from its 

plane of contact with the underlying rock.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Winchester limestone is exposed in the valleys of Eagle Creek 

and several -small streams, and where it is at the surface it generally 

furnishes good supplies of hard water. In the bottoms of the valleys, 

however, wells in this formation obtain a brackish sulphur water, and 

on the upland, where it might be reached by drilling deep wells, its 

waters would be salt or salt-sulphur in character.

The Eden shale is exposed over a small area of the upland near the 

southern end of the county and on the slopes of all the principal 

streams. Here, as elsewhere in the Blue Grass region, this formation 

affords practically no water, except near the surface where small 

cracks have formed in the rock. Moreover, the soil above the shale 

is so dense that it yields little water. For this reason springs are
128 WATERS OF BLUE GKASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

few and small and wells are not very successful in the areas of its 

outcrop.

The surface rocks over the greater part of the upland belong to the 

Maysville formation. The highest rocks of this formation that are 

exposed in the county are the heavy beds of limestone found north of 

Crittenden; south of Crittenden the lower and more shaly beds 

appear at the surface. The limestones of the Maysville near the 

northern end of the county favor the formation of underground channels whose presence is indicated by small sink holes. Farther south 

the rocks contain a much larger proportion of shale, and the underground channels are small. The soil over the more shaly areas 

affords but little water to the underlying rock, and consequently the 

underground supplies are limited. The water from these rocks is as 

a rule hard.

The Lexington and Highbridge limestones and the St. Peter sandstone might be reached by deep wells, but they would afford only 

salt or salt-sulphur waters. The water in the St. Peter is under sufficient head to rise to a height of nearly 600 feet above sea level, but 

this head would give flowing wells, if at all, only in the lowest part 

of the valley of Eagle Creek.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL SUPPLIES.

The springs of Grant County are nearly all small, and some of them 

fail in dry weather. The only important mineral spring is Gum Lick 

Spring, in the southeastern part of the county, which supplies a good 

quality of salt-sulphur water. This spring was formerly visited by 

many persons who carried the water away for drinking.

Few dug wells in Grant County are more than 35 feet deep, and in 

dry weather they yield very little water. None of the drilted wells 

sunk in this county have been successful. At Williamstown an 

attempt was made to procure water for the city by drilling a deep 

well; no fresh water was found, but strong sulphur water was 

encountered between 700 and 790 feet below the surface.

Cisterns form the principal source of supply for domestic use, both 

in the towns and on farms. In a few localities where the Eden shale 

forms the surface rock cistern water is also used for stock. The city 

of Williamstown depends upon cisterns and hand engines for fire protection. The cisterns are located at various points along the main 

streets and are filled with water collected from the roofs of warehouses, stores, and churches.

HARRISON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Harrison County is in the east-central part of the Blue Grass 

region. A strip of country several miles wide, bordering the South
HARRISON COUNTY. 129

Fork of Licking River, has a gently rolling surface, with shallow 

valleys and rounded divides; but on the east and west of this area of 

slight relief the topography is rugged, the surface exhibiting steepsided valleys separated by narrow divides. Rock terraces which lie 

slightly below the level of the upland border Licking River and its 

South Fork, and other terraces just above the level of these streams 

were observed at several localities.

Licking River forms part of the eastern boundary of the county, 

and the South Fork of the Licking flows northward through the center of it. Beaver Creek is the only large tributary of Licking River 

in this county. The greater part of the drainage is to the South 

Fork, which receives a number of large tributaries, the most important being Coopers Run, Grays Run, and Townsend, Twin, Crooked, 

and Indian creeks.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual soils of Harrison County consist of loams on the 

areas of Lexington and Winchester limestones and clays on the Eden 

shale. The loams have an average thickness of about 3 feet, but 

the clays are in most places thin. These soils yield water only where 

they rest on dense shales.

A deposit of sandy alluvium, 10 to 20 feet thick, is found in many 

places on the rock terraces bordering the river and supplies an abundance of water for shallow wells. On the upper -terrace are narrow 

deposits of the sandy alluvium belonging to the Irvine formation, 

which furnish small quantities of water in some localities; but the 

Irvine is not, as a rule, an important water-bearer.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Lexington limestone is exposed along the valleys of Licking 

River and its South Fork and over much of the area of rolling topography of the upland, and where it forms the surface rock it yields an 

abundance of water for springs and wells. Where it is reached below 

the levels of the surface drainage, however, it may supply saltsulphur waters, such as are obtained by many of the drilled wells in 

this formation.

The Winchester limestone is exposed in a narrow band bordering 

the Lexington outcrops and furnishes moderate quantities of hard 

water. In the southwestern part of the county this limestone supplies some salt-sulphur water in springs and snallow wells. A well 

sunk near Smitsonville obtained a weak flow of sulphur water in this 

formation. The water rises about 4 feet above the surface, and the 

well yields less than 1 gallon per minute. 

88942 IRR 233 09 9
130 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

The Eden shale appears at the surface on the upland near the western boundary of the county, where it occupies a strip nearly 10 miles 

wide, and also on the divide between Licking River and its South 

Fork. It supplies small quantities of water for springs and shallow 

wells, but none for deep wells.

The Highbridge limestone is not exposed in Harrison County, and 

wells sunk to it would probably obtain only highly mineralized water.

Wells drilled to the St. Peter sandstone would probably procure 

flowing water in some parts of the valley of the South Fork of the 

Licking, but, as elsewhere in the region, the quality of the water 

would unfit it for ordinary uses.

DOMESTIC WATEE SUPPLIES.

Dug or drilled wells and cisterns are used to obtain water for 

domestic purposes in this county. Few of the shallow wells exceed 35 

feet in depth, and the amount of water which they yield depends on 

the nature of the rock in which they are dug. Drilled wells which 

yield water enough for a farm are common in many localities. The 

quality of the water varies with the depth of the well, many of the 

shallower wells obtaining hard water and the deeper wells sulphur 

water. The depth to the sulphur water varies, however, with the 

location of the wells, being about 50 feet in the valleys and over 100 

feet on the hills. In areas where the Eden shale forms the surface 

rock cisterns form the principal source of supply.

HENRY COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Henry County lies near the western edge of the Blue Grass region, 

south of Kentucky River, whose gorge here presents two steep 

slopes separated by a rock terrace at an elevation of about 500 feet 

above sea level. Near the Kentucky gorge the surface of the upland 

is deeply dissected by many small streams and is practically all 

reduced to slopes. Most of the divides are but a few rods wide, and 

the intervening valleys are, as a rule, narrow and steep sided. A few 

miles back from the Kentucky the surface is gently rolling, with shallow valleys and rounded divides, and topography of this type prevails 

throughout a large part of the county. The range in altitude within 

the county is about 200 feet.

Nearly all of the drainage of Henry County passes into Kentucky 

River, which receives the waters of three streams of considerable size 

Mill, Sixmile, and Drennon creeks and of many small tributaries. 

Streams flowing to Salt River drain a small area near the southern 

boundary of the county, and the drainage of an area along the western 

boundary of the county enters Harrods Creek and Little Kentucky 

River, whose principal tributary in Henry County is Sulphur Creek.
HENRY COUNTY. 131

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual soils of Henry County are, as a rule, heavy clays on the 

areas underlain by Eden shale, but on the other formations they are 

lighter and in some localities they are loamlike in texture. The soils 

yield moderate quantities of water only where they rest on the Eden 

shale.

Strips of alluvium, consisting of sand containing some layers of 

gravel, occur in the gorge of Kentucky River, and in some places a 

thin layer of alluvium also rests on the rock terrace which borders 

the river. It is evident that these isolated patches represent the 

eroded remnants of a deposit which once covered the terrace. The 

alluvium of the Kentucky gorge supplies some good springs along the 

river, and it would doubtless yield an abundance of water for wells. 

Some of the springs at Drennon Springs rise through this alluvium, 

but the water is probably derived from the Lexington or Winchester 

limestone.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Lexington limestone underlies the terrace which borders Kentucky River and is exposed in the gorge of the river from the Franklin 

County line to Drennon Springs, occupying the lower parts of the 

gorge and rising to about the level of the terrace along the valley for 

some distance north of the southern line of the county. It contains 

numerous sink holes and supplies several large springs of hard water. 

A short distance back from the river this limestone dips under the 

younger formations, and where it is thus covered it will yield no fresh 

water. In some places in this county both the Lexington and Highbridge limestones yield salt-sulphur waters when penetrated by deep 

wells.

The Winchester limestone lies above the Lexington and extends a 

short distance farther down the stream, but it is exposed only in the 

gorge of the Kentucky and the lower parts of some of its tributaries 

and does not rise to the level of the upland. In the areas of its outcrop it yields moderate quantities of hard water, but elsewhere in the 

county it may yield mineral waters.

The Eden shale outcrops on a small area of the upland near Kentucky River and extends some distance back from the river along the 

principal streams. Where it lies at the surface it supplies moderate 

quantities of water for springs and shallow wells, but over a large part 

of the county it is buried beneath the rocks of the Maysville formation 

and will yield practically no water.

The Maysville and Richmond formations are found over a large 

part of the upland, underlying nearly all of the area of rolling topography, and they supply water for many perennial springs. Sufficient
132 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

water for a farm can generally be obtained by wells 25 to 50 feet deep. 

A few unsuccessful deep wells have been drilled in Henry County.

Near the western line of the county is a narrow ridge which is 

underlain by the blue shales and yellow magnesian limestones of the 

Panola formation. Because of the small area of its outcrop the Panola 

is not important as a source of underground water.

The St. Peter sandstone will supply flowing wells in the gorge of 

Kentucky River. The water will be of the highly mineralized type 

usual in this formation.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES.

The rocks of Henry have a general northwesterly dip of a few feet 

to the mile, which was produced by the arching that formed the Jessamine dome. The uplift appears not to have been accompanied by 

any great amount of local disturbance in this county, though some 

minor folds and displacements have been observed at Drennon 

Springs.

DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES.

Henry County has a number of "never-failing" springs, but few of 

them are large. Springs are commonly used for stock, but some of 

them also serve household purposes. At Drennon Springs, an important health resort located on Kentucky River, the most important 

are the sulphur and salt-sulphur springs. Both black and white 

sulphur springs are reported. At Eminence a chalybeate spring 

supplies a moderate quantity of water.

Most of the wells of Henry County are shallow, ranging from 20 to 

35 feet in depth. Such wells form a satisfactory source of water for 

domestic use only when they are carefully guarded from pollution. 

Considerable water is used from these shallow wells both in the towns 

and in the country. The few deep wells drilled in Henry County 

have not been very successful.

Both Eminence and Newcastle could procure surface water for 

municipal supplies by constructing reservoirs on small streams, 

but underground supplies of suitable quality are not available. 

This should not, however, be considered a misfortune, for a careful 

comparison of the best surface and underground supplies of the 

region indicates that the surface waters are more desirable than those 

derived from either springs or wells.

JESSAMINE COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Jessamine County lies in the great bend of Kentucky River near 

the southern border of the Blue Grass region. Its surface is gently 

rolling except near the southern and western boundaries, where the
JESSAMINE COUNTY. 133

Kentucky and its tributaries have cut deep channels, and altitudes 

range from less than 500 feet above sea level in the Kentucky gorge 

to over 1,000 feet in the highest parts of the upland. Where the 

streams cross the limestone formations the walls of their valleys are 

generally nearly perpendicular, but where they flow through shales 

and shaly limestones the slopes are gentler.

The drainage of the county reaches Kentucky River through 

Hickman and Jessamine creeks and several smaller streams, and 

a small area in the northern part of the county is drained by the 

southern branches of Clear Creek, which unites with the Kentucky 

in Woodford County. All the streams flow in deep narrow gorges 

and have very high gradients, making the descent from the upland 

to the river within a few miles.

GEOLOGY AND UNDEEGROUND WATEES.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The upland of Jessamine County is covered by a mantle of yellow 

or brownish-red unconsolidated material which has been formed by 

the decomposition of the underlying rock. On limestone areas this 

material has the texture of a loam, but on areas where the original 

rock contained a large proportion of shale it is chiefly a dense clay. 

Although the residual clay has in some places a thickness of 20 feet 

or even more, its average thickness probably does not exceed 5 or 6 

feet. The soils furnish little water directly to wells, but they have a 

high storage capacity and feed their supply of water slowly to the 

crevices in the underlying rock. The loam stores less water than 

the clay, but it generally contains some free water which is available 

for the underground channels.

Sandy alluvium occurs in narrow strips along Kentucky River 

and yields water for numerous springs. It would doubtless also 

furnish an abundance of water for wells.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The apex of the Jessamine dome is located in this county, and 

the oldest rocks of the region are exposed at Camp Nelson, where 

Kentucky River passes near the crest of the dome. These rocks 

belong to the lowest division of the Highbridge limestone. The 

entire thickness of the Highbridge in Jessamine County is about 400 

feet, and the exposures are restricted to the valleys of Kentucky 

River and its principal tributaries. The Highbridge furnishes large 

quantities of hard water to springs and to most of the shallow wells, 

but deep wells and a few of the shallow ones obtain either salt or 

salt-sulphur water.

The Lexington limestone forms the surface rock over the greater 

part of the county, overlying the Highbridge limestone without
134 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

apparent unconformity. The maximum thickness of this limestone 

is about 200 feet, but the thickness over a large part of Jessamine 

County probably falls much below the maximum. Where it outcrops at the surface it contains many underground channels and 

large quantities of hard water. Nearly all of the springs and shallow 

wells over a large part of the county north of Hickman Creek are 

supplied with water from this limestone. The wells which penetrate 

this formation below the level of the surface drainage as a rule find 

salt or salt-sulphur waters.

The Winchester limestone is exposed along the Kentucky River 

gorge and on the south side of Hickman Creek, in the southern part 

of the county, and occupies a long narrow strip and several isolated 

patches on the upland in the northeastern part of the county. Where 

it is at the surface it yields moderate quantities of hard water to 

springs and shallow wells. In the southern part of the county it 

would be penetrated only by deep wells which would be apt to obtain 

salt and sulphur waters.

The Eden shale occurs over a large part of the upland between 

Hickman Creek and Kentucky River, and appears also as a small 

isolated patch in the northeastern part of the county. In this 

county the upper portion of the Eden consists of sandy shales and 

sandstones, which were mapped as the Garrard sandstone by the 

early workers of the Kentucky Geological Survey. The shale beds 

of the Eden furnish little water, but some of the limestones contain 

crevices which supply small quantities of moderately hard water for 

wells and springs. Some water is also obtained at the contact of the 

residual clay with the underlying rock. The Garrard sandstone 

member of the Eden is in most places not porous enough to yield 

much water, but the residual soil formed from it locally furnishes 

considerable soft water for both wells and springs.

The St. Peter sandstone will supply flowing wells in the valleys 

of the large streams north of the Kentucky River fault in this county. 

On the upland the water will not reach the surface, as the head is 

only sufficient to cause the water to reach an altitude of about 590 

feet above sea level. South of the Kentucky River fault few wells 

have been drilled to the St. Peter, and definite information as to the 

head of the water encountered by these wells is not available. It 

appears probable that the faulting has produced a displacement of 

the St. Peter which might interrupt the movement of the water.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES.

The only marked structural feature in this county is the Kentucky 

River fault, which extends along the valley of Hickman Creek, in the 

southern part of the county. There are really two faults, one enter-
JESSAMINE COUNTY. 135

ing near the southeast corner of the county and extending southwestward nearly to its western boundary, and another beginning a 

few miles south of this first fault and running southwestward into 

Garrard County. The maximum displacement along these faults is 

probably about 400 feet. At one point near the southeast corner 

of the county it was sufficient to bring the Garrard sandstone member 

of the Eden shale into contact with the Highbridge limestone.

UNDERGROUND DRAINAGE.

The presence of caverns along Kentucky River and numerous 

sink holes and springs on the upland indicate that the underground 

drainage is very extensive. Some of the sink holes are several acres 

in extent, and many of the springs give rise to streams of considerable 

size. The large springs, as a rule, emerge at the heads of small gullies 

rather than along the river. This peculiar location of the springs is 

explained by the fact that the gully represents merely the portion 

of the underground channel where the roof has fallen. Sinking 

Creek, in the northeastern part of the county, affords an excellent 

example of a surface stream which enters an underground passage.

DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES.

Springs and dug or drilled wells supply water for domestic and industrial purposes. One of the largest of the many large springs is Overstreet's, which supplies water enough to run a small mill, and another 

large spring is utilized at Union Mills.

Dug wells are numerous, but they are not extensively used. Drilled 

wells have been successful in some localities, but a number of dry 

holes are reported at Nicholasville, Keene, and Wilmore. Many of 

the drilled wells have found sulphur water at depths of 50 feet or 

more, but the amount of sulphur is commonly not great enough to 

render the water unfit for domestic use. At Union Mills a well sunk 

in the Highbridge limestone to a depth of 283 feet obtained a little 

fresh water between 30 and 40 feet below the surface and several 

supplies of salt-sulphur water at greater depths. At 200 feet the 

driller reported a stream of this water which was strong enough to 

remove the pulverized rock produced in drilling.

Nicholasville has the only municipal supply in the county. The 

water, which is taken from wells located on the edge of a reservoir, 

probably comes in part from the reservoir. The wells were sunk 

because some of the consumers objected to the surface water, but the 

installation of a filtering plant would probably have been a greater 

improvement.
136 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

KENTON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATUEES.

Kenton County occupies a long, narrow area in the northern part of 

the Blue Grass region, extending northward to Ohio River and eastward to Licking River. Its surface is a plateau which has been deeply 

trenched by the tributaries of the Ohio and Licking rivers, and the 

upland areas, which are comparatively level, rise to a height of 900 

feet above tide, or more than 500 feet above the Ohio.

The northwestern corner of the county drains into the Ohio through 

Dry Creek and several other small streams. Bank Lick Creek, which 

flows diagonally across the northern part of the county and enters 

Licking River at Latonia, receives the draniage of the central part of 

the county, and the southern end of the area drains to Licking River 

through Cruises and Grassy creeks and several smaller streams. All 

of these streams have high gradients, most of them making the descent 

from the uplands to the rivers within a few miles.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

TJNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

A thin mantle of unconsolidated material covers the rock formations. Near the Ohio this loose material is of glacial age and consists in part of sand and in part of clay, containing fragments of limestone and other rocks. Resting on the glacial drift are 2 or 3 feet of 

loess-like silt, which is also of glacial age. On the upland the glacial 

drift has an average thickness of less than 10 feet and a maximum 

thickness of about 20 feet. In the Licking Valley, near Latonia, the 

drift appears to be somewhat thicker than on the upland. Although 

the sands of the glacial drift are of small extent, they would probably 

yield some water for shallow wells at a few localities. The bowlder 

clay and the overlying silt do not yield water directly to wells, but they 

are sufficiently porous to absorb some water which they feed to the 

underlying rocks.

South of the area of glacial drift the unconsolidated material consists of yellowish or reddish clay, in most places less than 5 feet thick, 

derived from the underlying rock. This clay is porous enough to 

absorb considerable moisture, but it does not afford sufficient water 

at any one place to supply a well.

The alluvium of Kenton County consists of terraces of sand and 

gravel along Ohio River, which rise to a maximum height of about 

550 feet above sea level. The thickness of these and similar deposits 

along Licking River is from 80 to 120 feet, and they yield large quantities of water at depths of 60 to 110 feet. The water is moderately 

hard, and in the vicinity of Covington contains some sulphur. This;
KENTON COUNTY. 137

sulphur may be supplied by the decomposition of the organic matter 

in the alluvium or by the sulphur water which comes from the rocks 

which form the floor of the valley. The alluvium in the Licking Valley 

should have a thickness of 30 to 50 feet, but few wells have been sunk 

in this deposit and its exact thickness is unknown. In other parts of 

the Blue Grass region similar deposits yield large quantities of 

moderately hard water.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The oldest rocks in Kenton County outcrop in the channel of the 

Ohio between Covington and Ludlow. The exposure consists of 

about 50 feet of interbedded limestones and shales, at the top of which 

is a wave-formed bed of limestone containing fragments derived from 

the underlying rock. These interbedded limestones and shales are 

believed by E. O. Ulrich to be the equivalents of the lower part of the 

Lexington limestone. Over all the upland portion of the county the 

Lexington and Highbridge limestones are deeply covered by younger 

formations, and under such conditions they supply only salt water, 

which will in some places be sulphurous.

Above the Lexington limestone and occupying the lower slopes of 

the valleys are about 300 feet of dark-colored shale belonging to the 

Eden formation. This shale supplies practically no water for wells, 

though small quantities of water are in some places obtained from the 

talus which rests on the valley slopes.

The upland is underlain by rocks belonging to the Maysville formation. In the southwestern and northern parts of the county these 

rocks are shaly and supply only small quantities of water, but elsewhere the uplands are capped by limestone beds of the formation, 

which furnish ample supplies of water for farm use. The numerous 

springs found on the upland derive their water from these limestone 

beds. Along Ohio River the springs emerge near the tops of the bluffs, 

where the limestone layers rest on beds of shale.

In this county the St. Peter sandstone lies 800 or 900 feet below 

the surface in the Ohio Valley and 1,300 to 1,400 feet below the surface of the uplands. It yields a strong salt-sulphur water, which 

will rise to the surface in places having an altitude of 590 to 600 

feet above sea level. Wells drilled in this formation at Covington 

and Latonia obtained good flows.

DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES.

Dug wells are still used extensively in Kenton County; in many 

of them the supply is augmented by permitting rain water from the 

roof to flow into the well. In some instances water is hauled from 

a nearby spring and poured into the well. Cisterns are an important
138 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

source of water for domestic purposes, and they are gradually supplanting the wells.

No deep wells have been drilled on the upland, but driven and 

drilled wells are numerous in the Ohio Valley. These wells range in 

depth from about 80 to 120 feet and procure large supplies of water 

for domestic and industrial uses. Here, as elsewhere in the valley of 

the Ohio, the water near the river is apt to contain less inorganic 

matter than at some distance from the stream. Water for city 

supplies is obtained from Ohio River and is regarded as satisfactory 

for most purposes.

MADISON COUNTY.

SURFACE FEATURES.

Madison County is situated on the south side of Kentucky River 

in the extreme southern part of the Blue Grass region. A large part 

of the county is a broad plateau, deeply cut by narrow, steep-sided 

valleys near Kentucky River and along the western boundary. 

In the central part of the county is a belt, 5 to 10 miles wide, in which 

stream valleys are shallow and the surface is gently rolling. The 

extreme southern part of the county includes a rugged area, characterized by irregular ridges rising nearly 500 feet above the level of tl^e 

plateau and separated by broad, level-floored valleys. The slopes of 

many of these mountains are so precipitous that their ascent is very 

difficult.

The drainage of Madison County goes to augment Kentucky River. 

Red River, which receives the drainage of the southeastern part of the 

county, flows eastward and joins Station Camp Creek, a tributary of 

the Kentucky, in Estill County. Paint Lick, which flows along the 

western boundary of the county, receives the drainage of a narrow 

strip near that boundary. Silver and Tates creeks drain the western 

and Otter and Muddy creeks the eastern part of the county.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The unconsolidated materials in Madison County consist of rather 

dense clays, derived from the limestone and shale formations; of 

loams, derived from the Garrard sandstone member of the Eden shale 

and the sandstone of the Waverly shale; and of alluvial sands and 

gravels in the gorge of Kentucky River.

The residual soils furnish a small amount of water for springs and 

shallow wells on the areas underlain by shale, but elsewhere they 

furnish practically no water. The alluvial sands and gravels of the 

Kentucky gorge furnish an abundance of water for springs along the 

river bank, and they would doubtless also furnish water for wells.
MADISOlsT COUNTY. 139

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Highbridge limestone is exposed along Kentucky River in the 

four bends which lie north of the Kentucky River fault. Although 

the upper part of this limestone lies near the top of the gorge, it 

does not extend out upon the upland. The Lexington limestone is 

exposed in the same localities as the Highbridge, and it forms also 

the lower part of the gorge from the last crossing of the fault above 

Boone Ferry to the northwestern corner of the county, and the lower 

parts of the valleys of Silver Creek and Paint Lick to the vicinity of 

Cartersburg. Both the Highbridge and Lexington limestones supply 

considerable water to springs and shallow wells in the valleys of the 

streams; but on the uplands they are buried by younger formations, 

and under such conditions they will yield only salt or salt-sulphur 

water.

The Winchester limestone is exposed in a narrow area surrounding 

the Lexington, but it does not rise to the level of the upland except 

near Kentucky River. It furnishes moderate quantities of hard 

water where it is exposed at the surface, but where it underlies 

younger formations its water is generally brackish and somewhat 

sulphurous.

Outside the area of the Winchester limestone is the Eden shale, 

its upper portion including 70 to 130 feet of sandy shales and sandstone the Garrard sandstone member. The lower part of the Eden 

outcrops in the valleys of the streams in the northern and western 

parts of the county, and the Garrard sandstone member reaches the 

level of the upland in the same areas. The Eden shale supplies small 

quantities of water for springs and shallow wells, but deep wells do 

not as a rule obtain water in this formation. The Garrard sandstone member supplies more water than the shale member, but it 

contains so large a proportion of clay that it is unimportant as a 

water horizon.

The Maysville formation underlies a large part of the rolling surface of the upland. East of Richmond some of the higher hills are 

capped by about 50 feet of green sandy shales, which may represent 

the Richmond formation. The limestone beds of the Maysville 

present favorable conditions for the occurrence of moderate quantities 

of water, but conditions somewhat less favorable are afforded by the 

Richmond rocks. A number of good-sized springs occur in the 

limestones of the Maysville, and shallow wells are ordinarily successful in both the Maysville and Richmond formations.

The blue shales and heavy-bedded yellow limestones of the Panola 

formation, as mapped by Campbell, 61 occupy considerable areas in the 

eastern and southern parts of the county. The shales of the lower part

a Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No. 46), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1898.
140 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS KEGION, KENTUCKY.

of the Panola supply practically no water, but the limestone beds 

generally furnish enough water for domestic use. As the limestones 

of this formation are magnesian, much of the water contains magnesia.

The Ohio shale, which in this county has a thickness of 110 to 150 

feet, is exposed in many places above the limestones of the Panola 

formation and it generally rims the mountains. It supplies an abundance of highly mineralized water for springs and shallow wells, the 

most common types being alum, sulphur, and chalybeate waters.

The sandy beds at the top of the Waverly shale, which caps the 

mountains in the southern part of the county, yield an abundance of 

soft water, and numerous springs emerge from these sandstones where 

they rest on the shale beds.

Along the southern line of the county is a small and unimportant 

area of later Mississippian limestone.

The St. Peter sandstone underlies the entire county and will 

probably supply flowing wells in the gorge of Kentucky River north 

of the large fault. It is possible that a flow might also be obtained 

in some of the deeper stream valleys south of the fault. The water 

from this formation is so highly charged with salt and sulphur that 

it is unfit for ordinary uses.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES.

The rocks of Madison County dip gently toward the southeast and 

present no important structural features except the faults which have 

produced displacements of the Ordovician formations. The major 

fault of the region the Kentucky River fault crosses the northern 

part of the county. Kentucky River crosses this fault eight times 

on the northern boundary of the county, and thus the fault plane is 

alternately in Madison and Clark counties. The maximum displacement in Madison County, as given by Campbell 0 is 400 feet, and this 

has brought the Highbridge limestone to the same altitude as the 

Garrard sandstone member of the Eden shale. The Richmond folio 

shows also two small faults in the southern part of the county which 

are roughly parallel to the direction of the Kentucky River fault. 

East of Richmond is a fault which is almost at right angles to the 

other faults of the region. None of these faults are of great magnitude, the maximum displacement having brought the Ohio shale 

into contact with the limestone of the Maysville formation.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL USES.

