GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 275 

OCCURRENCE AND 

DEVELOPMENT OF 

GROUND WATER IN 

PERMAFROST REGIONS 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Douglas McKay, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W. E. Wrather, Director 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR. 275 

OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER 

IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

By D. J. Cederstrom, P. M. Johnston, and Seymour Subitzky 

Washington, D. C.,l963 

Free e>n application to the Geological Survey, WaShington 25, D. C. 

Introduction ..................•............. 

Previous work .......................... . 

Acknowledgments ....................... . 

Occurrence of ground water ................ . 

General conditions ...................... . 

Water-bearing characteristics of rock 

types. ............... · ..•........•.... 

Consolidated rocks ................... . 

Unconsolidated rocks ................. . 

Alluvium ..........•....•.......... 

Alluvium in narrow valleys .....•. 

Alluvium in wide valleys ......... . 

Delta areas .....•............... 

Alluvial terraces ..........•..... 

Alluvial slopes ................. . 

Glacial deposits ......•............. 

Occurrence of saline or brackish waters ... 

Occurrence of ground water in areas of 

permanently frozen. ground .............. . 

Geographical distribution of permafrost ... . 

Types of occurrences .............•...... 

Suprapermafrost water ........•....... 

Subperrrtafrost water ................. . 

Intrapermafrost water ................ . 

Summary .......•...................•... 

Methods of ground-water investigations in 

the Arctic .............. ················ General conditions ...................... . 

Survey of ground-water resources ........ . 

Recovery of ground water in p~rmatrost 

regions ................ · ............... . 

Purpose and scope ...................... . 

Sources of information .................. . 

Problems involved ..........•....•....... 

Drilling equipment and methods .......... . 

Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4, 

Alaska ........................... . 

Fort Churchill, Canada ............... . 

CONTENTS 

Page 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

9 

9 

9 

10 

10 

10 

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

14 

Page 

Recovery of ground water in permafrost 

regions--Continued · 

Drilling equipment and methods--Continued 

U. S. Geological Survey drilling procedure in Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 14 

Prospect drilling at Fairbanks, Dawson 

City, and Nome..................... 15 

Fairbanks Exploration Co. . . . • . . . . . . . 15 

U. S. Smelting, Refining & Mining 

Co., Nome . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . 16 

Yukon Consolidated Gold Corp. , 

Dawson City, Canada . . . . . • . . . . . • • 17 

Arctic Contractors, Point Barrow . . . . . • 18 

Drilling at Wiseman and Rampart . . . . • . . 18 

Miscellaneous cable-tool (percussion) 

drilling . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . 18 

Rotary drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . • . . . . . . 18 

Jet-drive drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 

Jetting . . • . . . . . • • . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . 20 

Diamond drilling . • . . . . • . • . . . . . . . • . • . • . 20 

Drilling fluids ....•. ·. . . . . . . . • . • . • . . . . . 22 

The air-cleaned drill ....... ~ . . . . • . . . • . 22 

Cementing and grouting • . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . 23 

Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 

Freezing of water wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 23 

Summary and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 23 

Distribution of water in Arctic communities . . . 24 

Fairbanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 24 

Nome ......... ·...•......•............... 24 

Dawson City . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 

Yellowknife . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 24 

Whitehorse . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 25 

Donjek River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . 25 

Kluane Lake . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . • . . . . . 2 5 

Fort Chemo, Hudson Strait . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 25 

Conclusions . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

Selected bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 27 

Unpublished reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 30 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure 1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Zones of subsurface water ...........•................................................. 

Page 

2 

5 

6 

7 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

Map showing geographical distribution of permafrost in the U. S. S. R. . .. ,. ............... . 

The southern border of permafrost distribution and permafrost islands in North America .... . 

Diagram showing occurrence of ground water in permafrost regions ....................... . 

Hydrolaccolith or pingo, artesian-pressure dome caused by freezing, near Noatak, north 

of Kotzebue ....................................................................... . 

Section showing intrapermafrost waters ................................................. . 

Summary of climatological data ........................................................ . 

Percussion rigs with parkas, Nome ....................•................................ 

Closeup of parka, percussion rig, Nome ..........................................•..... 

Jet-drive rig in operation at Fairbanks ................................................. . 

Jet point, used in jet-.drive drilling at Fairbanks ........................................ . 

III 

8 

9 

11 

16 

17 

19 

20 
-;r 
OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT· OF GROUND WATER 

IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

By D. J. Cederstrom, P. M. Johnston, and Seymour Subitzky 

INTRODUCTION 

The project upon which this report is based was 

undertaken at the request of the .corps of Engineers, 

U. S. Army. Its purpose was to collect and summarize the information available on the location and 

development of grornd-water supplies in regions of 

permanently frozen ground. 

Although surface water or water from existing wells 

will continue to supply a large part of the requirements 

for tactical purposes as well as for many temporary or 

permanent military installations, in some parts of the 

world these supplies are seriously limited, contaminated, or even nonexistent.· In the Arctic, an area of 

increasing strategic importance, freezing of both surface and subsurface water creates additional problems. 

Ground water, admittedly all-important in regions 

of inadequate surface supplies, also has certain inherent qualities which make its utilization distinctly 

advantageous in many other respects. Where sufficient quantities are available, ground-water supply is 

generally the least expensive as the construction of 

dams and long pipelines is unnecessary, filtration is 

generally not required, its temperature remains constant, it commonly is safe bacteriologically, its 

source is not readily affected by military operations, 

and it is less vulnerable to sabotage including pollution 

by chemical or biological poisoning agents (Research 

and Development Board, 1949). 

Field maneuvers in the Arctic by the Armed Forces 

and data presented by the Panel on Hydrology of the 

Committee on Geophysics and Geography, of the 

Research and Development Board, Department of 

Defense, clearly indicate a serious deficiency in programs of research and development of the water 

supply, especially in relation to the presence of 

permanently frozen .ground. 

It is realized that the scope of this subject is broad, 

with many ramifications, anq that the present report 

can do no more than summarize the most important 

source matter and indicate those areas in which additional research, both of the literature and in the field, 

should be continued in order to provide satisfactory 

solutions to the many complex problems. 

The request from the Corps of Engineers set forth 

the following objectives to be accomplished by the 

Survey during the fiscal year 1952~ 

1. Make a search 0f foreign and domestic 

literature regarding the development of ground 

water in the Arctic. 

2. Collect all available information regarding drilling and winterization of equipment in 

Alaska and Canada from well drillers, mining 

companies, and other individuals. 

3. Make studies of certain representative 

regions in Alaska regarding recognition of 

permafrost areas by reconnaissance and by 

study of aerial photographs. 

4. Make a study of geophysical methods of 

prospecting for ground water in the Arctic. 

5. Prepare reports summanzmg and 

evaluating the results of the studies enumerated 

above, and make recommendations regarding 

the additional work necessary to reach the 

general objective. 

This report, prepared by the Ground Water Branch 

of the Geological Survey, covers items 1 and 2. The 

work was done under the supervision of A. N. Sayre, 

chief, Ground Water Branch. 

Previous Work 

Although considerable basic data relating to construction projects in permafrost areas are already 

available, there is a marked lack of information regarding the occurrence and development of ground 

water in these regions. Among the sources of information on the occurrence and development of ground 

water in permafrost areas are two reports by the 

Armed Forces of the United States as listed and 

described below. 

1. Permafrost or permanently frozen ground and 

related engineering problems (Muller, 1947). This 

report is a comprehensive summary of both United 

States and Russian literature on the subject before 

1945. Much of the report is devoted to ground water 

and its relation to permafrost, and brief mention is 

made of water-distribution systems. No information 

is included on well drilling. 

2. Exploratory well drilling in permafrost: 

Engineer Research and Development Laboratories,· 

Rept. 1045, April 1948. Among other conclusions 

1 
2 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

reached, this report recommends further drilling in 

permafrost areas to determine--

(1) What additional modifications are necessary on standard drilling equipment to be used 

in arctic work. 

(2) What additional supplementary equipment 

is needed to support water-well drilling and 

development in permafrost areas. 

(3) What additional drilling techniques are 

necessary to help in the development of groundwater sources in permafrost areas. 

The report recommends further that the percussion 

drilling machine be used in preference to the rotary 

drilling machine for water-well drilling in permafrost areas. 

Acknowledgments 

The authors wish to acknowledge the cooperation 

received from the personnel of the Engineer Research 

and Development Laboratories, especially from Charles 

R. Keatl~y, Harry N. Lowe, Jr., and Arthur L. 

Donahew. A large number of background datjl were 

assembled at Fort Belvoir under the direction of Kirk 

D. du Nann. 

WATER WELL -

Thanks are due also the Geophysics Branch, the 

Military Geology Branch, and the Navy Oil Unit of the 

-survey and the many drillers, contractors, and engineers in Alaska and Canada, all of whom cooperated 

to the fullest extent. 

OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER 

As a basis for a discussion of the occurrence of 

ground water in permanently frozen ground, a generalized summary of the manner in which ground water 

is present in the earth is given here. 

General Conditions 

Ground water occurs in -the openings--cavities, 

fissures, and pore spaces--of rocks and saturates 

them to a variable height. The upper boundary of the 

zone of saturation is known as the water table. (See 

fig; 1.) 

Between the water table and the earth's surface 

is the zone of aeration, which contains water held by 

molecular attraction within the interstices of the earth 

materials. This water has been called vadose water 

and is not available to wells or springs. The zone of 

aeration may be divided into three parts--the zone of 

soil water, the intermediate zone, and the capillary 

fringe. 

ZONE OF SATURATION (GROUND WATER) 

Figure 1. --Zones of subsurface water. 
OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER 

The zone of soil water, which lies nearest the surface, discharges water to the atmosphere by evaporation and by transpiration from plants. 

Between the capillary fringe and the zone of soil 

water is the intermediate zone, which may be thought 

of as the residual part of the . zone of aeration. 

Through the intermediate zone, water not retained by 

the zone of soil water seeps downward to the water 

table. However, some of this water is held in the 

intermediate zone by molecular attraction. Where the 

zone of saturation lies close to the surface, .the intermediate. zone may be absent. 

lust above the water table is the capillary fringe. 

The water in it is held above the zone of saturation by 

capillary forces, and, although the lower part of the 

fringe may be completely saturated, the water will not 

flow into a well. The height of the capillary fringe 

depends on the texture of th~ material in which it lies; 

the height is greatest in fine-grained matel'ials and 

least in coarse-grained or cavernous material. 

Some of the water falling upon the earth in the form 

of rain or snow percolates into the ground; a part of 

this precipitation may move down to the zone of saturation, where it becomes ground water. Ground 

water tends to move toward lower elevations; it may 

continue to moye underground until it reaches the sea, 

or it may discharge as springs at the surface and thus 

contribute to the flow of streams, evaporate, or be 

transpired by vegetation. When, in periods of drought, 

the water table falls below the level of the springs and 

streams, these become dry. 

Under artesian conditions water occurs in strata 

overlain by beds of impermeable material, such as clay. The water-bearing stratum is generally filled 

with water back to its outcrop or intake area . on 

higher ground and hence is under pressure. In wells 

that penetrate this saturated stratum below the intake 

area, water will rise above the base of the impermeable material. 

Water-Bearing Characteristics of Rock Types 

Water is present in the zone of saturation in all 

types of rock, both consolidated and unconsolidated, 

but the ease with which these formations yield water 

differs greatly and is dependent upon the number and 

size of open spaces in the rock material, the degree 

to which they are :illterconnected, and other factors. 

Consolidated Rocks 

The igneous .and metamorphic rocks with certain 

exceptions contain little or no water. Granitic rocks, 

dense basalt, rhyolite, gneiss, schist, and slate 

generally yield no water themselves, but fractures, 

fissures, and shattered zones within them may yield 

wat~r. The fractures in the more brittle rocks--

certain granites and gneisses, rhyolites, and some 

basalts--remain open and may yield large quantities 

of water, whereas those in the more plastic rocks--

schists and slates--do not remain open and generally 

yield only small quantities of water. Some basalts 

contain interconnected vesicles and even large tunnels 

and transmit large quantities of water. 

In some places the weathered bedrock overlain by · 

alluvial material may yield small amounts of water. 

Few wells obtaining water from homogeneous hard 

rocks are known in Alaska. This does not indicate, 

however, that wells of this type _might not be· produc""' 

tive in many arctic or subarctic hard-ro.ck areas. 

The consolidated sedimer;ttary rocks are g~nerally · 

bedded and may contain water in the interstices between the rock grains, in fissures and fractures (as 

in igneous and metamorphic rocks noted above), along 

the bedding planes, or in solution cavities in the rock 

itself (as in limestone). Sandstone and conglomerate 

that have not been tightly cemented and limestone that 

has solution. cavities or channels may yield large 

quantities of water, whereas tightly cemented sandstones, massive limestones, and shales may yield 

very little water. · 

Fine-grained· deposits, such as shales or clays, 

·usually are relatively impermeable and may prevent 

water from seeping. down to the regional zone of satli- · 

ration, thus creating a perched water body. 

Structural features, such as anticlines, synclines, 

monoclines, fa'J,lts, joints, crushed zones, and vol;. 

canic dikes, have a bearing on the .occurrence of 

ground water; but, because these are largely confined 

to hard-rock areas and ·are not commonly significant 

in a water-development program in arctic areas, they 

will not be discussed here. 

Unconsolidated Rocks 

Unconsolidated rocks are the most abundant and 

widespread of all important water-bearing formations; 

and in most places in the Arctic, and throughout the 

world for that matter, well-water supplies are sought 

in this type of formation. Two main types of uncon- solidated deposits predominate--stream-laid deposits 

and glacial deposits, both of which cover large areas 

in Alaska, Canada, and the u. S. S. R. Unconsolidated marine deposits are areally much smaller aqd 

are unimportant. 

Alluvium 

Alluvium (a stream -laid deposit) results from the 

erosion of older rock masses and is moved toward the 

sea by both large and small streams. During this 

movement downstream, certain textures and . topographic forms are characteristic of the deposit· at 

various stages. 

Alluvium in narrow valleys. --Flat-floored gently 

sloping narrow valleys occur in the headwater areas 

of large streams and in tributaries to large, broad 

valleys in downstream areas. The deposits are 

generally thin and poorly sorted, though coarse in 

texture, and therefore are inferior water- bearing 

formations. However, it has been found that many 

such narrow valleys contain a relatively deep fill of 

alluvium, including some well-sorted material, such 

as coarse sand or gravel, which may yield large water 

supplies. In the upper Tanana Valley and in tributaries to the Tanana just north and northwest of Fairbanks, Alaska, such narrow valleys commonly contain 
OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS· 

fill ranging in thickness from a few feet to 300 feet, 

and much of the material is permeable gravel. In 

other places much of the material may have been 

derived from preexisting fine-grained unconsolidated 

deposits, · such as glacial till, or from consolidated 

rocks that break down into fine-textured material, 

and in such places permeable beds of coarse material 

are scarce. Hence it may not be assumed that deep, 

narrow valley fills will everywhere contain highly 

permeable water-bearing beds. Along .the valley floor 

the water table will generally be high, and in some 

places water may be within the limits of suction lift. 

Alluvium in wide valleys.--Much of interior Alaska 

is characterized by very broad, almost level valleys 

lying between prominent mountain ranges. Downstream from the headwater areas of high relief and 

upstream from the delta discharge areas the valleys, 

such as the Tanana in the vicinity of Fairbanks, the 

Yukon betwet::n Tanana and H.Jly Cross, and the lower 

Koyukuk, are a few to many miles wide and are filled 

with an unknown thickness of well - sorted material, 

predominantly sandy so far as is known. The rivers 

draining these valleys are braided meandering 

streams, which swing back and forth across the valley 

floors depositing sediment and gradually building up 

the levels of the valleys. Hence these valley floors 

are distinguished by prominent meanders, old meander 

scars, and abandoned channels, many of which are 

now dry. Coarse well-sorted sands and gravels are 

commonly present, the water table is high, and large 

supplies of ground water have been obtained from 

these deposits. In places bedrock "islands" project 

through the "sea of alluvium," and bedrock may lie 

close tothe surface, particularlynearthe valley sides, 

where favorable thicknesses of water-bearing material 

may be absent. Much of the water from the broad 

alluvial valleys is of poor quality because it is high in 

iron or organic content, or both. 

