UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II 

Special Studies 

THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS 

by 

Mattie E. Treadwell 

CENTER OF MJUTARY HISTORY 

UNITED STATES ARMY 

WASHINGTON, D.C., 1991 

THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS





Foreword

This history of the WAC is comprehensive and detailed. The author has

written it not only from available records but also out of personal experience.

She was a WAC staff officer, who, together with all the other Wacs, found herself in a man's army that was somewhat shocked by the advent of a women's

corps in its midst.

It is usual for both newcomer and old resident to have suspicions of each

other, but after the characteristic period of false starts prejudices disappear and

confidence is established. So it was with the WAC and the Army.

This book stresses the misunderstanding, appropriately enough, since it affected many decisions reached at the policy-making level. The WAC did not

always understand the Army—its customs and traditions, its organization and

necessary chain of command. The Army did not always understand the WAC—

its needs and temperament, and the many other things that man, being the son of

woman, should have known but did not, much to his continued embarrassment.

ORLANDO WARD

Washington, D. C. Maj. Gen., U.S.A. 30 January 1953 Chief of Military History

ix
The Author

Mattie E. Treadwell, a native of Texas, holds a B.A. and an M.A. degree

from the University of Texas. During World War II she was an officer, first in

the WAAC and later in the WAC, holding such assignments as assistant to the

Director WAC, assistant to the Air WAC Officer, and assistant to the Commandant, School of WAC Personnel Administration. She had the additional

distinction of having been a member of the first class of women sent to the

Command and General Staff School. While on active duty she attained the

rank of lieutenant colonel.

From September 1947 to March 1952 Miss Treadwell was a historian in the

Office of the Chief of Military History. Upon her departure she became Assistant Director, Dallas Regional Office, Federal Civil Defense Administration,

in charge of women's activities and volunteer manpower, an office that she

currently holds. Her present military status is that of a lieutenant colonel in

the U.S. Air Force Reserve.

LEO J. MEYER

Washington, D. C. Colonel, Reserve Corps

30 January 1953 Deputy Chief Historian

x
Preface

Soon after the end of hostilities, the decision was made to devote to the

Women's Army Corps one volume of the Army's major historical series, U.S.

ARMY IN WORLD WAR II. Although small by comparison with the size of

the Army, the WAC at its peak strength of 100,000 constituted an enviably

large group for study. Because of its 24-hour-a-day control of its personnel, the

Army had access to information not easily obtainable by business or industry,

concerning not only the women's job efficiency but their clothing and housing

needs, and the effects of their employment upon their health, conduct, morale,

and recreation.

For most of the war months, the potential importance of this material was

not recognized, and little systematic effort was made to collect it. A number of

Army commands had rulings against the collection of separate statistics for

women, while others lacked either the time or the means to compile such

material.

In postwar days, with renewed emphasis upon future planning, the present

study was authorized in an attempt to pull together such evidence as remained.

It was recognized that the experience of the relatively small group in World

War II might provide a guide to any later and more extensive national mobilization of womanpower that might be necessary. Although no one possessed

sufficient clairvoyance to predict the course of history, it was plainly evident

that, in any future emergencies, the proper mobilization and employment of

womanpower reserves might become a primary national issue.

The preservation of the wartime discoveries made in this field assumed

added importance in view of the fact that no other American or British service

has yet published a full official history of its women's corps. Significantly, comparison of the records of these groups reveals that the problems and achievements of each fall into a pattern so similar as to suggest a strong measure of

predictability of the course of future groups. The Navy Department's draft

narrative of the WAVES remains under classification, as do those of the Women

Marines and the Army Nurse Corps. The story of the Air Forces women is

included in the present volume, since the wartime Air Wacs were a part of

the WAC.

The Army's discoveries in general appear valid and reliable, not only for

militarized groups, but for most nonmilitary institutions or businesses which

train or employ women. The observations on health, fatigue, accident rates,

and psychological patterns should be a useful addition to current industrial

studies. The discoveries in the fields of training, housing, clothing, feeding, and

xi
disciplining groups of women may present a fresh viewpoint to educational institutions. In particular, the conclusions on the leadership of women offer a clue

to an explanation of the current misunderstandings and contradictory impressions on the subject.

It must be recognized at the outset that the problem of integrating women

into an army was merely a part of the larger problem of their evolving status in

civil life, accelerated by the industrial revolution and affecting every phase of

modern society. Although the scope of this volume does not permit frequent

comment upon the general place of women in society, few of the developments

were without precedent. This was particularly true of the public skepticism and

masculine hostility into which the WAC ran headlong in its first year. Admittedly, the Army had its share of a conservative element that had scarcely

recovered from the shock of the mechanized horse when confronted with the

militarized woman.