Both surface and underground waters are used in Madison County.

Richmond obtains its water supply from a small stream. Attempts

to get water by drilling wells in the city have not been successful.

a Campbell, M. R., Richmond folio (No. 46), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1898.
MASON COUNTY. 141

One well, sunk to a depth, of nearly 1,800 feet, is said to have 

obtained water highly charged with sulphur.

Many good springs are found in various parts of the county. 

Between Kentucky River and Richmond and for some distance eastward most of the springs yield moderately hard water. Sulphur 

springs occur at Boonesboro and at various points in the area of the 

Ohio shale, and this shale also furnishes springs of epsom, alum, and 

chalybeate water. Springs of soft (freestone) water are found near 

Elliston and at various points in the mountains, and Berea College 

has an excellent water supply derived from such springs.

Dug wells 20 to 35 feet deep are common on the upland, and an 

ordinary well affords sufficient water for a household. Besides the 

wells at Richmond, a number of wells have been drilled at Berea and 

Wallacetown.' Few of these wells exceed 50 feet in depth and most 

of them yield sulphur water. A few wells have been drilled in other 

parts of the county, but these as a rule have not found large supplies 

of fresh water.

MASON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

This county borders Ohio River at the eastern edge of the Blue 

Grass region. The surface is a deeply dissected plateau, with a range 

of altitude exceeding 450 feet. The amount of dissection varies considerably, being greatest near the large streams and diminishing rapidly a short distance from these streams. In the southern part of the 

county variations in altitude are smaller and the slopes gentler, and 

another area of rolling topography occupies a strip several miles wide 

between Maysville and Germantown. In the Ohio Valley alluvial 

gravels form flat terraces which rise about 80 feet above the river.

The northern part of the county drains into Ohio River through 

Limestone Creek and a number of other small streams. The North 

Fork of Licking River, which flows westward through the central part 

of the county, receives the drainage of a wide area. Johnson Creek, 

a tributary of the Licking, receives several small tributaries from the 

southern part of the county.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The upland of Mason County is covered by a deposit of residual 

material varying in thickness from 6 to 8 feet and in character with 

the nature of the underlying rock. On sandy shales the material is a 

loam; on denser shales a heavy clay, and on the limestones clay or 

loam, as sand or clay were prominent constituents of the original rock. 

These residual materials furnish little water directly to wells, but they
142 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

store considerable moisture, which they feed slowly to crevices in the 

underlying rocks.

The terraces of the Ohio Valley consist of 80 to 120 feet of coarse 

sand and gravel. These deposits furnish an abundance of moderately 

hard water.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Winchester limestone is exposed at the foot of the bluff bordering the Ohio Valley from the Bracken County line southward beyond 

Maysville, along the North Fork of Licking River, and along some 

of the tributaries of both the Ohio and the Licking. Where it is 

exposed in the valleys of the streams it furnishes, as a rule, moderate 

quantities of hard water. Saline and sulphur springs are also found 

in this formation at several localities. No deep wells have been 

drilled in the Winchester on the upland, but it is quite certain such 

wells would not find fresh water.

The Eden shale forms a large part of the valleys of the principal 

streams and extends out upon the upland in the western part of the 

county. The formation is more sandy here than in the more northern 

counties, but it does not contain enough sand to be classed as a sandstone. It yields small quantities of hard water to both springs and 

shallow wells, but no water to deep wells.

The Maysville formation is most typically developed in this 

county. It forms the surface rock over large areas and is well 

exposed in the vicinity of Maysville, where the entire formation is 

represented. The limestones of the Maysville as a rule furnish an 

abundance of hard water for springs and shallow wells, and the drilled 

wells of the upland usually obtain water in these rocks.

The Richmond formation is at the surface over a small area extending from Ohio River east of Maysville to the southern line of the 

county. In this county the lower part of the Richmond consists of 

sandy shales with some thin beds of limestone; the upper partis 

generally more calcareous and contains a number of beds of limestone. 

The rocks of the Richmond supply less water than those of the Maysville formation, but the quantity is usually sufficient for farm use.

The tops of the highest ridges and hills in Mason County are 

capped by gray cherty limestones and blue shales belonging to the 

Panola formation. Where the shales are at the surface this formation 

yields only a small supply of water, but where the limestones are 

exposed enough water for a farm can usually be obtained.

The Lexington and Highbridge limestones and the St. Peter sandstone are in this county buried beneath younger formations and will 

yield only salt or salt-sulphur water. The well-known "Blue Lick" 

water of the St. Peter should be reached at a depth of less than 1,000
MEKCEE COUNTY. 143

feet in the Ohio Valley, and it would flow at the surface. Flows could 

also be obtained in the valleys of the smaller streams where the altitude of the surface does not exceed 580 feet above sea level.

MERCER COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Mercer County is located near the southwest corner of the Blue 

Grass region, on the west side of Kentucky and Dix rivers, which here 

flow in narrow gorges with perpendicular walls. The difference 

between the altitude of the Kentucky and the higher parts of the 

upland is more than 400 feet. Near the rivers the upland is deeply 

trenched by a number of small streams, but a few miles back the 

slopes become gentler and the variations in altitude smaller, as a 

rule not exceeding 100 to 200 feet. In the western part of the county 

the surface is more rugged, the slopes being moderately steep and 

differences in altitude amounting to 200 feet or more.

The eastern edge of the county drains into Kentucky and Dix 

rivers through a number of small streams less than 5 miles long. The 

principal stream within the county is Salt River, which, flowing 

northward, separates the area of low relief from that of more rugged 

topography. This river, which unites with the Ohio south of Louisville, flows within a few miles of the Kentucky. In this county the 

divide between the tributaries of the two streams is in few places more 

than 4 miles from the Kentucky. The southwestern part of the county 

is drained by Chaplin River, the chief tributary of Salt River in the 

Blue Grass region.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIAL.

The upland portion of the county is covered with a mantle of 

residual material, which varies in texture from a loam to a clay. 

The loams occur where the material was derived from limestone and 

the clay where the original rock contained a large amount of shale. 

The residual materials furnish very little water for either springs or 

wells, although in general the water conditions are more favorable in 

localities where the soils are loamy than where clays are found, and in 

a few places, as at Harrodsburg, the loam may supply considerable 

water during a wet season.

Narrow strips of sandy alluvium, which supply large quantities 

of water to springs on the river bank, occupy the wider parts of the 

gorge in the Kentucky River valley. The few wells that have been 

sunk in this formation have obtained an abundance of water.
144 WATEKS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Highbridge limestone outcrops in the gorges of Kentucky and 

Dix rivers and along the lower courses of some of the tributaries of 

these streams, but it does not reach the level of the upland. Near 

Highbridge it is about 300 feet thick, but its northward dip carries 

its lower portion below the level of Kentucky River in this county, 

and at the northern boundary the thickness exposed does not exceed 

150 feet. In the river gorges and in some of the creeks where it 

forms the surface rocks the Highbridge furnishes ordinary hard water 

for springs, but wells which penetrate it below the level of the surface 

streams as a rule encounter salt or sulphurous waters. On the upland 

this limestone lies from 150 to 500 feet below the surface, and wells 

sunk to it will, not obtain fresh water.

The Lexington limestone outcrops along Kentucky and Dix rivers, 

forms the surface rock on the upland near these streams, and is exposed in the valleys of Chaplin and Salt rivers and over considerable 

areas east and northeast of Harrodsburg. Where it forms the surface rock it appears to afford conditions unusually favorable for 

underground water; springs are numerous, very few wells have been 

unsuccessful, and many of the wells obtain large supplies. Water 

encountered in this limestone below the level of the surface drainage 

is, as a rule, salt and may be sulphurous.

The Winchester limestone is found on the highest parts of the 

divide between Kentucky and Salt rivers, where it furnishes an 

abundance of hard water for springs and shallow wells, and it also 

yields small quantities of water for springs and shallow wells in the 

valleys of Chaplin and Salt rivers. Many of the wells that penetrate 

this limestone below drainage levels obtain salt-sulphur water. It is 

probable that some of the sulphur springs found in the county come 

from this formation.

The Eden shale outcrops on the divide west of Salt River, but it 

yields very little water and this onlyin small springs or shallow wells, 

which are apt to fail during dry weather.

Near the western edge of the county is a belt capped by rocks 

belonging to the Maysville formation, but they contain here so large 

an amount of shale that they yield little more water than the Eden 

shale. Near the northwestern part of the county, however, they furnish fair supplies for a number of shallow wells.

The St. Peter sandstone underlies the county at depths of from 700 

feet in the gorge of Kentucky River to 1,100 feet or more on the upland, the depth being least near the southeast corner of the county 

and diminishing toward the north and west. This formation will 

yield flowing wells of salt-sulphur water in the gorges of Kentucky 

and Dix rivers and of some of the other streams at altitudes of less 

than 580 feet above sea level.
WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY. 145 

NICHOLAS COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Nicholas County is situated in the east-central part of the Blue 

Grass region. Along its western side is a belt of gently rolling upland, with shallow valleys and rounded interstream spaces, but the 

rugged topography of the rest of the county shows differences in altitude amounting in many places to 200 to 300 feet, the areas of level 

land consisting of winding divides, as a rule, only a few rods wide.

Licking River, which flows along the east edge of the county, receives the drainage of a strip of land a few miles in width, but the 

drainage of the greater part of the county enters Hinkston Creek, a 

stream which forms part of the southern boundary. The streams of 

Nicholas County are all small few of them exceeding 6 miles in 

length and they flow in narrow V-shaped trenches whose slopes are 

in many places too steep for cultivation.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual materials of Nicholas County include heavy loams on 

the Lexington and Winchester limestones and heavy clays on rocks 

belonging to the Eden shale and the Maysville formations. These 

soils furnish little water to wells except where they are underlain by 

impervious rocks.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Lexington and Winchester limestones are exposed in the valley 

of Licking River and on the upland near the western edge of the 

county, and they underlie nearly all of the areas of rolling upland. 

In the western part of the county they furnish an abundance of hard 

water for springs and shallow wells; the Lexington, as a rule, yields 

somewhat more water than the Winchester, but sufficient water for a 

farm can be obtained from either formation. Wells sunk in these 

formations below the level of the surface streams are apt to find saltsulphur waters.

The Eden shale forms the surface rock over a large part of the 

upland and furnishes small quantities of water for springs and shallow wells but none for deep wells. The water is moderately hard, but 

is entirely satisfactory for domestic use.

The Maysville formation is represented in Nicholas County by a 

series of interbedded limestones and shales which cap the higher hills 

in the south-central part of the county. The formation, as a rule, 

affords somewhat more favorable conditions for the occurrence of 

underground water than the underlying Eden shale, and in this 

-IKR 233 09 10
146 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

county it furnishes moderate quantities of hard water for springs and 

shallow wells.

The Highbridge limestone and the underlying St. Peter sandstone 

yield some salt-sulphur water for deep-drilled wells in this county. 

The St. Peter will supply flowing wells in the valley of Licking Creek, 

below Upper Blue Lick Springs, where the altitude of the river is 596 

feet above sea level.

WATER FOB, DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

The Upper and Lower Blue Lick Springs of Nicholas County furnish a large amount of excellent salt-sulphur water. Bottling works 

have been established at both of these springs and a great deal of the 

water is placed on the market. At the Lower Blue Lick Spring a 

hotel has been opened for the accommodation of those who prefer to 

use the water at the spring.

On the upland, springs are of moderate size and most of them yield 

hard water. In some localities they furnish water for domestic use, 

but ordinarily they are used only for stock.

Dug wells 15 to 30 feet in depth are common, but they are little 

used except during dry weather when other sources of supply fail. 

Drilled wells have been sunk at a few localities, but they have, as a 

rule, obtained water too highly mineralized for ordinary use.

Carlisle is the only city in the county large enough to warrant the 

installation of a public supply. Underground water suitable in quality and sufficient in quantity is not available for such purpose, but a 

surface supply might be obtained by constructing a reservoir on some 

of the small streams near the city. As none of these streams flow 

during dry weather, a large reservoir would be needed.

OLDHAM COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Oldham County is in the western part of the Blue Grass region, 

and Ohio River flows along its border. In the southeastern part of 

the county the streams flow in shallow, gently sloping valleys, separated by rounded divides which in few places exceed 100 feet in height. 

Farther west the valleys are narrow and steep sided and the interstream spaces are for the most part flat. The relief increases toward 

Ohio River, and the descent from the upland to the river is in most 

places abrupt, the difference in altitude between the river and the 

upland amounting to more than 350 feet.

Southeast of La Grange the surface drains to Floyds Fork of Salt 

River, the principal tributaries of the stream in Oldham County being 

East, North, and Rodmaiis forks. Harrdds Creek, the chief tributary 

of the Ohio in this county, heads in Henry County and flows southeastward, joining the Ohio below the Oldham County line. The Ohio
OLDHAM COUNTY. 147

also receives several small tributaries in this county, the largest 

Patton Creek being less than 10 miles long.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

TJNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The western half of the county is covered by a few feet of reddish 

till, containing numerous pebbles of chert and limestone, with occasional fragments of granitic rock; the eastern half is covered by a thin 

deposit of residual material, varying in texture from loam to clay. 

The residual materials are not important as a source of water for 

either wells or springs. The alluvium of the Ohio Valley will furnish 

an abundance of moderately hard water at depths of 60 to 100 feet, 

but, as many of the people who reside in the valley prefer cistern 

water, few wells have been sunk in this deposit.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Rocks belonging to the Maysville and Richmond formations are 

exposed in the valleys of all the large streams and occupy considerable areas on the upland in the eastern and northern portions of the 

county. In the eastern part of the county these rocks supply numerous springs and shallow wells. Few of the wells and springs yield 

large quantities, but in many localities the springs do not fail even 

in the dryest weather. The most successful wells are less than 40 

feet deep. The upper part of the Richmond formation in Oldham 

County comprises over 40 feet of heavy-bedded calcareous rock, 

resembling sandstone and containing many concretions.

The gray magnesian limestones of the Panola formation present 

very favorable conditions for the occurrence of underground water in 

Oldham County. Springs in this formation are numerous, the most 

important being the Anita and Royal Magnesian springs, and drilled 

wells obtain water at depths of 40 to 60 feet. The water is usually 

found at the top of the shale beds which underlie the limestones. The 

average yield of a single well is about 10 gallons a minute. The quality of the water is shown by the analysis of the water from Anita 

Spring. (Seep. 211.)

The Eden shale will supply little water in Oldham County.

The Highbridge, Lexington, and Winchester limestones and the St. 

Peter sandstone are deeply buried in Oldham County.- The limestone 

formations may furnish saline or saline-sulphur water when reached 

by deep wells. The St. Peter will supply flowing wells of salt-sulphur 

water in the Ohio Valley. A well drilled at La Grange about twenty 

years ago obtained a flow of slightly sulphurous saline water. The 

exact horizon from which the water was obtained is not known, but 

from the fact that the well was about 1,200 feet deep it seems probable that the water may come from either the Lexington or the Highbrido;e limestone.
148 WATEES OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

OWEN COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Owen County is in the west-central part of the Blue Grass region. 

Topographically, it comprises a gently rolling upland area in its central part, with broad, flat-topped divides and narrow, shallow valleys, 

and elsewhere more rugged areas, deeply trenched by narrow valleys 

separated by winding ridges. A narrow rock terrace extends along 

the valleys of Kentucky River and Eagle Creek, and at Gratz an 

abandoned channel of the Kentucky stands at about the same level 

as the rock terrace. This channel evidently represents the course of 

the Kentucky at the time of the formation of the terrace; in changing 

to its present course past Lockport the river evidently followed the 

channels of Sixrnile Creek and some of its tributaries.

The Kentucky forms the western boundary of the county and 

receives all of the drainage, chiefly through Eagle, Clear, Severn, and 

Big Twin creeks. Eagle Creek, whose principal tributaries are Caney, 

Stephens, and Brush creeks, crosses the western edge of the county 

and forms the northern boundary.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual soil of Owen County is chiefly clay, as a rule very thin 

on the Eden shale, but having an average thickness of 2J to 3 feet 

where rocks of the Maysville formation form the level areas of the 

upland. These soils are not important as a source of water.

The terrace along Kentucky River and Eagle Creek has in most 

places a thin coating of sandy alluvium, which should supply some 

water for shallow wells.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Lexington limestone is exposed in the gorge of Kentucky 

River from the Franklin County line to Drennon Springs, in Henry 

County. The Winchester limestone outcrops in the gorges of Kentucky River and Eagle Creek and extends a short distance back from 

these streams along their principal tributaries. Both of these limestones furnish hard water in a number of the streams, and saline 

springs emerge from them at several places in the southern part of the 

county. Over a large part of the county the Winchester, Lexington, 

and Highbridge limestones are deeply buried by younger formations 

and will not supply fresh water.

The Eden shale outcrops along the valleys of the principal streams 

and on the upland in the southern part of the county and furnishes 

small quantities of water for springs and for wells 30 to 35 feet deep. 
PENDLETON COUNTY. 149

These rocks are, however, too dense to yield water except near the 

surface.

Rocks belonging to the Maysville formation occupy a large part of 

the upland surface of the county and yield considerable moderately 

hard water for shallow wells in most of the wells sufficient for a 

farm. The best springs in this formation are in the central part of 

the county, where the formation contains some heavy beds of limestone. Some of the best wells and springs of the Maysville formation 

are found near the city of Owenton, and the possibility of obtaining 

an underground supply for the city has been discussed. None of the 

wells in the vicinity are, however, strong enough to afford more than 

a small part of the water that would be needed for the municipal 

supply. Deep wells would doubtless obtain an abundance of water, 

but it would be too highly mineralized for ordinary use, and if a city 

supply is to be installed the water must be taken from a stream. One 

of the spring-fed branches near the city would probably furnish the 

most satisfactory supply of surface water.

Flowing wells of strong salt-sulphur water may be obtained from 

the St. Peter sandstone in the gorge of Kentucky River, in the valley 

of Eagle Creek where it borders the west side of the county, and in the 

lower parts of some of the other tributaries of the Kentucky.

PENDLETON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Pendleton County is situated in the northeastern part of the Blue 

Grass region. Its surface presents many steep-sided valleys separated by narrow, winding divides, the surface of the upland being so 

uneven that roads ordinarily follow either divides or valleys. Two 

rock terraces the upper but little below the level of the upland and 

the lower less than 50 feet above the level of the stream extend 

along the valleys of the rivers. The lower terrace is in but few places 

more than a mile wide, but the upper terrace is much wider.

Licking River is joined by its South Fork near the center of the 

county, and these two streams receive the entire drainage, but the 

tributaries of both are small. The most important of the tributary 

streams are Kindale, Grassy, Fork, Lick, and Crooked creeks. All of 

these except Kindale Creek head in Grant County and flow eastward 

across western Pendleton County. Kindale Creek rises in Bracken 

County, and flows northwestward to join the Licking north of Falmouth.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual soils of Pendleton County consist of thin deposits of 

heavy clay, which furnish practically no water except where they rest 

on the dense shales of the Eden formation.
150 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

On the lower terrace in the river valleys are deposits of sandy gravel 

which locally exceed 30 feet in thickness; one record of drilling in the 

northern part of the county gives the alluvium a thickness of 80 feet, 

but this is probably too great. The upper terrace bears thin patches 

of sand and gravel belonging to the Irvine formation. The alluvium 

supplies an abundance of water for springs along the river banks and 

should be a satisfactory source of water for wells.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Lexington limestone is exposed in this county along the rivers, 

where it occupies the bottoms and lower slopes of the valleys. It 

furnishes an abundance of hard water in the valleys of the Licking 

and its South Fork. No deep wells have been drilled for water in this 

formation and none have penetrated the Highbridge limestone; but 

water obtained in either of these formations at depths greater than 75 

to 100 feet, wT ould probably be highly mineralized.

A strip of Winchester limestone is found above the Lexington. 

This formation, however, occurs not only along the river bottoms, but 

extends considerable distances up the valleys of the principal tributaries. It furnishes moderate quantities of hard water where it is at 

the surface, and the formation also supplies some springs of salt-sulphur water in the valleys of the streams. Where the Winchester is 

buried beneath the Eden shale its water would be too highly mineralized for ordinary uses.

Above the Winchester limestone, forming most of the surface of the 

county except in the valleys of the large streams, is the Eden shale, 

which supplies small quantities of water for springs and shallow wells 

but will yield no water to deep wells.

Narrow belts of limestone belonging to the Maysville formation cap 

the divides in the western part of the county. These rocks contain 

some excellent springs and supply considerable water for shallow 

wells.

Flowing wells may be obtained from the St. Peter sandstone in 

the valley of Licking River. The well at Boston Station obtains its 

supply from this formation. The water contains a large amount of 

salt and is highly charged with hydrogen sulphide. It has proved 

entirely satisfactory for stock, but is unfit for other uses.

ROBERTSON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Robertson County is near the southeast corner of the Blue Grass 

region, on the east side of Licking River. Its surface is a deeply 

dissected plateau, whose steep-sided valleys, 100 to 300 feet deep, 

are separated by narrow divides with even, sinuous crests. An
ROBERTSON COUNTY. 151

abandoned stream channel passes near Kentontown and joins Licking 

River Valley below Claysville. The rock floor of this valley is in 

many places covered with 5 to 10 feet of sand containing a few pebbles 

of chert.

The surface drains toward the west or north into Licking River or 

its North Fork. The principal stream, Johnson Creek, crosses the 

county south of Mount Olivet, and there are also many small streams, 

most of which are less than 10 miles long.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual soil of Robertson County is a yellow or reddish clay, 

which as a rule forms a thin deposit on the uplands. On the slopes 

it contains many slabs of limestone which have been left as the soil 

has washed, and in some parts of the county these slabs are so 

numerous that they furnish enough rock to construct the pikes. 

The soil yields very little water for either springs or wells.

Some small, unimportant patches of sandy alluvium are found in 

the valleys of the large streams. The alluvium of the Licking Valley 

supplies water for some springs, and wells sunk in it would probably 

be successful. A few wells in the abandoned stream valley near 

Kentontown procure a plentiful supply of soft water from sand and 

gravel at depths of 10 to 15 feet.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Lexington limestone outcrops in the valleys of the streams in 

the western part of the county, but a short distance back from the 

main streams it is overlain by younger formations, and its eastward 

dip carries it down to the water level near the eastern boundary of 

the county. Where it is exposed in the stream valleys wells and 

springs obtain from it considerable potable water, but elsewhere it 

will yield only salt and salt-sulphur waters. Such waters might also 

be encountered in deep wells near the river.

The Winchester limestone appears at the surface in a narrow area 

near Licking River and its tributaries, where it yields moderate 

quantities of water for springs and shallow wells. In other parts 

of the county it is buried beneath younger geologic formations and 

may be expected to furnish only salt or salt-sulphur water. Some 

of the deeper wells in the area where the limestone is exposed may 

also encounter mineral water.

The Eden shale forms the surface rock over a large part of the 

county, and in most places it furnishes small quantities of water for 

shallow wells and springs, though the supply is apt to fail in very dry 

weather. It supplies no water to deep drilled wells.
152 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

The lower members of the Maysville formation may cap some of 

the higher parts of the county, but these members contain a high 

percentage of shale, and their water capacity is about the same as 

that of the Eden shale.

The Highbridge limestone will furnish only salt or salt-sulphur 

water in this county. * Wells sunk on the upland of the county would probably reach the 

salt-sulphur water of the St. Peter sandstone at a depth of about 

900 feet. In the valley of Licking Eiver flowing wells might possibly be obtained from this formation, as the bed of the river was 

found by aneroid measurement to have an altitude of 580 feet above 

sea level. As aneroid measurements are subject to considerable 

error, the determination of altitude is questionable.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

Dug wells, ranging in depth from 10 to 25 feet, supply water for 

domestic use over a large part of the county, but their use in the 

towns is attended by some risk, as they are liable to be more or less 

contaminated by surface drainage.

Drilled wells have been sunk at Mount Olivet and Piqua. At 

Mount Olivet two wells, 107 feet deep, were drilled, one of which 

obtained a moderate supply of mineral water and the other was dry. 

At Piqua a drilled well encountered sulphur water at a depth of 

about 75 feet.

The springs of Robertson County are all small, and many of them 

can not be relied upon to furnish water during very dry seasons. 

The original Lower Blue Lick Spring was located on the north side 

of Licking River in this county, but this spring ceased to flow some 

years ago, and attempts to obtain the water by drilling have been 

unsuccessful. A spring with water of similar character on the other 

side of the river is now utilized by the company. In the table of 

analyses (p. 210) the first three samples were taken from the old 

spring and the fourth and fifth from the one now in use.

SCOTT COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Scott County is situated in the south-central part of the Blue Grass 

region. A gently rolling surface, with variations in altitude of 100 

to 200 feet, characterizes the southern part of the county, the interstream areas showing, as a rule, slight relief and being marked by 

numerous sink holes. In the northern part of the county the surface 

has been greatly dissected and presents steep-sided valleys separated 

by narrow divides. The highest points in the county are nearly 

1,000 feet above sea level; the lowest are between 600 and 700 feet
SCOTT COUNTY. 153

above; and the maximum variation is therefore between 300 and 400 

feet.

The northern part of the county drains into Eagle Creek and the 

southern part into Elkhorn Creek. Several tributaries of Licking 

River head near the eastern boundary and receive the drainage of 

the eastern part of the county.

The underground drainage of the southern part of the county is 

extensive, and some of the underground streams may be traced for 

a distance of 3 or 4 miles by the lines of sink holes that mark their 

courses. As a rule, an underground stream emerges in a spring at 

the head of a small branch.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The unconsolidated materials of Scott County form a thin mantle 

of residual soil, consisting of 3 to 8 feet of brown or red loam on areas 

underlain by limestone, and 3 feet or less of yellow or red clay where 

the underlying rock is shale. These materials yield little water 

except where they rest on a dense rock, like the Eden shale, and 

even in such places the supply is small.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Lexington limestone is the surface rock over nearly all the 

southern part of the county, its outcrop coinciding very closely with 

the area of well-developed underground drainage and rolling topography. The northern boundary of this limestone is a sinuous line 

extending in an east-west direction across the county about 5 miles 

north of Georgetown. The formation furnishes an abundance of 

hard water for springs and wells, and it contains all the large underground streams that supply the important springs of the county. 

Below drainage levels, however, the water contains salt, and in some 

places sulphur, and where the limestone is covered by younger formations it will yield no fresh water.

A narrow band of Winchester limestone occurs along the northern 

border of the area of Lexington limestone, and another extends from 

the western boundary of the county near Switzer to Greendale in 

Fayette County. Where this rock is at the surface it furnishes 

moderate quantities of water for springs and shallow wells, but below 

drainage levels the water is brackish and is, as a rule, charged with 

hydrogen sulphide. In localities where it is covered by the Eden 

shale the water found in it will probably contain both salt and sulphur.

The Eden shale outcrops in the northern part of the county and 

over a small area in the western part. The rocks of this formation 

have been deeply eroded and their outcrop coincides very closely 

with the area of rugged topography. In some places this shale
154 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

yields small quantities of water for springs and shallow wells, but it 

yields no water for deep wells, and the supply obtained by the shallow 

ones is apt to fail in dry weather.

The Highbridge limestone lies about 200 feet below the surface in 

the southern part of the county, but it is probably nearly 500 feet 

below the tops of the highest hills in the northern part. It will 

yield only brine in this county.