Delta areas. --Near the mouths of some large 

rivers, particularly the Yukon River below Marshall 

and the Kuskokwim River below Aniak, vast delta deposits were laid down. These deposits are of unknown 

thickness and, so far as is known, . are predominantly 

fine grained. The water table is high and ground 

water is generally available, but the use of standard 

well screens is necessary to develop wells successfully. 

Alluvial terraces. --Extending outward from the 

low slopes of many prominent mountain ranges, and 

of considerable areal extent in places, are alluvial 

terraces. These terraces are a few feet to several 

hundred feet higher than the- dominant stream in the 

adjacent flat-floored valley. 

The terrace deposits lie close to the source of 

material from which they were derived and commonly 

contain coarse gravel and even large boulders. The 

water table may be as much as several hundred feet 

below the surface. Fairly large streams, their beds 

sealed by glacial flour, flow across some of these 

terraces. These ar.e "pe.rched" streams, and the 

height of water in such streams is not indicative of the 

height of the regional water table. 

Alluvial slopes. --Certain low mountain ranges in 

the interior of Alaska are mantled to a greater or 

lesser extent . with a silty deposit containing some 

vegetal material. 'Where the vegetal content is high, 

the material is called muck. The fine silt is, at best, 

a poor water -bearing formation, but in places thin 

beds of coarse material may be present near the bedrock surface. In other places the muck may conceal 

buried valleys, which hav~ only slight topographic expression. Such buried valleys may contain excellent 

water-bearing beds beneath the silt cover. The water 

level ranges widely; in a few places artesian conditions prevail and the water pressure surface is above 

the land surface, whereas elsewhere the water table 

may be 50to 100 feet, or more, below the land surface. 

Glacial Deposits 

Within the area of permanently frozen ground in 

Alaska (see p. 5 ), glacial deposits are present west of 

the Alaska Range, in the vicinity of the Kilbuck Mountains, and in local areas on the Noatak and Chandalar 

Rivers, which are in the immediate vicinity of the 

Brooks Range. In Canada glacial deposits occur on 

the Canadian shield where they are generally thin, except locally in depressions. In the U. S. S. R. glacial 

deposits cover large areas in the western Siberian 

tundra. 

Glacial deposits as water-bearing formations range 

from very poor to very good. Glacial till, a mixture 

of unsorted boulders, silt, and clay, may be recognized in the field by its generally hummocky surface. 

Most wells ending in glacial till yield little or no 

water; they are successful only when an occasional 

sandy bed is penetrated. Glacial gravel and sand make 

up the outwash plain formed downstream from melt- · 

ing glacial ice; in places these are excellent waterbearing materials. Glacial silt, however, which is 

widespread and very thick in places, is not water - bearing. 

Occurrence of Saline or Brackish Waters 

In some locations near the sea, as on sand spits, 

barrier beaches, and peninsulas, heavy pumping of 

wells and consequent lowering of the water table result in the intrusion of sea water or raising of the 

contact between fresh and salt water at the well site, and 

the water obtained is brackish or salty. In such 

localities, wells should be located where danger of 

salt-water contamination is at a minimum and where 

fresh-wa.ter recharge is at an optimum. Such wells 

should be pumped lightly. In some instances it may 

be practical to make frequent chloride analyses of the 

water to determine when to cease or reduce pumping 

in order to avoid salt contamination. 

Possibly more important, insofar as the purpose 

of this study is concerned, is the occurrence of salty 

water in sediments many miles from the sea. Great 

areas were once covered by sea water, and, because 

of poor circulation of ground water in the sediments 

thus saturated, the saline water has not been flushed 

out. Thus, in the Copper River basin of· Alaska, saline water is found in several wells about 300 feet 

deep, although in shallower wells nearby, there is 
OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER IN AREAS OF PERMAr-TENTLY FROZEN GROUND 5 

fresh water of good quality. It is suspected that fossil 

salt water may be found at depth in the Yukon - Kuskokwim delta. Salt water, saltier than the present water 

in Kotzebue Sound, was obtained from a bed within 

the permafrost and in the thawed groimd beneath the 

permafrost at Kotzebue. In Nome, along the Snake 

River and about a mile inland, a well drilled into bedrock yielded salty water although fresh water is obtained nearby from wells in thawed alluvium-filled 

stream channels where seaward circulation is at an 

optimum. 

OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER IN ARE.AS 

OF PERMANENTLY FROZEN GROUND 

The occurrence of ground water in large areas of 

the Arctic and subarctic differs somewhat from its 

occurrence in warm climates, because of the presence 

in greater or lesser amounts of permanently frozen, 

impermeable ground underlying or interbedded with 

unfrozen deposits of varying degrees of permeability. 

However, in the subarctic the ground is not everywhere frozen to great depths, and.ground-water supplies 

are not everywhere difficult to obtain. Rather, ground 

water maybe obtained in thawed areas between permafrost masses in many places. Moreover, there are 

many places where the permafrost does not extend 

down to the bottom of alluvial basins, and ground 

water is available beneath the frozen material. However, in northern Siberia,. northern Canada, the 

southern flank of the Brooks Range, and certainlyon 

E P L A N 

~ 

the Arctic slope of Alaska, the difficulties of finding 

thawed ground, eitner as vertical discontinuities in 

the permafrost mass or beneath a considerable thickness of permafrost, are greater; and in some of these 

places development of ground-water supplies will be 

imP.ractical if not impossible. 

The presence of permafrost in any area may be indicated by fissure polygons, thawed lakes, or other 

signs of melting of underlying frozen ground, by certain types of vegetation, or, less commonly, by frost 

mounds. Within the frozen ground clear ice masses 

are common. 

Geographical Distribution of Permafrost 

Nearly 50 percent of the area of the Soviet Union is 

underlain by permafrost {fig. 2). The area of continuous permafrost lies north of a line beginning at 

latitude 72 o N. on the Yamal Peninsula, passing to 

latitude 65° N. at longitude 100° E. and latitude 61 o N. 

at longitude 140° E., thence to Cape Novarin on the 

Bering Sea. A zone of discontinuous permafrost lies 

south of this area, the southwestern boundary of 

which follows the Arctic Circle from the White Sea to 

longitude 60 o E. , thence southeastward to the Mongolian border near longitude 90 o E. Discontinuous 

permafrost covers most of Asiatic Russia east of this 

line except for small portions east of the Amur River 

and south of Uka on the Kamchatka Peninsula. 

0 N 

m CJJ . 

. 

Continuous permafrost Region with 

thawed areas 

Region with o predominance 

of thawed areas. In the 

south only, ore islands 

Limits of the area 

and islands of 

permafrost 

Permafrost only 

in peat mounds (bogs) 

of permafrost 

Figure 2. --Map showing geographical distribution of permafrost in the u. S. S. R. 
6 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

In Canada the permafrost boundary roughly follows 

the 60th parallel from the Alaskan border to the 110th 

meridian, thence to the south end of Hudson Bay 

where it extends northeastward to the east coast of 

Greenland near the Arctic Circle {fig. 3). 

0 

50° 

250 0 ,,,,,! 

140" 

In Alaska permanently frozen ground occurs, 

speaking in broad terms, nearly everywhere except in 

the Pacific coastal region. In this wide area permanently frozen ground does not occur continuously except north of the Brooks Range, and even there some 

EXPLANATION 

-·-·-·-· After K. K. Nikiforoff U928) After L.A. Bratsev (1939) 

Figure 3. --The southern border of permafrost distribution and permafrost islands in North America. 

discontinuities are probable. Near the southern limits 

of the permafrost area, permanently frozen ground 

occurs only in scattered masses where the insulating 

ground cover or other conditions are very favorable. 

Farther north and in the interior of Alaska the masses of frozen ground are larger and thicker. In the upper 

Yukon drainage system, wide areas of continuous permafrost several hundred feet thick may be found, and 

on the southern flanks ofthe Brooks Range the permafrost thickens and the thawed areas between the permafrost masses are much fewer. On the Arctic slope 

in Alaska the ground is known to be frozen to a depth 

of as much as 1, 100 feet. Permafrost to depths of 

1, 800 feet has been reported in the U. S. S. R. Vertical discontinuities in this thick mass may occur only 

along major rivers. 

Types of Occurrences 

Ground water may occur as (1)suprapermafrost 

water, (2) subpermafrost water, and (3) intrapermafrost water in thawed zones between masses of frozen 

ground (fig. 4). 

Suprapermafrost Water 

Nearly everywhere in the Arctic and subarctic 

regions the upper surface of the ground is thawed to 

some extent during the summer months, and in many 

places the thawing may extend deep enough (generally 

less than 8 feet) to create an appreciable reservoir of 

ground water, which is known as suprapermafrost 

water. During the warm months this water may be 

available to shallow wells and pits. In many places; 

however, winter frost extends downward to the permanently frozen ground, and the zone of suprapermafrost 

water disappears entirely until the following season. 

A shallow well, dependent upon such conditions is 

found on the beach at Point Hope, Alaska 

(68°10' N. -166°30' W.). 

During the winter, water saturating the ground 

above the permafrost level may become completely 

frozen. When freezing of such saturated ground progresses downward, there is in many places suprapermafrost water under pressure, trapped between the 

active winter layer and the impermeable permafrost 

basement. Presumably the freezing point of such 
OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER IN AREAS OF PERMANENTLY FROZEN GROUND 

X p 

Impervious surface ground forces 

water to percolate through the 

unfrozen part (talik) in permafrost 

L A N A T 0 N After Muller 

~ - C3 . ~ . e=n ~ Cloy and silt Sand Grovel Limestone Permafrost 

~ --~ 

Water percolot1ng throughout 

the year 

Water percolotmg only during 

the worm season 

Depth of winter freezing 

(bottom of oct1ve Ioyer) 

Figure 4. --Diagram showing occurrence of ground water in permafrost regions. 

a -·Ground water above the permafrost (suprapermafrost water). 

b - Ground water within the permafrost (intrapermafrost water). 

c - Ground water below the permafrost (subpermafrost water). 

c 1 - Water in solution channels (karst water). 

c 2 - Water along a fault fissure (fissure water). 

c3- Water in a porous layer in bedrock (aquifer). 

c 4 - Water in bedrock joints (fissures) - (fissure water). 

c5- Water in alluvial deposits (alluvial water). 

Springs A and C will cease flowing in the winter. 

Spring B will probably flow the year round. 

7 

water is somewhat lower where it is under pressure. 

Such water may, in effect, be squeezed laterally and 

at some weak point bulge up to form hydrolaccoliths, 

or spill out to form frost mounds. Hydrolaccoliths, 

which probably originated in this manner, are present 

in the lower Noatak'River valley near Noatak and just 

east of Kivalina, Alaska (fig. 5). At Kotzebue the 

presence of such water was demonstrated when a 

small Eskimo dwelling, built on the frozen muskeg, 

thawed a conduit to the trapped water below with the 

result that water rose, flooded the dwelling, and 

forced the family to vacate. Similar examples are 

given in the Russian literature. In some places this 

trapped water may provide useful supplies of water in 

areas where prospects of obtaining ground water 

otherwise seem to be negligible. In many places these 

supplies may be small, however, and may become depleted in a few days. 

Much remains to be learned about the occurrence 

of trapped suprapermafrost water in the Arctic; it is 

suggested that the development of extremely light mobile or portable equipment for investigating the possibilities of such water might be considered. A field 
8 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

Figure 5. -- Hydrolaccolith or pingo, artesian-pressure dome caused by freezing, 

near Noatak, north of Kotzebue. Photo by D. J. Cederstrom. 

investigation of such occurrences, made during February and March when winter frost is at its maximum 

depth, might prove very much worth while. 

Thawed ground above the permafrost is likely to be 

present under and along the courses of large rivers, 

in lakes of all kinds except the very small or shallow 

lakes, and on flood plains and lower terraces of large 

rivers. Water absorbs heat relatively rapidly in the 

summer and loses it more slowly in the winter. 

Hence, the ground temperature under standing or 

flowing water tends to increase during the warm 

months, and in time the frozen grvund beneath or 

immediately adjacent to the body of water is partly or 

totally thawed. Dry land, where the insulating moss 

cover is broken or removed, receives a heat increment from warm precipitation in the summer; during 

the winter, protected by a snow cover, it retains some 

of this heat. The thawing process may be greatly 

accelerated locally where heated buildings transmit 

heat downward. The increased movement of ground 

water above the permafrost is also effective in promoting thawing of the upper portion of the permafrost 

mass. 

Wells yield suprapermafrost water in the Fairbanks area where the frost level has receded primarily 

because of the breaking of the vegetative cover. At 

Kotzebue several wells are developed in thawed areas 

beneath heated buildings. In the vicinity of streams 

or abandoned meand~r channels some wells near Fairbanks are developed in naturally thawed ground underlain by permafrost. 

Considering the melting brought about by breaking 

of the vegetative cover it seems apparent that here is 

a field of research hitherto disregarded by workers in 

permafrost areas. Such research may indicate that 

areas near which small semipermanent andpermanent installations are contemplated may be prepared 

in order to make available small supplies of suprapermafrost water. It is possible that by stripping the 

vegetative cover, flooding the ground to absorb maximum heat during the summer, lowering the water 

level at least a foot or two below the land surface 

during tl;le winter to inhibit heat loss in the cold months, 

such areas being protected by the snow covering during 

the winter, a significant thawed area might be created 

within a year or two sufficient to provide .a suprapermafrost ground-water supply. Free water would 

be available from the zone between the winter frost 

and the now-lowered permafrost; and, further, this 

free-water zone would, in plates, receive accretions 

from adjacent undisturbed areas, where normally 

some trapped pressure - type suprapermafrost water 

would occur. Whether this trapped water would, upon 

draining out laterally, allow winter frost to progress 

rapidly to the permafrost level, and thus shut off further accretions, remains to be seen. 

In accidental or planned permafrost- recession 

areas, the frost recession is caused by activities of 
OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER IN AREAS OF PERMANENTLY FROZEN GROUND 9 

human beings. Hence, both organic and inorganic 

contamination of the ground-water supply becomes a 

problem. 

Subpermafrost Water 

, In a great many areas subpermafrost water in the 

thawed zone beneath permanently frozen ground is a 

source of ground-water supply. Large quantities are 

available in places andthe supply is generally of the 

highest sanitary quality. 

The great alluvial areas in the permafrost zone 

south of the Brooks Range offer good possibilities of 

developing subpermafrost water in many places. To 

the north all the shallow alluvial fill in the valleys may 

be frozen and free water may not occur in the alluvium; 

but in the subarctic areas of frozen ground, it is likely 

that th.e alluvial fill in even the small valleys is not 

frozen to bedrock, and consequently subpermafrost 

water should generally be available. 

Many wells have penetrated 40 to 200 feet of permafrost in the Fairbanks area and have developed excellent permanent supplies of water beneath the frozen 

zone. In Nome the alluvial apron lying between the 

mountains and the sea is completely frozen down to 

bedrock, and subpermafrost water is therefore not 

available from the alluvium. 

The thickness of the permafrost in alluvial areas, 

particularly the relation of the lower boundary of permafrost to bedrock, can be estimated in some places, 

but accurate determination can be made only by test 

.drilling ·or by geophysical methods. 

Although attention is generally given in Alaska to 

the desirability Gf developing subpermafrost water 

from alluvium, it should be borne in mind that subpermafrost water may occur in bedrock areas beneath 

the alluvium or in bedrock areas with no alluvial 

cover, from fiss\}res, joints, solution channels, or 

other openings in the rock mass. 

In a few places permafrost will act as an impermeable cap rock, and, where frozen ground laps up 

against higher ground, tlie impermeable permafrost 

may act as a confining layer to water migrating downward from the higher ground, and artesian conditions 

will exist. Flowing wells due to these geological conditions have been drilled at Dawson, Yukon Territory, 

and at Fairbanks. 

Intrapermafrost Water 

Intrapermafrost water is water that occurs within 

the thawed zones of permanently frozen ground. It 

commonly occurs in alluvium near rivers or in abandoned river channels. Intrapermafrost water may 

occur in a thawed gravel bed in an otherwise frozen 

mass of fine clayey sediments. However, free water: 

available from vertical thawed fissures or through 

natural "pipes" in tne ground within the permafrost . mass is als-o included . in the definition; hence' for 

the purpose of this report, all water in small thawed 

areas lying between masses of permafrost will be considered as intrapermafrost water (fig. 6). Although 

water occurring in fissure zones in rocks, along deepseated faults, along veins or dikes, near large springs 

fed from depth, and in tilted beds in alluvial fans is 

also considerea to be intrapermalrosf wat~r, fliese 

After Sumgin 

Figure 6. --Section showing intrapermafrost waters. 

a - Layer type. g - Multilayer type. 1 - Active layer. 

b- Lenses, ribbons. h - Lake produced by thawing. c - Veins, pipes. 

d- Block. 

i - "Window" of the suprapermafrost thawed layer. 

j - "Window" of the completely thawed layer. 

2 - "Talik" {thawed) layer. 

3 - Ice. 

4 - Permafrost. e - Crevice-vein type. k - Island of permafrost. 

f - Hydrolaccolith. m- Subpermafrost thawed layer. 

occurrences are possibly of more academic than 

practical interest. In this report, therefore, attention 

will be given to the occurrence of water in thawed 

ground that occurs between continuous masses of frozen ground above and below and that are, insome 

places, of considerable extent. As the southern limits 

of the permafrost areas are approached, the areas of 

thawed ground are considerably more extensive than 

are areas of frozen ground. 

Summary 

Ground water in permafrost areas occurs mainly in 

thawed ground. · 

In general, thawed ground is sought (1) under large 

rivers and adjacent to large rivers; (2) in or near the 

smaller streams; (3) in or near standing bodies of 

water, such as lakes formed in abandoned meander 
10 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

channels or muskeg lakes originating in differentially 

thawing frozen ground; (4) in "new" ground formed in 

the concave side of present river meanders not necessarily immediately adjacent to the stream; (5) in dry 

abandoned meander scars or dry lakes; (6) in places 

where the insulating cover has been stripped and thawing has been rather profound; (7) on south -facing hillsides. 

It will be realized that in many places ground water 

in the intrapermafrost zone is.connected hydrologically 

with water in the supra and subpermafrost zones and 

the one type of environment in effect grades into the 

other. For example, where a frost mass has a wedge 

shape, suprapermafrost water grades laterally into 

the completely thawed area containing intrapermafrost 

water, and the thawed area under the frost wedge will 

contain subpermafrost water. In the most northerly 

locations it is more likely that "pockets" of water, 

distributed either laterally or vertically, are small 

and are depleted rapidly. In the middle and southerly 

latitude in the permafrost zone, J! may be assumed, 

most thawed areas are intereennected, and total depletion of free water is improbable. 

METHODS OF GROUND-WATER INVESTIGATIONS 

IN THE ARCTIC 

General Conditions· 

In any part of the world, whether or notit is underlain by permafrost, the occurrence of ground water is 

directly related to the subsurface geology. Therefore 

in determining the ground-water potential of any area, 

a knowledge of the local geology is essential. Vegetation in some places is of value as an indicator of 

ground water and of permanently frozen ground. ·The 

presence of permafrost greatly a,tfects the occur renee, 

movement, and accessibility of ground water; means 

are therefore being developed for the recognition of 

permafrost bodies from surface features. In most 

areas the science of geophysics when coupled with geologic studies is of great value in locating subsurface 

features, including ground water and permafrost. 

As geologic studies are essential to ground-water 

investigations, surface features of the areas involved, 

both topographic and geologic, should be mapped. 

Bedrock outcrops should be mapped and determinations 

made of their nature, including the location and altitude of stratigraphic units, geologic structures, degree of weathering, and probable water-bearing characteristics. 

Geolog-ic studies in the Arctic follow in general the 

pattern used in more temperate climates. However, 

geologic mapping under the rigorous conditions of the. 

far North becomes a rather arduous undertaking 

(English, 1949?). Stereoscopic study of aerial photographs and direct reconnaissance of the ground by airplane, or even with field glasses from the higher parts 

of the terrain, provide valuable preliminary information. This preliminary work must be followed by 

actual examination of the area on foot. The geologist 

must make an examination of the outcrops, recording 

all pertinent information and taking necessary rock· and 

water samples. This work must be carried out in the 

summer months, as the snow cover conceals the sur- face in the winter. 

Rock outcrops are generally less numerous in the 

Arctic than in other parts of the world. Much of the 

terrain is mos.s covered and only the more resistant 

rocks reveal their presence, and these in many places 

only by a scattering of their fragments on the surface 

of the moss. However, the underlying rock may be 

only a foot or so below the land surface and in most 

places can be uncovered by digging. Even though 

chemical weathering is at a minimum, it is difficult 

because of the frozen ground to dig deep enough with a pick to get a satisfactory rock sample. Where transport facilities permit, a small rotary drill for obtaining cores to a depth of about 10 feet would be very 

useful in sampling (English, 1949?). 

If aerial photographs are available for stereoscopic 

study, they may be used in locating outcrops, in planning routes of travel, and as a base for the geologic 

map. 

In places where outcrops are few or lacking, as in 

alluviated areas, and where well logs are not available, exploratory holes must be drilled to provide subsurface information. Complete logs should be recorded so that a geologic cross section can be constructed. 

Survey of Ground-Water Resources 

[Adapted from Muller, 1947] 

When making an appraisal of the ground-water resources of a permafrost area, three types of investigations may be required: 

1. Reconnaissance survey. This survey may be 

completed in a few hours or a few days and will include a brief trip through the area to observe the 

major topographic and geologic features' and the characteristics of typical wells, and to interview local 

engineerS" and others. 

2. General survey. A general survey may require 

from a few days to a few months and should include 

geologic mapping, recording water levels in wells; 

and making pumping tests and water analyses. 

3. Field techniques and special problems. This 

study generally will require several months or more 

and will include _drilling, longtime pumping tests, and 

study of freezing problems. 

Along with these surveys it will be necessary to obtain available climatological_ data, which should· be 

summarized, as shown in figure 7. 

Essential field equipment for ground-water surveys 

will include a tape, stop watch, thermometers, current- meter, collecting bottles for water sampling, or 

possibly equipment for making a partial analysis of 

water. A geologic map of the area, if available, is 

used as a source of basic data, and· such additional 

features as are necessary should be added. If the 

area has not been mapped geologically, which is the 

usual situation, it will be necessary to make a suitable 

map. 

In examining outcrops various phenomena peculiar 

to Arctic geology may be noted: 
METHODS OF GROUND WATER INVESTIGATIONS IN THE ARCTIC 11 

SUMMARY OF CLlMATOLOOICAL DATA 

Geographic position: 

{or name of meteorol. station) 

Longitude: ------ Latitude: ------ Altitude: 

Name or nearest town: Distance to it: 

--------------------- Name of' drainage basin: 

Mean Monthly Mean 

Annual 

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D 

Barometric pressure 

Winds: direction 

velocity 

Teap. of' the air 

Minimum temp. of' the ·air 

Maximum n II II II 

Absolute minimwn 

Absolute maximum 

Da_y_s with ·freezing to 

Precipitation 

Mini.mwn _I?_recipit. 

Dai~v precipitation 

Mean minimum 

Mean maximum 

Days with precipit. 

Humidi t:v or the air 

Mean minimum 

Mean maximum 

Evaporation 

Mean minimum 

Mean maximum 

Dew point 

Thiclmess of snow-cover 

BeDinnina Of' II " Disa~arance 11 " Cloudiness 

Sunshine 

Solar radiation 

Soil temp.: at surface 

at f't. - at--ft~ 

at--ft. 

at--ft. 

at-ft~ 

at ft. 

(Muller, 1945) 

Figure 7. --Summary of climatological data. 
12 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOP:MENT OF GRQUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

1. The amount of jointing and whether joints are 

open or sealed. Material that fills the joints should 

be determined- -whether it is mud, ice, or mineral deposit. The size of joints, their orientation, and their 

relation to bedding and to relief should be observed 

and recorded. Joints opened by frost action should 

also be noted. Frost-filled joints may extend several 

feet below the surface of the ground and may be traced 

along the surface for hundreds of feet; in the summer 

they are usually closed and can easily be overlooked; 

the best time to observe them is in the autumn (September to November) and early in the spring (February to April). The presence of polygonal frost cracks 

has great hydrologic significance as they permit the 

rain and surface water to seep down into the waterbearing horizons above the permafrost. They also 

permit lateral circulation of water, which upon freezing forms ice veins or ice wedges. 

2. Porosity of the ground and incidence of caves. 

Large caverns should be thoroughly explored -- their 

size, orientation, relation to relief, to jointing, and 

to the composition of the rock, and their position with 

reference to their present and past base levels of erosion. In large caverns containing flowing water the 

temperature of the air and of the wall rock should be 

measured. The presence of ice masses should be 

noted and their origin should be ascertained. 

3. Constancy of stratigraphic horizons. This includes the study of lateral changes in the character of 

the rocks, particularly with regard to porosity or 

permeability. 

4. The presence of various spring deposits, such 

as iron, lime, and ice. 

5. Bleaching, traces of encrustation, and other 

indications of the presence of moisture. 

6. Products of weathering--their character, extent, and composition. 

7. Pleistocene and Recent deposits. These should 

be thoroughly investigated, particularly in relation to 

the extent of permafrost. 

The following observations should be made regarding the plant and animal life: 

1. Trees growing on a slope may have curved 

trunks indicating the creep, or solifluction, of the 

ground along the permafrost table. Orientation and 

areal distribution of curved trunks should be noted, 

and the age· of straight and curved trees should be determined. 

2. A "drunken forest," a g:roup of irregularly inclined trees, normally indicates the presence of frost 

mounds of swelling ground. 

3. Willow groves point to the presence of ground 

water that freezes for only a short time. 

4. Trees on pingos (large frost mounds) may indicate the age of the mounds. 

5. The depth of tree roots in the permafrost province approximately corresponds to the thickness of 

the active layer, which makes it possible to estimate 

the thickness of the water-bearing zone above thepermafrost. 

a. Peat and moss usually indicate a relatively thin water-bearing zone above permafrost. 

b. Pine and fir commonly grow where permafrost is either absent or lies at consider·able 

depth. 

c. Larch and birch, especially dwarfed and 

stunted individuals, indicate the presence of 

permafrost close to the surface. 

6. Holes of burrowing animals should be examined 

carefully as they usually occur where the water above 

the permafrost begins at some depth below the surface 

of the ground. The material that is thrown out of the 

hole by the animal may furnish information as to the 

composition of the active layer. 

The study of relief of the area has a direct bearing 

on the solution of certain ground-water problems. 

The following features of relief should be examined: 

1. The character of terraces, slopes, and valley 

floors. 

2. Positive elements of relief that are produced by 

frost action, such as frost mounds, pingos, and pseudoterraces. These features should be shown on a map. 

3. Cave-in lakes, funnels, sinkholes, and related 

structures caused by permafrost phenomena. These 

features should be mapped. 

4. Landslides, slumps, solifluction, karst phenomena (in either ice or limestone), and frost crackS' 

in the soil. 

Other features to be studied in connection with the 

survey of water resources of an area include--

1. Icings. (A mass of surface ice formed during 

the winter by the successive freezing of sheets of 

water that may seep from the ground or from the frozen surface of a river.) 

2. Springs and polyn'yas. (A polyn'ya is a hole or 

window in river ice, which remains unfrozen during 

all or part of the winter because of a local inflow of 

warmer water, as from a deep-seated spring or from 

a warm tributaryJ 

3. Wells and drill holes. 

4. Test pits, ditches, and other excavations. 

5. Water bodies, such as rivers, lakes,and swamps. 

The amount of detail with which each of the above 

items should be studied will be determined by the purpose of the survey or by the nature of the assignment. 
RECOVERY OF GROUND WATElR IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 13 

RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER 

IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

Purpose and Scope 

The purpose of this section is to review drilling 

methods ,and. techniques being u·sed in regions of permanently frozen ground to determine how the best' results can be achieved with the greatest economy of 

effort. In compiling this information two general 

sources have been used: (1) the literature on the subject of drilling, mostly of United States, Canadian, 

and Russian origin, and (2) personal interviews with 

those who have had experience in drilling in permafrost. 

Sources of Information 

In the literature, information dealing directly with 

the problems involved in drilling permafrost is not 

plentiful, and that which does exist is scattered 

throughout the mass of material that has been written 

on the Arctic and subarctic regions. Wheredrilling 

is mentioned, few detailed data on actual operations 

are included. This is particularly true of the Russian 

literature so far obtained. It would seem that the 

Russians may not know a great deal about suchdrilling, or, if they do, they have not yet reported on it. 

However, a large amount of material is yet to be 

translated and reviewed. 

In the literature of the United States only a few publications are of any material benefit. Report 1045 of 

the Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, 

U. S. Army (Crumlish, 1948), contains detailed descriptions of actual operations, and it has been helpful in forming the nucleus of the present discussion. 

Reports of the U. S. Navy.Petrol-eum Reserve No. 4, 

Point Barrow, Alaska (U. S. Geological Survey, 

unpub. ) furnish information on equipment and techniques in oil-well drilling, some of which are applicable to water-well problems. "Discussion of winterization activities, Hq. AAF" (Air Force Tech. Comm. 

Rept. 4) contains useful information. Most of the 

other data available on the subject have been gleaned 

from miscellaneous sources, comprising technical and 

trade publications and government reports, including 

those of the armed services. 

The most readily usable and dependable information has been gained from the field work of groundwater geologists of the U. S. Geological Survey in 

Alaska and Canada and from personal interviews with 

representatives of other government agencies, both in 

the United States and Canada; and with miners, 

drillers, contr.actors, and engineers engaged in drilling in permafrost regions. 

Problems Involved 

The problems of drilling in areas of permafrost are 

caused and aggra,vated by the low temperature of this 

type of ground and of the atmosphere. Because of 

th~se negative temperatures and the resulting ice cementation of the ground, normal drilling methods used 

in temperate climates are not effective. The method 

of wet drilling practiced in temperate climates, which uses water-base drilling fluids, will cause solid freezing of the tools in the drill hole in regions of permafrost. When using the completely dry methods of boring with auger tools, drive pipes, and well points, 

sufficient penetration into the permafrost is not possible. Characteristically, permafrost converts loose 

and incoherent materials, such as alluvium, into an 

ice-cemented material of granitelike hardness. 

Thus, the negative surface and subsurface temperatures cause operational difficulties which necessitate 

modifications of presently used drilling techniques and 

equipment, including, for example, mud pumps, mud 

pits, and water - carrying equipment. Further, the 

climate and limitations imposed by the terrain are 

additional factors to be considered in any drilling operation. 

Drilling Equipment and Methods 

Various types of drilling equipment have been used 

in the permafrost areas of A ~aska and northern Canada, 

mainly for mineral exploration. Rotary drilling· is 

employed for deep drilling at the Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 in Alaska. Diamond drilling is carried 

on in mineral exploration in bedrock at many places in 

Canada. Cable-tool or percussion drilling is used extensively for shallow holes in the placer-gold explorations as well as in water-well drilling. 

Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4, Alaska 

Many detailed operational records and well logs 

are available from the Navy Petroleum Reserve No. 4 

(U. S. Geological Survey). A few representative examples are given herewith. 

North Simpson ~test well. 1 (approx. lat. 71 °03'N., 

long. 157°58' W.) near Point Barrow was drilled to a 

depth of 3, 774 feet by using a rotary rig. The drilling 

fluid was a brine solution, 59 pounds of salt to a barrel 

(53 gallons) of water. The salinity was later reduced 

to 35 pounds of salt to a barrel of water. A 100-pound 

bag of rock salt was used for each 15 to 20 feet of hole 

drilled. As the materials being penetrated were clays ' 

or shales, the hole made its own mud, and it was necessary to add only water and "aquagel" from time to 

time. The viscosity rose occasionally and was controlled by the addition of "pyro" and "quebracho." The 

temperature of the mud was kept as low as possible to 

prevent excess thawing of the permafrost; the temperature varied from 51 F at the top of the hole to 

74 F at the bottom. A total of 13 drilling bits were 

used, in 5 sizes ranging in diameter from 9 5/8 inches 

to 22 inches. Drilling was begun May 6, 1950, and 

the hole was completed June 2, 1950. 