The St. Peter sandstone, with its salt-sulphur water, underlies the 

entire county, but flowing wells are precluded by the altitude of the 

surface. In the lowest parts of the county the water should rise to 

within less than 100 feet of the surface. At Georgetown and Rogers 

Gap strong salt-sulphur was reported in two deep wells at depths of 

700 and 900 feet, respectively. At Georgetown this water was said 

to have sufficient head to rise within 15 feet of the surface. If this 

is the water from the St. Peter sandstone, it was encountered at a 

less depth and rose higher than the water from the same formation 

at Frankfort.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES.

The rocks of Scott County have a general dip toward the north, and 

there are some evidences of slight local disturbances. The most 

marked structural features are found southwest of Stamping-Ground, 

where two nearly parallel faults have brought a block of Eden shale 

into contact with the Lexington limestone. Near Georgetown a 

slight deformation has produced a small fold.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

Dug wells are used to a limited extent in Scott County, but they 

are rapidly being supplanted by drilled wells except in the areas 

underlain by the Eden shale. Most of the drilled wells obtain their 

waters from the Lexington and Winchester limestones at depths of 50 

to 125 feet. The depth to the sulphur water in Scott County varies 

locally, but it is in few places more than 100 feet.

The Georgetown water supply, which is taken from a large spring 

on the edge of the city, is the only large underground supply of the 

region. The fact that, this water is usually turbid after a rain suggests that some water enters the underground stream through open 

sinks. The spring is supplied by a good-sized underground stream, 

and the amount of water is usually much greater than is needed by 

the town. Many other large springs are found in various parts of 

the county.

Sadieville and Stamping Ground have drilled wells belonging to 

the towns, and these wells supply water for the families that do not 

use cistern water. At Newtown the underground water conditions 

appear to be very favorable, and a large number of successful wells 

have been drilled.
WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY. 155 

SHELBY COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES.

Shelby County is on the western edge of the Blue Grass region. 

Except near its eastern boundary, where some of the streams have 

cut narrow valleys 200 to 300 feet below the level of the upland, it 

has a gently rolling surface, with variations in altitude exceeding 100 

feet in but few places. Near the northwestern corner of the county 

is a high ridge which forms the divide east'of Floyds Fork, and a 

high hill, known as the "Jeptha Knob," is situated near the village 

of Claysville.

A small area near the eastern margin of the county drains to 

Kentucky River through Sixmile and Benson creeks, whose principal 

tributaries are Backbone Creek (to Sixmile) and Collets Creek (to 

Benson). The rest of the county is drained by tributaries of the 

North Fork of Salt River, the largest being Big Beech, Guests, and 

Brashears creeks, and Floyds Fork. The southeastern corner of the 

county, south of Harrisonville and Southville, is drained by the Middle Fork of Crooked Creek and Big Beech Creek and its tributaries; 

a large area east of Shelbyville and south of Christiansburg is drained 

by Guests Creek and its tributaries, Jeptha and Lick creeks and 

Breton Run; and the central part of the county is drained by Brashears Creek, to which Clear and Big Bullskin creeks are tributary. 

Floyds Fork of Salt River receives no large streams from Shelby 

County, but the drainage of the northern part of the county reaches 

it through several small streams. Plum Creek, a direct tributary of 

Salt River, drains the southeastern corner of the county.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual soils of Shelby County resemble those of Fayette County, 

iieluding dense red or yellow clays on the areas of Eden shale and 

loams rather than clays on the limestones of the Maysville and Richmond formations. The residual soils from the Eden shale furnish 

small quantities of water during wet weather. In a few localities the 

soils on the Maysville formation contain so much water that tile draining is necessary, and in such places they should furnish some water 

for wells.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Highbridge, Lexington, and Winchester limestones underlie 

the entire county, and the Lexington and Winchester are exposed near 

Graefenburg in the valley of Benson Creek. The Winchester limestone appears also in the channels of several other streams near the 

eastern edge of the county. Where these limestones are at the surface sufficient hard water for a farm is usually obtainable, but in some
156 WATEES OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

places they yield salt-sulphur water like that of tlie mineral spring at 

Graefenburg. These formations might be reached by deep wells sunk 

on the upland, but the water of such wells would probably be saline or 

saline-sulphur in character.

The Eden shale forms the surface rock over a belt 2 to 6 miles wide 

along the eastern boundary of the county, and outcrops also in the valley of Brashears Creek and in the valleys of Guests Creek and its principal tributaries. In the eastern part of the county this formation 

supplies small quantities of water for springs and shallow wells, but 

farther west it is covered by younger rocks and is not water bearing.

Rocks belonging to the Maysville and Richmond formations occupy 

nearly all of the surface west of the exposures of Eden shale and furnish moderate quantities of hard water for springs and shallow wells. 

The undergouncl water conditions appear to be most favorable in the 

western half of the county, but perennial springs occur in all parts of 

the area where these formations are at the surface.

The Panola formation caps the ridge east of Floyds Fork in the 

nothwestern part of the county. On Jeptha Knob, and near the northwest corner of the county, it furnishes ample supplies of hard water for 

farm use. A cavern containing a stream of water is reported on 

Jeptha Knob.

The St. Peter sandstone will supply an abundance of water for deep 

wells in this county, but it is improbable that the water will flow at 

the surface. The quality of this water is shown by the analysis of the 

water from the Old 76 distillery at Newport (p. 212). The water is 

too highly mineralized for domestic or industrial uses.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES.

The rocks of Shelby County dip gently toward the northwest. They 

show no marked dislocations except near Jeptha Knob, where they 

are broken by faults which have brought limestones of Niagaran age 

into contact with some of the older rocks of the Maysville formation.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL USES.

In the western part of this county some drilled wells, 50 to 100 feet 

deep, have obtained good supplies, but over a large part of the county 

drilled wells may yield very little water. A conspicuous example of 

a failure to find water is the well on Mr. Goodloe's farm,northeast of 

Shelbyville, which was carried to a depth of about 750 feet. Another 

well a short distance away obtained a good supply at less than 70 feet. 

In this county drilling should not, as a rule, be carried beyond 100 feet, 

and 150 feet should be the maximum depth unless mineral water is 

desired.

None of the formations exposed in Shelby County will supply sufficient water for a city system except the Lexington limestone, and
TEIMBLE COUNTY. 157

even this formation may be expected to yield large supplies in only a 

few localities where conditions are especially favorable.

In Shelbyville, which is situated on rocks of the Maysville formation, it is practically certain that underground water of suitable quality and sufficient in quantity for a city supply is unobtainable, and the 

only alternative is the use of surface water. Filtered surface water, 

however, would compare very favorably with the underground water 

of the region.

TRIMBLE COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATUEES.

Trimble County is in the western part of the Blue Grass region and 

is bordered by Ohio River. The eastern part of the county has a 

gently rolling surface with broad shallow valleys separated by rounded 

divides, except near Little Kentucky River, which has cut a narrow 

trench 200 to 300 feet below the level of the upland. West of Bedford the streams flow in deep, narrow valleys which are separated by 

broad, flat, interstream spaces. The amount of relief increases toward 

Ohio River, where it approximates 400 feet.

The Little Kentucky, which crosses the eastern part of the county, 

receives the drainage of the area east of Bedford. The area west of 

Bedford is drained by several small tributaries of the Ohio, the most 

important being Pattons, Barebone, Corn, Spring, and Cooper creeks. 

None of these streams exceed 10 miles in length and all of them have 

very high gradients.

GEOLOGY AND UNDEEGEOUND WATEES.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The unconsolidated materials of Trimble County include a mantle 

of glacial deposits in the western part of the county and of residual 

soils in the eastern part, with a deposit of alluvium 80 to 120 feet or 

more in thickness in the Ohio Valley.

The eastern boundary of the glacial deposits extends northward 

from the Oldham County line, passing about 5 miles east of Bedford 

and entering Carroll County west of Little Kentucky River. The 

material of these deposits is a red clay containing many fragments 

of chert and some pebbles of limestone. A few small fragments "of 

igneous rocks occur in the till, but most of the pebbles are of local 

origin.

The residual soils of the eastern part of the county consist of 

dense clays, in few places more than 3 feet thick, which furnish 

little water directly to wells or springs except wherje they rest on 

the Eden shale.
158 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

The alluvium of the Ohio Valley consists of coarse sands and 

gravels capped in many places by a few feet of buff silt. These 

materials supply an abundance of hard water for drilled or driven 

wells at depths of 60 to 110 feet. The water is not so hard as that 

derived from the consolidated materials on the upland.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The oldest rock appearing at the surface in Trimble County is the 

Eden shale, which is exposed at the foot of the bluff bordering the 

Ohio and in the valleys of Little Kentucky River and some of the 

smaller streams in the northeastern part of the county. In these 

valleys it furnishes small quantities of water for springs and shallow 

wells, but elsewhere in the county it is buried by younger formations 

and is not water bearing. The quality of much of the water from this 

shale is poor.

The eastern half of the county is underlain by rocks belonging to 

the Maysville and Richmond formations, which furnish moderate 

quantities of hard water for springs and shallow wells. The Richmond is especially well developed, more than 150 feet of interbedded 

limestones and shales belonging to this formation being exposed near 

Bedford. The upper part of the Richmond presents exceptionally 

favorable conditions for underground water and contains some very 

good springs. In some drilled wells the water is slightly brackish.

A large part of the upland near the Ohio is occupied by the blue 

shale and gray to buff heavy-bedded limestones belonging to the 

Panola formation. The limestone beds of this formation yield ample 

supplies of water containing considerable lime and magnesia. Some 

of the layers that rest on shale beds present unusually favorable conditions for underground water. Northwest of Bedford some large 

sink holes suggest the presence of good-sized caverns.

The Winchester, Lexington, and Highbridge limestones and the 

St. Peter sandstone are all buried beneath younger rocks in this 

county and will not yield fresh water, but any of them may yield 

salt-sulphur water in deep drilled wells. In the Ohio Valley flowing 

wells could be obtained by drilling into the St. Peter, but the quality 

of the water in this formation renders it unfit for ordinary uses.

DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES.

A number of good springs are found in the western part of Trimble 

County, but from Bedford eastward the springs are small and many 

of them fail during dry seasons. The Bedford mineral spring was 

formerly a summer resort of considerable note.

Dug wells from 10 to 30 feet deep are a common source of supply 

for farms and villages. During recent years many of these wells 

have been supplanted by cisterns.
WOODFORD COUNTY. 159

Drilled wells are usually successful on the upland west of Bedford, 

but few of them procure large supplies. At Bedford two unsuccessful 

wells have been drilled.

WOODFORD COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATUEES.

Woodford County lies in the southern part of the Blue Grass region, 

on the east side of Kentucky River, which is here less than 500 feet 

above sea level; the highest parts of the upland have an altitude of 

nearly 1,000 feet.

The drainage of the county reaches the Kentucky through Clear, 

Glen, and South Elkhorn creeks and many small streams. All the 

surface streams receive large quantities of water from springs fed by 

underground streams. Such underground streams occur in all parts 

of the county, but they appear to be especially large and numerous 

on the divide northeast of Versailles. On this divide are many sink 

holes which receive the drainage from considerable areas. An 

example of this is the big sink northeast of Versailles, which receives 

the drainage from a surface stream more than a mile in length and 

which is said to be connected by an underground channel with the 

Big Spring. This spring, which is probably the largest in the Blue 

Grass region, emerges from a cavern, flows for some distance as a 

surface stream, and then enters an underground channel through a 

sink hole. Other examples of sinking streams are to be found on 

the Woodburn farm, near Spring Station, and at Childer's place, near 

Versailles. In this county, as elsewhere in the region, most of the 

large springs emerge in small gullies. Caverns of considerable size 

exist in various parts of the county, and some of them have been 

explored for short distances.

Most of the surface streams tributary to the Kentucky have broad 

valleys on the upland and descend to the river in narrow canyons.

GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The residual materials in Woodford County consist of yellowish or 

reddish loams and clays which were formed by the decomposition of 

limestones and shales and which probably have an average thickness 

of less than 6 feet, although in some places the maximum thickness 

may exceed 20 feet. These materials furnish little water directly to 

wells or springs, but they store large quantities of water and supply 

it gradually to the channels in the limestone.

Thin strips of sandy alluvium, which supplies large quantities of 

water to springs on the banks of the river and might also furnish an 

abundance of water for wells, are found in the wider parts of the gorge 

of Kentucky River. The thickness of this alluvium has not been 

determined by borings, but it probably does not exceed 50 to 60 feet.
160 WATEES OF BLUE GEASS EEGION, KENTUCKY.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Highbridge limestone is exposed in the gorge of Kentucky 

River, but it dips steeply northward and the thickness of the exposure 

decreases toward the northern end of the county. Where it forms 

the surface rock it furnishes hard water for springs and shallow wells, 

but elsewhere it yields water which is highly mineralized.

The Lexington limestone is exposed above the Highbridge along 

the valleys of the large streams and it forms the surface rock over a 

large portion of the upland. It is this limestone that contains the 

large underground streams referred to in a previous paragraph. In 

the localities of its outcrop it furnishes an abundance of hard water, 

but wells which penetrate it below the level of the surface drainage 

are apt to obtain salt or salt-sulphur water.

The Winchester limestone outcrops over considerable areas in the 

northern half of the county and supplies moderate quantities of hard 

water. It may also supply some of the sulphur water which is encountered in the drilled wells of the northern part of the county.

The Eden shale, which caps some of the hills in the northwestern 

part of the county, furnishes small quantities of water to springs and 

shallow dug wells, but none for deep wells.

The St. Peter sandstone will supply salt-sulphur water at depths 

ranging from 700 to 800 feet in the gorge of Kentucky River to 1,200 

feet or 1,300 feet on the upland. The water is under sufficient 

pressure to cause it to flow at the surface in the Kentucky gorge and 

in the lower parts of some of the tributary streams.

DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES.

Dug wells are used to a moderate extent in Woodford County, but 

they are not held in great favor. Drilled wells are numerous in all 

parts of the county, and the water conditions are so favorable that 

many drillers agree to obtain water or make no charge for drilling. 

At Versailles about 100 wells have been drilled and none of them 

have failed to get water, while some have yielded over 100 gallons 

per minute.

The large spring at Spring Station probably has a greater volume 

than any other spring in the Blue Grass region. The flow of this 

spring was not determined, but it must amount to several million 

gallons per day.

WELLS AND WELL RECORDS.

The following list of well records (Table 8) includes about 75 per 

cent of the number that was collected during the progress of the 

field work. No attempt has been made to obtain records of all the 

wells in the region, but the list is believed to represent the underground water conditions and to indicate what may be expected by 

those who contemplate drilling.
WELLS AND WELL EECOEDS. 161

The wells in the alluvium are all located in the Ohio Valley. Wells 

sunk in this formation always procure water, unless they are located 

so close to the upland that they encounter rock near the surface. 

The water is entirely satisfactory for ordinary use and the supply 

ample.

The wells on the upland have been sunk in. various formations, but 

it will be noted that none of the deep wells obtain water from the 

Eden shale. In the other formations the water supply varies in 

amount and character in different localities. Large supplies are 

encountered in many places in the Lexington limestone, while few 

wells in the Maysville and Richmond formations obtain more water 

than is needed for a single household. In the Winchester limestone 

underground water conditions are somewhat less favorable than in 

the Lexington. The Panola formation is seldom thick enough to 

warrant deep drilling, but near the western edge of Oldham and Trimble counties it supplies a number of good drilled wells.

In all of these formations, except the Panola, the deeper wells are 

apt to encounter the highly mineralized water which is designated 

sulphur water in the table. The depth to this mineral water varies 

from place to place and in different wells in the same locality; but in 

general the table will form a safe guide to the approximate depth of 

the ordinary limestone water, beyond which mineralized waters are 

probable.

In consulting the table it is well to remember that a well in any 

locality may fail to obtain water. In the Blue Grass region the number 

of unsuccessful wells is about 4 per cent of the whole number drilled. 

For the region as a whole, therefore, the probability of success in 

seeking water is very good, but the percentage of dry holes is much 

higher in some localities than in others. It may happen that some 

wells find water while others a few feet away are dry. This is explained by the fact that the water occurs in channels in the rock, and 

to be successful a well must encounter one of the water-bearing 

channels. The accompanying diagram, figure 5, shows two wells side 

by side one successful, the other dry.

About 100 records were collected by Dr. Chase Palmer and the 

remainder by the author. Much valuable information in regard to 

the occurrence of underground water in the region was also furnished 

by the drillers whose names are given below:

J. B. Bonta. 

E. C. Cox. 

W. M. Cox. 

E. C. Griggs. 

George Icenhower. 

John Kearney. 

W. S. May. 

Patton & Bailey.

88942 IRR 233 09 11

W. R. Renfro. 

Robinson & Moon. 

George Sallee. 

S. Wells. 

Robert Smith, 

E. M. Spence, 

John O. Rogers. 

W. B. Tadlock,
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8-g

^r* 

o

°w

g 3 S 

K'^* t) 

2, <<fcrc! 

W ^ 

£s£a§ fo 

' 'o 

tw B ^ 

ci' D-O 

d

w

1

S9T aa^a: ssvao 'jsroioaa 
Boone County.

Petersburg..... 

Do.'........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Bourbon 

County.

Clintonville.-..

Elizabeth Station.

Do.........

Do.........

North Middletown.

Do.........

Do..........

Do.........

Do.........

Boyle County. 

Danville....... 

Do.........

3 blocks W.... 

1 block E......

1J miles S.....

1 block S. .....

J mile N ...... 

ImileS.......

ImileW......

1 mile N ......

1 block N.....

SmilesW.....

2miles N...... 

ImileS.......

5 blocks W....

ImileNE.....

7 miles SE . . . .

5 miles S......

2J miles NW..

Boone Countv 

Distilling Co.

Town...........

J.I. McWorthey

P.Grubbs......

S. L. Weathers. . 

John M. Leach. .

.....do...........

male College.

William Thomason.

Fair Association.

Laundry. 

Paris Distilling

Co.

W.B.Woodford.

Charles P. Cecil.. 

W.W.Johnson..

'

2

4

3

3

51

8-6 

6 

fi

6

fi

6

fi

8

fi

fi

5 

4

130

110

115

132

95

110

125

50

55

72

68

60

120

40

113 

90+

120

168

50

90

180

120-130

40

80

100 

95

60

32

85

45

50

72

08

4O

103

40

85

90

120.

above 

90.

None.

25

None.

67

- 60

- 18

- 50

- 52

- 15

- 52

- 25

 30

- 40

- 20

DC

4

50?

30

4

8

4

Hand.....

...do.......

Windmill.

Hand.....

...do.......

engine.

M eve r's

hand. 

Hand.....

Windmill.

Hand.....

engine. 

Hand.....

Hand,

force.

Hand.....

Windmill.

....do......

Hard..

.....do..

.....do..

.....do..

.-...do..

.....do..

.....do..

sulphu

Hard...

sulphu

Hard; s

sulphu

sulphu

Soft....

Hard...
* c 

"3 bb b U b b rvts °C 

<i op p p p p erg g. 

S *? 

§1- § Ib&f b B" b Kg.^ j 5- p ». p ^ o 

s c ' ' D" 5" Ss : : : S : 

CJi^rjlO irfxbO 1 Is3 Is3 bO CO CO i ( 

° 8 vi ° 2 otJT "i" "i" 8 3 ^ 

s^*^ M 5" s. ^ p. 5. *< K r 

If

t g ^ : |- 1" i ° i ^ S 

«- p . » . p o HJ 

0=0=0: 0,0,0=00=^^0, 

rj |^ 3 § 38= 1 S 8 2 g 

Oi ' O^ O bO 00 J rfi. 

O -J; O Oi fcO O O 

| If ill : 

i M 1:1 i 

O CT Cn CO ' O O 

I ii 1 ! i i ! 

^ ^SS W M 2 2 B 

£? ! B ! i ! P 

; ; ; ; 

h . : : : ! 

1 t- : ; '. > 

ffl ! S 

p* ^ Q^ p- 1' ~i' P' ^ 

o-ooppo^ 1 

S" : : : S 

P ' ::'. " 

i

S

 D 

S 

*.- 

^

3

1 Tc co 

fe : H- : 

: l i 

H- & 

Hard; sulphur 

... Sulphur.... 

& p, 

p o 

Chattanoo- ga. 

.....do(?).

wbb b : bOg^go H 

°P P J^'^^P ; p' ; J5' 5' ! 

CD ffl ffl 

W -^ -H D 

. F. DSlavin. 

. J.L. Grain......

. Gordon. George 

i i 05 

r*- to o 01 01 

Oi Cn h- 00 

toS C.1O 

f- Oi to 1 

1

o

*

a.

0

&

? g So 

hj 1 II 

ii 

p- CD 

a

t-pj CQ 'fc 

i-l <r+- -< & i--^ 

1 p; 

fei zi: 

° ' 2 

ffl ; ^ 

1 t- ': ffl

p' ; 

S" : 

4||

g 

&

IP'

Owner.

well. of Diameter 

well. of Depth 

princi- to Depth 

supply. pal 

other to Depth 

supplies.

water of Height 

or (+) above. 

the ) ( below 

well. at surface 

min- per Yield 

ute.

11

o

o ^ P 

£§1.

C-J 

ffl

ffl

1

aina ssvao 
Do.........

Bo.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Campbell 

County.

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Carroll County.

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

2 blocks NW..

1J miles W.... 

1 block N.....

4milesS......

Cemetery.

tween 2d 

and 3d.

JmileW......

*mileS.......

imileS.......

Laundry. 

J. R. Carter. .....

City.............

.....do...........

E. F. Frolicher . .

Noble Stair .....

etery Co. 

FrigidlceCo....

Old 76 Distilling Co.

mann Brewing Co.

Co.

niture Manufacturing Co.

tillery Co.

o 

2

q

6

4

3

10

5

C

80

86 

90-11.5

96 

170

106 

68

101 

600

122 

1250

110,275

70

98

540 

80-90

60

80 

40-50

50±

170

102 

35

- 65 

200

52

80

45

20 

40

50

10, 40-50

None. 

30

Several 

veins. 

None.

122 

A little

fresh 

water.

None.

540

........[ 254-1... .do...... .....do..

- 40

- 50±

- 46 

- 60+

- 70±

- 40

-194

- 52

- 70

40

- 90 

- 40

U n - 

limited.

60+

15 

la

209 

34+

3.50

300

Hand.....

...do......

Hand; gasoline engine. 

Hand .....

Hand .....

Steam.....

Airlift....

Steam.....

............

.....do..

.....do..

.....do..

Hard..

.....do..

... ..do. .

Slight su

Hard..

.....do..

.....do..

Hard..
, ^ ET 

i ^ £ 

* 1 

1 £ 

^ ' 

5"

£d 

S"

Cn

 

&

o

P CD 

B g 

CO 

P C^P 

B CD s^r

£3 £|k

B e 

.Lexington 

b M

8

o" ""p 

^ t-E 

o i o ^i 

3

P* ? 

^p ? 

0, 

* 

_ 

1-1 -1 

*- 3} 

1 h- i 

O O 

: z; 

o

d

,M ^ 

PJ -D 

DC

c

;

§ s' 

p. 

P

o u 

2. o 

5' SB EW 

33

1"T

3'

5" 

-s

^

35

-3

i 

NS

r

3'

5 

3

importance Salt water,

0

< D 

|

c 5" 

K

: D 

. -*» 

: ^ 

~, s

""i 

?§. 

P

3>

S

1

O

P 

35

i a M fa M J 

" bTO Mw -jo 

w P 0 OS 0 1 P 3 

! : : |: : ! 

::::::<?

w p. ££: P ?e: 

^ w re CD *-s re 

p ^ coco 12 

M ; ! ; ^ : 

PQ o 1 t^t- b so 

§ S- S s c?' & B 

3 P f " 3 S f 

N !; : ? 3

0, 0, »» » » t

__ Jl 

S O CO O rf^ Ol 

Cn rf^ 00 00 to ^2 

o o oc? o B B P I P 

? P S? ? S: 

l l ! I I : 

GO Oi O CTI O 

W : rep K ^ 

P 3* §" g B B 5' 

p. ; £, p-TO p, 

i g?: ; B. CD ' . Ci 

CO CO WCO H 3QCO 

e, a PJL ^ a i£T T^ **3 o^-Tr HJ ^ 2 cJ 

6 ^ & i -^ ? ^w 

; - ^ ' i_» " ' 

: P ¥ : S o 

: s S : S ? 

: : : : S 

|2j ; ; CO |2j 

o p, P.P, S 0 

g ° P? g: g 

o g- g-3' =- g-| 

P^ ° PTO ° P/ 0 

'D c+- . CD 

S- ° : Sb b Ub g 

§

WO £ & O O ^r/l 

°o33oBg3 ^ 

p y o o ; 

||

4 milesE......

I" 

 B 

! S'

JOC»-

l>-

Se

00^

oc

oc

tr

2

3

p

5 1 

g

o

3

1

§ l

3

:

c^ 1 P

a ,-, 2 i_ji_j 

25 i ; 

1 : : 

miles NE... 1Jmiles N..... 1J 

of Ghent... CityH.M.Froman...

.. ...do... ...... 

*~(

-^J^ 00 

1*^ 1 [ 

oc'!^ co 

^*- O Cn 

g>

1 oS?

1-1

B 3' 3" 

r I 

B

p. i 

s §- 

CD

5 a. p. 

5. 3 O 

c

«o I 

-P

o

6

o

3p. ?

o

CD

well. of Diameter 

well. of Depth 

princi- to Depth 

supply. pal 

other to Depth 

supplies.

water of Height 

or ) + ( above 

the ) ( below 

well. at surface 

min- per Yield 

ute.

11

2, ^ 

if

o

III

^ga

g.cfo 

8|o

2,^'

d

CD

C? 

3

I

to

99T &o ama ssvao 
Do......... 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do......... 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

J mile W

Jmile E....... 

ImileNW....

5J miles 

Georgetown 

Pike. 

JmileNW....

1J miles NE...

1J miles N..... 

f mile W. .....

10 miles N..... 

.....do.........

10 miles.......

5 miles SE....

SJmilesSW... 

1J miles W....

3 miles N ..... 

fmileSW.....

12 miles E of S. 

10 miles NE...

Abram Jones. . . .

Kentucky Reform school.

S. C.Nunnelly..

State............

Dr. Aiken. ......

Blue Grass Stock 

Yards. 

Boice & Grogan 

Lumber Co. 

City Ice Co. .....

Benj.M. Cole...

Consumers' Ice 

Co.

B. S.Coyle...... 

.....do...........

.....do...........

R. C. Estill.....

Alex. Foley..... 

G. R. Foster. . . .

JohnN. Foster.. 

Gentry heirs ....

Dr.D.J. Gibson.

.....do...........

6-4 

5

5 

4

6 

8

6 

41

f 8, 

5, 

U

4i 

4i

4i 

5-4

6

4i

4i

4 

5

6

150 

214,212

230 

214,212 

200

84,124 

116

190 

95

400, 

150, 

100

100 

112

142 

225

71 

200

100

85

52 

165 

198

150

60,75 

94

50

95

I 274

80 

110

80-130 

150

71 

90

-5, -65

40

60

30. 

101,175

40

20

None.

None. 

70

None. 

25,65

None.

- 50

f- 75 

i to 

\- 60

- 40+

- 35 

-100

- 30 

- 45

+ 0

- 27

- 90

i 35

40

100

3 

60

7

66

Steam 

and gas.

Windmill.

Horsepower. 

Deep well.

Force .....

...do....... 

...do.......

Hand..... 

...do.......

Windmill, 

e 1 e ctric 

motor.

Windmill. 

...do.......

Soft.. ..

.....do.

Hard..

.....do.

.....do.

Alkalin

Limesto

..... do.. 

Salt; su

Hard..

.....do.

.....do.

.....do.

Slight su
TABLE 8. Wells in the Blue Grass region Continue

Post-office.

Fayette Co. 

Cont'd.

Lexington..... 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do. ........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do......... 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Direction and 

distance from 

post-office.

1J miles W.. .. 

5 miles NW...

1J miles NE...

1 block W.....

.....do........

.....do........ 

1 J miles NW

SmilesS......

12 miles SW...

ImileSE......

11 miles S.....

Owner.

J. K. Hughes....

Brewery Co. 

.....do..........

(LexingtonBrick

\ Co.

Laundry.

.....do..........

.....do..........

Stock Farm. 

Z. T. Newman..

Distilling Co. 

William Pettit..

.....do..........

Diameter ofwell.

In. 

6

4

5

s

} 

8

8

5

5

5

6

4

4

4i

Depth of well.

Feet. 

85

78

143 

150

180

187

175

GO

90

125

105

QC:

50 

100

130 

51

cc

Depth to princi- pal supply.

Feet.

142 

142

12

170

30

95 

70

\ 90

\\

f»n

!-c

1 . 

O OT

OJ 

OS ~ s<

SP & M

ft

Feet.

30,80

14,75

None.

15-16, 49

None

Height of water above (+) orbelow ( )the 

surface atwell.

Feet.

-40

1 -8 to

\ -15 

( 8to

1-30+ 

-21

_ 191

-65

__ fj

-11

-40

a

a 

IMfts

2

>H

Galls.

| 230

1f ------

0+

80

Q-l9+

6+

173

Kind of 

pump.

eng i n e , 

windmill. 

Hand .....

Steam..... 

...do.......

...do......

Deei) well

engine. 

...do......

Windmill.

...do......

Airlift....

Hand.....

...do......

...do......

Quality 

wate

Hard..

.....do.

.....do.

.....do.

.....do.

Slight 

phur.

sulphu

Sulphu

Hard..

and lit
Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Walnut Hall...

Fleming County.

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

11 miles N

9 miles S W

ImileSW.....

9 miles NW

7J miles SE....

Smiles SE.....

ImileSE......

i mile E ......

J block N.....

i blocks......

.....do........

2milesSW....

1 block W

2 miles "W

.....do........

Albert Shuler...

Dr. J.W.Wilson.

Church. 

Mrs KG! tli

Mrs. J. W. Strode

William 11. Belt.

City............

.....do..........

O'Bannon. 

.....do..........

W. J. Hendrix. . .

W. H. Means....

.....do..........

J. W. Patrick...

51

6

41-4

Y

4

4

fi

r.

i)

fi

fi

fi

fi

6

140

168

85

126

80

150

110

100+

70

125

on

72+

65

100+

100

120

100

140

S3

126

78

1°5

100

09

25

45

30

20

18-20

95

70

60

90+

62

48

90

P»Q 73

18

10

10

30,25

-GO

-70

30

14

-40

-15

-15

........

4+

20

 1C 10

gasoline 

engine.

Windmill.

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

Hand.....

Hand.....

steam.

Hand.....

...do......

...do......

...do......

.....do

.....do

.....do

Hard.

Hard.

Hard; 

sulphu

iron

phur.

Hard.

Oil at 1

Hard.
170 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

o M p p

Lexington Highbridg

D"

-unu J9d

m(H ^H

T3 P^ 03

02 W B :

s8§

 saqddns

1 1

 A"jddns red 

-pau

10 *t<

 I[8A\. O OOO OO O 1O <N O

CO CO '""c-)

g

'

03030)0)

a

«

0 fe,0

o .TH^ 2 ss
Do......... 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Gallatin County.

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

. Do.........

Do.........

Garrard County.

Bryantsville. . . 

Hyattsville ....

Do.........

Do.........

Point Leavell..

300 yards N . . .

150 feet E..... 

1 block NE . . .

1 mileS...... .

2 blocks NW..

.....do.........

250 yards S.... 

f mile E. ......

2 blocks W....

I Within 3 or 4 

\ blocks.

6milesS......

1 mileS. ...... 

1 mile E ......

Smiles W.....

A few rods SW. 

20 rods SE.....

L. A. Owen.....

W. B. Quin.....

.....do..... ......

J. S. Peyton..... 

Thomas My lor. . 

Parker & Dearie . 

G. Cox..........

Mrs. William 

Roswell. 

Sanders Oil and 

Gas Co. 

Arch Bell.......

Samuel Bledsoe. 

City of Warsaw .

1. ...do..... ......

G. A. Ghex.....

Warsaw Furniture Co.

C. M. Jenkins... 

James N. Denny.

I. M. Dunn.....

A. B. Montgom 

ery. 

C. K. Poindexter

O. T. Wallace. . .

6-5

4J

6

2 

3

2 

S-l

Si 

8

2,'a"

3

3

4

4

4

4 

6 

4

4

85 

107

54 

54

60

100 

96 

80

550 

741 

125

90 ± 

60

90-100

103

90+

90

60 

104

54 

60 

129

70

107

30 

50

100 

50

15 

741 

100 ±

50

85±

45 

60

80

45 

104

40 

35 

100±

25

50+ 

None.

fio

18

None.

None.

- 50

- 20 

_ ^4

 20

+ 75 

-100

- 50

(-85 to 

\ -90

- 60

- 30± 

- 4

- 40 

- 6

-1 

5

8

} 

-45

30

2 

Small 

seep. 

5

Windmill..

Gasoline 

engine.

Windmill. 

Windmill.

Hand .....

Windmill.

Hand.....

...do....... 

...do.......

Windmill.

Windmill. 

Hand.....

...do......

...do......

Hard..

Strong 

phur a

none n

Hard..

Trace o

phur a

slight 

Hard..

Soft (?)

Hard..

.....do.

Salt wat

gas. 

Hard..

Hard..

.....do.

.....do.

.....do.

.....do.

.....do

White s

Hard an

Sulphur
TABLE 8. Wells in the Blue Grass region Continue

Post-office.

Harrison 

County.

Do. ........

Boyd. .........

Do.........

Claysville ......

Do.........

Colville........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do. ........

Do.........

Do.........

Direction and 

distance from 

post-office.

1 block W

1 block S. .....

2 blocks SE . . .

| mile W. .....

3 J miles SW...

JmileNW....

| mile S. of E .

3 blocks SE...

2 blocks S.....

4J miles NW..

Owner.

J. W. Haley....

J. S. Baskett....

George B. Duck-

\v orth.

L. W. Diltz.....

tillerv. 

F. S. Ashbrook

Distilleries Co. 

W. M. Cox......

J. W. Daniel....

S. O. Ecker.....

tillery.

Diameter ofwell.

In.

n

(1

f,

4

fi

fi

fi

O

S

fi

fi

6

fi

fi

Depth of well.

Feet. 

130

85

100

70

117

131

90

100

280

£0

90

119

108

120

Depth to princi- pal supply.

Feet. 

120

78

90

60

100+

05

7.5-80

90-100

45

119

140-150

ter.

f_i

03 

£ 

O 03

O ^H

SI PH M

0)

fi

Feet.

20

30-40

Height of water above (+ )orbelow ( ) the 

surface atwell.

Feet. 

-24

-40

-60

-40

- 0

-25

-10

-14

-15

-30

-30

-59

+ 8

p) 

1

0) 0)

^

 d 

S

£

Galls

30

2

4

Kind of 

pump.

Hand.....

...do......

Hand.....

.do......

...do......

engine. 

Hand.....

...do......

Qualit

wate

water. 

Hard..

sulphu

and oil

sulphu

sulphu

sulphu

at 100 

less a

feet.
Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Henry County.

Jessamine 

County.

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

3 miles SE . . . .

11 Tniinc. xrw

.....do........

.....do........

2 miles NW...

of Nicholasville.

2J miles NE...

M.S. McKee....

W W^nr-^r.r.f,

tillery. 

.....do..........

ter Distillery..

William Sale....

tilleries and 

Warehouse Co. 

.....do..........

H. B. Sand.....

R. R. Henderson.

ers. 

City............

J. W. Cobb and

Steven Snowden.

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

8

6

0

6

ft-41

4

4

4

150

90

74+

WQ

98

150

175

110

68

70

68

60

100

190

74

152

100

SO

85

80

100

80

68

OK

81

125

125

90

68

70

115

99

85

80

20

None.

16

None

10, 20, 60

50

18

-10

-35

_9n

-48

-50

-12

-48

-20

-34

-50

-57

-55

- 6

- 5

8+

i

100

0

6

Hand.....

Hand.....

Hand.....

...do......

...do......

Hand.....

...do......

...do......

well and 

w in dmill. 

Hand.....

Hand.....

suction.

tion.

tastes o

gas. 

Slight su

OQC- colt

water.

.....do.

Hard..

Hard..

Hard..

phur w

Hard..

Slightly 

phur.

water; 

.....do.

.....do.
TABLE 8. Wells in the Blue Grass region Continued

Post-office.

Jessamine Co. 

Cont'd.

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Direction and 

distance from 

post-office.

8i miles NW..

100 feet N.....

3 blocks N.....

.....do.........

50 feet S. of C.

A.Kenney's. 

2} miles W....

.....do.........

10 rods S ......

2J miles NE...

t mile SE .....

Owner.

son.

County.

.....do...........

Laundry.

Co.

Water Co. 

.....do...........

W. D. Sharp....

City.............

Diameter ofwell.

In.

C A

5-3

6

8

8

8

8

4±

4

4

Depth of well.

Feet. 

100

110

77

75

75

71

130

135

75

100

140

62

Depth to princi- pal supply.

Feet.

100

120

62

62

62

62

65

65

F-4

1o w01

Sp,

__, ft 

 S s

!"

Feet.

60-80

50

50

None.

Height of water above (+)orbelow ( )the 

surface atwell.

Feet.

-57

-20

-20

-22

-20

-20

- 3

- 6

-15

a

I

l|

2'3

£

Galls.

10

25

27

14

200

200

Kind of 

pump.

Hand.....

....do......

....do......

Air lift. . . .

....do......

Windmill.

Hand .....

Quality 

water

Hard...

.....do..

Hard...

.....do...

Hard...

.....do...

phur.

Hard....
Kenton County.

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Madison County. 

Paint Lick. ....

Mason County.

Do.........

Do.........

2 blocks SW...

3 blocks S.....

2 blocks NW . .

S.... ..........

n u e and 

Dayton 

street.

i mile E. ......

500 yards NE. .

1 mile N ......

i miles. ......

G. H. Hackladt.

William Shafer. . Webber.........

ing Co.

Brewing Co.

Co. 

Consumers' Ice

Manufacturing and Cold 

Storage Co.

Brewing Co.

Distilling Co.

lery.

R. N. Beasley...

Fred Kelch.....

fi

fi

fi

3

fi,8

8

8

4-8

8

8

4

8 fi

6

3

?

fi

90

70

71

80

69-73

80

200

110

140-165

110

1,100

105

275

51

300

70-85

60

18

60

62

60

65

80

1 Oftft

90+

51

40

65

Beds of

sand.

....do..

-30

60

-50

-40

-75

-60

-20

-25

- 5

-20

1

1

1

50

100

250

182

80+

....do......

....do......

....do......

Gowan, 

LaidlawDunne.

Airlift....

Gordon.

DunneGordon.

Hand.....

....do......

....do......

sulphu

.....do..

.....do..

sulphu

Hard; 

sulphu

.....do.

.....do.

Hard..

sulphu

phur. 

Hard..

Hard..

.....do.
W ^ S M ^3 

fe* o 2 p 2 £ 

^ -^ 3 <5j £ o 

o® ® y y Ei w y f^^yy 

t§ P P E 5 ? ° P £ & 

? ' \ j i i i ; if; 

"g £ 2 | | | 23 g^§ 

® £7" 1 JJT w _, .^to'w 

F P F r £ r r r i a 

5) 1 J" ^ M W ' d ^Q^H 

1 ^ ^ w ^ § ^ | ro Hoi 

| | 1 | I | | '| |^| 

p r p i i P r § R. i 

H up to to o: no oo os co >o os 

O. O OOOOOS to CnOOiO 

>*- ^J ' OS " 

O O Oi Oi 

rto-OS j 

^7o " j : § 

|_ : I I 

O Oi Oi CO 

o 

g w 

P B 

g p. 

2,~» 

PI PJ ^ 

o

I 0* 

! 1 

o ' 

B

^ I 

PI PI 

o o 

10

o

^

05

1

2

sog«a

d B S B 

?^r-a§

DJ

5

b b b 

H'^lll

B' f 5' ^ a' 

SP ,SP 75 

p.

a

2

d

3

a

B

T

10

O^re OJ O: CO 

p«- CJ1 O Ul Ul 

^ ! Z 

$. ; O 

l>j Oi 

1^»> 1 

Cji 1 Oi O 

If 

tO 

" Oi O O "^-1 

^ K-I H^ a 

oT d O O ^ 

W ' W g 

a PJ PJ P ^ S P 

r r ° ^ 3?

1 t? M ' 

P5 HH 

(^ t-i P ^ PJ DJ 

pj** ; 3 o o 

£ : : 

cj cj cc 

^OMftotl^^OGoTMK^KTS SHjJlTl ^T^ -' , 1 ^ <P y ^ -t r 1 ^ ' 

p^ra§^^^raSr : 

G ; E= =J 

B ; P 3 

b : b b a 

II & &fsl| 

E^S- ; '*??- 1 2'PHjJ^'rt-?

,° : P M, -? M 7f,

ta to ^; 

^1 i 1 

0 » " | 

0 0 

^ 

g 

6

8

|||

SSg

o

it-i

well. of Diameter 

well. of Depth 

princi- to Depth 

supply. pal 

other to Depth 

supplies.

water of Height 

or (+) above 

the ) ( below 

well. at surface 

min- per Yield 

ute.

||

i-*,

£>

^ 5? 

P £fl 

^^

R

Q

O r^M *H 

^ ^' *rt 

<?<ga

J B ^ 

o «' O 2 a"

' 5 la

dw

o>

s 

s

5°

ba

92,1 ama ssvao 
Mercer County.

» Do.........

10 

o 

^ 

o

Do.........

d 

d

* Do.........

o Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

o 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Nicholas Co'y.

Do.........

1 block SW...

.....do........

.....do........

1 milo "\TW

11 miles SW...

i mile NW ....

At

500 yards N W

SE..... .......

1,500 feet SE..

Gillam&Tully..

J.W.Giliam....

Public..........

Hughes.

Minor L. Ransdell. 

John B . Thompson's Distillery. 

/California - KenG. H. Fallis.....

.....do..........

H. J. Trimble...

Co. 

City.............

51

51

8

5

5

6

5

 ?!

5

J6, 4

J8J164

/6i16

4

5,7

6

6

60

90

/ 40-

90

85

103

97

101

55

85

/35or

\ 40 

}i 4on

85

| 90

68

72

110

65

86,52

155

135

50

80 ±

}.......

90

90

75

101

bottom. 

40 ±

}.......

15

80

60

fil

72

AQ

150

40 or 50

90

None.

None

None

/-20to

-20

-20

-63

-10

_ 2

-40

/-15to

\ -20 

-35

60

62

}.......

50 ±

} 100+

3

Force

....do.....

Hand.....

....do.....

Hand.....

....do.....

Hand .....

Hand .....

windmill.

Force .....

Hard...

.....do..

.....do..

sulphur

sulphur

water. 

Hard...

White su

water. 

.....do..

Hard...

.....do..

.....do..

/Salt and 

\ phur. 

Hard...

.....do..

.....do..

Hard...

Hard...
to g ^ , b O 

§. g |' g> g g 

3. P b m § 2 bbro b b 

ST ^ O OOOOCD^p 

S i" i a : F i : : <=? T :: ? 

Boston Station.

1 f ^: f Eli E 

: : H: : : : : 

S. ^ " £3* ft p^ H^ O p CD 

C S> W B tH B Q.C/Q ff S> 3 O 

co 2 <, 3 o» 3. co HI 

-& ^ °^ > M; F° B JQ 

E f ft 1 ? »! I i 

. Pewee ValleyDo......... Do......... 

Pendleton Co'y.

§2

o vj 

, W Q d 3

o §<!?! 3 

WO f 

1 | j?t) b b 

o ! I CD ! 

1 : i i : ** : : : : 

g. CD'S, £. i. 

^ too' 2 

£. CD s> 3 

r 8 3. "g 

I ai B 

. f <<i 

0=^ o. : 0= 0,0= 0,0= ^0= en ^0= ^ ^*.cn 0= 

h* ^ ** ^ " ^ 

00

Or

to

00

1

1^.

Gasoline engine. 

....do.....

$ 3 " p, i 

1

o

. Lexington 

.....do.....

Domestic, stock. irri- Stock, 

Jg | Jlq B 4 88 I gg | S3 

1 I V> h^ >> ' h^- I ! 

'^'* "^ ^ ' CJT -^H . , 

1 I- O O O CD O 

g 3 ft P « t* ' P£ 

> * CD ° CD "^ 1 CD ^Q! | 1 

Ml 1 I 1 eo to to oo ^eo 

o p ! o ^p 

3 ftB 3 B B 

to ft p CD ftft 

W W: g H g>; 

1 f lip | § || 

: 1: p : 

i |i 1 § 

i ! 1 ^ 

§a

32

!<

b M wa^a b w : 

(JQ CfQ CJQ Q o ' 

I

° 

3

32

s.

 o

I

i

?

 5

^

?

i

b

D

ft

O

ft 

3

ft 

O

j.

=

1

Cn

2

a 

i

5_ 

»

. Domestic 

.--.do.....

12 01 B 1 

. 0 CO ; 

!

f

;

1

Drinking..

i

a o" 

p. 3 

W

ft j. 

; o 

o

g ft 

Panola..... 

...-do---..

Domestic, stock. 

....do.....

t~* ^> 

eg «- ® e 

S g 

 a.

1

I

8

HIM *1 O 

M O CD 

ft 0 

0

well. of Diameter 

well. of Depth 

princi- to Depth 

supply. pal 

other to Depth 

supplies.

water of Height 

or (+) above 

the ) ( below 

well. at surface 

min- per Yield 

ute.

1|

83" II

0

S- *2 10 

III 

5-St

o' fto 

d

CD

g 

1

A ama SSVHD 
Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do......... 

P ay nes Depot.. 

Sadieville. .....

Stamping 

Ground. 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Shelby County. 

Shelbyville.....

Do.........

SiniDsonville. . .

6* to 9 miles N. 

.....do........

4 miles NW... 

4 miles N......

ImileN......

1 mileS.......

2 miles W. of S.

1 J miles W . . . . 

100 yards E . . .

100 yards W... 

.....do.........

75 yards E . . . . 

3 miles NE.... 

30 yards SW...

51 miles NE... 

4 miles NW . . . 

2 miles NW...

1* miles NW .

2J miles NW . . 

Opposite center. 

JmileE.......

If miles W.... 

2 blocks SW . . 

2 miles W. . . . .

Bufordllall.....

.....do...........

Norman Hambrick. 

Uriah Hambrick 

Nuns of Visitation. 

R.B.Thomas... 

.....do...........

H. S. Booker....

ElbertHall..... 

Reuben Offutt..

George D. Sallee 

.....do...........

H. D. Williams. 

J. C.Cantrell.... 

Town...........

D. S. Alsop..... 

J. O. Fluke. .... 

Joseph Poree. . . . 

John T. Noel.... 

.....do...........

Dr. R. S. Payne. 

George D. Sallee

.....do...........

John A. Middleton.

Shelbyville 

Steam Laundry.

Claude Bucklev.

3

3

8

4J 

12

4 

4

5

6 

6

7

6

6

6 

4 

6

4 

5 

5

6

5 

5 

6

6 

4 

5 

5*

59,57

( 160 

70 

( 50 + 

100

98 

107

141 

141

65

180 

112 

70

50

70

57 

133

188

106 

110 

70 

60

60 

70 

60

85 

155

60 

225

}.......

93

107

137 

141

180 

100 

65

35

60

50 

120

100

60 

52

52 

65 

55

80 

90

15

None. 

None.

None. 

None.

None. 

None. 

None.

None.

None.. 

40

15

None. 

None.

None. 

None. 

None.

None. 

None.

None. 

None.

- 40± 

- 40±

. - 65

- 18 

- 20

- 55

- 85

- 12

- 30 

- 30

- 40 

- 30

-il2 

- 26

- 53

- 18 

- 18

- 25 

- 25

- 25

60 

6

2

60 

3+

6

1+

....do..... Hard; sul

Hand.....

...do.......

Windmill. 

...do.......

...do.......

Hand..... 

...do......

...do......

...do....... 

...do.......

Hand.. ...

...do.......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do.......

Hand.....

...do......

.....do..

Sulphur. 

Slightsul

Hard...

Hard, sul

Soft....

Sulphur

Hard...

.....do...

Sulphur

Hard....

Hard, ir

sulphur

Salt and 

phur. 

Hard, st

sulphur

Hard, sul

Strong 

phur.

Hard...

.....do...

.....do...

.....do..
TABLE 8. Wells in the Blue Grass region Continue

Post-office.

Trimble County.

Cottage Hill....

Milton.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Wbdford

County.

Jett

Direction and 

distance from 

post-office.

ImileE. ......

i block N

3 blocks NE...

i block N z

Owner.

Z. T. Bore.......

City.............

ton.

J. W. Lane.....

H.N.McIntire..

tillery, H. M.

Levy.

meier.

Co.

Co.

meter ofwell.

ft

Tn.

6

6

3

4

3

6

fi-S

8

4

6

Dth ofwell.

0)

ft

Feet.

81

96+

80+

86

80+

80

Qfi

80

96+

56

80

779

60

Dth toprincial supply.

57»

ft

Feet.

50

35

66

40

fin

65

49

20

A 

s>

_03

O)

ft

Feet.

50

40

ght of waterbove (+) or

elow ( )the 

irface atwell.

CD 03X2 OQ

td

Feet.

- 15

12

- 35

- 66±

- 20

- 40

- 20

-65

-26

-30 to

-40

a 

t-> 

T3

*H

Galls.

5

4

Kind of 

pump.

Hand.....

...do.......

...do.......

Windmill.

...do......

....do......

Hand.....

and gasoline engine.

Qualit

wate

Hard...

.....do..

.....do..

.....do..

.....do..

hard.

.....do..

.....do..

.....do..

Hard; 

sulphu

salt.

Hard..

Hard; sa

phur.

Hard..
Do......... 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Millville.......

Mortonsville . . . 

Do.........

Do........ 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Nonesuch .....

Spring Station. 

Do.........

1 mileS....... 

.....do.........

4 blocks W....

Main street.

3 blocks SW . .

3i blocks W.. -

2i miles S.....

JmileN......

Jmile W...... 

.....do.........

east. 

300 yards S....

3 miles SE....

Mrs. V. Thompson.

.....do..........

son. 

City.............

....do...........

kins.

J. G. Boone.....

Marion Johnson . 

E.S. Sillard.....

Dr. S. C. Sublett.

Dr. S.Q. Sublett

J. R. Bond...... 

W. Sippert......

A. J. A. Alexander. 

.....do...........

5 

5

6

4

4

4

4

6 

fi

5 

fi

5

or6

4

4-3

60

90

95

100

110

102

95

118

59 

50+

51

53

115

75

68

65

85

86

95

60

89

96

70

118

48

49

50 

75

68

45

80

86

95

None.

13 

40

30+

None.

- 30

- 50

- 58

- 30

- 33

- 38 

- 35

- 45

- 37

- 86

20

18

20+

Hand.....

...do.......

Hand .....

Hand .....

Hand.....

...do....... 

Force.....

Hand.....

...do.......

Hand... . Windmill.

windmill, and 

gasoline 

engine.

.....do..

.....do..

sulphu

Hard.... 

Salt....

Hard..

Hard..

.....do..

.....do..

Sulphu

Hard...

.....do..

Hard..

.....do..
TABLE 8. Wells in the Blue Grass region Continue

Post-office.

Woodford Co. 

Cont'd.

Do.........

Do.........

Do.. ....-.-

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Direction and 

distance from 

post-office.

Similes W....

ImileNW....

JmileE. ......

2 miles N......

.....do.........

JmileNW....

JmileSE.....

Owner.

der. 

Thomas W.

Hackney.

der. 

J. C. S. Blackburn.

.. jr.do...........

Citv. ............

Diameter ofwell.

In.

 5

?t-f>

5

Depth of well.

Feet. 

140

200

QO-I124

190

9QC)

90

104

62

149+

163

Depth to principal supply.

Feet. 

140

200

90+

170

1 7^

102

10

160

1. 0 §

££ 

5&

r

Feet.

100

65

60

60, 100

32

30

QA

Height of waterabove (+) orbelow ( )the 

surface atwell.

Feet. 

-110

 100

- 70

- 70

- 80

i

a

N

2 "3

£

Galls.

on

Kind of 

pump.

engine.

...do.......

Hand.....

engine. 

Hand.....

Qualit

wate

sulphu

sia, an

alkalin

Hard..

Hard..

Hard..

sulphu

Hard..
Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

2 l)locks S

imileNW....

C.L.Ryley.....

H. C. Taylor....

d e r s-Minary 

Co. 

I.W.Wilson....

56

f>5

6i

101

134

180

75

128

no

98

96

170

40

120

CA

92

26

75

20

20

30

- 50

- 20

- 40

 - 40

70+

85+

gasoline 

engine. 

Hand.....

engine.

.....do

.....do

Hard

Hard
QUALITY OF THE UNDERGROUND WATERS IN THE 

BLUE GRASS REGION.

By CHASE PALMER.

INTRODUCTION.

In the summer of 1903 the writer undertook an investigation of the 

quality of the waters of Kentucky River in cooperation with the 

United States Geological Survey. The tests were continued for one 

year, during which period a similar study was made of the headwaters 

of Dix, Green, and Salt rivers, which rise in the upland near the southern limits of the Blue Grass region. A few results of this early study 

of Kentucky and Dix rivers are presented in this report to illustrate 

the hardness of two important surface streams of the Blue Grass 

region in comparison with that of the underground waters.

In the spring of 1905, under a similar arrangement, field assays of 

waters from wells and springs were made in several Blue Grass counties, and the results of that work are also embodied in this report.

In July, 1906, a more extended investigation of the underground 

waters of the Blue Grass region was begun, jointly with George C. 

Matson, of the Geological Survey. The subsurface waters from a 

much larger area were subjected to complete chemical analysis at 

Lexington, Ky., and the results of the examinations are recorded in 

the table of analyses on page 212.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

Thanks are due to Dr. M. A. Scovell, director of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station at Lexington, for affording the facilities 

of the chemical laboratory of the station, so that the analytical work 

could be carried on expeditiously within the State. It is also desired 

to express to Dr. A. M. Peter, chemist of the experiment station, appreciation for his uniform courtesy and hospitality while the chemical 

work of this investigation was in progress. The publications of the 

Kentucky Geological Survey and of Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station have been consulted and use has been made of the information contained therein and originally obtained by Dr. Robert Peter 

and Dr. A.. M. Peter, chemists of those two state institutions, 

respectively. 

184
WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY. 185 

INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER. 

IMPORTANCE OF QUALITY.

The quantity of water used in modern human industry is so vast, 

its applications are so varied, and its essential characteristics are so 

distinctive that water may be considered the most important mineral 

used in the industrial arts. Immense quantities of water are necessary for many manufacturing operations. Every pound of writing 

paper made, for instance, has required the use of no less than 40 

pounds of water, and in some paper mills as much as 1,600 pounds. 

In selecting a location for a paper mill, therefore, it is important to 

see that a liberal supply of water is assured.