Three holes .(Ruby 1, 2, and 3 ) were drilled 

at the Umiat Field (approx. lat. 69°- 23'N., long. 

-152°0'W.) with cabletools. These wells were drilled 

to depths of 840, 1075, and 825 feet, respectively. A 

brine solution of 35 to 50 pounds of salt to a barrel of 

water was used to prevent freezing. At all 3 wells 

only enough drilling fluid was used to operate efficiently and to keep the hydrostatic head from forcing 

the brine into the sands. 
' 14 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

At many locations in Petroleum Reserve No. 4, 

thermistor cables have been set in the wells to determine the thermal gradient. These studies which are 

being carried on by the U. S. Geological Survey will 

furnish information on the location and thickness of 

the permafrost. 

Fort Churchill, Canada 

At Fort Churchill, Manitoba, on Hudson Bay, 

the Engineer Research and Development Laboratories 

(Crumlish, 1948), carried on experimental drilling 

during July-November 1947. Both rotary and percussion methods were used. The rotary rig was equipped 

with a 6-cylinder gasoline engine and a 4 by 5 duplex 

mud pump. The percussion equipment was powered 

by a 4-cylinder gasoline engine. Five wells were 

drilled, 3 by percussion method, ranging in depth 

from 35 to 194 feet. 

As a result of this drilling it was concluded, among 

other things, that permafrost drilling with either type 

of drilling machine is possible but that the percussion 

type is more adaptable to drilling in permafrost, and 

the modification of both machines would result in more 

efficient operation. Crumlish (1948, p. vi.) re.commended that: 

1. Further drilling be conducted in permafrost 

ar'eas to determine--

a. What additional modifications are necessary to standard drilling equipment. 

b. What additional supplementary equipment 

is needed to continue water-well drilling and development in permafrost areas. 

c. What additional drilling techniques are 

necessary to develop ground-water resources in 

permafrost areas. 

2. The percussion drilling machine be used in preference to the rotary drilling machine for water-well 

drilling in permafrost areas. 

3. Drilling teams be organized for 24-hour operation. 

4. The modification suggested in the report be 

made on both the rotary and percussion drilling 

. machines. On the rotary rig (1) the sandline drive 

should have a separate clutch and should not operate 

off the master clutch, (2) grease nipples should be installed on the masthead for lubricating the sheaves, 

and {3) removable backup posts should be placed on 

the spider plate to be used in conjunction with the chain 

tongs when running drilling tools or casing. On the 

percussion rig (1) the lever throttle should be replaced 

with a wheel-type throttle., and {2) the coal-fired forge 

of the percussion rig should be adapted for oil firing. 

Fuel oil or gasoline will be available more readily 

than coal in the Arctic. 

5. Additional tools and equipment be provided fo~ 

the rotary and percussion drilling machines. 

6. Suitable shelters be designed for each type of 

drilling machine for arctic operations. 

7. The development of a combination percussion 

and rotary-drilling machine be investigated further. 

U. S. Geological Survey 

Drilling Procedure in Alaska 

In the course of exploration for ground water in the 

Fairbanks area 5 holes were drilled that penetrated 

50 to 100 feet of permafrost, and 1 hole was drilled 

at Kotzebue where frost extended from the surface to 

a depth of 239 feet. 

Drilling in the permafrost zone at Fairbanks presented no unusual problems. Drilling progressed by 

open hole although it was found that surface casing 

was necessary to keep out warm surface water. Holes 

stood open very well but muck tended to slough badly 

after 4 or 5 days. In 1 hole where much medium sand 

was penetrated, the bit wore rapidly and had to be 

dressed frequently. In a 164-foot hole it was impossible to pull the casing with the light rig used; and it is 

thought that the casing had frozen to the walls of the 

hole. 

At Kotzebue, where permafrost is thought to be 

considerably colder than at Fairbanks, saline water 

in the hole froze overnight, and it was desirable to 

bail all the water from the hole at the end of the day if 

possible. It was not possible to do this in the zone between 80 and 100 feet, where saline water ran into the 

hole and tended to fill it. During the course of drilling, hot water from a barrel was introduced into the 

bottom of the well by a bailer. This was sufficient to 

produce enough melting to clear the hole of slush ice. 

The hole was cased as drilling proceeded, and there 

was no difficulty in driving the upper portion of the 

hole. As it was deepened, however, driving became 

more difficult, and the upper part of the hole was 

steamed out with a prospector's steam boiler. This 

was only partly successful, for steam could not be mtroduced below a depth of about 100 feet because of 

pressure involved. A better plan would have been to 

connect several drums with pipe, heat the water 

quickly by introducing steam into the drums, and pump 

this hot water to the bottom of · the hole, salvaging 

overflow from the well to refill the drums. 

It was found later that the introduction of heat is 

not necessary; a much better method is to drili and 

drive as rapidly as possible with as short a time ~­

terval between operations as practical. During periods 

of idleness the casing will tend to freeze to the walls, 

but, if not solidly frozen, it will break ~ loose when 

hammered. Because the couplings tend to create an 

annular space around the pipe, the pipe will not adhere to the walls if it is kept in constant downward 

motion. Thus it seems obvious that to penetrate more 

than 150 feet of permafrost, drilling should be done on 

a 24 - hour basis if possible, and only enough heat 

should be introduced into the well to form a sludge at 

the bottom of the hole and increase the hole diameter 

slightly beyond bit size. 
RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 15 

If casing were driven into the permafrost and left 

for further driving or pulling at a future date, it 

probably would be necessary first to thaw the walls in 

order to free the casing and then to move the casing 

as continuously as possible, without adding more heat. 

Most of the information presented in the remainder 

of this sectionJ except where noted, was obtained by 

personal interviews with miners, drillers, contractors, and engineers experienced in drilling in permafrost regions. 

Drilling an open hole entirely through the permafrost and into thawed ground beneath is not recommended because water will run into the hole from the 

thawed ground and will freeze solid or make slush and 

hinder driving of casing. According to Mr. E. Erickson, 

of the Beaver Mining Co. , Fairbanks, there is also 

the danger of sand rushing in, almost completely filling the hole. The best procedure might be to drill an 

open hole in the permafrost to a depth known to be 

above thawed ground and then to set the casing and 

drive it down, after which casing should follow as the 

hole is deepened. If there is danger of sanding the 

hole, it can be kept filled with water, possibly saline 

water, as thawed ground is approached. This water 

should be removed durlng periods of idleness. 

Prospect drilling at Fairbanks, 

Dawson City, and Nome 

In the exploration and ·evaluation of gold - bearing 

ground in Nome .and Fairbanks, Alaska, and in Dawson 

City, Yukon Territory, mining companies have drilled 

millions of feet of 6-inch-diameter hole by the cabletool method. The depths range from a few feet to more 

that 300 feet; the average depth is estimated to be 80 

to 100 feet. The holes are drilled largely in permanently frozen ground and these are generally uncased. 

It may be assumed that the drilling operations represent the ultimate in economy and efficiency in this 

type of ground. As these holes were drilled for gold 

exploration, most of them did not reach thawed ground 

and did not encounter water. 

The three areas mentioned are underlain by unconsolidated deposits, mostly medium gravel, and overlain by a variable thickness of silt mixed with decayed 

vegetation. Inasmuch as the silt is removed by thawing and hydraulic stripping, the drilling is largely confined to the medium gravel and a few feet of the underlying bedrock, which is generally weathered schist. 

Fairbanks Exploration Co. 

Mr. R. B. Earling, general manager of the Fairbanks Exploration Co., characterizes the cable- tool 

method of drilling in the Fairbanks area as an easy 

and simple method requiring a few simple precautions 

and no special equipment. With continuous drilling 

there are no freezing problems. 

The general technique is to drill a hole and to set 

casing when the full thickness of permafrost has been 

penetrated if it is desired to retain the hole for a period 

of time. Any freezing of the casing to the wall is 

simply dealt with by introducing warm water. It is to 

be noted here, however, that in the Fairbanks area the 

temperature ofthe frozen ground is rarely below 31 F. 

In drilling an open hole the ordinary procedure is to 

keep the drilling water cold rather than warm. No 

salt is added. 

Dry frost is uncommon, but, when it is penetrated, 

gravel tends to run into the hole. To remedy this condition, ice or snow is introduced into the hole and the 

mud wall is frozen. Dry frost above the zone of permafrost, as commonly referred to, is dry gravel that 

has a temperature below 32 · · F but contains no ice as 

a cementing substance. 

The bit used in prospect drilling is of a plain chisel 

type known as a placer bit. It is much thinner and has 

a greater cutting quality and a less blunt impact than 

the conventional bit. The shape of the bit tends to reduce the sludge wash, thus keeping the hole narrower 

and minimizing sloughing. 

Bits are dressed by forging rather than welding. 

According to Mr. Earling, the wearing of a bit below 

gage is not a serious problem. The forging method is 

not particularly less expensive than welding but it produces a better shaped bit. 

Considerable winter drilling has been done at Fairbanks although ordinarily no drilling is done in the two 

or three coldest months. The only special equipment 

necessary is a steam boiler or source of hot water for 

cleaning the tools at regular intervals and, occasionally, to clean off accumulated ice on the rig. No 

weather precautions are necessary for the operator 

other than protection from the wind which is rare in 

Fairbanks. A canvas rig parka such as is used at 

Nome was tried out at Fairbanks and found to be a nuisance. A small heated portable shed, known as a dog 

house, is desirable during winter operations for efficient panning of gold. Such a shed would facilitate the 

examination of cuttings from wells. 

A common type of hot -water heater is an elongate 

boilerlike structure consisting of a firebox extending 

through the. stove to ·a chimney at the far end. A 

water jacket extends around this boiler from which 

water may be taken through top ports. The desirable 

feature of this simple device is that whole logs may be 

burned without being cut. 

Mr. Ted Loftus, of the Fairbanks Exploration Co. , 

stated that drilling in permafrost is easier than in 

thawed ground, although somewhat harder on the bits. 

At peak efficiency a crew will make from 90 to 100 

feet of open hole per 8- hour shift, but a bit will need 

to be dressed after only 30 feet. Bits are forge 

dressed because, according to Mr. Loftus, stellite is 

not sufficiently durable or as economical. At the 

Fairbanks operations a 5-bit furnace is used, and 2 

men. can dress 40 bits in 8 hours. 

Although open-hole drilling is the common practice, 

it has been found that frozen muck will melt, squeeze, 

and slough after standing open a week; such holes must 

be cased if further drilling is to be done, even though 

frozen ground may lie beneath. 

Drilling operations with no special weather protection have been quite successful down to atmospheric 

temperatures of -35 and -40 F. Occasionally, a 

small windbreak is put up, which consists of 2 canvas 
16 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

walls 6 feet high and 4i feet wide set at right angles, 

braced and placed at a position to deflect the gentle 

breeze . 

Mr. Maurice Butler, of Fairbanks, prospect driller 

for the Fairbanks Exploration Co. , before going into 

private practice drilled water wells in a number of 

places in Fairbanks. According to Mr. Butler, on one 

operation 25 dressings were required for 6 drills in 3 

shifts. This would average about 1 1/ 3 bits per shift, 

or, if 90 fe et per shift is considered as the average 

hole drilled, a bit dressing about every 60 feet. 

Mr. Butler reported that the worst problem found 

in drilling frozen ground is the rounding of the lower 

outer edge of the bit. This produces a progressively 

smaller hole and the bit has a distinct tendency to stick. 

Mr. Butler welds his bit points, building them up with 

mild steel, covering them with studite, and then grinding. He believes the forge method is better but more 

difficult to use . 

This driller favors the placer bits for water-well 

drilling in frozen ground in Fairbanks. When the casing fre ezes to the walls of the hole , the use of warm 

water is recommended before an attempt is made to 

remove the casing. 

U. S. Smelting, Refining & Mining Co. , Nome 

According to Mr. Carl Glavinovich, assistant superintendent, drilling in frozen ground is much less costly 

than in thawed ground, and better footage is obtained 

per hour. An open hole is drilled ordinarily except in 

areas of dry frost where casing must be used. 

Mr. Glavinovich defines dry frost as well-sorted 

gravels cemented with clear ice veins, which tend to 

melt rapidly with attendant slumping. According to 

Mr. Glavinovich, the average footage obtained is 65 to 

90 feet per 8-hour shift. In Nome, 30 or 60 feet can 

be drilled before it is necessa-ry to change bits. Some 

years ago bits were dressed by welding hard-surface 

material, but this method was abandoned in favor of 

forge dressing. 

The placer bit has been used here, as in Fairbanks 

and Dawson City; it is superior to the conventional bit 

in gravel and sand but has a tendency to stick in soft 

bedrock, such as W!!athered schist. 

Open-hole drilling is practiced even in the summer, 

although a length or two of casing may be set at the 

surface to prevent caving at the machine site and wetting of the hole by surficial water. 

Because of high winds, rigs at Nome are invariably 

winterized by a cover of 18-pound canvas (figs. 8, 9). 

Considerable cold-weather drilling has been done in 

Nome and in the interior of the Seward Peninsula. 

However, drilling at more than 25 F below zero is inefficient because of the difficulty in starting a cold 

machine and because tools tend to break. There is 

also much accumulation of frost rime at low temperatures. 

Fig11re 8. --Percussion rigs with parkas, Nome . Photo by D. J. Cederstrom. 
RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 17 

Figure 9. --Closeup of parka, percussion rig, Nome. Photo by D. J. Cederstrom. 

According to Mr. Jack Macumber, driller, dry 

frost causes the main difficulty in cable-tool drilling 

in permafrost. Open hole is always used. No particular difficulty is noted in the icing of tools, and they 

require very little heat. 

Winter drilling is done inside the canvas parka of 

the rig, but no heat is provided for the operator and 

drilling is continued in temperatures as low as -25 F 

without personal discomfort. An orchard heater is 

used if heat is necessary. 

Warm water facilitates starting of motors on cold 

mornings, and starting fluid is used regularly in the 

combustion chambers. 

Mr. Macumber points out that winter drilling has 

one advantage: It is possible to move out anywhere on 

the soggy tundra· and to level off and hold the machine 

with ease. 

Mr. Walter Taylor, former driller for the U. S. 

Smelting, Refining & J.\ilining Co . , at Nome, also reports no particular difficulty in drilling in permafrost, 

except that the edges of the bit tend to wear down 

rapidly; in one ope.ration as much as 3 hours out of 10 

may be used in dressing bits. 

Mr. Taylor favors warm water to slush out the 

sides of the hole before bailing. It is necessary to 

have warm water to wash down the tools and to free 

them of ice accumulation. 

The parka-covered rig ordinarily is ample protection against the weather. 

Yukon Consolidated Gold Corp., 

Dawson City, Canada 

According to Mr. Arnold N. Nordale, resident 

manager, Yukon Consolidated Gold Corp., it is easier 

to drill by the cable-tool method in frozen ground than 

in thawed ground, with the slight difference that it 

takes somewhat longer. to make a sludge in frozen 

ground. No casing is ordinarily used, and the placer 

bit is always used where the ground is frozen. Where 

the ground is thawed, casing is driven ahead of the 

hole . Mr. Nordale states that bits used in drilling 

frozen ground need sharpening only a little more frequently than those used in thawed ground. The bits are 

sharpened by forging. 

The ground at Dawson is frozen down into bedrock, 

which lies as much as 350 feet below the land surface. 

Where the vegetative cover has been broken, however, 

permafrost has thawed down to as much as 40 or 50 

feet below the surface. 

At ordinary temperatures, down to about -20 F, 

no protection is needed for the drill operator, and 
18 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

generally no drilling is done at temperatures below 

-20 F. Mr. Nordale has noted no significant metal 

failure of tools at low temperatures. 

Arctic Contractors, Point Barrow 

Much cable-tool drilling has been done by Arctic 

Contractors in the vicinity of Point Barrow, where 

p.::rmafrost is considerably thicker than in other areas 

previously discussed. At Point Barrow permafrost 

extends to a depth of about 1, 150 feet, and the lowest 

temperatures in the frost are about 14 F. 

Another notable difference between drilling at 

Barrow and drilling at Fairbanks is that the material 

penetrated at Point Barrow is consolidated sedimentary 

beds, such as limestone, shale, and sandstone. 

Mr. Eugene Davis, project manager of Arctic Contractors at Fairbanks, states that cable-tool drilling 

proceeds by making an open hole, but that a brine is 

used to produce a sludge in the cold. drilling environment. The 8- to 12 - percent (by weight) sodium 

chloride solution remains liquid at temperatures as 

low as about 14 F. Not only does the brine permit 

formation of sludge in the cold medium, but ·it assures 

better penetration of the bit. A greater rate of penetration is claimed by building up the bit with hardsurface material, and as much as 100 feet per day is 

not rare. On August 1, 1951, there was drilled 120 

feet of frozen shale and sandstone. 

A maximum of 1, 600 ieet of open hole has been 

drilled at Barrow, although, as noted above, the lower 

portion of the hole is in thawed ground. 

Practically no slumping of deep open holes is noted 

except near the top. 

Drilling at Wiseman and R~mpart 

Mr. Earl Young, of Anchorage, has drilh~d wells in 

the Fairbanks area as well as on the Yukon River and 

in the vicinity of Wiseman. He states that drilling is 

easier in permafrost than in thawed ground, but, although better footage is made through the permafrost, 

it is necessary to sharpen tools more frequently. No 

caving of an open hole ordinarily results except in dry 

frost. Where such a condition is found, ice or snow 

is introduced to freeze the walls of the hole. 

Casing is generally set at the surface to keep out 

warm surface water~ 

Mr. Young has drilled 180 feet of open hole in frozen ground (soft consolidated rock) in the Rampart 

area, northwest of Fairbanks, and about 175 feet in 

frozen gravel at Chatanika, near Fairbanks. 

Miscellaneous Cable-tool (Percussion) Drilling 

According to Mr. 0. Kelley, district airways 

engineer, Canadian Department of Transport, Edmonton, a well at Aishihik that was drilled to a total depth 

of 60 feetpenetrated 50 feet ofpermafrost. No special 

difficulty was noted. 

Capt. R. V. Darling, of the Engineer Maintenance 

Division, Northwest Territory of Yukon Detachment, 

Royal Canadian Engineers, reports that no well drilling has been done at establishments under his jurisdiction in the entire Mackenzie Valley. 

Mr. Jack Grange, of the Canadian Division of 

Health and Welfare, whose jurisdiction covers the 

Mackenzie Basin, states that no community there has 

drilled wells; to his knowledge, no cable-tool drilling 

has even been tried. 

According to Col. J. S. Beeman, Senior Highway 

Engineer and Deputy Commissioner, R. C. E. , and 

Major R. C. Paris, commanding 17th Work Co. , 

R. C. E., Whitehorse, a cable-tool rig was used to a 

very slight extent at military establishments in Yukon 

Territory, but capable personnel to operate the machine were not available and very little work was done. 

Mr. Maury, of the Tower Construction Co., Montreal, states that about 10 years ago 67 shallow holes 

were drilled by the cable-tool method for foundation 

testing at Fort Churchill. Permafrost was penetrated 

at 3 feet and the average depth of the holes was about 

13 feet. Permafrost as such caused no difficulty, although in places the presence- of boulders was troublesome. Wear on the bits was fairly great, and, when 

about 40 feet of frozen ground was drilled, it was 

necessary to resharpen the bit. 

Mr. Taylor Walker, of the Imperial Oil Co., at 

Toronto, reports that the only difficulty in drilling 

permanently frozen ground by either cable-tool or rotary method was sloughing of the walls in the upper 

portion of the holes when too-warm fluid was introduced. Cementing of the casing to the soft walls was 

not possible in a few holes because of the sloughing. 

Rotary Drilling 

According to Mr. Eugene Davis, Arctic Contractors, 

rotary drilling at Point Barrow has been entirely successful. The formations penetrated at Point Barrow 

are consolidated sedimentary rocks; their characteristics are entirely different from those of the frozen 

and unfrozen unconsolidated sands and gravels of the 

broad valley fills, which are typical of the more habitable land in interior Alaska. 

Rigs used in the Point Barrow area are completely 

housed and maintain a comfortable working temperature at all times. The mud used in rotary operations · 

enters the drill stem at a temperature of 35 or 40 F, 

and the rig is operated continuously. 

Mr. Carl Glavinovich, of the U. S. Smelting, Refining and Mining Co. , reports that a few years ago 

the rotary method of drilling was tried in the Nome 

area and was unsuccessful. Drilling bits were snapped 

off in the gravelly ground and much caving resulted 

from the introduction of head and drilling fluid. Difficulty was also caused from time to time by the loss of 

circulation. 

Rotary drilling was carried out 'to a small extent at 

Ladd Field, Fairbanks, in 1948, and much difficulty 

was caused by the loss of drilling fluid where permeable gravels were encountered in thawed ground. 
RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 19 

Mr. Ernest G. Stoeckeler, of the U. S. Corps of 

Engineers, Permafrost Section, St. Paul, Minn., 

points out that, because rotary drilling of frozen sand 

and silt is more rapid than cable-tool drilling in the 

same material, it may be practical to use a combination rotary-cable tool rig where (1) the permafrost to 

be penetrated is thick, (2) where a number of holes 

are to be drilled and the total footage will be great, 

and (3) where moving the necessarily heavier drill rig 

load (including drilling clay) to the site will not impose 

a particular hardship. In such places, the permanently 

frozen ground would be drilled by the rotary method 

and the thawed ground beneath by the cable - tool 

method. 

Jet-drive Drilling 

A considerable amount of drilling for domestic-well 

supplies is done by the jet-drive method in Fairbanks. 

The wells are 2 inches in diameter and have penetrated 

as much as 200 feet of frozen ground. 

The equipment is simple and light and consists of a 

small derrick and a small engine with acathead (fig. 10). 

Pipe is pushed down into the ground and advanced by 

manually dropping on it a small weight fastened to a 

line running over a sheave on the derrick to the cathead. The jet point (fig. 11) is made from a reducer, 

which is ground into a buliet shape and attached to the 

.end of the 2-inch pipe. Above the jet point a number 

of quarter-inch holes are drilled for a distance of 1 to 

2 feet. Through the head of the drive point at-inch 

thaw- line pipe projects a maximum of 2 feet. The 

t-inch pipe enlarges to a t-inch pipe about 2 feet above 

the jet point inside the 2-inch p.ipe. 

A jet of water is pumped through the small thaw 

line during the drilling operation. This line is hung on 

a simple chain hoist and is slowly moved up and down, 

which allows it to penetrate the sediments ahead of the 

jet point. When the thaw pipe is about 2 feet ahead of 

the jet point, it is retracted, the casing is driven as 

far as it will go with ease, and the process is then repeated. 

Cold water is used in this process and, according 

to Mr. Ortho Stevens, of Fairbanks, a temperature of 

about 40 F is the optimum. Jet-drive drilling proceeds about three times as fast in permafrost as in 

thawed ground; one man operating a rig alone will 

average about 28 feet a day if the holes are 100 feet or 

less in.depth. The maximum Mr. Stevens has drilled 

alone is 49 feet a day, whereas in early spring drilling, where conditions were not entirely satisfactory, 

the footage was as little as 16 feet a day. 

This method of drilling obviously has considerable 

merit as it is inexpensiv~, quick, requires very light 

equipment, and, where permeable gravels are present, 

produces moderate quantities of water. As much as 

40 gpm has been obtained from 2-inch wells equipped 

Figure 10. - -Jet-drive rig in operation at Fairbanks. Photo by D. J. Cederstrom. 
20 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS· 

Figure 11. --Jet point, used in jet-drive drilling at Fairbanks. 

Photo by D. J. Cederstrom. 

with a suction pump, with less than 20 feet of drawdown. 

The disadvantages are that it requires at least 10 or 

15 gallons of water a minute, and the drilling becomes 

rather slow and difficult below a depth of 100 feet, 

particularly through thawed ground. Well construction 

by this method in other than highly permeable formations such as those found in Fairbanks, might be quite 

difficult, although not necessarily much more so than 

that of the larger diameter open-end wells commonly 

constructed. The large pebbles common in the Fairbanks area cause only minor difficulties in this type of 

drilling, for they are probably pushed aside as room 

is made for them by removal of fine-grained material. 

Inmany places, however, immovable boulders can be 

a serious obstacle to this method of well construction. 

Where water levels are low and well diameters are 

small, only small quantities of water can be pumped; 

the freezing of such wells as theypass through permafrost would be a serious problem. 

Jetting 

So far as can be learned, the jetting method has 

never been used in permanently frozen ground, but in 

many places it might be successful. If the casing 

followed the hole rather closely, little difficulty from 

slumping or freezing would be experienced where the 

permafrost was not particularly cold. 

As with the rotary method, however, there would be 

a tendency to lose circulation ·in very permeable beds, 

in which situations the casing would have to be driven 

ahead and the sediments literally drilled out of the 

pipe. Likewise, large boulders would cause considerable difficulty. The principal disadvantage of this 

method is the requirement of a large supply of water 

for drilling and the difficultyofworkingwith this method in other than the warmer months. The desirability 

of this method remains to be demonstrated. 

Diamond Qrilling 

Diamond drilling has been practiced successfully at 

a number of places in the Arctic, mainly for the exploration of mineral deposits. Although diamond-drill 

equipment is light and easily transportable, the smalldiameter holes commonly drilled must be kept filled 

with fluid, which has a tendency to freeze rapidly even 

while drilling is in progress. 

According to Mr. Jack McTague, manager of Boyles 

Bros. Drilling Co., Edmonton Branch, "chrometreated" calcium chloride was added to the drilling 

water to forestall freezing during operations at Rankin 
RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 21 

.Inlet, Hudson Bay. It was found that half a pound per 

gallon would prevent freezing for 20 minutes in an open 

hole between the surface and a depth of 225 feet. Between 300 and 345 feet, 1! pounds per gallon kept the 

hole open 1 hour. At Rankin Inlet, drilling reached a 

maximum depth of 800 feet and was still in permafrost. 

Fuel oil was found unsatisfactory as a drilling fluid, 

as it picked rip too much moisture. 

At Pine Point on the southern shore of Great Slave 

Lake, . an area of spotty permafrost, diamond- drill 

holes were used as wells to supply drilling water for 

subsequent holes. 

A prefabricated shack was built around the drill for 

protection against the weather. The shack was open 

at the top, allowing the derrick to project above it. 

With heat in the shack it was possible to work at temperatures of -60 F. While working at these lower 

temperatures it was necessary to heat the drilling 

fluid, and an oil-fired water heater was used. This 

heater is capable of raising by 50 F the temperature 

of water flowing through it at 5 gpm. It connumes ~ to 

1! gallons of oil per hour. 

At Fort Churchill, Mr. John Johnson, driller for 

the Foundation Co., Montreal, reported that diamond 

drilling was successful and warm water was used to 

prevent freezing. However, this warm water caused 

some caving in the upper unconsolidated material. 

The following spring, cold muskeg water was used in 

diamond drilling and was found to be more desirable; 

the hole would stay open for about an hour after drilling had ceased. 

Dr. J. A. Retty, of Montreal, stated that the Ungava iron deposits were extensively explored by 

diamond drilling, and, unpl other excavations were 

made, it was not apparent that permafrost was present, 

insofar as drilling techniques were affected. 

According to Mr. J. C. Nicholls, of the International Nickel Co., Toronto, diamond drilling on the 

west coast of James Bay penetrated 200 feet of frozen 

rock. Here a homemade boiler consisting of copper 

coils in an oil drum was constructed, which heated the 

drilling water satisfactorily. 

Wing • Commander R. B. Whitey, Director of Construction, Engineering, and Design, Air Force Headquarters, Ottawa, states that diamond dril~ing in frozen ground to a maximum depth of 60 feet was accomplished at northern Air Force installations with a very 

light drill furnishing a ~-inch core. Although very 

light in weight and relatively easy to transport, this 

drill was too small to use at depths greater than 50 

feet. Boulders in frozen glacial till would tend to deflect the drill and cause jamming. 

Dr. Duncan Derry, of the Frobisher Co., Montreal, 

reports that diamond drilling was carried out in the 

summer of 1950 at Blyklippen, Mistersweg, Greenland. 

Excessive core loss was caused largely by the antiquated equipment that was used, but later drilling of 

frozen ground with a modern diamond drill, using 

warm water, was accomplished with no difficulty. 

Dr. Stuart Dodson, of the Frobisher Co., Toronto, 

has been closely associated with considerable drilling 

at Yellowknife. There, he says, the ground is frozen 

to a depth of 200 feet where protected by muskeg, but 

in bare - rock areas permafrost is not present. At 

Yellowknife drilling was done withoug heat or salt, and 

there were no special difficulties so long as the operation was maintained continuously. About 400 holes 

were drilled, of which only 4 were unsuccessful. 

In places at Yellowknife as much as 80 feet of overburden has been cored, but generally a casing with a 

cutting edge is jetted down through the overburden· and 

seated in the rock. After the casing is seated, coring 

proceeds in the conventional manner. 

Mr. Don Cameron, consulting engineer, Toronto, 

stated that the first diamond drilling in permafrost 

took place at Rankin Inlet in 1931. The string of tools 

froze in the hole and was lost. Later a homemade outfit was used to heat water for drilling. When shutdowns 

took place, the drilling water was replaced by sea 

water to prevent freezing of the hole. 

Mr. Cameron pointed out also that at Yellowknife 

warm water was used successfully, but that he prefers 

using a saline solution. In drilling with warm water in 

fractured rock, the frost boundary at first is driven 

back from the hole and subsequently advances again, 

exerting a heaving action that pushes rock fragments 

into the hole and tends to cause jamming of the string 

of tools. 

In the use of a saline solution Mr. Cameron favors 

calcium chloride, which is less expensive than sodium 

chloride. He believes that salt of any type is preferable to heat because the transportation cost of salt is 

less than that of oil. 

Dr. Bell, of Noranda Mines, Toronto, noted that 

much diamond drilling, in which a sodium chloride 

solution was used, had been done successfully in the 

Mayo Landing district, Yukon Territory. 

Mr. A. W. Johnston, of Johnston and Powellson, 

consulting geologists, Toronto, considers that diamond 

drilling in fractured aild weathered rock is undesirable. 

Any thawing action in the wall produces loose cavings, 

which tend to fill the hole and jam the tools. 

Mr. Johnston is· of the opinion also that throughout the 

Canadian shield area diamond drilling is a satisfactory 

method of making a hole but that in the entire Cordi.lleran region diamond drilling should be avoided if 

possible. Mr. Johnston notes that 50 feet of overburden can be penetrated with the diamond drill with relative ease by casing off with 2-inch pipe, but, where 

the overburden is thicker than 50 feet, drilling is 

difficult. 

Mr. Bremner, under Dr. C. S. Beale, of the 

Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, Canada, was in charge 

of a drilling project at Resolute Bay and succeeded in 

having a hole drilled to 450 feet in permanently frozen 

rock. He reports that initially considerable trouble 

was experienced because of poorly trained personnel 

and inadequate heating arrangements, but that finally 

these inadequacies were corrected and progress was 

mad~ with comparatively little difficulty. According 

to Mr. Bremner, the temperature of the permafrost 

was 8 F at a depth of 100 feet. 
22 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

A great many diamond- drill holes have been put 

down in nearly all Arctic and subarctic Canada for the 

purpose of exploring mineral deposits. The diamond 

drill, being light in weight, has proved desirable and 

even necessary in many places where holes drilled at 

an angle have been needed to explore steeply dipping 

veins. Permafrost has been a real problem in that 

the fluid-filled hole tends to freeze shortly after drilling has stopped and, in places, will freeze even while 

drilling is in progress. 

Two schools of thought exist regarding the way to 

overcome the freezing action of permafrost. One 

school recommends the use of heated water and the 

other, the use of a saline solution. The advocates of 

the saline solution maintain that fractured rock will 

tend to stand if the wells are not thawed and that the 

use of -a saline solution is less expensive than the use 

of heat. 