The quality of the water best suited for use in any particular industry is also a matter of considerable moment. An iron-bearing water 

can not be used in a bleachery without previous purification. A 

calcic carbonate water is undesirable in leather making, as it causes 

brown stains on the hides and may also produce a reddish leather 

which has a low market value. The manufacture of tanning and dyewood extracts is another important industry involving the use of 

enormous quantities of water. These extracts, being easily fermentable, do not keep well if made with polluted water, or water containing 

putrefactive bacteria.

In the arid regions of the West the scarcity of water makes it a highpriced commodity which is valued accordingly; in the East, where a 

plentiful supply of water may usually be obtained, little attention 

was formerly given to its quality, on which its real value so largely 

depends. Eastern manufacturers have, however, begun to realize 

that water used in the manufacture of products for which its quality 

is unsuited is expensive. Its cost may not appear in the price paid 

for it, but is apparent rather in the smaller yield of the products which 

it has helped to make, or in the low prices which they command when 

put upon the market. The benefits derived from the use of water 

which is naturally suited for a specific purpose or which has been 

properly treated to meet the requirements of a special operation are 

quickly realized in the increased quantity and value of the products 

obtained.

STEAM MAKING.

The engine which turns into mechanical work the energy possessed 

by steam has given to water a new industrial value, and the rapid 

advance of modern civilization is due largely to the use of water as a 

motive power in the form of steam. Steam making may be regarded 

as an industry in which the raw material is water and the finished 

product is steam. The quality of the water used in the boiler is of 

interest to the engineer because upon it the profitable production of 

steam in large measure depends. The life of the boiler also is in no
186 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

small degree determined by the care taken to supply it with proper 

feed water. With a noncorrosive water which does not form hard 

scale a stationary boiler may last thirty to thirty-five years, but a 

corrosive water may make it useless in five years. Prevention of 

corrosion means protection of the boiler; prevention of scale means 

saving of labor, repairs, and fuel.

COKKOSION AND SCALE.

The use of impure water in a steam boiler results usually in corrosion and the deposition of scale. Many waters, especially spring 

waters, that are comparatively free from mineral matter in solution 

are known to be strongly corrosive when used in steam- boilers. Free 

acids, such as hydrochloric, sulphuric, and nitric, are very corrosive, 

attacking iron easily, and waters containing them must therefore be 

neutralized before they can safely be used for steam making. Water 

showing no sign of acidity before it enters the boiler sometimes 

develops corrosive properties when it is heated. Water containing 

magnesium chloride in solution, for instance, may be neutral under 

ordinary conditions, but at high temperatures and under increased 

pressure of the boiler hydrolysis occurs, forming free hydrochloric 

acid, which vigorously attacks the boiler shell and tubes. The magnesium oxide also formed in this action finds its way to the boiler shell 

where it may add itself to any scale there forming.

Scale is an incrustation deposited within the boiler during the 

evaporation of hard waters. The scale from calcic carbonate waters 

is loose and can be removed by blowing off. Calcic sulphate waters, 

on the other hand, form a hard tenaceous scale, the removal of which 

is sometimes very difficult. Hard scale conducts heat poorly, so 

that a hotter fire is necessary to keep up steam in a boiler thus coated. 

A waste of 15 to 20 per cent of fuel has been known to be caused by 

hard scale only 7 to 8 millimeters thick. Boilers thus overheated are 

liable to blister and to crack, and many serious explosions have 

resulted from overheating scale-lined boilers.

SALUTAKY EFFECT OF SCALE.

Though a thick, hard scale is detrimental to a boiler, a thin coating 

of scale is often distinctly advantageous. This is especially noticeable where corrosive waters are used for making steam. Kent a calls 

attention to the fact that rain water, and even melted snow, cause 

pitting of the plates and more or less general corrosion. As a protection against the ravages of waters of this kind he recommends the 

occasional addition of a little limewater, so that a thin coating of 

scale may be formed. In certain parts of the United States, especially

a Kent, William, Corrosion produced by rain water in steam boilers: Eng. News, vol. 52,1904, p. 198.
INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATEK. 187

in the West, the waters available for use in locomotives are not only 

hard but are also high in sulphates of the alkali metals. The usual 

practice has been to soften such waters before use by precipitating 

the calcium and magnesium with soda ash, and the formation of 

scale is prevented by this treatment, but at the same time an equivalent amount of alkaline sulphates is added to the water. Excessive 

quantities of alkalies in water cause foaming, and on western railroads waters softened in the manner just mentioned have made much 

trouble. The harder a water is before it is softened by soda ash, the 

larger is the quantity of alkali sulphates in the water after treatment, 

and consequently the greater is its tendency to foam in the boiler. 

M. E. Wells a, chief boiler inspector of the Burlington and Missouri 

River Railroad, deprecates the practice in vogue on several railroads of 

softening such waters for locomotive use by adding soda ash. He 

quotes the following figures to show the increase in alkalies caused by 

treating with sodium carbonate a water used by the Chicago and 

Northwestern Railway from a well 70 feet deep at Council Bluffs, Iowa:

Result of treating water with sodium carbonate.

Parts per 

Incrustants: million.

Before treatment........................................... 813

After treatment............................................ 66

Nonincrustants, mostly alkalies:

Before treatment........................................... 106

After treatment............................................ 472

Here a hard incrusting water is changed to a foaming water. Wells 

states that on the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad better 

results are obtained with incrusting than with foaming waters. He 

also recommends the use of limewater as a substitute for caustic 

soda to remove calcium and magnesium from alkaline carbonate 

waters, because limewater causes no addition of alkali to the water. 

According to Wells, a moderate amount of scale serves to protect 

boilers, and this impression seems to be gaining ground among 

engineers who are compelled to use hard, alkali sulphate waters for 

steaming.

The sulphate water used in the boilers of the Hoffmann distillery, 

in Anderson County (see Table 14, p. 201) would probably form hard 

scale if precautionary measures were not taken. The boilers are 

cleaned frequently, care being taken to let them cool before washing 

them, and the scale is easily detached. The scale is not allowed to 

become thick or to bake into a hard, difficultly removable crust. 

The water from this well was used continuously during two long runs 

aggregating thirty-five months, and affords an excellent illustration

a Wells, M. E., Foaming waters and scaling waters for locomotive boilers: Eng. News, vol. 52, 1904, 

p. 198.
188 WATERS OP BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

of the favorable results that may be obtained from a hard water if 

intelligent care is exercised in its use.

ACTION ON BOILERS OF ORDINARY CONSTITUENTS OF WATER.

Silica and iron are both found in boiler scale and may be regarded 

as incrustants. Silica, however, causes very little trouble, as it is 

present in water in very small quantities, and the same may be said of 

iron, although iron derived from corrosion of the boiler is sometimes 

added to the scale. Aluminum also is an incrustant present in most 

waters in quantities so small that it is not necessary to consider it; 

but when too much aluminum sulphate, a substance frequently used 

as a coagulant in filtering water, is added in the process of filtering, 

the excess passes through the filter and may cause trouble in the 

boiler, where it hydrolyzes, forming free sulphuric acid. Sodium 

carbonate will correct the acidity due to an excess of aluminum sulphate, and it can be used to precipitate the aluminum as a harmless 

solid. Barium carbonate is a better remedy, but it is too expensive 

for general use. Owing to the poisonous quality of barium compounds, their use should probably be restricted to waters intended 

only for industrial purposes.

Calcium is the chief constituent of both hard and soft scale, but a 

water containing as much as 50 parts per million of calcium may be 

used under certain conditions without bad results. Carbonate 

waters containing as much as 150 parts of calcium per million might 

profitably be softened, but carbonate waters with that amount of 

calcium are usually also high in sulphates and chlorides, and it is 

doubtful whether such waters can be successfully treated for boiler 

use.

Magnesium is an incrustant appearing in boiler scale as magnesium 

oxide, hydroxide, and carbonate. This metal accompanies calcium 

in waters, but the calcium usually predominates. Magnesium can 

be economically removed from magnesic carbonate waters containing 

less than 60 parts per million of magnesium. Magnesic chloride and 

sulphate waters are highly corrosive because they are easily hydrolyzed in the boiler, forming respectively free hydrochloric and sulphuric acids.

The alkali metals, sodium, potassium, and lithium, are all found 

in water, but only sodium occurs in quantities large enough to merit 

consideration. As compounds of the alkalies are readily soluble they 

can form no permanent scale, but on the other hand they are easily 

hydrolyzed, forming free acids which corrode the iron. Alkali carbonate and alkali sulphate waters have, moreover, a tendency to 

foam and thereby interfere with the uniform production of steam. 

No method is known by which alkalies may be economically removed,
INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER. 189

so that their presence in any water in large quantity is a permanent 

detriment to its use in boilers.

The bicarbonate radicle (HCO3 ) in carbonate waters is usually 

related to calcium and magnesium. These metals are supposed to be 

held in solution by the bicarbonate radicle, appearing respectively 

as Ca(HCO3) 2 and Mg(HCO3) 2 . When a calcic magnesic carbonate 

water is heated the equilibrium of the two soluble constituents is 

disturbed; carbon dioxide (CO2 ) escapes with the steam, and calcium 

carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3 ) are deposited. 

The calcium carbonate, soon after it is formed, becomes crystalline 

and incapable of adhering firmly to hot iron, so that water containing 

considerable quantities of these bicarbonates, unaccompanied by 

other incrusting constituents, may be used without danger of forming 

a hard crust on the boiler.

Carbon dioxide (CO2), whether present in the free state in the 

water or released by the decomposition of bicarbonates, is not without 

corrosive action on iron. It has a tendency to cause pitting of the 

boiler, so that highly carbonated waters are treated more effectively 

before they enter the boiler than afterwards. Lime water added in 

proper quantity to carbonate waters eliminates both calcium and 

magnesium as well as the bicarbonate radicle. After allowing time 

enough for the precipitate to settle, the softened water may be fed to 

the boiler. Carbonate and bicarbonate waters of the alkalies, that is, 

waters containing the carbonate and bicarbonate radicles in equilibrium with sodium, are occasionally found in Kentucky and in other 

States farther west. When these waters are heated the alkaline carbonates react chemically with the alkaline earth constituents, causing removal of the latter. Chlorides in water are simply corrosive. 

Excessive amounts of chlorides are undesirable, and waters containing over 100 parts per million of chlorine are unsuitable for boiler use. 

Organic matter causes foaming and sometimes it acts corrosively. 

Its corrosive action is due to the formation of free organic acids to 

which iron is susceptiible.

Calcic sulphate waters deposit a hard scale, the chief component 

of which is calcium sulphate. Magnesium sulphate waters are objectionable because they not only corrode the Iboiler by producing free 

sulphuric acid in the water, but they also deposit magnesia in the 

scale, thereby increasing its hardness and making it very refractory. 

As sulphates of the alkalies, besides hydrolyzing and causing corrosion, 

also induce foaming in boilers, large quantities of such sulphates are 

undesirable. No perfectly satisfactory method has yet been devised 

for removing the sulphate radicle from waters of this character.

Deep-seated waters are usually so highly mineralized that they 

corrode iron rapidly or form scale in boilers; occasionally, however,
190 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

such waters are found to be very satisfactory. The water from a 

well at the Lexington station of the Cincinnati Southern Railway 

(analyses 23 and 24, p. 212) affords a good illustration of a highly 

mineralized deep water containing also correctives of hard scale.

This water was found on analysis to contain sufficient calcium, 

magnesium, and sulphates to form a hard, refractory scale under 

ordinary conditions, but it was also charged with carbonates of the 

alkalies. The analyst, Dr. Robert Peter, predicted that these carbonates would precipitate the incrustants in powdery form, thus preventing the deposition of calcium sulphate as a hard scale on the boiler 

shell,0 and his assertion that the water could be used in boilers 

without harmful effect was verified by experience. Another example 

of water of similar character is furnished by the well at Hope 

Mills. This well, 134 feet deep, yields water from two horizons, 

one at a depth of 65 feet and the other at 132 feet. During wet 

weather, while the 65-foot stream flows, the water forms hard scale 

in the boilers; during dry weather, when the water is drawn from 

the lower stratum, the scale formed is soft. The water from the 

132-foot vein is not only soft but is said to loosen boiler scale caused 

by the hard water from the upper vein. Water from a well at Paint 

Lick, in Madison County (analysis 56, p. 214), though much more 

highly mineralized than that from the well of the Cincinnati Southern 

Railway at Lexington, has been used for many years in a steam 

boiler without forming much scale. The presence of carbonates of 

the alkalies in the water at Paint Lick probably accounts for the 

small amount of boiler scale. A well water in Gallatin County 

(analysis 49, p. 212) illustrates the character of waters found in 

some places in the alluvium. It contains 16 parts per million of 

sulphates a quantity which should cause little trouble in boilers 

and it carries also carbonates of the alkalies which precipitate the 

incrustants, so that when heated the water should completely soften 

itself and should form no bad boiler scale.

CORRECTIVES OF SCALES.

Hard scales formed by sulphate waters may be prevented by 

treating the waters with certain substances which precipitate the 

incrusting constituents in a loose, powdery condition. Sodium 

carbonate, an agent frequently employed for this purpose, precipitates the calcium as calcium carbonate, which forms a loosely 

adhering scale if the water is treated after it enters the boiler. 

As soda ash does not remove the sulphate radicle, the presence of 

which is undesirable in boiler water, the use of this chemical is only a 

partial remedy in waters naturally forming hard scale. Barium

a Peter, Robert, Well water: Geol. Survey Kentucky, vol. 5, new sen, 1880, pp. 188-190.
INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER. 191

chloride may be used instead of sodium carbonate in the treatment 

of sulphate waters. Although this compound causes the precipitation of the sulphate radicle in a form that does not produce scale, 

it leaves chlorides in the water, and owing to their corrosive action, 

high chlorides are undesirable in boiler waters. Barium carbonate 

is especially suited for removing iron, aluminum, and sulphates from 

waters, but it is rather too expensive for general use. Hard carbonate waters are most satisfactorily softened by means of milk of 

lime, which precipitates both calcium and magnesium in powdery 

form.

Not uncommonly scale preventive is added to the water in the 

boiler, but it is always better to soften water in tanks before it enters 

the boiler and to allow sufficient time for the precipitate to settle. 

Water softened in this way is used to better advantage in making 

steam, and the boiler is relieved of the extra duty of serving as a 

water-softening plant.

Many specifics for preventing and removing boiler scale are on the 

market, some of them being helpful, but others of little value, though 

the vendors use persuasive arguments in presenting the merits of 

their wares. Care should be exercised, however, not to use the 

wrong kind of boiler compound, as more harm may be caused by it 

than by the untreated water itself.

SOAP MAKING.

In the processes most commonly used soap is made by the chemical 

action of soda lye (caustic soda) on melted fat. The soap, being 

easily soluble, is dissolved by water as soon as it is formed, so that 

a fresh layer of fat is exposed uninterruptedly to the soda-lye solution. The value of soap as a cleansing agent is due to the fact that 

it forms in water a solution capable of producing suds; therefore 

anything that changes soap into an insoluble substance reduces just 

so far its value as a cleansing agent. Hard waters calcium and 

magnesium waters produce with ordinary soap a curdy precipitate of calcium and magnesium compounds that are insoluble in 

water and incapable of forming suds, and consequently are valueless 

as cleansing agents. If hard water is used in soap making the calcium and magnesium present react with the soap as soon as it is 

formed, making an abundant precipitate, which retards the further 

action of the soda lye on the fat and wastes soap. The precipitate 

will continue to be formed at the expense of the soluble soap until the 

calcium and magnesium in the water are entirely removed. Small 

quantities of the hardening constituents of water can decompose a 

large quantity of soap.

One requisite, therefore, for a large yield of soap is soft water. If 

hard water is the only kind available for soap making, it should be
192 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

softened before use in the works; if not softened beforehand, it will 

be softened afterwards by the soap, and soap is an expensive water 

softener.

Sodic chloride waters are undesirable in soap making, because 

soap is not soluble in solutions of sodium chloride, and briny waters 

also prevent the free access of the lye to the melted fat. Indeed, advantage is taken of the insolubility of soap in brine when it is desired 

to remove the soap from solution. Salt is added to the soap solution 

and the soap then separates out as a solid mass.

Clear water must be used in the manufacture of soap. Suspended 

matter of all kinds must be removed from the water by filtration to 

insure the production of a pure, fine-grained product.

LAUNDERING.

The development of the steam-laundry industry has been rapid 

in recent years, and public service of this character is becoming more 

and more general. The most important laundry supplies are water 

and soap, for the combined cost of all other materials consumed in 

scouring, brightening, and sizing is less than the total cost of soap 

and water. The prudent launderer buys high-grade soap, because 

he knows that not only are better results obtained with soap of good 

quality than with that of inferior grade, but also that his soap bill is 

correspondingly reduced. It is just as important in laundering to use 

water of good quality as it is to use good soap. The water should be 

clear, soft, and free from iron and suspended matter. If the water is 

muddy or turbid it must be filtered before it can be used.

After the goods are received at the laundry they are soaked in cold 

water for a short time to remove stains and loosen the starch. At the 

end of the soaking period steam is admitted to raise the water to the 

boiling point, the necessary quantity of soap is added, suds are 

formed, and the washing begins. If the water is hard a wasteful 

expenditure of soap takes place at this stage. The calcium and magnesium in solution react with the fat acids of the soap, precipitating 

the insoluble curdy soaps of calcium and magnesium. No suds are 

formed, and the whole operation of cleansing is delayed until the 

calcium and magnesium are completely precipitated.

The loss of soap is not the only evil effect of hard water. The 

precipitated earthy soaps act as coagulants, seizing mechanically 

upon impurities which are thus often deposited on the fiber of the 

goods. These plasters adhere to the goods, appearing finally as 

greasy spots on the laundered material. Hard water is therefore 

undesirable for laundry use, economically as well as aesthetically.

The water used in all stages of the cleansing process must be as free 

as possible from iron, as brown stains on the finished product are
INDUSTRIAL USES OP WATER. 193

likely to result from the use of water containing iron to the extent of 

even one part per million.

The hardness due to calcium and magnesium bicarbonates may be 

removed by a judicious use of lime water, but the permanent hardness 

is not reduced in this way. Soda ash (sodium carbonate) is well 

suited for this purpose, and may be applied after the water has been 

treated with lime. Hardness due to compounds of calcium and magnesium other than the bicarbonates is thus removed. After sufficient 

time has been allowed for settling the clear water may be used for 

washing. The tendency of waters containing alkalies to foam in boilers a feature that makes carbonates of these metals so undesirable 

in feed water is of decided advantage to the laundry water. Carbonates of the alkalies are said to "thicken" the soap, increasing its 

power to emulsify oily material, thus adding to its cleansing qualities. 

For this reason the usual practice is to add sodium carbonate to the 

water with the soap merely to strengthen the soap.

The hardness of water is usually expressed as parts per million by 

weight of calcium carbonate; water having a hardness of 100 parts 

per million, for instance, is understood to be water containing 100 

pounds of calcium carbonate in 1,000,000 pounds of water. Theoretically 100 pounds of calcium carbonate require for removal 61 

pounds of high-grade commercial quicklime, 112 pounds of soda ash, or 

860 pounds of soap. Assuming the cost of these reagents to be, quicklime, 0.3 cent; soda ash, 1.25 cents; and soap, 5 cents per pound, the 

cost of softening a quantity of water containing 100 pounds of calcium 

carbonate would be, with quicklime, $0.18; with soda ash, $1.40; with 

soap, $43.

Whipple a has experimented on waters of different degrees of hardness to determine their effect on the quantity of soap used in bathing 

and for general household purposes. He finds that 1 pound of the average soap used in the household will soften 167 gallons of water having 

a hardness of 20 parts per million. This is equivalent to about 5,990 

pounds of soap per million gallons, which, at a cost of 5 cents a pound, 

would amount to $300 per million gallons. He also finds that the 

cost increases about $10 per million gallons of water softened for each 

increase of one part per million of hardness.

It is often asked whether the quantity of soap consumed by a hard 

water is an item of expense worthy of serious consideration in laundries, which require daily many thousands of gallons of water in which 

soap is used. This question is best answered by a practical illustration. Let it be assumed that a laundry is using daily 10,000 gallons 

of water having a hardness of 96 parts per Imillion the average harda Whipple, G. 0., The. value of pure water: Wiley & Sons, 1907, p. 24. 

88942 IRR 233 09 13
194 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

ness of Kentucky Eiver below Tyrone. According to Whipple's 

experiments, the hard water causes a loss of average soap amounting 

to about $10.70 a day. In three hundred working days the annual 

consumption of soap by the hard water alone would amount to $3,210. 

If, however, the water were previously softened with lime to reduce 

its hardness to 30 parts per million (the average permanent hardness 

of the river), then the daily cost of soap consumed by the laundry 

water would be only $4.10. After adding to this amount 1 cent for 

the lime required for the softening, the total daily cost of the partly 

softened water becomes approximately $4.11. This partial softening 

of the water, therefore, results in a saving of soap cost of $6.59 a day, 

or a total annual saving of $1,977. No claim is here made for the 

absolute accuracy of these figures in estimating the cost of softening 

water. The size and capacity of the softening plant, cost of labor and 

fuel, attendance at the works, difficulties arising from turbidity, variable content of magnesium, and other conditions of the water to be 

softened, must be considered. The computations indicate, however, 

that there is much room for economy by softening the water before 

its use, and they suggest, moreover, the practicability of installing 

mechanical devices to make the natural water more economical in 

its consumption of soap.

ICE MANUFACTURE.

The rapid gain in popular favor which artificial ice has made in this 

country in recent years is shown by the reports of the United States 

Census. In 1870 there were in the United States only four ice factories, with a total capitalization of $434,000, and the total ice output for 

that year was valued at $258,250. In 1905 reports were recived from 

1,320 establishments, indicating a capitalization of $66,592,001, and 

the total output of ice was valued at $23,790,045. These figures do 

not include 163 establishments engaged primarily in manufacturing 

other products, which are reported to have made $1,899,912 worth 

of ice.

It is important that the water used in the manufacture of ice for 

household purposes and for cooling beverages should meet all the 

requirements of potable water in respect to cleanliness and freedom 

from organic matter and disease germs. Most American manufacturers use distilled water in making ice, in order to get a pure, transparent product.

Two systems are employed in making artificial ice in this country. 

These are the can and the plate systems. Though cakes of ice frozen 

from impure water by the can system may be for the most part clear, 

the center of the block is likely to be opaque. Drown 0 has shown 

that the interior of the block contains most of the impurities that

a Drown, T. M., Ann. Kept. Massachusetts State Board of Health, 1892, p. 592.
INDUSTEIAL USES OP WATER. 195

were originally distributed through the water. At a certain ice 

factory known to the writer the core containing the concentrated 

impurities is cut from the block and allowed to melt, and the liquid 

product is served to the employees as a preventive of intestinal disorders! It is needless to say that this ice factory is not in Kentucky.

In the plate system, which is becoming more and more popular in 

this country, it is not necessary to use distilled water in order to 

obtain clear ice if suitable appliances are installed to prevent the 

occlusion of air and solid particles. Though it is true that the 

greater part of the bacteria and mineral matters in the raw water are 

excluded from the frozen plate, there is insufficient ground for assuming that perfectly harmless ice can be made directly from dangerously 

polluted water. And while it may be conceded that water pure 

enough for drinking is pure enough for making ice, it is nevertheless 

true that too much dependence should not be placed upon the natural 

purifying powers of the freezing process.

Water serves another purpose in the ice factory beside that of 

being the raw material for the ice and the steam. Much heat is 

absorbed by the ammonia which has been used for freezing the water, 

and advantage is taken of the cooling effect of water to assist in 

recovering the exhaust ammonia for subsequent use. In the compression system the pipes containing compressed gaseous ammonia are 

surrounded by cold water constantly flowing in large tanks, or the 

cold water is sprinkled directly upon the ammonia pipes. In both 

processes the water absorbs heat from the ammonia, changing it 

from the gaseous to the liquid form. Water charged with incrustants deposits on the hot ammonia pipes a scale closely resembling the 

scale formed loy the same water in a boiler. Sometimes this scale 

is very hard and tenacious, and if it is allowed to remain on the 

pipes, it may become so thick as practically to nullify the cooling 

effect of the water.

BREWING AND DISTILLING.

The water used in breweries should receive careful attention, 

because the quality of the beer depends largely upon the quality of 

the water. In general, a good potable water, free from color, odor, 

and decomposing organic matter may be used to advantage for brewing. Clean water is indispensable in a brewery. Waters polluted 

with sewage or putrefactive bacteria should be avoided, for they 

prevent the beer from keeping well and give it a disagreeable taste. 

Great care must also be taken to use perfectly clean water in washing 

the kegs and barrels in which the beer is to be stored. Organic matter in the water is objectionable, as it is likely to promote the growth 

of mold in the barley, thus preventing a proper development of 

diastase in the malted grain. In the later stages of the brewing
196

process organic matter in the water is undesirable, because it not 

only lessens the activity of the yeast, but also forms putrefaction 

products that seriously affect the quality of the beer.

Water used in brewing should be as free as possible from iron, 

which combines directly with diastase, forming an insoluble compound and thus reducing the efficiency of the ferment; moreover, 

iron waters impart an unpleasant taste to the beer. Iron may be 

removed from water easily and cheaply by forcing air through the 

water and then filtering it through sand and gravel. The iron 

hydroxide, which is precipitated by the aeration, is retained completely on the filter. Sodic chloride waters, if not too strong, favor 

the development of diastase and are therefore of decided advantage 

in malting. Magnesic chloride waters act similarly. On the other 

hand, calcic chloride waters are to be avoided because they retard 

the development of yeast. Calcic and magnesic sulphate waters, 

which are undesirable for boiler supplies, soap works, and certain 

other industries, are of distinct advantage to the brewer. Such 

waters assist the development of the yeast and produce beers of agreeable flavor and good keeping qualities. Soft waters dissolve from 

the hops a resin which darkens the color of the beer. Calcium sulphate waters do not dissolve hop resin, and thus produce a light-colored 

beer. Many brewers who have no supply.of natural calcium sulphate waters treat with calcium sulphate the waters used in fermentation, regulating the quantity of the mineral to the kind of beer 

to be brewed.

Table 9 shows the amounts of some of the important constituents 

in the waters used in brewing three famous kinds of beer the light 

Burton ales, the dark Dublin porters, and the beer of the Hofbrauhaus 

in Munich. Probably the chemical composition of the water supplies 

influences the essential characteristics of these beverages.

TABLE 9. Composition of waters used for brewing. 

[Parts per million.]

Iron (Fe) ...........................................................

Burton-onTrent, 

England.

370

88

895

34

' Dublin, 

Ireland.

2

100

3.7

44

16

Munich, 

Germany.

Trace.

72

53

55

35

In distilleries the malting and fermenting processes are carried 

much farther than in brewing. What has been said regarding the 

effects produced by waters of different kinds in brewing applies 

with equal force to the corresponding processes in a distillery; but
COMPARATIVE JlAKDNESS OP WATEKS. 197

since the object of the distiller is to get the largest possible yield 

of alcohol from the grain, it is important that the water used in the 

fermentation vats, should contain in proper quantities only those 

substances which are favorable to a vigorous growth and a high 

efficiency of the yeast plant. The waters of the Blue Grass region, 

which have long been recognized as being specially suited for making 

whisky, also produce beer of superior grade.

COMPARATIVE HARDNESS OF BLUE GRASS WATERS.

Economically, hardness is an important quality of water, whether 

it is used industrially or in the household. The chief difference 

in the character of the hardness of underground and river waters of 

the Blue Grass region lies in the excessive alkalinity of the ground 

water, while the permanent hardness of the water in the lower part 

of Kentucky River and in Ohio River at Cincinnati closely approximates the permanent hardness of the waters of the Lexington limestone and of the alluvial deposits. The hardness of 16 waters from 

springs and shallow wells occurring in the Lexington limestone and 

from 1 wells in the alluvium of Ohio and Licking rivers is shown in 

Tables 10 and 11. The alkalinity was determined in the regular 

course of analysis, while the permanent hardness has been calculated 

from the amounts of calcium and magnesium in the form of salts 

other than carbonates. The figures indicate that the alluvial waters 

are somewhat harder than the waters of the Lexington limestone, 

both in respect of permanent hardness and of alkalinity.