In only one place was a diamond-drill hole used as 

a source of water supply and that was in unfrozen 

ground in an area of sporadic permafrost. The rapid 

freezing of the usual small- diam~te:r diamond-drill 

holes, even of some containing saline solutions, is a 

strong argument against using this equipment for the · 

construction of water wells in areas of frozen rock; 

also, diamond drills are particularly difficult. to use in 

areas of unfrozen unconsolidated material. The holes 

are small and freeze rapidly; the data available indidate that it would be almost impossible to develop these 

as a source of supply of water from below permafrost. 

Further, the diameters of diamond-drill holes commonly are so small that a pump large enough to produce more than a minimum quantity of water could not 

be installed. 

On the other hand, a large-diameter hole, cased or 

uncased, could be easily and thoroughly steamed out 

to drive the frost back from the hole initially, and subsequently a large pump could be installed to pump a 

quantity of warmer subpermafrost water sufficient to 

maintain the well without freezing. If frozen, a hole 

of larger diameter can generally be thitwed out without 

too much difficulty, whereas a diamond-drill hole of 

small diameter makes such thawing very difficult·or 

impossible. 

It has been found that diamond drilling through the 

overburden, either thawed or frozen, and in fractured 

bedrock, as in west and northwest Canada, is accomplished with difficulty owing to rock fragments falling 

into the hole. 

Drilling Fluids 

Drilling fluid used indrilling permafrostfor ground 

water must meet two requirements: (1) it must remain in a liquid state during the drilling operation, and 

(2) it must not contaminate any possible sources of 

water. However, the latter effect may be eliminated 

by pumping. 

Wh~n using mud as a drilling fluid, the use of a 

small hand-operated prospect boiler to keep the mud 

from freezing proved satisfactory at the /Umiat_ core 

test 1 of the Naval Petroleum Reserve, Alaska. 

Various heavy drilling muds were used in drilling. 

The weight of the fluid was increased by the addition of 

various chemical agents, such as aquagel, gel-flake, 

baroid, fibrotex, smentox, micatex, and impermex. 

During the rotary drilling at Fort Churchill the drilling mud was kept at temperatures below 40 F so that 

the permafrost was not thawed excessively. It is 

possible for mud to be formed in the holes while drilling through clayey formations. 

The technique of using hot water as a drilling fluid 

was practiced at Resolute Bay, Cornwallis Island, in 

drilling permafrost by diamond drill to install thermometers. In this operation it was found satisfactory 

to use a 1, 000-gallon tank for water storage, and two 

pumps were needed to circulate the water. One pump 

was used to force the water through a coil heater into 

a 50-gallon reservoir. The second pump circulated 

the hot water through the drill rods into the drill hole. 

A system of valves was used to allow circulation of 

the water from the tank through the heater and back 

into the tank if the drilling operation was stopped and 

the reservoir was full. The water supplied at the drill 

rods was 90 to 100 F, but it was found later that 

still higher temperatures were more satisfactory. 

To summarize briefly the practice of hot- water 

circulation: (1) The water system should be so arranged that water is supplied at the rate of 400- 500 

gallons per hour, 24 hours a day, for as long as drilling is required. (2) Water is supplied to the drillrods 

at a temperature of approximately 180 F. (3) The 

operation should be continuous. (4) A combination of 

at least two heaters should be used, one at the source 

of the water and the other at the reservoir containing 

the water. A third heater, at the point of injection 

into the drill rods, is recommended. 

Brine as a drilling fluid is ideal for permafrost 

areas except for the possibility of contamination. In 

water-well drillmg the practice of developing the well 

by pumping after drilling or allowing the well to flow 

clears out the brine. Brine was used successfully at 

the Navy Petroleum Reserve No. 4, Alaska, in drilling 

with percussion tools. A suitable solution was prepared by mixing 35 pounds of rock salt (NaCl) witha 

barrel of water (53 gallons). -

Russian literature makes reference to the use of 

brine as a drilling fluid for exploratory bore holes. 

The Air-cleaned Drill 

An article entitled "Seismic oil prospecting with an 

air-cleaned drill," (World Petroleum, 1951) deals with 

the use of air as a drilling fluid to raise cuttings out of 

the drill hole. The method is used primarily in drilling and shot holes for seismic exploration. Tricone 

rock bits, 4~ inches in diameter, have been used successfully, and this would indicate a possible application to water-well drilling. The greatest depth reached 

before March 1951 was 500 feet; it may be possible to 

reach a depth of 2, 000 feet. A volume of air of 200 to 

500 cubic feet per minute is required, operation being 

satisfactory at about 319 cubic feet per minute. In relation to its application to permafrost drilling the 

following is quoted from the article: 

"Tests in dry areas having proved that compressed 

air can be substituted for water as a lifting power, 

Shell (Shell Oil Co.) is experimenting with the method 
RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 23 

as a possible solution of troubles often found in Canadian operations, where winter temperatures go down 

to forty degrees below zero, and all exposed water is 

subject to. freezing. Experience so far with this type 

shot hole drilling in Canada has given promising 

results." 

This process is in early stages of development. 

Many functions remain to be smoothed over, mainly 

regarding the amount of air to be injected and the number and size of air outlets at the bit. Further information will be obtained when available. 

Cementing and Grouting 

Cementing operations in permafrost areas must be 

modified to accommodate the low temperatures encountered. The use of cement fulfills the purposes of 

(1) firmly seating surface casing .and preventing the 

loss of drilling fluid betwe~n the annular space of the 

casing and the side walls of the drill hole and (2) sealing off undesired ground water and preventing slumping of unconsolidated formations before the casing is 

set. In permafrost drilling a liquid slurry of cement 

is sometimes used to keep the drill hole free from ice 

when drilling is stopped for a period of time. Ice forming in a drill· hole tends to cause freezeup of the drill 

rods, a difficulty that would not be encountered in 

drilling out a cement plug. 

The low temperatures extend the normal time required for construction-type cement to set. To overcome the extended-.time factor, the following methods 

were practiced: At the U. S. Navy Petroleum Reserve 

No. 4, Alaska, in South Barrow test well1, an early 

set of cement was achieved by preheating the cement 

powder for 24 hours before mixing it with warm water. 

At Simpson Seeps core test, standard construction cement mixed with warm water and a solution of calcium 

chloride(CaC12) set up in 36 hours. At South Barrow 

test well 4, standard construction cement was used 

with an admix of a4-percentsolution of calcium chloride. This method yielded a satisfactory cement job. 

The endothermic reaction produced by the admixture 

·of calcium chloride enabled sufficient heat to be supplied to the cement to overcome the retarding of setup 

time produced by the low temperature of the permafrost. Steam may also be applied to heat the concrete 

in place during the curing period; this ·was practiced 

at Fort Churchill, Canada (Crumlish, 1948, p. 22). 

The use of regular oil-well-type cement, as used 

at th_e South Barrow test well 2, Navy Petroleum Reserve No. 4, Alaska, proved more satisfactory than 

standard construction-type cement treated with calcium chloride solution. Cals~al-~ement was used with 

favorable results at the North Simpson well 1, Navy 

Petroleum Reserve No. 4. 

Pumping 

When pumping wells in permafrost, several precautions should be followed. Pumping should be 

regular and, if not continuous, at least for a part of 

every day, to prevent water from freezing in the permafrost zone. The highest possible water level should 

be maintained to prevent the infiltration of salt water 

in coastal areas or on islands. At regular intervals 

wells should be backpumped to clear away fine silts 

and sands which may be clogging the screens (Navy 

Department, 1948-49). 

Freezing of Water Wells 

Very little freezing takes place in large-diameter 

wells that are in constant or nearly constant use in the 

Fairbanks area. In this area the permafrost temperature is only slightly below freezing. 

Considerable difficulty has been experienced, 

however, by users of 2-inch-diameter domestic wells 

unless the wells are put to constant use. A few wells 

in active use have also shown a tendency to freeze 

even in July, and special measures must be taken to 

thaw these out. 

The city of Fairbanks maintains two large steam 

boilers for thawing out sewer lines and wells that 

freeze. Generally such a well is steamed for a day or 

more, the frost boundary thus being driven back from 

the well and the possibility of freezing in the future 

being greatly reduced. 

Some wells can be thawed out by simply introducing 

a brine. 

Many households have an arrangement whereby excess hot water from the domestic hot-water tank can 

be led directly into the well. Where a well passes 

through more than 100 feet of permafrost, the hot water 

is drained into the well several times a year (generally 

in the winter when more hot water is available) to forestall possible freezing of the well at times of limited 

use or idleness. 

Protection of pumps and the upper portion of well 

casings by resistance wires is practical and is illuStrated in an article by A. J. Alter (1950b, p. 519-532). 

Summary and Conclusions 

Considerable drilling in permanently frozen ground 

has been accomplished in Alaska and Canada. The 

drilling has been largely by the cable-tool method in 

Alaska, but rotary drilling has been done at Point 

Barrow and jet-drive drilling at Fairbanks. In arctic 

and subarctic Canada, diamond drilling has been the 

general practice, except for some rotary and cabletool work at Norman Wells and Fort Churchill and 

cable-tool drilling at Dawson City. 

Each type of drilling has been done successfully, 

considering the objectives . in mind. Diamond drilling 

has furnished cores of material penetrated and commonly is used to drill inclineq holes for exploration of 

mineral deposits. Rotary drilling provides deep holes 

in a minimum of time. Cable-tool drilling provides 

holes of moderate depth, utilizes a minimum of heavy 

equipment, and requires few special techniques. The 

jet-drive method provides economical small-diameter 

holes.-

Each method has certain objectionable features. In 

diamond drilling the fluid circulated tends to freeze, 

the hole diameter commonly is smaller than is 
24 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS. 

desirable for well development, and unconsolidated 

ground is difficult to drill. Rotary drilling has similar 

disadvantages, except that large-diameter holes can 

be drilled. The jet-drive method is limited to a depth 

of about 200 feet, furnishes only small-diameter holes, 

and is used with difficulty in boulde:ry ground. The 

cable-tool method is somewhat slow where holes 

several hundred feet deep are to be drilled. 

It is therefore concluded that in drilling holes 50 to 

500 feet deep in permanently frozen ground in the 

Arctic and subarctic, the cable-tool method is the most 

practical one for water -well exploration, for the following reasons: {1) All types of ground, either frozen or 

unfrozen, may be drilled, though some types are 

drilled with difficulty; (2) a minimum of heavy equipment is required; (3) good cable-tool drillers should 

be more readily available than good rotary drillers; 

(4) fewer special techniques are required and fewer 

special problems arise, particularly as (5) cable-tool 

drilling requires a minimum of fluid, and freezing of 

tools during drilling is an almost nonexistent problem; 

(6) samples obtained during drilling of most aquifers 

are excellent, thus simplifying the determination of 

proper sediments for water-supply development; (7) a 

reasonably large-diameter hole can be made which, 

when cased, can be readily thawed out or drilled.out if 

necessary. 

DISTRIDUTION OF WATER IN 

ARCT{C COMMUNITIES 

A number of methods of distributing water have 

been used in the Arctic. The most common method is 

by tank truck, but some pipe distribution systems are 

in use. They employ three alternate schemes to avoid 

freezing: (1) the water is preheated, (2) the water is 

recirculated, or (3) the pipes are enclosed in heated 

conduits called utilidors. Combinations of preheated 

water and recirculated water are used in some places. 

Some typical examples are given below. 

Fairbanks 

Little effort is made to distribute water throughout 

the city of Fairbanks in the winter. During the summer 

water is available through small-diameter pipe laid on 

the surface, but in the winter it is available only from 

the Northern Commercial Co. , which distributes both 

water and steam for heat. 

At Ladd Field the water lines are laid with other 

service lines in huge concrete utilidors. This method 

of distribution is excellent but is either impractical or 

too expensive for most communities or for small installations. 

In Nome summer lines are laid throughout the town, 

but in winter water is hauled by wagon. However, 

Carl Glavinovich makes the important observation that 

between Moonlight Springs and the site of dredging 

operations near Nome a 15-inch wooden pipeline reduced to an 11-inch steel pipe with a 30- foot fall 

carried water a total distance of 2, 000 feet intermittently all winter long. The temperature of the water 

entering the pipe was 34 ~ and the pipe was partly 

buried in the earth and partly covered by snow drifts. 

The pipe was drained after each period of use. No 

freezing or formation of ice was experienced. 

Dawson City 

By observing a number of precautions, water _in 

Dawson City, according to Arnold N. Nordale, is distributed all year round without difficulty. The ·water 

is pumped continuously from a well adjacent to the 

Yukon River and brought up to a temperature of 37 F 

by steam points discharging in the well. The formation of ice in the lines is thus prevented by maintaining 

the temperature at certain critical spots in town (determined by trial and error) at about 33 F. 

The mains are buried only a foot or two beneath the 

surface and are kept above the permafrost, but no insulatiQn is placed around the pipes. The critical factor 

is to keep water in motion, particularly at the discharge terminals where taps are only three-eighths to 

one - half inch in diameter and discharge only a few 

gallons a minute. The system requires a great deal 

of water; about 1, 000 gpm is pumped to supply 160 

homes and business houses. This average of about 5 

gpm per outlet is the result of practically every tap in 

town being kept open constantly through the cold 

season. The cost of water service is about $10 a 

month per outlet, which may be inexpensive considering the remote location and the long severe winters. 

The importance of having running water available at 

any price must be considered also in relation to other 

sanitary facilities. With a running-water system, a 

sewage system and indoor modern plumbing are 

possible. Where an ample supply of water for household use is not available, this facility cannot be 

installed. 

A sidelight on the distribution of water in Dawson 

City is the behavior of the canal feeding the hydroelectric plant. During freezeup some trouble is experienced with floating ice fragments, but, after the 

canal freezes over, no further difficulties occur, and 

water continues to flow uninterruptedly beneath the ice 

to the plant. Here also, the amount of water used is· 

relatively large and the motion of the water is continuous. 

Yellowknife 

Mr. Kellett, of the Department of Public Works of 

the Canadian Government, Department of Resources 

and Development, was responsible for the install~tion 

and initial operation of the water-distribution system 

at Yellowknife, on the northern shore of Great Slave 

Lake, Northwest Territory. At Yellowknife about 4 

miles of pipeline forms a water distribution system 

which was constructed at a cost of about one and a 

quarter million dollars. At present there are only 100 

service connections, but the system is designed for 

500 connections. 

The area is underlain largely by unconsolidated 

material and only about 15 percent of the pipe is laid 

in rock material. The pipe is buried at a depth of 6 

feet and covered with 6 inches of moss with sand on 

top. A sewer line is laid at a depth of 8j feet. 
CONCLUSIONS 25 

The water mains are 8 inches in diameter and the 

return lines are 6 inches in diameter. The branches 

from the main line are 6 and 4 inches in diameter. 

Throughout the system a number of valves operate to 

permit a return flow to the pumping plant from even 

the smallesf service lines. 

Water from Great Slave Lake is heated to 36 Fat 

the intake by steam jets into the pipe before being circulated. The system costs about $25, 000 or $30, 000 

a year to operate but could serve at its full capacity at 

oiMy a .little higher cost. 

Whitehorse 

According .to Major R. C. Paris, the officer com-

. manding 17th Work Company, R. c. E., Whitehorse 

uses about 1~ million gallons of water a day. This 

water is distributed through 8- and 6-inch mains with 

2-inch 'feeders. The feeders run directly under the 

homes that are served in the upper end of town and 

connect with the main on the opposite side of the service connection. This method of connection is designed 

to permit flow back and forth from one main to another; 

heat is picked up from water passing through the service line under the individual home, eliminating freezing of the service connections. In the lower downtown 

area the old existing system is kept from freezing by 

opening the terminals during the colder weather, as at 

Dawson City. 

About 2, 500 people are supplied with water. 

Donjek River 

At the Donjek River on the Alaska Highway about 

100 miles south of the Ca,nada-Alaska boundary, the 

small military establishment is .served by a 2 - inch 

pipeline which leads from the well to a storage tank 

and returns to the well in a ~-inch line. Constant circulation is maintained. Both pipes are enclosed in a 

simple wooden utilidor about a foot square and packed 

with insulating material. The utilidor is about a foot 

above the ground. Heat is added at the pumphouse in 

order to maintain open lines at all times. 