TABLIS 10. Hardness of the water from springs and shallow wells in Lexington limestone 

[Parts per million as CaCO3. Analyst, Chase Palmer.]

No. 

(a)

?

W

21 

?2

26

28

3?

36

37 

40

42 

(Mi

68

74

County.

.....do.......

Fiyette. ....

.....do....... 

.....do.... ..

.....do....... 

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do....... 

. ....do.. .....

.....do....... 

Scott........

.....do.......

Locality.

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do........

Ground.

Owner.

Aug. Belmont ..................

W. W. Estill................... 

W.M. Field.. ..................

Lexington Brewing Co. ......... 

J. E. Pepper. ...................

Pettit. ..........................

Source.

Well....

Spring.. 

Well....

...do....

Well....

...do.... 

Spring.. 

Well....

...do.... 

...do....

Well....

Alkalinity.

224

226

189

234 

286

295 

136

189

232

233 

194 

238

166 

197

177

198

213

Permanent 

hardness.

22

35

33

24

V7

46 

91}

6

18

18 

14 

40

40 

41

9

24

27

Total 

hardness.

246

261

222

258 

323

341 

156

195

250

251 

208

278

206 

238

186

222

240

a These numbers refer to the numbers of the analysis in the table on pp. 212-215, from which additional 

details may be obtained.
198 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

TABLE 11. Hardness of ivater from alluvial wells. 

[Parts per million as CaCO3 . Analyst, Chase Palmer.]

No. 

(a)

5

H

9

1'J

49

53

71

County.

Boone... . .

....do......

Gallatin...

Trimble...

Locality.

Petersburg....

...-.do........

Owner.

Boone County Distillery. .......

Electric Light Co. ..............

Source.

90ft. well..

ft. wells.

80 and 60

ft. wells.

Well......

....do.....

....do.....

....do.....

Alkalinity.

235

361

287

306

296

293

Permanent 

hardness.

43

55

20

28

0

51

23

31

Total 

hard278

41C

307

334

29C

383

258

324

a These numbers refer to the analysis numbers in the table on pp. 212-215, to which reference is made for 

further details.

The following table gives the amounts of hardening constituents 

found in Ohio River water at Cincinnati under varying conditions 

and at different stages of the river:

TABLE 12. Hardness of ivater from Ohio River at Cincinnati, Ohio. 

[Parts per million as CaCO3.]

Authority.

J.W.Ellms.... .............

Do.......................

Conditions. Alkalinity.

40

91

72

Permanent 

hardness.

29

91

41

Total 

hardness.

78

69

JO

113

' 75

a Purification of the Ohio River water, Cincinnati, 1899, p. 493.

During the period from August, 1903, to June, 1904, the waters of 

Kentucky River were studied by the writer at monthly intervals 

Eight stations were established along the river at convenient shipping 

points, the highest station being at Jackson, in Breathitt County, and 

the lowest at Worthville, in Carroll County. The collections at all 

stations were made from midstream except those at the Government 

locks at Highbridge, Tyrone, and Frankfort. The samples from the 

waterworks at Frankfort were collected at the intake. In this way it 

was soiight to secure typical samples of the river water from its head 

waters in Breathitt County along its entire course.
FIELD ASSAYS OF WATERS. 199

TABLE 13. Average hardness of ivaterfrom Kentucky River, August 20, 1903, to June 3,

1904.

[Parts per million as CaCOs.]

Worthville (11 months).. . ................................................

Alkalinity.

32

33

36

66

66

67

Permanent hardness.

18

19

26

33

31

30

30

Total 

hardness.

50

52

62

82

100

97

96

97

During the same period a similar study was made of the quality of 

the headwaters of Dix River at Gum Sulphur in Rockcastle County, 

showing alkalinity, 78; permanent hardness, 18; and total hardness, 

96 parts per million as CaCO3 .

The progressive increase both in alkalinity and in permanent hardness in the water of Kentucky River from the mountains at Jackson 

until after it passes Irvine is noteworthy. The initial alkalinity of 

Dix River at its source in the upland of Rockcastle County is higher 

than the alkalinity of Kentucky" River at any point in its course, and 

the sudden increase in the alkalinity of Kentucky River at Highbridge is probably due largely to the mingling of the more highly alkaline waters of Dix River, which enters Kentucky River a short distance above the lock at that place. Dix River is evidently an important factor in determining the mineral character of the water of 

lower Kentucky River, because the new degree of permanent hardness 

and alkalinity acquired by Kentucky River, shown by the results at 

Tyrone, remains practically constant throughout the rest of its course 

in the Blue Grass region until the Kentucky unites with the Ohio.

FIELD ASSAYS OF WATER.

During the spring of 1905 a series of assays of water from wells and 

springs in the Blue Grass region was undertaken to obtain general 

information concerning the industrial value of the underground waters 

in the district. An assay of water is not a complete chemical analysis, 

because the determinations in an assay are confined mainly to those 

constituents which are regarded as having an important bearing on 

the fitness of a water for special purposes. The methods used in 

making the assays are in general those devised for the U. S. Geological 

Survey by Leighton.a

oLeighton, M. O., Field assay of water: Water Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 151, 1905.
200 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

Field determinations of the constituents of waters are not altogether 

a novelty. As early as 1854 Dr. David Dale Owen, director of the 

first Geological Survey of Kentucky, made many tests of waters in the 

field. Recognizing at that early period the importance of gaining 

positive information concerning the water resources of the Commonwealth, he provided himself with chemicals and apparatus for making 

quick tests of water. He carried these with him on his expeditions, 

and was thus enabled to ascertain on the spot the important characteristics of many waters of the State. In this way a much wider 

area was covered than would otherwise have been possible, and 

though the field examinations were merely qualitative, much information concerning the waters of Kentucky was obtained at a minimum cost.

When the samples of water were taken by the writer for field assay, 

the records of the wells were obtained and as much information as 

possible was gathered concerning the character of the rock through 

which the borings were made. Seven counties in the Blue Grass region were visited, and the results of the assays made in these counties 

are given in Table 14. The estimated incrustants probably approximate the total incrustants in these waters. Considering the sulphates 

as forming hard scale, these waters are classified in a general way according to a scale suggested by the American Master Mechanics' Association for classifying waters for locomotives boilers. Though this 

classification has not been generally adopted, it serves fairly well as a 

means of judging, within tolerably wide limits, the fitness of a water 

for steam making. The classification refers in ho wise to the value 

of these waters for ordinary domestic purposes.

Classification of waters. 

Incrustants:

Below 250 parts per million................................ Good.

250 to 350 parts per million................................. Fair.

350 to 500 parts per million..........................1...... Poor.

500 to 700 parts per million................................. Bad.

Of the 60 waters represented in the table of assays, 25 are designated good, 18 fair, 16 poor, and only 1 water is apparently so 

highly mineralized as to be considered unsuitable for boiler service. 

These results indicate that the waters in the region covered by the 

investigation are fairly good for industrial uses, and that with preliminary treatment they may profitably be softened so as to yield 

favorable results in steam boilers.
TABLE 14. Field assays of water in Blue Grass regio

[Parts per million.]

Date.

1905. 

Apr. 12 

12 

15 

15 

15

4 

Mar. 4 

3 

3 

16 

8 

8 

8 

16 

7 

8 

8 

1 

1 

1 

4 

Apr. 4 

Mar. 16 

13 

13 

Apr. 4 

May 20 

20 

20 

Mar. 29

County.

Anderson ..... 

.....do........

.....do........

.....da........

.....do........

Boyle.........

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

Jessamine..... 

.....do........ 

.....do........

Mercer........

Location.

.....do--.-..---............

.....do....................

.....do...:................

.....do....................

.....do....................

.....do....................

.....do....................

.....do....................

ShelbyCity...............

.....do.....................

.....do....................

.....do.....................

Harrodsbure. .............

Owner.

City.......................

Waterfill & Frazier Distillery.

Charles Orman... ..........

Charles Hardesty .......... 

D. F. Slavin. .............

A. B. Minor................

T. M. Purdom............. 

^r F PowGrs

Lapp E wing ............... 

Town......................

.....do.....................

J. W. Brogles... ..........

J.S.Figg... ..............

C. K. Poindexter...........

Town......................

C. A.Kenney..............

Old Jordan Distillery ......

Source.

Well......

Well

...do......

Well......

...do...... 

...do......

Spring.... 

Well......

...do......

...do...... 

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do. ..... 

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

Well......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

. ..do.

Depth of well.

Feet. 

36 

90 

65 

40

104 

8 

60

"125 

27

27

25

C7

100 

47 

63 

56 

22

to

8 

20

120 

120

77 

14 

35

Depth of water.

Feet. 

29 

45 

60 

40

40 

8 

50

""125 

26 

26

24

"""'47' 

63 

56 

22 

35

7

100 

120 

62 

10

Turbidity.

0 

0 

0 

0 

0

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0

0 

0 

2 

0 

5 

0

a Faint odor of hydrogen sulphide.
TABLE 14. Field assays of water in Blue Grass region C

Date.

1905. 

Mar 29

29

May 18

18 

18 

Apr. 26

9fi

26

26

26

26 

27

97

27

27

27

27

27

1Q

19

19

1906. 

May 18

18

18

18

18

18

18

18

County.

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........ 

.....do........ 

Scott .........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

......do........

....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

Location.

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.'....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

.....do.....................

Owner.

side). 

Electric-light plant (inside).

H. C. Smith & Sons........

G.W. Miles.. .............. 

Alien & Buster ............

C.T.Duvall. ..............

J.T.Noel.................. 

Mrs. C. P. Fribble.........

H.D.Williams...........

G. W. Murphy.............

Geo. D. SaQ.ee..... .........

.....do.....................

R.Offutt. .................

.....do.....................

Childer's Place. . ...........

J. T. Wilhoit..............

Source.

Well

...do......

...do......

...do...... 

...do...... 

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do...... 

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

Well......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

Depth of well.

Feet. 

26

23

30

35 

40 

52

71

85

60

40

60 

59

48

57

84

50

70

112

90

80

102

45

57

100

107

Depth of water.

Feet.

35 

20 

42

61

80

55

35

52 

54

40

40 and 50

60

35

60

100

70

Turbidity.

0

0

0

10 

8 

0

5

5

5

0

15 

10

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

0

0

2

0

0

a Faint odor of hydrogen sulphide. t> B
MEDICINAL WATEES. 203 

MEDICINAL WATERS. 

GENERAL CHARACTERS.

Kentucky has long been famous for the number and great variety 

of its mineral springs, many of which are located in and about the 

Blue Grass region. A few of the well-known medicinal waters of 

central Kentucky deserve special mention.

Bromide waters have been recommended as sedatives and' have 

been used successfully in the treatment of epilepsy and ulcerous 

affections. Iodine is a more active alterative than bromine, though, 

like bromine, iodine is never present in waters in large quantities. 

Iodide waters often produce rapid cures and find extensive application 

in the treatment of a wide range of chronic diseases. The Lower 

Blue Lick spring waters and several other iodide waters acquired 

fame for the cure of goitre, scrofula, and other diseases long before it 

was known that they contained iodine. Bromine" and iodine impart 

to water such valuable medicinal qualities that a list of well-known 

springs containing these elements is given here for comparison with 

some of the medicinal waters of Kentucky.

TABLE 15. Bromine and iodine in water from various sources. 

[Parts per million.]

Franklin Lithia, Ballston, N. Y ....................................................

Bromine.

2,077

414

115

48

48

11

200

99

23

51

13

Iodine.

2

o o

1.7

20

10

11

1

g

.14

.13

Traces.

Sulphur waters are important medicinal agents, the sulphur 

obtained from them having a powerful effect on the liver, the mucous 

membranes, and the skin. An admirable description of the therapeutics of sulphur waters is given by Schweitzer, a who recognizes 

that the value of a sulphur water as a curative agent depends largely 

on the character of the sulphur compounds present. Free hydrogen 

sulphide, although, on account of its disagreeable odor, the most 

prominently noticeable sulphur constituent of water, appears incapable of entering the circulation, and leaves the body without having 

produced any material effect; on the other hand, the sulphides of 

the alkalies are readily taken up by the blood, where they release

a Schweitzer, P., Geol. Survey Missouri Rept., vol. 3, p. 36.
204 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

hydrogen sulphide, which under these conditions produces a powerful 

effect upon the entire system. In a medicinal sulphur water, therefore, the sulphur should be associated with elements other than 

hydrogen. The Blue Lick waters of Kentucky and the Stachelberg 

waters of Switzerland, to both of which reference is made in the following pages, are types of medicinal sulphur waters.

CRAB ORCHARD SPRINGS.

Sulphate waters are very common in the Blue Grass region. When 

they are strongly sulphated, and are also highly charged with magnesium, such waters acquire decidedly medicinal properties. Waters 

of this kind abound at Crab Orchard, in Lincoln County, and for this 

reason the Crab Orchard Springs have maintained their popularity 

as a health resort for more than half a century. The composition of 

the water from Sowder's Spring was determined by Dr. Robert 

Peter. a It is analogous to that of the world-famous water at Carlsbad, Bohemia. The following comparative table shows the composition of these two waters. The Carlsbad water is somewhat weaker 

than the Crab Orchard water, and it is also deficient in magnesium, to 

which the special virtue of the American spring may be attributed.

TABLE 16. Composition of water from Sowder's Spring, Crab Orchard, Ky., and from 

the Sprudel Spring, Carlsbad, Bohemia.

[Parts per million."]

Silica ( SiOg) ........................................................................

Iron(Fe).............. . .......................

Calcium (Ca) ........ . . .....................

Sodium (Na) ................ ......................................................

Bicarbonate radicle (HCOS). . .......................................................

Sulphate radicle (SO4 ) ..............................................................

Phosphate radicle (PO<). ...........................................................

Chlorine (Cl). . ......................................................................

Bromine (Br) .......................................................................

Sowder's 

(Peter).

12

Trace.

664

969

523

134

1,159

3,666

606

Trace.

7,153

Sprudel 

(GottL).

144

1.9

6.4

110

16

1,874

23

1,839

1,898

23

724

6,661

a Obtained by computation to ionic form; results originally stated in hypothetical combinations.

The action of the Crab Orchard waters is analogous to that of a 

simple solution of magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt), which is a strong 

cathartic. Physicians found in practice, at an early date, that the 

waters from these springs are not so severe in their effects as magnesium sulphate alone; they act rather as laxatives than as purgatives. It appears that the other constituents present in the natural 

waters so temper the magnesium and the sulphates as materially to

n Kentucky Geol. Survey, 1857, vol. 2, p. 239.
MEDICINAL WATEKS. 205

reduce their activity. Owing to the mildness of their action, the 

epsom spring waters are applicable to the treatment of a greater 

variety of diseases than is the case with the simple solution of 

magnesium sulphate.

The epsom spring waters of Crab Orchard have been used extensively in the manufacture of salts at one time sold as a cathartic. 

The composition of the salts fromSowder's Spring, as determined by 

Dr. Robert Peter, ° shows the general character of the salts obtainable 

from the epsom springs of this locality.

Composition of salts from Sawder's Spring.

Magnesium sulphate........................................... 63.19

Sodium sulphate............................................. 4. 20

Potassium sulphate............................................ 1. 80

Calcium sulphate............................................ 2. 54

Sodium chloride.............................................. 4. 77

Calcium, magnesium, and iron carbonates and silica............. .89

Bromine...................................................... Trace.

Waste and loss................................................ 22. 61

100. 00 

KIDDVILLE EPSOM WATER.

A magnesic water bearing a close resemblance to the epsom waters 

at Crab Orchard occurs at Kiddville in Clark County (analysis 14, 

.p. 212). The Kiddville magnesium water is more highly sulphated 

and contains magnesium and calcium in larger proportions.

OLYMPIAN SPRINGS.

Olympian Springs, in Bath County, have long been famous as a 

watering place, and the locality is still held in high esteem as a health 

resort. In general, the waters at Olympian Springs are distinctly 

ferruginous, and one water combines the qualities of a magnesic sulphate water with ferruginous properties. Among these springs are 

black-sulphur waters, white-sulphur waters, and a very strong saltsulphur water. The salt-sulphur spring water, analyzed by Robert 

Peter in 1877, b was found to be alkaline and borated, and to contain 

as much as 13 parts per million of bromine and traces of iodine.

The Olympian Springs salt-sulphur water is used advantageously 

in the bath, and it is recommended as a valuable remedy in the 

treatment of skin diseases. A close resemblance between the quality 

of this Olympian Spring water and that of the Kaiserquelle at Aix 

la Chapelle was observed by Peter, and the composition of these two 

waters is reproduced for comparison.

aLoc. cit.

6 Kentucky Geol. Survey, Chemical Analysis A, vol. 1,1884, p. 365.
206 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

TABLE 17. Composition of water from salt-sulphur springs at Olympian Springs, Ky.,

and Aix la Chapelle, Germany. 

[Parts per millions Analysts: Peter (Olympian Springs) and Liebig (Aix la Chappelle).]

Silica (SiOj)....... .............................................................

Iron ( Fe) ........................................................ ...... ......

Barium (Ba) ...................................................................

Strontium (Sr) .................................................................

Lithium (Li) ...................................................................

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) .....................................................

Sulphate radicle (SO*) ..........................................................

Chlorine (Cl). . ..................................................................

Olympian 

Springs.

9S

1.2

.4

9

2.6

89

42

1,934

19

329

5.8

3,081

13

Trace.

34

5,584

Aix la 

Chapelle,

4 4

Trace

.1

63

15

1,421

69

0.03

1,023

276

1,599

3.3

Trace.

14

75

4,628

a Obtained by computation to ionic form; results originally stated in hypothetical combinations. 

ESTILL SPRINGS.

The Estill Springs, at Irvine, Estill County, are situated in one of 

the most picturesque localities of the State. Within easy reach of 

Kentucky River and close to the mountains, the surroundings are 

unusually attractive. A commodious hotel and well-kept grounds 

add to the natural advantages of the place. The several springs 

supply red-sulphur, white-sulphur, black-sulphur, and chalybeate 

waters, all of which, except the last, are reported to contain hydrogen 

sulphide. The iron is deposited from these waters soon after collection, so that their full virtue is realized only by treatment at the springs.

The red-sulphur water deposits ferric hydrate, the color of which 

has given the name to the water. Black ferrous sulphide is deposited 

from the black-sulphur water, and from the white-sulphur water a 

white deposit of sulphur is formed.

TABLE 18. Composition of Estill Springs waters. 0- 

[Parts per million.b Analyst, Dr. Robert Peter.]

Silica (SiO2 ) ...................................................

Calcium (Ca) ..................................................

Chlorine (Cl) ..................................................

Red 

sulphur.

6.8

81

26

99

42

197

176

5

40

715 

325

4.5

White 

sulphur.

4.0

8.5

121

25

52

32

24

152

5.5

50

696 

360

3

Black 

sulphur.

13

48

3.6

45

11

26

7.6

108

67

22

59

410 

263

35

Chalybeate.

32

15

148

47

7.4

4.9

72

350

5.5

141

896 

269

0

a Geol. Survey Kentucky, 1st ser., vol. 4, p. 143.

6 Obtained by computation to ionic form; results orginally stated in hypothetical combinations.
MEDICINAL WATERS. 207

KEO-ME-ZU SPRINGS.

The Keo-Me-Zu Springs, located in Kenton County, about 10 

miles south of Cincinnati, have recently attracted favorable consideration as affording excellent mineral waters. They consist of three 

springs, all of the alum-chalybeate variety, and are well charged with 

free carbon dioxide. The composition of the Keo-Me-Zu Spring 

waters is given in the following table:

TABLE 19. Composition of Keo-Me-Zu Spring waters. 

[Parts per million.a Analysts, Karl Langenbeck and Louis Schmidt.]

Silica (SiO2 ) ..............................................................

Iron (Fe). ................................................................

Calcium (Ca) ............................................................

Sulphate radicle (SO*) ...................................................

Nitrate radicle (NO3 ). . ...................................................

Chlorine (Cl) .............................................................

Alpha 

Spring.

26

12

3.8

115

23

63

7.7

248

125

4.4

7

632

Bonanza 

Spring.

on

12

32

.2

282

18

20

2.1

388

370

6.5

2.2

1,257

Climax 

Spring.

15

0.8

7.7

167

19

22

4.6

260

114

2.2

Trace.

610

« Obtained by computation to ionic form; results originally stated in hypothetical combinations. 

LOWER BLUE LICK SPRINGS.

These celebrated saline-sulphur springs, located near the north 

bank of Licking River in Nicholas County, were known to the first 

settlers of Kentucky. The Indians and the pioneers of the State 

were in the habit of visiting the springs in order to procure the salt 

with which their waters were richly impregnated. The medicinal 

virtues of these waters were also recognized at an early date, and 

they have been regarded as efficacious in the treatment of scrofula, 

chronic rheumatism, gout, engorgements of the liver, and chronic 

skin diseases.

The first quantitative analysis of the Lower Blue Lick waters was 

made by Robert Peter, and the report of the first Geological Survey 

of Kentucky, published in 1850, contains an interesting account of 

his elaborate investigation of the composition. of these remarkable 

spring waters. Several important characteristics of these waters 

were disclosed by this early study. They were found to be not only 

strongly saline, but alkaline, and to have the additional value of 

being moderately strong alkaline sulphated waters. The presence of 

bromine and iodine was also discovered, and quantitative determinations of these two elements were made.

This early analysis includes also determinations of the gaseous 

constituents of the waters. Free carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide dissolved in spring waters begin to escape as soon as the water
208 WATERS OF BLUE GEASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

is exposed to the air, and, in order to ascertain the quantities of these 

two gases present in the water when it reaches the surface, it is necessary to make the determinations at the spring.

By the improved volumetric methods and with the modern appliances now in daily use, determinations of these gases may be made 

in the field as rapidly and as accurately as in the chemical laboratory. 

At the time, however, when this analysis was made, such refinements 

were unknown, and the manner in which Peter was enabled to ascertain the exact quantities of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide 

present in the waters at the fountain head exemplifies his resourcefulness in procuring accurate chemical results under the most unfavorable conditions.

The method used by him was to add to a measured volume of the 

water at the spring a solution of a chemical capable of acting at once 

upon the gas, forming with it an insoluble powder; then to seal the 

bottle and subsequently to determine in the laboratory the quantity of 

the precipitate formed in the water at the spring.

The hydrogen sulphide was fixed by means of a solution of arsenious acid in hydrochloric acid, and the carbon dioxide was similarly 

precipitated as calcium carbonate by an ammoniacal solution of 

calcium chloride.

A second analysis of the Lower Blue Lick waters was made by 

Peter in 1877. The object of his examination at this later date was 

to ascertain whether these waters had undergone any essential change 

in their character during the twenty-seven years since the first 

analysis, and to discover, if possible, the presence of elements more 

rarely occurring in waters. The second analysis developed the fact 

that the waters had suffered no material change since the time of the 

first analysis, and disclosed the presence of minute amounts of 

barium, strontium, and lithium, also notable quantities of borates 

and alkaline sulphides, the latter indicating that sulphur is present 

in these waters in at least two different conditions. The results of 

this analysis appear in the second column of Table 20.

According to a recent classification of mineral waters proposed by 

Haywood, the Lower Blue Lick water may be designated as a sodic, 

muriated, saline, alkaline (sulphide), borated (bromide, iodide), carbondioxated, sulphureted water.

The alkaline sulphide character of the Lower Blue Lick water is 

comparable with that of the water of the Stachelberg Spring in 

Switzerland, one of the famous healing springs of Europe. On 

account of its remarkable curative power, its waters have been prescribed by physicians ever since the latter part of the eighteenth 

century. The analytical results of an exhaustive study of the
MEDICINAL WATERS. 209

Stachelberg Spring water, made in 1854 by Simmler, 66 are reproduced 

in the sixth column of Table 20. To simplify the comparison of the 

waters of these springs, the results obtained by Simmler are reduced 

to ionic form. Simmler observed that the quantity of sulphur in the 

form of hepatic sulphur, or alkaline sulphide, in the Stachelberg water 

is not constant, but varies within tolerably wide limits. For instance, 

he found that the sulphur present in the alkaline sulphides on four 

different occasions was, summer 1853, 57; winter 1853, 54; spring 

1854, 63; summer 1854, 61 parts per million. The Stachelberg 

Spring water contains notable quantities of this sulphide sulphur, 

which makes this water still more powerful as a sulphur water; 

though the Stachelberg water contains more absorptive sulphur than 

has been observed in the Lower Blue Lick, the latter is far more 

highly mineralized and appears to have additional curative power 

on account of other saline constituents.

For several years past the supply of Blue Lick waters for shipment 

is reported to have been obtained from a spring on the south side of 

Licking River. In 1900 A. M. Peter made partial analyses of the 

waters obtained simultaneously from the Old Spring on the north 

bank and of the New Spring on the south bank of the river. The 

results of these analyses, recorded respectively in the third and fourth 

columns of Table 20, indicats that, although the waters from both 

springs appear to be somewhat weaker than the waters of the Old 

Spring were in 1877, they still possess the same general characteristics, 

even in regard to the presence of alkaline sulphides, by which both 

samples were colored slightly yellow. Although the alkaline sulphides are more permanent Uian hydrogen sulphide in water, they 

decompose gradually unless the water is kept in tightly sealed bottles. 

In the fifth column of the same table is reproduced an analysis of a 

sample of the Lower Blue Lick water which had been kept about 

three years in a wooden barrel. 6 The results of this analysis demonstrate the inadequacy of wooden containers to preserve the alkaline 

sulphides for any great length of time, for at the time of the analysis 

every vestige of hydrogen sul phide and of the alkaline sulphides had 

disappeared, indicating that during the storage in wood the water 

had wholly lost the medicinal qualities which are peculiar to an 

alkaline sulphide water. The Blue Lick waters are applicable to the 

treatment of so many diseases that they have a wide range of usefulness.

a Simmler, Theodor, Comprehensive study of the Stachelberg Spring water: Jour. prak. Chemie, old 

ser., vol. 71, 1857, p. 1.

6 Haywood, J. K., Mineral waters of the United States: Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bull. 

91, p. 50.

88942 IRR 233 09 14
210 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS BEGION, KENTUCKY.

TABLE 20. Composition of water of Lower Blue Lick Springs, Kentucky, and ofStachelberg Spring, Switzerland, a

[Parts per million.]

Silica (SiO2) ..............................

Iron (Fe) .................................

Barium (Ba). .............................

Lithium (Li) .............................

Nitrate radicle (NO3 ) .....................

Nitrite radicle (NO2) ......................

Borate radicle (B4 O7 ) .....................

Chlorine (Cl) ..............................

Iodine (I) .................................

Thiosulphate radicle (S2O3 ) ...............

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) .................

Old Spring, north bank of 

Licking River.

R. Peter, 

1850.

14 

| 6 5. 8

Trace. 

317 

135

3,289 

80

473 

474

Trace. 

5,462 

3.4 

.6

282

10,296 

39 

355

R. Peter, 

1877.

12 

63.8

307 

133 

.1

.5

3,324 

98 

1

434 

390

23 

Trace. 

5,558 

17 

.3 

13

457

10,558 

28 

09

A.M.

Peter, 

1900.

302 

132

I 2, 746

413

4,925

Present.

427

9,026 

34

New Spring, south 

bank of Licking 

River.

A.M.

Peter, 

1900.

308 

133

2,812

380

5,120

Present.

377

9,315 

16

J. K. 

Haywood, 

1905.

18 

1 

2.6

343 

179

[2,718

1 81 

( 1.8

.8

412 

340 

2.2

Trace. 

Small. 

Trace. 

4,900 

23 

.14

(0

i. 4

9.022 

00 

257

Stachelberg 

Spring 

(Simmler 

1854).

9.7 {--r

40 

44

80 

1.9 

.6

278 

100

3.6 

3.4

58 

12 

84

580 

2.2 

114

a Obtained by computation to ionic form; results originally stated in hypothetical combinations. 

6 Includes ferric and aluminic oxides and calcium phosphate. 

e Not reported.

UPPER BLUE LICK SPRINGS.

The waters of the Upper Blue Lick Springs, which are also situated 

in Nicholas County, closely resemble the waters of Lower Blue Lick. 

They are recommended as remedies for the same diseases as those 

for which the Lower Blue Lick water is prescribed. They are 

extensively sold.

TABLE WATERS.

In the territory covered by this investigation there are numerous 

other sources of wholesome water which might be made of commercial importance. Pure, safe water is wanted for table use in large 

cities, where a widespread prejudice exists against the city waters 

supplied from sewage polluted streams; and country districts, remote 

from congested population, are naturally regarded as the most favorable localities from which daily supplies of such water may be 

obtained. The ordinary pure spring waters of the Blue Grass, being 

but slightly mineralized, are well adapted for use as table waters, for, 

besides being palatable, they contain a moderate quantity of various
TABLE WATERS. 211

saline ingredients conducive to health, and have therefore a distinctly 

dietetic value.

The Anita Spring and Koyal Magnesian Spring in Oldham County 

have already acquired considerable reputation as table waters in 

cities where their waters have been put upon the market. The 

composition of the waters of these two springs is given in the following table:

TABLE 21. Analyses of table waters from Anita and Royal Magnesian springs. 0

[Parts per million.]

Silica (SiO2) ...................................................................

Iron(Fe).......................................................................

Strontium (Sr). .................................................................

Zinc (Zn)...................... .................................................

Lithium (Li)...... .... ............................. ....... .................

Borate radicle (BiO7) ...........................................................

Sulphate radicle (SO4) ..........................................................

Chlorine (Cl) ....................................................................

Total solids...............................................................

Anita 

(L. D. Kastenbein).

16

.4

.6

35

21

2.9

110

Trace.

2.8

191

Royal Magnesian (A. 

M. Peter).

7.6

.6

48

28

Trace.

.3

1.4

Trace

142

Trace

9.4

2.1

242

o Obtained by computation to ionic form; results originally stated in hypothetical combinations.

The following waters are mentioned merely as representative of 

such as might find a ready market in the cities as table waters. Many 

others might be included in the list. The numbers at the left correspond with the numbers in Table 22, where the composition of these 

waters is given.

Possible table waters in the Blue Grass region.

1, 2, and 3. Springs, Anderson County.

4. Riddell well, Boone County.

6. Clark spring, Bourbon County.

12. Furniture Mfg. Co. well, Carroll County.

21. Belmont spring, Fayette County.

29. Wilson well, Fayette County.

32. Harkness well, Fayette County.

38. Madden well, Fayette County.

50. Cox well, Harrison County.

52. Kenney well, Jessamine County.

Table waters can be bottled and shipped to the cities as easily as 

country milk. By taking advantage of the preference in the cities 

for pure country waters, the owners of many Blue Grass spring waters 

could build up a city trade that would yield satisfactory returns.
212 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

TABLE 22. Analyses of 

[Parts per

No.

1

9,

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

1?

13

*14

15

16

*18

19

20

21

22

*23

*24

*25

26

27

9Q

30

31

33

f?

^14

35

36

07

38

R9

40

41 

42 *43

44

AK.

46

*47 

48

49

50

County.

Anderson. . . .

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Carroll.......

Do......

Clark........

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do ......

Do ......

Do......

Do ......

Do ......

Do ...... 

Do ......

Do......

Do......

Do ......

Franklin.. .. 

Do......

Gallatin .....

Harrison.....

Locality.

.....do.........

.....do.........

Kiddville.....

man.

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

Frankfort ..... 

.....do........

Cynthiana ....

Owner.

lery.

W TT PlorV

Old 76 Distillery.....

Manufacturing Co.

turing Co. 

Dr. W.H.Felix......

ber Co.

By.

..... do... .............

W.W.Estill..........

R.C.Estill...........

Dr. J.W.Wilson......

H. P.Headlev........

J.H.Hisle............

Mrs. E.L. Israel......

.....do................

Co. 

J. E. Madden........

Jas. E. Pepper Distillery. 

Jas. E. Pepper estate. 

Win. Pettit. .........

non ice factory. 

Old Crow Distillery 

(W. A. Gaines & 

Co.). 

.....do...............

factory. 

W. M. Cox...........

Source.

....do....

....do....

Well....

....do....

Well a 6.

....do....

....do....

....do....

....do....

....do....

Spring(?)

Well....

.doa&d

Wellab..

Well....

....do....

Well

(same). 

....do....

Well &...

.. .doaftd

Welled

....do....

Welldft..

..do o-b

....do<*..

....do....

...do....

...do.....

Well.... 

...do.....

...do. &..

...do. &..

Well ad..

. . .do.d .. 

...do.d..

...do.....

...do.....

Analyst.

Palmer......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

A.M.Peter..

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

R.Peter.....

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

,....do.......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do...... 

.....do......

A. M. Peter. .

.....do......

.....do......

A. Lasche. . . 

R. B. Dole..

.....do......

Date.

Oct. 15,1906

.....do........

.....do........

July 31,1906

Nov. , 1906

Sept. 5,1906

Nov. , 1906

.....do........

Apr. 8, 1907

Sept. 15, 1906

.....do........

July ,1884

Nov. , 1906

.....do........

Nov. 24,1906

 ,1898

Nov. 16,1906

Nov. 9, 1906

.....do........

Oct. 24,1906

 ,1884

 ,1884

 ,1885

Nov. 22, 1906

Nov. 25, 1906

Nov. 19,1906

Nov. 6,1906

Nov. 25, 1906

Nov. 15,1906

Nov. 2,1906

Nov. 22, 1906

Nov. 18,1906

Nov. 2,1906

.....do........

Oct. 2, 1906

Nov. , 1906

Nov. 18,1906

Oct. 22,1906 

Nov. 9,1906

June 26,1900

Aug. 23,1906

Nov. , 1906

Aug. 4, 1903 

Apr. 8, 1907

Aug 10,1906

July 26,1906

'S'f

__! G> 

 ^ ffi

P«

03 <U 

P*

30

110

50

96

80

75

1,250

98

90

55

75

125

76

116

80-90

153

800

40

225

126

198

50

225

28

28

150

105 

65

168

790 

790

90

50

* Computed from hypothetical combinations.

o Trace of the borate radicle (B4O?).

6 Trace of strontium (Sr).

cMuch hydrogen sulphide (IhS).

d Hydrogen sulphide (HaS) present.

« No hydrogen sulphide (H2S).

/Hydrogen sulphide (H2S), 4.5 parts.
ANALYSES. 213

waters in Blue Grass region. 

million.]

to Depth (feet). water 

90

40 

50 

60 

25

80

20,50

35

126

11, 147

95 

65

48,i68 

" "65

""so

45

O 

33

I 

a

03

9.8 

6.2 

7 

13

8

1.2 

10 

10 

17 

6.4 

14 

11

20 

10

5.8 

11

23

7.2

4.8 

6.2 

6.2

36 

9 4

4 

7.8 

8.6 

9.4 

6 

8.8

6 

5.8 

8.4 

5

11

5.4 

7.6

4.6 

6 

9.4

5.4 

5.4 

8 

3.8 

22 

7.8

12 

13

12

0>

fn

g» i

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace. 

1.3

Trace. 

.3 

Trace.

Trace.

1

2.8

1.9

Trace.

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace.

1.5 

Trace. 

2.4 

Trace.

.8

.7

Trace. 

Trace. 

1.7 

1.4

4.5 

1 

1

Trace. 

1.1 

Trace.

1

Trace. 

2.8 

1 

4.2 

1

1.1

.1

Trace.

Trace.

1 Auminum (Al).

0.8 

1 

1 

10 

.6

1.6 

.5 

.1 

.4 

.3 

4 

.5

.8

.3 

1

3.9

4.2

.6 

.5 

2

".'4 

.0 

2 

1.6 

1.7

2 

1.5

"3"

.7 

.0 

.0

. '.0 5

1.3

1.4 

1.3

Y<3 

1.6

. 2

".6 

3

Calcium (Ca).

89 

93 

90 

50 

76

32 

238 

149 

101 

76 

360 

90

132 

1,108

46 

271

81

1,433 

91

60 

96 

98

20 

21

47 

79 

114 

58 

32 

29

54 

74 

44 

95

51 

86 

96

65 

105 

76

86 

49 

92 

86 

41 

43

57

54 

82

114

Magnesium (Mg).

5.4 

6.1 

7.2 

3.2 

25

9.1 

36 

17 

14 

38 

182 

27

65

971

20

188

45

791 

2.1

14 

6.7 

20

4.4 

18

32 

37 

78 

4.7 

20 

12

23 

5.1 

16 

63

34 

9.1

8.8

20 

11 

5.7

16 

20 

34 

6.7 

20 

24

28

26 

19

28

s

3x

.^ rf 

13^ o^

02

4 

4 

6. 

6 

9.

2 

2 

2 

1 

If

V 

1

!, 

315

2£ 

2,813

45

10,281

7.

2 

6 

1

87 

92

64 

2 1,' 

6 

6 

3

1

i 

2 

2

9 

2 1-

5, 

If 

4.

7

a

67 

4. 

35 

26

410

50 

1

2

P tssium ao(K).

3 

7 

9 

0

4

7 

)90 

1 

7 

>9 

00 

4

>70 

22

63 

1

3| 188

7

2 

4 

2

5.3 

9.2

19 

6 

05 

5 

1 

10

9 

I

7 

11

5

8

r

8

8 

4 

3

.....

1

9

H

Lithium 

(Li).

Trace.

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace.

2.2

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace. 

3.7

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace.

Trace.

Traca 

Trace. 

Traca

Traca

Bicarbonate Radicle 

(HC0 ).3

280 

283

303

274 

294

191 

321 

451 

359 

328 

581 

382

460

242 

374

356

254

236 

292 

357

369 

390 

. 170 

259 

149

235 

236 

220 

632

376 

290 

302

312 

333 

242

297 

208

292 

236 

349

65

305 

345

351

Carbonate Radicle 

(CO,).

0.0

7.4 

.0 

.0

.0 

21 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0

.0 

243

.0 

.0

- .0

.0

.0 

.0 

.0

102 

124

147 

.0 

.0 

.0 

5.9 

.0

7.7 

.0 

.0 

.0

.0 

.0 

.0

.0 

.0 

.0

.0 

.0 

166 

.0 

.0 

.0

.0 

12

.0

0>jl>

rt"« . fln3~ 

ftcsO 

rt -j03

0PH^

02

16 

25 

11 

10 

41

9.5 

12 

53 

14 

88 

456 

27

349 

6,022

23

85

21

302 

19

60 

29 

40

41 

32

46 

66 

11 

16 

28 

12

38 

8.5 

24 

267

62 

58 

46

22 

43 

13

42 

39 

95 

4.6 

41 

76

195

204 

16

76

Chlorine

(Cl).

3.5 

5 

3.5 

21 

5

2 

5,415 

44 

26 

250 

6,400 

19

2,560 

139

14 

6,700

803

20,610 

18

6.2 

9.2 

17

38 

74

91 

24 

2, 950 

10 

31 

540

13 

4 

30 

160

73 

14 

5

57 

23 

5

8.5 

7.1 

1046.7

18 

284

620

640 

5

64

Total solids.

289 

296 

298 

318 

330

193 

8,961 

493 

350 

857 

11,680 

390

5,379 

9,430

259 

11,770

1,583

33,667 

350

295 

336 

394

332 

379

451 

424 

5,360 

219 

335 

1,035

284 

266 

291 

1,343

, 577 

376 

428

482 

456 

255

343 

243 

640 

315 

361 

910

1,610

1,596 

336

540

Geologic 

formation.

Lexington . 

Highbridge 

.....do .....

Glacial..... 

Alluvium..

Lexington .

Alluvium.. 

.....do..... 

Winchester 

St. Peter . . . 

Alluvium . .

Winchester Chattanooga. 

Lexington . 

Winchester (?). Lexington (?). 

Lexington .

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do..... 

.....do.....

.....do.....

Highbridge 

Lexington .

.....do... 

.....do..-..

L exington (?). 

Lexington .

.....do..... 

Lex ington (?). 

Lexington .

.....do.....

.....do..... 

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do..... 

.....do.....

.....do.....

Maysville. . 

St. Peter(?)

.....do..... 

Alluvium . .

Lexineton .

No.

1

2 

3 

4 

5

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12

13

*14

15 

16

17

*18 

19

20 

21 

22

*23 

*24

*25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30

31 

32 

33

34

35 

36 

37

38 

39 

40

41 

42

*43 

44 

45 

46

*47

48 

49

50
214 WATERS OF BLUE GRASS BEGION, KENTUCKY.

TABLE 22. Analyses of water

No.

51 

52

53

54

*55

*56 

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67 

68

69

70

7172

73

74

County.

Harrison....

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do......

Do...... 

Do......

Scott........

Do...... 

Do......

Shelby......

Do......

Do......

Do ......

Locality.

Leesburg. .....

Station. 

Paint Lick. . . .

.....do........

Falmouth. ....

Mount Olivet.

Sadieville. ....

Ground.

Milton........

Owner.

Jas. Crombie. ........

J. H. Spilman. .......

City.................

H. W. Faber.........

City.................

Source.

Well..... 

...do.....

,..do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.&c.

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do. 6..

...do.....

Well....

...do.....

...do. c..

...do.....

Analyst.

Palmer ..... 

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

R. Peter....

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do...... 

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do...... 

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

Date.

July 26, 1906 

Oct. 13,1906

July 11,1906

July 13,1906

 ,1880

 ,1858 

Aug. 27,1906

Oct. ,1906

Aug. 13,1906

.....do.......

Sept. 13, 1906

Sept. 7,1906

July 21,1906 

July 24,1906

Aug. 10,1906

Oct. 4, 1906

Oct. 1, 1906

Sept. 18, 1906

.....do.......

Nov. , 1906

Oct. 10.1906

... ..do. ......

Oct. 2, 1906

"ox.

^| 

fttO G> 0*5

76 

75

200

45

126

18 

108

300

155

35

17

30

39 

37

103

70

188

22

96

51

40

63

* Computed from hypothetical combinations, 

oHydrogen sulphide (HaS) present. 

& Trace of the bo rate radicle (B<O; 

c Trace of strontium (Sr).
ANALYSES. 215

in Blue Grass region Continued.

Depth to (feet). water 

68 

62 

65 

16

ISO

80 

70

±65 

51

50

Silica (SiOs).

17

6.8 

9.6 

13 

6

44

14 

9.2

5 

10 

17 

9.8 

15 

15 

11 

8 

4.8 

8.8

16 

17

6 

7.8 

6.2 

6.4

Iron (Fe).

5 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace.

Trace. 

3.8

9.8 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Traca 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

.5 

Trace.

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

1 

Trace.

A 1uminum (Al).

2.1 

1.1

.8 

4.8

1.4 

.0

a?

2. 1 

2.2 

2

a4

12

.8 

1.5 

2.5 

1.6

.7 

_ 4

. 8 

.7

"i.'2

Calcium 

(Ca).

80 

102 

130 

110

72

22

116 

160

107 

184 

200 

71 

122 

121 

32 

73 

48 

69

264 

91 

76 

59 

42 

74

o> &o

as 03

a

45 

19 

16 

34 

14

4.2

17 

89

21 

36 

24 

2.8 

41 

35 

17 

14 

30 

4.4

31 

20 

18 

22 

16 

8.6

s

3^*i o*""' 

m

1 

3 

1 

3 

61

311

6 

3,2

76 

2 

12 

2 

3 

3 

2C 

6. 

2£

a

36 

3 

6. 

5 

6 

7.

P tssium a o(K).

4 

0 

6 

5 

56

33

3 

50

5 

9 

7 

8 

9 

1 

4 

5 

0 

8

8 

7 

2 

4 

6 

7

Lithium 

(Li).

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace.

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace.

Trace.

Trace. 

Trace.

Trace.

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace.

Bicarbonate R idleac(HCOs).

361 

315 

415 

185 

262

363

398 

206

454 

377 

478 

216 

490 

430 

539 

246 

328 

221

600 

337 

294 

251 

248 

242

Carbonate Radicle 

(C0 ).3

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0

.0

.0 

14

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

29 

.0

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0

Sulphate Radicle 

(SO,).

104 

82 

49 

184 

38

97

99 

54

as

176 

105 

35 

30 

75 

136 

39 

8.9 

9

28 

11 

22 

87 

26 

28

Chlorine 

(Cl).

14 

38 

25 

105 

89

276

50 

6,800

1,800 

130 

264 

23 

88 

73 

9.6 

10 

396 

4.7

802 

71 

9.3 

40 

60 

7.7

Total solids.

479 

469 

479 

669 

466

966

662 

12,106

3,222 

875 

1,202 

296 

748 

703 

720 

373 

1,050 

222

1,914 

465 

311 

439 

351 

258

Geologic 

formation.

Lexington .

Alluvium.. 

Maysville.. 

Upper Cincinnatian. 

Lower Silurian. 

Alluvium. . W i n Chester (?) 

Winchester 

.....do.....

Maysville . . 

Alluvium . .

Maysville . .

Lexington . Winchester 

Lexington .

Maysville . . 

Panola. .... 

Alluvium . . 

Lexington . 

Highbridge 

Lexington .

No.

51 

52 

53 

54 *55

*56

57 

58

59 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68

69 

' 70 

71 

72 

73 

74
INDEX.

A. Page.

Aix la Chapelle, Germany, water of, analysis of.......................... 200

Alkali, effect of, in water................ 188-189

prevalence of........................... 86

Alluvium, character and distribution of... 14,26 

water in...........................14,54-65,74

hardness of......................... 198

quality of........................... 55

wells in............................ 54-55,101

Alum Springs, water of.................... 88,102

Aluminum, effect of, in boiler water....... 188

A nderson County, geology of.............. 91-92

topography of.......................... 90-91

underground water of.................. 91-92

analyses of....................... 212-213

assay of............................. 201

hardness of......................... 197

wells of................................ 92,162

Anita Spring, water of.................... 88,211

water of, analysis of.................... 211

Artesian water, principles of............... 63-64

Augusta, wells at......................... 164-165

wells at, waters of, analyses of....... 212-213

waters of, hardness of.............. 198

B.

Barium, use of, in boiler water............. 188

Beachwood Spring, water of................ 88

Beards, wells at............................ 178

Bedding planes, occurrence and character

of............................... 28,42

water movement along................. 42

Bedford, spring at.......................... 158

water of, analysis of.................. 214-215

Bellevue, water supply of................. 84,163

Berea College, water supply of......... 83,85,141

Berry, wells at.............................. 172

Bibliography of Kentucky waters.......... 8-9

Big Bone Springs, water of................. 88

wells near.............................. 96-97

sections of.......................... 96

Blue Lick Springs, water of... 87,146,152,207-210

water of, analysis of.................... 210

Boilers, corrosion in...................... 180-191

Boone County, geology of.................. 93-96

topography of.......................... 92-93

underground water of.................. 93-97

analyses of....................... 212-213

hardness of......................... 198

wells in............................. 96-97,163

Boonesboro, salt spring near ............... 9

Bored wells, description of................. 69

Page. 

Boston, flowing well at................. 65,66,178

Bourbon County, geology of................ 97-98

topography of .......................... 97

underground water of.................. 98-99

analyses of ....................... 212-213

wells of................................. 163

Bowlder clay, character and distribution of. 24-25 

Boyd, wellsat.............................. 172

Boyle County, geology of................. 100-101

topography of .......................... 99

underground water of................ 100-102

assays of............................ 201

wells of............................... 163-164

Bracken County, geology of.............. 102-103

topography of .......................... 102

underground water of................ 103-104

analyses of ....................... 212-213

hardness of......................... 198

wells of............................... 164-165

Brannon, wells at.......................... 173

Brashear, wells at.......................... 171

Brewing, water for....................... 195-196

water for, analysis of................... 196

Bromine, value of, in water................ 203

Bromley, wells at........................... 175

Brooksville, water of, analysis of ........ 212-213

Bryantsville, wells at ...................... 171

Burgin, wells at............................ 177

Butler, water of, analysis of.............. 214-216

C. 

Calcium, effect of, on boiler waters ...... 188-189

Campbell, M. R., on Blue Grass region..... 7

Campbell County, geology of............... 105

topography of.......................... 104

underground water of................ 105-106

analyses of ....................... 212-213

wells of................................. 165

Camp Dick Robinson, water of, assay of ... 201 

Camp Nelson, wells at...................... 173

Capillary action, effect of, on underground

water........................... 67

Carbon dioxide, effect of, on boilers........ 189

Carboniferous rocks, occurrence and character of...................... 14,23-24

Carlisle, water at......................... 146,177

water of, analyses of ................. 214-215

Carlsbad, Bohemia, water of, analysis of... 204 

Carroll County, geology of ............... 107-108

topography of ........................ 106-107

underground water of................ 107-108

analyses of ....................... 212-213

hardness of......................... 198

wells of............................... 165-166

217
218 INDEX.

Page. 

Carrollton, wells at......................... 165

wells at, water of, analysis of......... 212-213

water of, hardness of................ 198

Cartersville, wells near..................... 126

Casings, types of............................ 70

use of................................... 70

Cattle, water for ............................. 11

Caverns, character and distribution of.. 29-30,47 

formation of ............................ 42-44

figure showing...................... 43

Centerville, wells at........................ 163

Chilesburg, water of, analysis of.......... 212-213

wells at................................. 166

Cincinnati, Ohio, rainfall at................ 58-59

water at, hardness of................... 198

Cisterns, description and use of............. 71-72

Clark County, faults in................... 110-111

geology of............................. 109-111

topography of......................... 108-109

underground water of................ 109-111

analyses of........................ 232-213

wells of................................. 166

Clay, bowlder, character and distribution

of ............................... 24-25

Claysville, wells at.......................... 172

Clear Creek station, water of, analysis of. 214-215 

Clintonville, wells at....................... 163

Colville, wellsat............................ 172

Corrosion in boilers, cause and correction

of............................. 186-191

Cottage Hill, wellsat....................... 180

Council Bluffs, Iowa, well water at, treatment of......................... 187

Counties, waterin, detailed descriptions of. 90-160 

County, water at, assay of .................. 201

Covington, flowing well at................. 65,66

water of.............................. 82,84,175

analysis of........................ 212-213

hardnessof.......................... 198

Crab Orchard Springs, water of...... 88,89,204-25

waters of, analyses of................... 204

salts from........................... 205

Cretaceous peneplain, existence of......... 29

Cynthiana, water of ................ 82,84,172-173

water of, analysis of .................. 212-213

D.

Danville, water of .................. 82,84,163-164

water of, assay of ....................... 201

Dayton, water supply of.................... 84

Devonian rocks.......................... 14-15,23

Distilling, water for ........'.............. 195-197

Dix Eiver, description of................... 38

rocks on................................ 190

water of, quality of .................... 184

Dodge, wells at............................. 166

Dole, R. B., on sanitary analyses............ 77

on tracing underground streams....... 78-79

Donerail, water of, analysis of............ 212-213

wells at................................. 178

Dover, wells at........................... 175-176

Drainage, underground, description of..... 30,34

Drilled wells, cost of........................ 69

description of .......................... 69

Drillers, listof.............................. 161

Page. 

Drilling, mistakes in ....................... 11

Dripping Springs, water of................. 88

Driven wells, description of................ 69

Drought, occurrence of..................... 58

Dug wells, description of................... 68-69

E.

Eagle Creek, description of................. 38

Earth's crust, water in..................... 62-63

Eden shale, character and distribution of.. 16, 

20-21,49-50, passim 91-161

soil from ............................... 31,32

water in.............. 1C, 49-51, passim 91-161

quality of .......................... 50-51

wellsin ................................ 161

Elevations, distribution of.................. 28-29

Elizabeth, wellsat........................ 163,167

Eminence,water at ...................... 132,173

Enido, wells at ............................. 164

Epsom salts, manufacture of .............. 53,205

occurrence of, in waters................ 86

Erosion, progress of......................... 13

Estill Springs, water of.................... 88,206

water of, analysis of.................... 206

F.

Falmouth, water of......................... 82,84

water of, analysis of................. 214-215

Faults, description of ...................... 13,

27-28,110-111,126,134-135,140,154,156 

Fayette County, geology of............... 112-114

topography of.......................... Ill

underground water of................ 113-115

analyses of ....................... 212-213

hardness of......................... 197

wells of .............................. 166-169

Fernleaf, wells at........................... 176

Filters, use of............................... 71-72

Filtration, softening and, relative cost of.. 74 

Finchtown, water of, analysis of......... 212-213

Fleming County, geology of.............. 116-118

topography of.......................... 116

underground water of................ 116-118

analyses of........................ 212-213

wells of............................... 169-170

Flemingsburg, water of, analysis of...... 212-213

wellsat................................. 169

Florence, wells at.......................... 96

Flowing wells, occurrence of............... 64-66

Fluorescein, use of, in tracing underground

streams......................... 79-81

Foaming, cause of........................ 188-189

Foerste, A. F., on Kentucky waters........ 8,90

Forkland, water of, assay of................ 201

Fort Thomas, water supply of.............. 84

Foster, wells at............................. 165

Fox Springs, water of ...................... 88

Frankfort, flowing well at.................. 65,66

water at............. 77,82,84,120-121,170,180

analyses of........................ 212-213

Franklin County, geology of............. 119-120

topography of........................ 118-119

underground water of................ 119-121

analyses of........................ 212-213

wells of................................. 170

Fuller, M. L., on artesian water. ........ 63
INDEX. 219

G. Page.

Gallatin County, geology of.............. 122-123

topography of .......................... 121

underground water of................ 122-123

analyses of........................ 212-213

hardness of......................... 198

wells of................................. 171

Garrard County, faults in .................. 126

geology of............................ 123-126

topography of.......................... 123

underground water of................ 123-126

assays of............................ 201

wells of................................. 171

Garrard sandstone member, character of... 50,

133,138,139

soil from................................ 32

water in............................... 50,139

Geography, description of.................. 7-8

Geologic history, outline of................. 11-13

Geology, description of..................... 11-30

See also particular counties. 

Georgetown, water of ............. 85,154,178-179

water of, analysis of.................. 214-215

assay of............................. 202

hardness of......................... 197

Gex, wells at............................... 171

Ghent, wells at........................... 166,171

Glacial deposits, occurrence and character

Of............................ 14,24-26

Glauber salts, occurrence of, in water...... 86

Grafenburg, wells at........................ 170

Grant County, geology of................. 127-128

topography of .................... f ... 126-127

underground water of................ 127-128

Gravel, character and distribution of.... 14,25-26

water in, movement of ................. 41-42

Gravity, effect of, on underground water... 67 

Greendale, wells at......................... 167

Green River, water of, q uality of........... 184

Gum. Lick Spring, water of................. 128

H.