Kluane Lake 

At operation Eager Beaver, at mile 1056 on the 

Alaska Highway, a distribution system has been built 

similar to that installed at the Donjek River. Major 

Peter Taylor, R. C. E., has taken steps to check temperatures on the system in winter. 

Fort Chemo, Hudson Strait 

According to Mr. G. Jacobson, of Tower Construction Co., Montreal, water at this installation is distributed in 2-inch pipe inside 4- or 6-inch pipe. A 

counterflow system is used, the water in the feed line 

flowing in an opposite direction to that in the outer 

warm line. Twenty-four people are served by this installation, which has 210 feet of line. Air temperatures in winter are as low as -20 F. The counterflow is pumped at a rate of 36 gpm and is heated by 

diesel exhaust. 

CONCLUSIONS 

As a result of· these studies it is concluded that 

ground water is present in most permafrost areas and 

that its recovery is practicable where the permafrost 

thickness is not too great. The advantages of using 

ground-water supplies for military installations in the 

Arctic are very great and efforts to determine the 

most efficient methods of location, recovery, and distribution should be continued. 

A large volume of material has been written on the 

subject of permafrost in this country, in Canada, and 

in the U. S. S. R. Scattered throughout this literature 

are many references dealing with associated ground 

water. The Russian literature is especially voluminous, and much of it is as yet untranslated. The report, Permafrost or permanently frozen ground and 

related engineering problems (Muller, 1947) contains 

a summary of all available information of Russian origin until 1945. However, all matters pertaining to 

water sources in the U. S. S. R. have been classified 

since the 1930's, as a matter of security, and have not 

been made available outside the country. Progress in 

locating and developing ground water in the permafrost 

regions behind the Iron Curtain is therefore a matter 

of conjecture. It is probable, however, that Yakutsk, 

a city of 100,000 population, was still without public 

water,... distribution or sewerage systems in 1946. 

Most of the Russian literature so far reviewed has 

dealt, ·mainly, with the basic research and academic 

aspects of the problem, much of which is already known 

in other countries. It is possible that continued search 

may yield more tangible information. · 

Obviously, the first step in the acquisition of a 

ground-water supply, is the location of a satisfactory 

source. This will involve a complete assessment of 

the ground-water resources of the area, and it should 

be made by a geologist experienced in ground-water 

work and familiar with the phenomenon of permafrost 

and its occurrence. 

Aerial photos are useful in the study of areal 

geology, permafrost, ·and related ground-water occurrences. Successful forecasting of permafrost conditions by the study of aerial photos alone, however, is 

a highly complex procedure capable of yielding consistent results only in the hands of specialists familiar 

with the geologic, geomorphic, botanic, and climatic 

factors involved. Even then, the reliability of the interpretation is greatly enhanced by ground studies at 

representative sites within the area. It is therefore 

believed that, in their present state of development, 

the techniques of aerial-photo interpretation of permafrost conditions should be applied only by qualified 

personnel and that wherever possible supplemental 

ground studies should be made. 

Three basic methods of geophysical exploration are 

resistivity, refraction seismic, and electromagnetic. 

Of the three, resistivity is the most useful single 

method of prospecting for ground water. However, 

in the winter months, when the ground surface is frozen, seismic refraction may have some advantages 

over the resistivity .method. Theoretical considerations indicate that the electromagnetic method also has 

important advantages for winter use, but at present no 

experimental data are available regarding its value 

for ground-water prospecting. 
26 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

Once the ground - water body has been outlined it 

must be drilled and developed. Regarding· the selection or proper drilling equipment and methods, it 

seems that the percussion (cable-tool) drill, using a 

minimum amount of drilling fluid, is most satisfactory 

'because of the simplicity of its construction, ease of 

operation, and minimum logistic support required. 

Presently available cable-tool equipment seems to be 

adequate and reasonably economical. The difficulty of 

transporting such equipment, as it is now built, is 

moderate, but thought might be given to construction 

of rigs in such a manner as to permit disassembly into 

smaller units readily transportable by planes smaller 

than a DC-3. 

The greatest need is additional practical knowledge 

of conditions in the arctic areas. At Fairbanks a 

mass of data is available; we know that wells may be 

constructed there with relative ease, either in thawed 

ground between. permafrost masses or by going through 

the permafrost to thawed ground below. Maintenance 

of wells is not a difficult problem. In Fairbanks, however, the permafrost is not excessively thick or very 

cold. 

It is felt that the most important single problem at 

present is lack of knowledge of the characteristic occurrence of ground water in areas where the permafrost is thicker, colder, and are ally more continuous 

than at Fairbanks. The mechanical difficulties attendant upon drilling thicker and colder frost, the subsequent maintenance of producing wells in such ground, 

and the areal distribution and thickness of frozen 

ground along the Arctic Circle in interior Alaska are 

significant factors about which little is known. At present it seems more important that these factors be 

studied than that an investigation of new drilling techniques or equipment be undertaken. 

Along the Arctic Circle in interior Alaska the frost 

is thicker, colder, and more continuous than in coastal 

or southerly regions. Questions such as the following 

must be answered: Does permafrost .extend down to 

bedrock? Will the colder mass significantly change 

the drilling techniques used so successfully at Dawson 

City, Nome, and Fairbanks? Can wells be maintained 

by being pumped at intervals or must they be operated 

continuousiy, as at Yakutsk? Will 'steaming out of 

wells drive the frost back from the casing walls or is 

the cold reserve so great that the results of such action will be shortlived? 

These questions can be answered only by drilling 

wells and making pumping tests. Geophysical investigations will be profitably carried on during reconnaissance surveys and simultaneously with the drilling, to 

biterpolate data between wells, to project data from 

other wells, and to prove the extent to which geophysical study can be substituted for exploratory drilling. 

It is acknowledged that the present report does not 

supply the answer to many problems calling for solution. It is therefore ·urged that a program including 

geological and geophysical prospecting and water-well 

drilling in northern Alaska be started and carried forward to completion. 

From the studies so far completed, it is concluded 

that the greatest benefits will be derived by making 

further studies along three principal lines of action: 

1. Continue the search of the literature, both domestic and foreign (including the Russian). A file of 

pertinent abstracts should be prepared. Close liaison 

should be maintained with other Government agencies, 

including the Library of Congress, Snow Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment, Army Map Service, 

Air Force, Office of Naval Research, and Bureau of 

Yards and Docks. 

2. In the field, establish a research project in 

some suitable locality in Alaska north of the Arctic 

Circle. This area is suggested because it is in the 

zone of continuous permafrost and the data to be obtained will extend northward the practical knowledge 

now available in the zones of discontinuous and sporadic permafrost. 

With a standard percussion (cable - tool) drill, 

several holes should be put down at selected sites 

within the area. Records should be made of all operational · details and complete geologic logs prepared. 

Water samples should be collected for analysis, and, 

.at the conclusion of the drilling, pumping tests should 

be made. Thermistor cables should be placed in certain drill holes so that temperature gradients may be 

recorded. 

Before actual drilling can begin, it will be necessary to make a reconnaissance of the selected region 

so that an assessment of the ground-water potential 

can be formulated and drilling sites selected. 

Drilling equipment should include a cable-tool rig, 

capable of drilling a 6-inch hole to a maximum depth 

of 1, 200 feet, with all appurtenant equipment and supplies. Before the rig is shipped to the selected area, a test well should be drilled to insure that the equipment is in good working condition and accessories are 

in proper sizes and quantities. 

3. Conduct additional geophysical field surveys in 

the Fairbanks, Big Delta, Tanacross, lower Koyukuk, 

and other districts where geologic and drilling control 

are available to (1) determine the practicable methods 

of locating aquifers and thawed and frozen ground in a 

variety of permafrost environments, (2) test and 

evaluate geophysical equipment under . winter conditions, and (3) train additional professional personnel 

in conducting geophysical ground-water surveys under 

arctic and subarctic conditions. 

Geophysical surveys, under this proposal, would be 

made in areas drilled by the Geological Survey, 'the 

Department of Defense, the city of Fairbanks, and the 

U. S. Smelting, Refining & Mining Co., and other localities where geologic and drilling control are available or can be obtained. Thermal, seismic, and 

elect_rical logs should be obtained in all drill holes 

that are still accessible; additional holes should be 

drilled to test geophysical interpretations. Thermal, 

seismic, and electrical logs should ·be obtained in 

these holes also, to permit correl~ting the various 

factors affecting water supply, such as lithologic character of the formation, porosity, permeability, and 

permafrost conditions, with physical measurements, 

such as electrical resistivity and potential seismic 

velocity, and temperature. The information gained 

from study of these relationships would aid both in the 

interpretation of geophysical results in this area and 

in establishing general basic principles that would 
SELECTED BmLIOORAPHY 27 

increase the effectiveness of geophysical surveys in 

other permafrost areas. 

In the immedia\e future the greatest ·attention 

should be given to the application of resistivity and 

seismic methods, but preliminary tests of electromagnetic methods should be undertaken also, insofar as 

time and funds are available. 

Geophysical field work should be started early in 

July and continued through September. . Additional 

field work should be done during the earlywinter after 

freezeup, and during the late winter about 2 months 

before breakup. The winter work would determine the 

effects of the froze~ surface layer, as well as of low 

temperatures, on equipment. 

SELECTED BmLIOORAPHY 

Alter, A. J.; 1950a, Arcti:c sanitary engineqring: 

Federal Housing Administration, 106 p. 

-~--=~ 1950b, Water supply in Alaska: Jour. 

Am. Water Works Assoc., v. 42, p. 519-532. 

Baranov, I. Y., 1938, Methods of charting the permafrost: Trudy of the Comm. on Permafrost, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 6, p. 107-125, Moscow. 

[Text~ Russian with English summary.) 

Barnes, L. C., 1946, Permafrost, A challenge to 

engineers~ Military Engineer; v. 38, p. 85. 

Birkengof, A .. L. , 1934, Some observations on the 

forest cover and permafrost: Trudy of the Comm. 

for the Study of Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. 

Sci., Lening~ad, v. 3, p. 41-57. [Text in Russian.] 

--:--:-:----:::-:- 1940, The southern border of permafrost 

in the lake region of the lower Amur River: Trudy 

of the Comm. on Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. 

Sci., v. 9, p. 39-56, Moscow. 

Black, R. F., 1950, Permafrost, in Trask, .P. D., 

ed., Applied sedimentation, p. 247-275. 

Black, R. F., and Barksdale, W. L., 1949, Oriented 

lakes of northern Alaska: Jour. Geology, v. 57, 

p. 105-118. 

Bonchkovsky, V. F. , and Bonchkovsky, U. V. , 1937, 

The study of the applicability of the seismic method 

for the determination of the upper surface of permafrost: Trudy of the Comin. on Permafrost, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., ·v. 5, p. 131-162, Moscow. 

[Text in Russian with English summary.] 

Bowman, Isaiah, 1911, Well- drilling methods: U. S. 

Geol. Sur!_Ery_Water-Supply Paper 257. 

Bryan, Kirk, 1948, The study of permanently frozen~ 

ground arid intensive frost action: Military Engineer, v. 40, no. 273, p. 304-308. 

----:"--;~' 1951, The erroneous -use of tjaele as the 

equivalent of perennially frozen ground: Jour. 

Geology, v. 59, p. 69-71. 

Bykov, N. I., and Kapterev, P. N., 1938, Moisture 

migration during ground freezing: Izv. Akad. Nauk 

U. S. S. R. [Text in Russian with English summaryJ 

Cabot, E. C., 1947, The northern Alaskan Coastal 

Plain interpreted from aerial photographs: Geog. 

Rev., v. 37, p. 639-648. 

Cailleux, Andre and Thellier, Emile, 1947, Determination of the thickness of frozen soil: Acact sci. 

Paris Comptes-Rendus, v. 224, p. 1174-i175~ [Text 

in French.] 

Carter, Dyson, 1945, Defrosting the frozen north~ 

Sci. Digest, v. 17, no. 5, p. 4-8. 

Cederstrom, D. J., 1950, Summary of ground-water 

development in Alaska, 1950: u~ S. Geol. Survey 

Circ. 169. 

Chekotillo, A. M., 1945, Gigantic icing in northeastern 

Siberia: Nauka i Zhizn', v. 12, no. 1, p. 26-29. 

[Text in Russian.] 

Colby, Merle, 1939, A guide to Alaska, Last American 

Frontier: 427 p. , London, Macmillan Co. 

Covert, C .. C., 1908, Water supply of the Fairbanks 

region: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 337, p. 51-63. 

Cressey, G. B., 1939, Frozen ground in Siberia: 

Jour. Geology, v. 47, p. 472-488. 

Datskij, N. G., 1935, Ground swelling under railway 

beds under permafrost conditions: Trudy of the 

Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, U. S. S. R. 

Acad. Sci., v. 4, p. 170-187, Moscow. [Text in 

Russian.] 

-~-~- 1937, The southern limit of permafrost 

distribution in the Mezen ·district of the northern 

region: Trudy of the Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, u. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 5, p. 5-91, 

Moscow. [Text in Russian with English summary.] 

Dementiev, A. I., 1947, Classification of permafrost 

from the engineering point of view: U. S. S. R. 

Acad. Sci., Merzlotovedenie, v. 2, p. 55- 57. 

[Text in Russian.] 

Dostovalov, B. N., 1947, Electrical characteristics 

of permanently frozen rocks: Akad. Nauk 

S. s. S. R., v.\ 5, p. 18-35. [Text in Russian with 

English summary.] 

Durdenevskaya, M. V., 1934, The ancient glaciation 

and contemporary ·permafrost in the Irkut-Baikal 

depression: Trudy of the Comm. for the ·study of 

Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 3, 

p. 89-105, Leningrad. [Text in Russian.] 

Dzens-Litovsky, A. I., 1938, Mineral lakes under the 

permafrost conditions: Trudy of the Comm. on Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 6, p. 79-103, 

Moscow. [Text in Russian with English summary.] 

Efimov, A. I., 1945, The Yakutian artesian basin of 

sub-permafrostwaters: Izv. Akad. Nauk S. S. S. R., 

Seriia geologicheskaia, no. 4, p. 128-139. [Text 

in ;Russian.] 

--=-=-~-1946, Sub-permafrost waters of central 

Yakutia: Priroda, ·v. 35, no. 7, p. 50-53. [Text 

in Russian.] 

Ermilov, I. I., 1946, Permafrost in the ;Bogoslovsk 

district in the middle Urals: Izv. Vsesoiuznogo 

GeO¥rallc.tleskogo Obshchestva, v. 7-8, p. 591-593. 

Fagin, K. M. , 1947a, Exploration in Alaska: Petroleum Engineer, v. 18, no. 13, p. 150-164. 

-~-=---..., 1947b, Drilling problems in Alaska: Petroleum Engineer, v. 19, no. 1, p. 180-190. 

--=----=-- 1947c, Economics of Alaskan exploration: 

Petroleum Engineer, v. 19, no. 3, p. 57-68. 

Fedortsev, v. A., 1935, Permafrost and naleds in the 

northeastern Yakut region: Trudy of the Comm. on Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 4, 

p. 93-104, Moscow. [Text in Russian 'with English 

summary.] 

Fiveisky, D. A., 1944, Sh~t sinking in permanently 

frozen soils: v. A. Obrucher lnst. of Permafrostology, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 6, p. 86-168. 

[Text in Russian.] 

Galbraith, F. W., 1950, The distribution of utilities 

in arctic advanced bases: MilitaryEngineer, v. 42, 

p. 12!-122. 

Glazov, N. V., 1938, The method of studying the degradation of permafrost: Trudy of the Comm. on 

Permafrost~ U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. .4, 

p. 155-161, Moscow. [Text in Russian with English 

summary.] 
28 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

Hopkins, D. M., 1949, Thaw lakes and thaw sinks in 

the Imuruk lake area Seward Peninsula, Alaska: 

Jour. Geology, v. 57, p. 119-131. 

Hyland, W. L., and Mellish, M. H., 1949, Steamheated conduits- utilidors -protect service pipes 

from freezing: Civil Engineering, v. 1, p. 15-17. 

Hyland, W. L., and Reece, G. M., 1951a, Water supplies for Army bases in Alaska: Jour. New England 

Water Works Assoc. , . p. 1-16. 

---..,.--~ 1951b, Arctic conditions complicate supply problems in Alaska. Ground-water sources in 

permafrost area require careful treatment and protection against weather: Water Works Engineering, 

p. 378, 414-415. 

Jaillite, W. M., 1947, Permafrost research area: 

Military Engineer, v. 39, p. 375-379. 

Jenness, J. L., 1949, Permafrost in Canada.; Origin 

and distribution of permanently frozen ground, with 

special reference to Canada: Arctic, Jour. Arctic 

Inst. North America, v. 2, p. 13-27. 

Johnston, W. A. , 1930, Frozen ground in the glaciated 

partsofnorthernCanada: Royal Soc. Canada Trans., 

3d ser., v. 24, sec. 4, p. 31-40. 

Kachurin, S. P., 1940a, Permafrost and man's economic activity: G e n e r a 1 P e r m afro s to 1 o g y, 

p. 313-333, Moscow. [Text in Russian.] 

----- 1940b, Peculiarities of relief and microrelief of the permafrost region: General Permafrostology, p. 2Bii, 313, Moscow. [Text in Russian.] 

----- 1946, The origin of the most common types of ground ice in the north: Akad. Nauk 

S. S. S. R., Inst. merzlotovedeniia im., 38 p., 

Moscow-Leningrad. [Text in Russian with English 

summary.] 

Keranen, J., 1950-51, On frost formation in soil: 

Fennia, v. 73, p. 1-14, Helsinki-Helsingfors. 

Khomichevskaja, L. S., 1940, The compression 

strength of ice and permafrozen ground under natural conditions: Trudy of the Comm. on Permafrost, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 10, p. 37-83, Moscow. 

[T~xt in Russian.] 

Koridalin, E. A., 1934, The possibility of application 

of seismic investigations for the study of permafrost: Trudy of the Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 3, p. 13-19, 

Leningrad. [Text in Russian.] 

Kranck, E. H., 1950-51, On the geology of Hudson Bay 

and James Bay: Acta Geographica, v. 2, p. 1-71. 

Kudriavtsev, V. A., 1947, Determination of the lower 

boundary of permafrost: U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 

Merzlotovedenie, v. 2, no. 1, p. i4-47. [Text in 

Russian.] 

Kushev, S. L., 1934, The permafrost in the lower 

reaches of the lower Tungska River: Trudy of the 

Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, U. S. S. R. 

Acad. Sci., v. 3, p. 73-88, Leningrad. [Text in 

Russian.] 

Lavrova, M. A., 1934, The presence of permafrost 

in the region of the Volch'ya and Moncha Tundras, 

on the Kola Peninsula: Trudy of ·the Co~m. for the 

Study of Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 3, 

p. 117-210, Leningrad. [Text in Russian.] 

---.,..---- 1935, A note on the presence of permafrost on the southern shores of the Kola Peninsula: 

Trudy of the Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, 

u. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 4, p. 254-255, Moscow. 

[Text in Russian~] 

Legge, J. A., Jr. (1949-ff, Seismograph and gravity 

meter operations: Encyclopedia Arctic a, v. 1, 

pt. 3 (31). 

Love, H. W., 1950, A terrainstudy of Canada: Military Engineer, v. 42, p. 350-355. 

Lukashev, K. I. , 1938, Permafrost region as a separate topographical and construction region: Izdanie 

Leningradskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universitieta, 

187 p. , Leningrad. [English translation avai~able.] 

Meinzer, 0. E., 1923, The llccurrence of groundwater 

in the United States with a discussion of pririciples: 

U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 489. 

Meister, L. A., and Mel'nikov, W. I., 1940, The 

adfreezing forces acting between permafrozen 

grounds and wood or concrete and the resistance to 

shear of permafrozen ground under field conditions: 

Trudy of the Comm. on Permafrost, U. S. S. R. 

Acad. Sci., v. 10, p. 85-108, Moscow. 

Mel 'nikov, P. I. , 1947, The water pumping station at 

Yakutsk and its influence upon the character of permafrost: U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., Merzlotovedenie, 

v. 2, no. 1, p. 58-68. [Text in Russian.] 

Mel'nikov, P. I., and Solov'ev, P. A., 1947, Permafrost soil conditions and principles of the Zhatai 

backwater construction: U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 

Reports on 1945 Scientific Research, p. 166, Moscow. [Abstract in Russian.] 

Mirov, N. T., 1951, Geography of Russia: 362 p., 

New York, John Wiley & Sons. 

Moskvitn, .A. 1., 1947, The necessity of distinguishing 

traces of permanently frozen soil, in General Permafrostology, v. 2, p. 3-22. [Textin Russian.] 

Muller, S. W., 1947, Permafrosfor permanentlyfrozen ground and related engineering problems: 

231 p., Ann Arbor, Mich., J. W. Edwards, Inc. 

Nikiforoff, C., 1932, The· perpetually frozen subsoil 

of Siberia: Soil Sci., v. 26, p. 61-78. 

Obruchev, V. A., 1945, Eternal frost: Natl. Rev., 

v. 124, p. 220-227. 

--:--:--:-- 1946, Thefifteenth anniversary ofpermafrostology at the academy of sciences of the 

U. S. S. R~, Priroda, v. 35, p. 92-94. [Text in 

Russian.] · 

--=-~~~ 1947, Permafrostology achievement in 

the U. s. S. R.: U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., Part 2, 

p. 217-237, Moscow-Leningrad. [Text in Russian.] 

Palmer, L. A., 1948, Permafrost problems: U. s; 

Navy Civil Eng. Corps BUll. , v. 2, p. 114-118. - Petrov, v. G., 1934, The attempt of calculating the 

pressure of ground waters in naleds (ice frostings): 

Trudy of the Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci. v. 3, p. 59-72, Leningrad. 

[Text in Russian.] 

Petrovsky, A. A., 1934, Determination of the lower 

limits of permafrost by the electrometric methods: 

Trudy of the Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., .v. 3, p. 5-11, Leningrad. 

[Text in Russian.] 

Pewe, T. L. , 1947, Permafrost and geomorphology 

in the lower Yukon Valley, Alaska [abs.]: Geol. 

Soc. Am. Bull. , v. 58, p. 1256. 

--=-=--=---=- 1948, Terrain and Permafrost of the 

Fairbanks Area, Alaska [abs.]: Geol. Soc. Am .. 

Bull., v. 59, p. 1379. 

Pisarev, G. F., 1935, Permafrost in the Tunka depression: Trudy of the Comm. for the Study of 

Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 4, 

p. 189-223, Moscow. [Text in Russian.] 
SELECTED BIDLIOGRAPHY 29 

Richardson, H. W., 1942, Alcan- America's glory 

road: Eng. News- Record, v. 129, p. 859- 872, 

907-914. _________ 1943, Alcan - America's glory road: Eng. 

News-Record, v. 130, p. 63-70. 

Rickter, G. D., 1934, Notes on peat mounds in theregion of Nudozero Lake: Trudy of the Comm. for 

the Study of Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 

v. 3, p. 121-126, Leningrad. 

Romanov, V. v., and Rozhanskaia, 0. D., 1946, 

Physical properties of a frozen marsh layer: 

Priroda, v. 35, no. 3, p. 57. 

Rosen, M. F., 1935, Observations on the distribution 

of permafrost in the delta of the Pechora River: 

Trudy of the Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 4, p. 151-170, Moscow. 

[Text in Russian.] 

Saltykov, N. I., 1946, Building foundations in Yakutsk: 

Inst. Permafrostology, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 

v. 12 p. 102-136, Moscow. [Text in Russian with 

English summary.] 

Shbetsov, P. F., 1938, Permafrost and the engineering and geological conditions in the Anadyr region: 

79 p., Leningrad, Glavsevmorput'. 

Shimanovskii, S. V. , 1940, Ground temperature observations in Yakutsk: Akad. Nauk S. S. S. R., 

Trudy komiiteta po vechnoi merzlote, v. 9, 

p. 155- 160. [Text in Russian with English summary.] 

Smith, P. S., 1939, Areal geology of Alaska: U. S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 192. 

Solov'ev, S. P., 1937, Permafrost in the mountainous 

area of the Khabarda-Balkariva: Izv. Vsespoluznogo 

Geograficheskogo Obshchestva, v. 69, p. 364-368. 

[Text in Russian with English summary.] 

Stefansson, Vilhjalmur, 1945, Arctic Manual: 556 p., 

New York, Macmillan Co. 

Sumgin, M. I., 1931, The fundamental problems of 

permafrost and the means to their solution: Soviet 

Asia, no. 3-4, p. 176-185. 

--:--:---:---: 1934, Contribution to the study of permafrost in the peat mounds of the Kola Peninsula: 

Trudy of the Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 3, p. 107-115, Leningrad. 

-----=____,. 1940a, Principles of mechanics of frozen 

grounds !!.! Sumgin, M. I., and others, General Permafrostology, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., p. 21-52, 

Moscow. 

----=-:---::--- 1940b, General instructions concerning 

methods of permafrost study, in General Permafrostology, U. S. S. R. Acad.-Sci., p. 334-338, 

Moscow. 

--=----=-= 1940c, Degradation of permafrost, ill 

General Permafrostology, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 

chap. 8, 16 p., Moscow. 

----- 1940d, Certain physical properties offrozenground&, !!_!GeneralPermafrostology, U.S.S.R. 

Acad. Sci., 16 p., Moscow. 

---__.....,.- 1940e, The thermal regime of soils and 

grounds in th~ permafrost region: U. S. S. R. 

Acad. Sci., p. 125-187, Moscow. 

-.....,---____,. 1940f, Introduction, terminology, short 

historical sketch, !!! General Permafrostology, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 27 p., Moscow. 

----- 1940g, Physico-mechanical processes in 

freezing and frozen ground, in General Permafrostology, u. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., p. 21-52, Moscow. 

Sumgin, M. I., Geniiev, N. N., and Chekotilo, A.M., 

1939, Water supply for railroads in the region of 

permafrost: State Railroad Transportation, 270 p. 

Sumgin, M. I., and others, 1938, Collection of instructions and basic directives for the study of frozen soils and permafrost, Akad. Nauk S. S. S. R. , 

272 p. , Moscow- Leningrad. 

Taber, Stephen, 1943, Perennially frozen ground in 

Alaska, its origin and history: Geol. Soc. Am. 

Bull., v. 54, p. 1433-1548. 

Tolman, C. F., 1937, Ground water: 593 p., New 

York and London, l.VicGraw-Hill, Inc. 

Tolstikhn, N. L., 1940, The regime of ground and 

surface waters in permafrost: General Permafrostology, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., p. 245-288, Moscow. [Text in Russian.] 

-----~ 1941, Subterranean waters of the frozen zone ofthe lithosphere: 204 p., N~oscow-Leningrad, 

Gosgeolizdat. 

----=-~ 1947, Artesian waters of the frozen geo- zone in the U. S. s. R.: General Permafrostology, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 2, no. 11, p. 31-35. 

Tsytovich, N. A., 1937, Principles of mechanics of 

frozen ground, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 432 p., 

Moscow. (Text in Russian.] 

---=---- 1940a, Study of the elastic and plastic deformation of frozen grounds: Trudy of the Comm. 

on Permafrost, v. 10, p. 5-35, Moscow. (Text in 

Russian.] 

-----=:--- 1940b, Certain mechanical properties of 

permafrozen grounds in the Yakut region: Trudy of 

the Comm. on Permafrost, U. s. S. R. Acad. Sci., 

p. 109-136, Moscow. 

--=---=---: 1947, The unfrozen water in porous strata: 

Izv. Acad. Sci., Geol. Ser., no. 3, p. 39-48. 

- Tsytovich, N. A., and Sumgin, M. I., 1937, Hydrotechnical investigation of permafrost for construction purposes, !!! Tsytovich, N. A., and Sumgin, 

M. I., Principles of mechanics offrozen grounds, 

U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., Moscow. 

Tumel, V. F., 1935a, Permafrost in the region of 

Vikhoreva River: Trudy of the Comm. for the Study 

of Permafrost, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., v. 4, 

p. 7-91, Moscow. (Text in Russian.] 

_____ 193 5b, Seasonal thawing on the Irjut-Baikal 

water-divide in the area of the villagesof BvstrajaKultuk: Trudy of the Comm. for the Study of Permafrost, U. S. S.- R. Acad. Sci., v. 4, p. 225-251, 

Moscow. [Text in Russian.J 

-------::-- 1939, The sixth all-union conference on permafrostology: Vestnik Akad. Nauk U. S. S. R., 

v. 9, no. 6, p. 65-70. 

--:-:---..,...- 1940a, The area of permafrost distribution and the thickness of the permafrozen mass: 

General Permafrostology, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 

p. 91-124, 1'v.t0s.cow. [Text in Russian.] 

---:-:---- 1940b, Seasonal freezing and thawing of 

the grounds in the permafrost area: General Permafrostology, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 63 p., 

Moscow. (Text in Russian.] 

1940c, The origin of permafrost: General 

Permakostology, U. S. S. R. Acad. Sci., 50 p., 

Moscow. [Text in Russian.] 

ts46, A contribution to the history of __ p_e_r_m_af_,....r-ost in the U. S. S. R.: Akad. Nauk 

U. S. $. R., Trudy Instituta Geografii, v. 37, 

p. 124~31. [Text in Russian with English summary.] 

United States Navy Department, 1&43, Handbook on 

ground-water supply: Bur. Yards and Docks. 

--:-::,....,....,--,.~ [no date] Cold- weather engine~ring, 

1948-49: Bur. Yards and Docks, v. 6-10, 148 p. 

United States War Department, 1942, Water supply and 

water purification: Tech. Manual TM 5-295, 309 p. 
30 OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS 

--=~=--:=-=-= 1943, Well drilling: Tech. Manual 

TM 5-297, 276 p. 

--=---.,......,,....,...., 1944a, Arctic manual: Tech. Manual 

TM 1-240, 131 p. 

-----:-:- 1944b, Ground-water supply for military 

operations: Tech. Manual TM 5-296, 85 p. 

--~~~ 1945, Construction of runways, roads, 

and buildings on permanently frozen ground: Tech. 

Bull. TB 5-225-3, 64 p. 

Vadilievskij, M. M., 1936, Definition of terms for 

different types of subsurface water: Geodetic 

Geophys. Union Assoc. Sci. Hydrology, Bull. 22, 

p. 332-354. 

Washburn, A. L., 1946, Solifluction, in Reconnaissance Geology of Portions of Victoria Island and 

adjacent regions, Arctic Canada Geol. Soc. Am. 

Mem. 22, p. 88-103, Baltimore, Waverly Press. 

Wilford,. H. D., and others, 1938, Uses of calcium 

chloride in road stabilization: Highway Research 

Board, v. 18, pt. 2. 

Wilson, W. K., Jr., 1948, The problem of permafrost: Military Engineer, v. 40, p. 85. 

Woods, K. B., Hittle, J. E., and Frost, R. E., 1948, 

Use of aerial photographs in the correlation between 

permafrost and soils: Military Engineer, v. 40, 

p. 85. 

Zubov, N. M., 1950, ·Arctic ice and the warming of 

the Arctic: Defense Research Board, Canada, 

73 p. 

Anonymous, 1951, Seismic oil prospecting with an 

air-cleaned dr.ill: World Petroleum, March. 

UNPUBLISHED REPORTS 

Crumlish, W. S. , 1948, Exploratory well drilling in 

permafrost, Fort Churchill, Manitoba, Canada: 

Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, 

Fort Belvoir, Va. , Rept. 1045, 77 p. 

English, Walter_~ (1949?], Geological and geophysical 

operations: Encyclopedia Arctica, v. 1, pt. 3 (30), 

8 p. 

Gillespie, B. W., and Coleman, Ralph, [1949?], Arctic Alaska petroleum exploration and drilling operatidns: Encyclopedia Arctica, v. 1, pt. 3 (29). 

Research and Development Board,~ 1949, Comm. on 

Geophysics and Geography. 

----,:---- 1950, Comm. on Geophysics and Geogra- phy. 

United States Geological Survey, Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4, 1952, Progress Reports. 

IN'l.-llUP. SBC., I.&SH., D.C.I!6T :11