Hagerstown soil series, occurrence and derivation of........................ 31

textures of.............................. 34

Hammond Creek, water of, assay of........ 201

Hankla, wells at............................ 164

wells at, water of, assay of............... 201

Hano, wells at.............................. 173

Hardness, comparative figures on ........ 197-199

Hard waters, prevalence of ................ 86

softening of........................... 192-194

cost of ............................ 193-194

Harrison County, geology of.............. 129-130

topography of ........................ 128-129

underground water of................ 129-130

analyses of ....................... 212-215

wells of................................. 172

Harrodsburg, wells at...................... 177

water of, assay of..................... 201-202

Hebron, water of, analysis of............. 212-213

Hedges, wells at............................ 166

Henry, A. J., map by....................... 56

Henry County, geology of................ 131-132

topography of .......................... 130

underground water of................ 131-132

wells of................................. 173

Hickman, water near, analysis of........ 212-213

Highbridge limestone, character and distribution of... 17,18-19, passim 91-160 

oil in ................................... 95-%

soils from............................... 32,36

water in .............. 17,46-49, passim 91-160

quality of..................... 48-49,86-87

wells in................................. 47-48

Hillsboro, wells at.......................... 169

History, sketch of .......................... 9-10

Hooktown, wells at ........................ 173

Hope Mills, wells at, water of, quality of... 190 

Hutchison, wells at......................... 163

Hyattsville, wells near................... 126-171

Hydrogen sulphide, occurrence of ......... 86

I.

Ice, water for............................. 194-195

Ice age, history in.......................... 13

Illinoisan till, character and distribution of. 14,25

water in................................ 14

Independence, water of, analysis of...... 214-215

Industry, water for.................... 11,185-197

Investigation, need of...................... 10-11

Iodide, value of, in water.................. 203

lowan ice sheet, extent of.................. 13

lowan loess, character and distribution of. 14,25

water in................................ 14

Iron, effect of, in boiler water.............. 188

occurrence of, in water................. 87

Irvine formation, character and distribution of.......................... 14,24

water in.................................. 14

J.

Jacksonville, wells at...................... 173

Jessamine County, geology of............ 133-135

sink holesin............................ 135

topography of ........................ 132-133

underground water of................ 133-135

analyses of ....................... 214-215

assays of............................ 201

wells of............................... 173-174

Jessamine dome, uplift of........ 12-13,26-27,133

Jett, wells near............... 121,170-171,180-181

Jetting process, description of.............. 69

Joints, occurrence and character of........ 28,42

water movement in.................... 42

Junction City, wells at...................... 102

wells at, water of, assay of.............. 201

K.

Keene, water at.......................... 135,173

Kent, William, on scale in boilers.......... 186

Kenton County, geology of............... 136-137

topography of.......................... 136

underground water of................ 136-138

analysesof........................ 214-215

hardness of......................... 198

wells of................................. 175

Kentucky River, caverns along............ 47

description of........................... 37-38

flowing wells on........................ 65

water of, hardness of................. 198-199

quality of........................... 184

wells on................................ 49
222 INDEX.

Page, 

Scott County, wells of .................... 178-179

Scovel, M. A., aid of........................ 184

Seeps, cause of.............................. 67-68

Shale, water in ............................. 45-46

Shelby City, water at....................... 102

water at, assay of....................... 201

Shelby County, faults in.................... 156

geology of............................ 155-156

topography of ....................... .. 155

underground water of....... ........ 155-157

analyses of ....................... 214-215

wells of................................. 179

Shelbyville, water of............... 83,85,157,179

water of, analysis of.................. 214-215

Silurian rocks, mineral water in ........... 86-88

occurrence and character of ........... 22-23

Simpsonville, wells at...................... 179

Sink holes, character and distribution of . 30,135 

pollution through...................... 81-82

Sinking Creek, character of................ 135

Slichter, C. S., on underground - water

movement...................... 41

Soap making, water for .................. 191-192

Soda ash, use of, in boiler waters........... 187

Sodium, effect of, on boiler water.......... 188

Soils, absorption by ........................ 60-62

character and distribution of., passim 91-162 

chemical composition of ............... 34-36

classification of......................... 30-31

distribution of.......................... 31-33

drainage of............................. 34

fertility Of.............................. 34-35

relation of, to underground water...... 60-62

sources of............................... 31-33

texture of .............................. 33-34

South Bipley, wells at...................... 176

Springs, cause of......................... 40,46,68

history of............................... 9-10

Springs, mineral, data on .................. 86-90

production of........................... 90

Spring Station, spring at................... 160

wells at............................... 181-182

Stachelberg Spring, Switzerland, water of. 208-209 

water of, analysis of.................... 210

Stamping Ground, water of, analysis of.. 214-215 

water of, assay of....................... 202

hardness of......................... 197

wells at............................... 154,178

Steam making, water for................. 185-191

Stock, water for............................ 11

Strata, deposition of........................ 11-13

sequence of............................. 14-17

Streams, underground, nature of .......... 74

origin and progress of............... 43-44,76

figure showing ..................... 43

pollution of.......................... 74,76-78

tracing of............................... 78-80

Structure, geologic, description of.......... 26-28

Sulphates, effect of, on boilers.............. 189

Sulphur water, curative properties of.... 203-204

Sunset, wells at............................. 170

Surface waters, description of.............. 36-39

See atso particular counties, topography 

of.

T.

Table waters, character and distribution

of............................. 210-211

Taylorsport, wells at...................... 96,163

Terraces, character and distribution of .... 26

Tertiary rocks, occurrence and character

of............................... 14,24

Thunderstorms, occurrence of ............. 60

Tilton, wellsat............................. 170

Topography, description of................. 28

relation of, to underground water...... 60

Trimble County, geology of.............. 157-158

topography of .......................... 157

underground water of................ 158-159

analyses of....................... 214-215

hardness of......................... 198

wells of................................. 180

Tuckahoe, wells at......................... 176

Tyrone, water of, analysis of............. 212-213

water of, assay of....................... 201

hardness of......................... 197

wellsat................................ 92,162

U.

Underground waters. See Waters, underground. 

Union Mills, spring at...................... 135

Uplift, occurrence of....................... 12-13

V.

Veatch, A. C., on perched springs .......... 40

Versailles, water of, analysis of .......... 214-215

water of, assay of....................... 202

hardness of......................... 197

wellsat........................... 160,182-183

W.

Wallacetown, water at..................... 141

Walnut Hall, wells at...................... 169

Walton, wellsat............................ 96

Warsaw, water of, analysis of............ 212-213-

water of, hardness of................... 198

quality of........................... 190

wells at................................. 171

Water, industrial uses of ................. 185-197

quality of, importance of............... 185

Water, artesian, conditions essential to .... 63-64

Waters, medicinal, description of........ 203-210

Waters, mineral, character of .............. 86-90

production of........................... 90

source of............................. 45,48,86

Waters, surface, advantages of............. 74-75

description of .......................... 36-39

domestic use of......................... 73,74

Waters, table, analyses of.................. 211

character and distribution of......... 210-211

Waters, underground, analyses of........ 212-215

classification of......................... 200

domestic uses of........................ 73-85

hardness of........................... 197-199

mineralization of................... 45,48,190

See also Waters, mineral, 

movement of........................... 41-46
INDEX. 223

Waters, underground, occurrence of, by

counties ....................... 90-160

occurrence of, conditions of............ 39-55

pollution of............................. 75-82

quality of............................. 184-215

See also particular format ions. 

recovery of............................. 66-71

raising of........................... 70-71

See also Wells, 

relation of, to rainfall.................. 56-60

to soils.............................. 60-62

to topography...................... 60

sanitary survey of...................... 78

search for, errors in .................... 11

source of................................ 39

streams of, history of................... 43-44

study of ................................ 7-8

Water table, position and character of..... 39-41

Waverly shale, character and distribution

Of............................... 14,

23-24,100,101,116,118,124,138,140 

soil from................................ 32

water in.................... 14,54,101,124,140

Wells, casings of............................ 70

cost of.................................. 70

data on............................... 160-183

Wells, recovery of water by ................ 68-69

artesian, occurrence of ................. 64-66

See also Water, artesian. 

Wells, M. E., on boiler water............... 187

Wellsburg, wells at......................... 165

Whipple, G. C., on hardness .............. 193-194

Williamstown, water at.................... 128

Wilmore, water at........................ 135,174

Winchester, water of .............. 83,85, 111,, 166

wa ter of, analysis of.................. 212-213

Winchester limestone, character and distribution of...... 16,19-20, passim 91-161

soil from.............. ................. 32

water in ................. 16,49, passim 91-160

Wisconsin gravels, character and distribution of....................... 14,25-26

water in................................ 14

Wisconsin ice sheet, extent of.............. 13

Woodford County, geology of ............ 159-160

topography of .......................... 159

underground water of................ 159-160

analyses of ....................... 214-215

assays of ............................ 202

hardness of......................... 197

wells of............................... 180-183

Wyandott, wells at......................... 166

o
INDEX. 219

G. Page.

Gallatin County, geology of.............. 122-123

topography of .......................... 121

underground water of................ 122-123

analyses of........................ 212-213

hardness of......................... 198

wells of................................. 171

Garrard County, faults in .................. 126

geology of ............................ 123-126

topography of .......................... 123

underground water of................ 123-126

assays of............................ 201

wells of................................. 171

Garrard sandstone member, character of... 50,

133,138,139 

soil from................................ 32

water in............................... 50,139

Geography, description of.................. 7-8

Geologic history, outline of................. 11-13

Geology, description of..................... 11-30

See also particular counties. 

Georgetown, water of............. 85,154,178-179

water of, analysis of.................. 214-215

assay of............................. 202

hardness of......................... 197

Gex, wells at............................... 171

Ghent, wells at........................... 166,171

Glacial deposits, occurrence and character

Of............................ 14,24-26

Glauber salts, occurrence of, in water...... 86

Grafenburg, wells at........................ 170

Grant County, geology of................. 127-128

topography of ........................ 126-127

underground water of................ 127-128

Gravel, character and distribution of.... 14,25-26

water in, movement of................. 41-42

Gravity, effect of, on underground water... 67 

Greendale, wells at......................... 167

Green River, water of, quality of........... 184

Gum Lick Spring, water of................. 128

H.

Hagerstown soil series, occurrence and derivation of........................ 31

textures of.............................. 34

Hammond Creek, water of, assay of........ 201

Hankla, wells at............................ 164

wells at, water of, assay of.............. 201

Hano, wells at.............................. 173

Hardness, comparative figures on........ 197-199

Hard waters, prevalence of ................ 86

softening of........................... 192-194

cost of ............................ 193-194

Harrison County, geology of.............. 129-130

topography of ........................ 128-129

underground water of................ 129-130

analyses of ....................... 212-215

wells of................................. 172

Harrodsburg, wells at...................... 177

water of, assay of..................... 201-202

Hebron, water of, analysis of............. 212-213

Hedges, wellsat............................ 166

Henry, A. J., map by ....................... 56

Henry County, geology of ................ 131-132

topography of.......................... 130

underground water of................ 131-132

wells of................................. 173

Page. 

Hickman, water near, analysis of........ 212-213

Highbridge limestone, character and distribution of... 17,18-19,passim 91-160 

oil in ................................... 95-96

soils from............................... 32,36

water in .............. 17,46-49, passim 91-160

quality of..................... 48-49,86-87

wells in................................. 47-48

Hillsboro, wells at.......................... 169

History, sketch of .......................... 9-10

Hooktown, wells at ........................ 173

Hope Mills, wells at, water of, quality of... 190 

Hutchison, wells at......................... 163

Hyattsville, wells near................... 126-171

Hydrogen sulphide, occurrence of......... 86

I.

lee, water for............................. 194-195

Ice age, history in.......................... 13

Illinoisan till, character and distribution of. 14,25

water in................................ 14

Independence, water of, analysis of...... 214-215

Industry, water for.................... 11,185-197

Investigation, need of...................... 10-11

Iodide, value of, in water.................. 203

lowan ice sheet, extent of.................. 13

lowan loess, character and distribution of. 14,25

water in................................ 14

Iron, effect of, in boiler water.............. 188

occurrence of, in water................. 87

Irvine formation, character and distribution of.......................... 14,24

water in.................................. 14

J.

Jacksonville, wells at...................... 173

Jessamine County, geology of............ 133-135

sink holes in............................ 135

topography of ........................ 132-133

underground water of................ 133-135

analyses of....................... 214-215

assays of............................ 201

wells of............................... 173-174

Jessamine dome, uplift of........ 12-13,26-27,133

Jett, wells near............... 121,170-171,180-181

Jetting process, description of.............. 69

Joints, occurrence and character of........ 28,42

water movement in .................... 42

Junction City, wells at...................... 102

wells at, water of, assay of.............. 201

K.

Keene, water at.......................... 135,173

Kent, William, on scale in boilers.......... 186

Kenton County, geology of............... 136-137

topography of.......................... 136

underground water of................ 136-138

analysesof........................ 214-215

hardness of......................... 198

wells of................................. 175

Kentucky River, caverns along............ 47

description of........................... 37-38

flowing wells on........................ 65

water of, hardness of................. 198-199

quality of........................... 184

wells on................................ 49
220 INDEX.

Page. 

Keo-Me-Zu Springs, water of.............. 88,207

water of, analysis of.................... 207

Kiddville Springs, water of............ 88, 111, 205

water of, analysis of.................. 212-213

Kirkwood, wells at......................... 177

L.

La Grange, wells at......................... 178

Lair, wells at............................... 173

Lancaster, water of..................... 82,85,126

water of, assay of....................... 201

Latonia, flowing well at.................... 65

water supply at ........................ 84

wells at................................. 175

Laundering, water for.................... 192-194

Lawrenceburg, water of............. 83,85,92,162

water of, assay of....................... 201

Leesburg, water of, analysis of........... 214-215

wells at................................. 173

Leighton, M. O., on sanitary analysis ...... 77

on testing for salt ...................... 80

Lexington, rainfall at...................... 58-59

water of................ 83, S5,114-115,167-169

analyses of........................ 212-213

hardness of......................... 197

quality of........................... 190

Lexington limestone, character and distribution of......... 16,19, passim 91-160

oil in ................................... 95-96

soils from............................... 32,36

water in ........ 16,46-49,74-82, passim 91-161

quality of................ 4S-49,74-82,86-87

wells in................................. 47-48

figure showing ..................... 47

Lexington peneplain, description of ....... 29

origin of................................ 13

Licking River, description of............... 38-39

flowing wells on........................ 65

Lime, effect of, on water ........... ..... 186,194

Limestone, caverns in................ 29-30,42-44

solution of.............................. 42-43

water in................................ 42-46

figure showing...................... 43

movement of....................... 42-45

pollution of......................... 76-82

purification of...................... 75

Linietta Springs, water of.................. 88

Linney, W. M., on Kentucky waters...... 7-8,89

Literature of Kentucky waters............. 8-9

Lithia water, occurrence of ................ 87

Location of area............................ 7

Loess, deposition of......................... 13,25

M.

McBrayer, wells at........................ 92,162

Madison County, faults in.................. 140

geology of ............................ 138-140

topography of .......................... 138

underground water of ............... 138-141

analyses of........................ 214-215

wells of................................. 175

Magnesium, effect of, on boiler water.... 188-189

Marcellus, wells at......................... 171

wells at, water of, assay of.............. 201

Mason County, geology of................ 141-143

Page. 

Mason County, topography of.............. 141

underground water of................ 141-143

analyses of........................ 214-215

wells of............................... 175-176

Matson, G. C., on water resources.......... 7-183

work of................................. 184

Maysville, water of..................... 82,84,176

water of, analysis of.................. 214-215

Maysville formation, character and distribution of ..... 15,21-22, passim 91-161

soil from................................ 32

water in .............. 15,51-52, passim 91-161

quality of .......................... 52,88

wells in.............................. 48,51-52

Medicinal waters, description of......... 203-210

Melton, water of, hardness of............... 198

Mercer County, geology of ............... 143-144

topography of.......................... 143

underground water of................ 143-144

assays of.......................... 201-202

wells of............................. 177

Midway, wells at..................... ..... 181

wells at, water of, assay of ............. 202

Miller, A. M., on Kentucky waters ........ 8

Millersburg, wells at....................... 163

Millville, wellsat.......................... 181

Milton, water of, analysis of ............. 214-215

wells at............................... 166,180

Mineral waters, character and distribution

of............................... 86-90

Mitchellsburg, wells at................... 102,164

wells at, water of, assay of ............. 201

Morgan, water of, analysis of ............ 214-215

Mortonsville, water of, analysis of....... 214-215

wells at................................. 181

Mount Olivet, water of, analysis of....... 214-215

wellsat.............'.................. 152,178

Municipal supplies, notes on............... 82-85

pollution of ............................ 75-82

sources of .............................. 73-75

comparative values of.............. 74-75

tests of ................................. 81

Muses Mills, wells at....................... 169

N.

Nevada, wells at........................... 177

Newcastle, water at........................ 132

Newman limestone, character and distribution of....................... 14

Newport, flowing well at................... 65

water supply of .................... 82,84,165

Newtown, wells at....................... 154,179

wells at, water of, assay of ............. 202

Nicholas County, geology of ............. 145-146

topography of.......................... 145

underground water of................ 145-146

analysesof........................ 214-215

wells of................................. 177

Nicholasville, water of..... 83,85,135,169,173-174

water of, analysis of.................. 212-213

assay of............................. 201

Nonesuch, water of, analysis of.......... 214-215

wellsat................................. 181

North Middletown, wells at................ 163
INDEX.

o. Page.

Ohio River, description of.................. 36-37

floodson ............................... 37

gravels of, water of..................... 74

water of, hardness of................... 198

quality of .......................... 73

Ohio shale, character and distribution of.. 14,

23,100,101,110,118,140

soils from............................... 36

water in............. 14,53-54,101,110,124,140

quality of .................... 54,86,88-90

wells in ................................ 54

Ohio Valley, plats of, origin of............. 13

soils of.................................. 32

Oil, use of, in tracing underground streams. 79,81

Oil Springs, water of ....................... 88

Oldham County, geology of................ 147

topography of........................ 146-147

underground water of.................. 147

wells of................................. 178

Olympian Springs, water of............ 88-89,205

water of, analysis of.................... 206

Ordovician rocks, mineral waters in....... 86

occurrence and character of ........... 15-22

Owen, D. D., on Kentucky waters.......... 7,200

Owen County, geology of................. 148-149

topography of.......................... 148

underground water of................ 148-149

analyses of ....................... 214-215

Owenton, water of, analysis of........... 214-215

P.

Paint Lick, wells near.................... 126,175

wells near, water of, analysis of...... 214-215

water of, quality of................. 190

Palmer, Chase, on quality of waters...... 184-215

work of............................. 8,161,184

Panola formation, character and distribution of. 15,22-23,100-101,110,139,147,156

soil from ............................... 36

water in..... 15,52-53,101,102,110,124,140,147 

quality of........................... 53

wells in ............................... 53,161

Paris, water of................ 83,85,98-99,163,173

water of, analyses of................. 212-213

Parksville, wells at......................... 164

wells at, water of, assays of............ 201

Paynes Depot, wells at..................... 179

Pendleton County, geology of............ 149-150

topography of .......................... 149

underground water of................ 149-150

analyses of ....................... 214-215

wells of................................. 178

Peneplain, definition of.................... 13,29

Perched springs, definition of.............. 40

figure showing ......................... 40

Perryville, wells at................... 101-102,164

wells at, water of, assay of.............. 201

Peter, A. M., work of....................... 8,184

Peter, Robert, on Kentucky soils .......... 36

work of................. 8,184,190,205,207,208

Petersburg, wells at........................ 163

wells at, water of, analysis of ........ 212-213

water of, hardness of............... 198

Pewee Valley, wells at..................... 178

Phosphorus, abundance of.................. 36

Physiography, description of .............. 28-30

Pinckard, wells at.......................... 181

Pine Grove, water of, analysis of......... 212-213

wells at................................. 166

Piqua, wells at........................... 152,178

Plants, action of, on underground water... 67 

Point Leavell, wells at..................... 171

Poplar Plains, wells at.................... 169-170

Pumps, types of ............................ 71

Quaternary rock, occurrence and character

of ........................... 14,24-26

R.

RabbitHash, wells at...................... 163

Rainfall, collection and storage of......... 71-73

ground water supplied by .......... 39,56-60

records of............................... 56-59

map showing....................... 57

Reservoirs, construction and use of........ 72-73

Richmond, water supply of .... 83,85,140-141,175

Richmond formation, character and distribution of ...... 15,22,108,116,117,123,

131,142,147,155,156,158 

soil from................................ 32

water in ........................ 15,51-52,108,

124,131,147,156,158,161 

quality of .......................... 52

wells in ................................ 51-52

Robertson County, geology of............ 151-152

topography of ........................ 150-151

underground water of................ 151-152

analyses of ....................... 214-215

wells of................................. 178

Rocks, classification of..................... 13-17

Royal Magnesian Spring, water of........ 88,211

water of, analysis of.................... 211

Run-off, importance of ..................... 59-60

S.

Sadieville, water of, analysis of.......... 214-215

wells at............................... 154,179

St. Peter sandstone, character and distribution of ........... 17,18, passim 96-161

water in ....................... passim 92-161

head of............................. 6.5-66

quality of........................ 66,86-87

Saline waters, occurrence of ............... 86,87

Salt River, water of, quality of............. 184

Salt-sulphur waters, occurrence of......... 87

See also St. Peter sandstone. 

Sal visa, wells at............................ 177

Sand, water in, movement of .............. 41-42

Sanders, water of, analysis of ............ 232-213

wells at............................... 166,171

Sandstone, water in, movement of......... 41-42

Sanitary surveys, advantages of............ 77-78

Sardis, water of, analysis of .............. 214-215

Scale, deposit of, in boilers............... 186-191

Schweitzer, P., on sulphur waters........ 203-204

Scott County, faults in...................... 154

geology of............................ 153-154

topography of ........................ 152-153

underground water of................ 153-154

analyses of ....................... 214-215

assays of............................ 202

hardness of......................... 197
222 INDEX.

Page, 

Scott County, wells of .................... 178-179

Scovel, M. A., aid of........................ 184

Seeps, cause of.............................. 67-68

Shale, water in............................. 45-46

Shelby City, water at....................... 102

water at, assay of....................... 201

Shelby County, faults in.................... 156

geology of............................ 155-156

topography of ....................... .. 155

underground water of............... 155-157

analyses of ....................... 214-215

wells of................................. 179

Shelbyville, water of............... 83,85,157,179

water of, analysis of.................. 214-215

Silurian rocks, mineral water in ........... 86-88

occurrence and character of ........... 22-23

Simpsonville, wells at...................... 179

Sink holes, character and distribution of . 30,135 

pollution through...................... 81-82

Sinking Creek, character of................ 135

Slichter, C. S., on underground - water

movement...................... 41

Soap making, water for .................. 191-192

Soda ash, use of, in boiler waters........... 187

Sodium, effect of, on boiler water.......... 188

Soils, absorption by ........................ 60-62

character and distribution of.. passim 91-162 

chemical composition of ............... 34-36

classification of......................... 30-31

distribution of.......................... 31-33

drainage of............................. 34

fertility Of.............................. 34-35

relation of, to underground water...... 60-62

sources of............................... 31-33

texture of .............................. 33-34

South Ripley, wells at...................... 176

Springs, cause of......................... 40,46,68

history of............................... 9-10

Springs, mineral, data on .................. 86-90

production of........................... 90

Spring Station, spring at................... 160

wells at............................... 181-182

Stachel berg Spring, Switzerland, water of. 208-209 

water of, analysis of.................... 210

Stamping Ground, water of, analysis of.. 214-215 

water of, assay of....................... 202

hardness of......................... 197

wells at............................... 154,178

Steam making, water for................. 185-191

Stock, water for............................ 11

Strata, deposition of........................ 11-13

sequence of............................. 14-17

Streams, underground, nature of .......... 74

origin and progress of ............... 43-44,76

figure showing ..................... 43

pollution of.......................... 74,76-78

tracing of............................... 78-80

Structure, geologic, description of.......... 26-28

Sulphates, effect of, on boilers.............. 189

Sulphur water, curative properties of.... 203-204

Sunset, wells at............................. 170

Surface waters, description of.............. 36-39

See also particular counties, topography 

of.

T. Page.

Table waters, character and distribution

of............................. 210-211

Taylorsport, wells at...................... 96,163

Terraces, character and distribution of .... 26

Tertiary rocks, occurrence and character

of............................... 14,24

Thunderstorms, occurrence of ............. 60

Tilton, wells at............................. 170

Topography, description of................. 28

relation of, to underground water...... 60

Trimble County, geology of.............. 157-158

topography of .......................... 157

underground water of................ 158-159

analyses of ....................... 214-215

hardness of......................... 198

wells of................................. 180

Tuckahoe, wells at......................... 176

Tyrone, water of, analysis of............. 212-213

water of, assay of....................... 201

hardness of......................... 197

wells at................................ 92,162

U.

Underground waters. See Waters, underground. 

Union Mills, spring at...................... 135

Uplift, occurrence of....................... 12-13

V.

Veatch, A. C., on perched springs .......... 40

Versailles, water of, analysis of .......... 214-215

water of, assay of....................... 202

hardness of......................... 197

wells at........................... 160,182-183

W.

Wallacetown, water at..................... 141

WalnutHall, wells at...................... 169

Walton, wells at............................ 96

Warsaw, water of, analysis of............ 212-213-

water of, hardness of................... 198

quality of........................... 190

wells at................................. 171

Water, industrial uses of ................. 185-197

quality of, importance of............... 185

Water, artesian, conditions essential to.... 63-64

Waters, medicinal, description of........ 203-210

Waters, mineral, character of.............. 86-90

production of........................... 90

source of............................. 45,48,86

Waters, surface, advantages of............. 74-75

description of .......................... 36-39

domestic use of......................... 73,74

Waters, table, analyses of.................. 211

character and distribution of......... 210-211

Waters, underground, analyses of........ 212-215

classification of......................... 200

domestic uses of........................ 73-85

hardness of........................... 197-199

mineralization of................... 45,48,190

See also Waters, mineral, 

movement of........................... 41-46
INDEX. 223

Waters, underground, occurrence of, by

counties ....................... 90-160

occurrence of, conditions of............ 39-55

pollution of............................. 75-82

quality of............................. 184-215

See also particular format terns. 

recovery of............................. 66-71

raising of........................... 70-71

See also Wells. 

relation of, to rainfall.................. 56-60

to soils.............................. 60-62

to topography...................... 60

sanitary survey of...................... 78

search for, errors in .................... 11

source of................................ 39

streams of, history of................... 43-44

study of ................................ 7-8

Water table, position and character of..... 39-41

Waverly shale, character and distribution

of............................... 14,

23-24,100,101,116,118,124,138,140 

soil from................................ 32

water in.................... 14, 54,101,124,140

Wells, casings of............................ 70

cost of.................................. 70

data on............................... 160-183

Page, 

Wells, recovery of water by ................ 68-69

artesian, occurrence of................. 64-66

See also Water, artesian. 

Wells, M.E., on boiler water............... 187

Wellsburg, wells at......................... 165

Whipple, G. C., on hardness .............. 193-194

Williamstown, water at.................... 128

Wilmore, water at........................ 135,174

Winchester, water of .............. S3,85, 111,, 166

water of, analysis of.................. 212-213

Winchester limestone, character and distribution of...... 16,19-20, passim 91-161

soil from.............. ................. 32

water in ................. 16,49,passim 91-160

Wisconsin gravels, character and distribution of....................... 14,25-26

water in ................................ 14

Wisconsin ice sheet, extent of.............. 13

Woodford County, geology of ............ 159-160

topography of .......................... 159

underground water of................ 159-160

analyses of ....................... 214-215

assays of............................ 202

hardness of......................... 197

wells of............................... 180-183

Wyandott, wells at......................... 166