It should also be noted that the development and integration into the Army

of a women's corps was at every turn a part of the larger development of the

Army, and that few problems of the smaller group were unique. The Women's

Army Corps, like this volume, must be viewed in perspective as one small facet

of the larger entity.

While parallel, the problems of the employment of men and women were

by no means identical in nature or solution. At the time of the organization of

the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps early in World War II, the misapprehension was general that women could be treated exactly like men and that little

research would therefore be required for the successful incorporation of womanpower into the Army. Some believed that the WAC, as a minor group within

the Army, was in the same general category as other groups dubbed minorities

by reason of race, creed, or color, for whom differences of treatment would be

improper. In practice it was soon discovered, however, that while a soldier

might wear the same design of clothing regardless of race or creed, the same

could not be said regardless of sex. The same principle was shortly found true

in the fields of medicine, conduct, recreation, recruiting, physical capacity, and

others. While all authorities were agreed that equal treatment must be given to

men and women in the Army, it was soon apparent that equal did not mean

identical in every case. The Army was thus faced with the problem of what styles

of garments, though not identical with those of men, gave equal comfort, fit, and

military appearance; what medications and surgery, although not identical,

promoted equally good health; what standards of conduct, well-being, recreation, and training would enable the military service to answer to the American

public for the women in its keeping as conscientiously as it customarily did for

the men. In most cases, by the end of the war, these problems were successfully

solved or the key to the solution was known.

As the following pages will reveal, the final conclusions of the wartime

heads of the women's services were far from optimistic concerning the dangers

of employing women in the armed forces if their special needs were not constantly understood and dealt with by trained specialists and well-informed

commanders.

xii
Several major decisions concerning the scope and nature of this volume

were dictated by the wide range of subjects it must cover, by the fact that its

material was scattered through world-wide Army commands, and by the fact

that only one writer-researcher could be assigned to the task. One such decision

was that the approach must generally be on the level of policy and planning,

rather than upon that of individual unit histories and statistics. Army commands employing Wacs activated and inactivated hundreds of companies, and

sent thousands of women back and forth among them individually and in small

groups, to an extent that would have required another volume to record.

Even could statistics be included upon the locations and movements of such

personnel, the significance for future planning would be small.

However, in the interests of proper emphasis and perspective, it should be

noted that an account at this high level is not necessarily a complete picture of

the Corps. The efficiency of a WAC unit in the field was often relatively untouched by the struggles concerning the nation's womanpower which raged

over its head. A WAC unit could, and often did, exist happily for months without proper uniforms, training, or other advantages, no matter how distressing

to the War Department such deficiencies might be.

A generally more unworried tone could be given this volume only if it were

possible to place in a row, beside the headaches of headquarters, the approximately five hundred separate stories of field achievement, which by sheer

weight would reduce the policy and planning problems to their proper

proportion.

Another decision which affected the nature of the history was that it should

include all possible material of assistance to future planners. A considerably

shorter volume could have been produced by a rapid account of the Corps'

formation, strength, employment, and achievements, with no indication of its

problems, the private controversies they engendered, or the means by which

they were surmounted. However, for those specialists whose assigned mission is

the efficient employment of womanpower, or even for the general Army reader,

such a surface analysis would have been of small value.

In preparing this volume, I have had the advice of almost all of the wartime leaders, men and women, of the Women's Army Corps. Col. Oveta Culp

Hobby has not only commented upon the manuscript, but has answered specific questions and has given me generously of her time in discussing puzzling

references. Lt. Col. Helen Hamilton Woods, WAAC preplanner and later

Deputy Director, read and reread various drafts, and opened her Washington

home to me for interviews with prominent participants including Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers. Dr. Betty Bandel has submitted a detailed commentary on each chapter in its draft form, and has answered innumerable

questions concerning the 40,000 Air Forces women, whom she represented, and

the Corps as a whole, of which she was Acting Deputy. Lt. Col. Katherine R.

Goodwin has clarified many points regarding the Army Service Forces Wacs,

for which she was advisor. Before her death, Dr. Jess Rice, the wartime Deputy

Director, commented upon early parts of the manuscript and gave me many

xiii
admonitions concerning historical technique, which I have endeavored to follow, as well as strictures against making her a heroine of the story, which I have

endeavored to ignore in the interests of historical accuracy.

Gen. George C. Marshall has read and commented upon various passages,

appealing on one occasion to the former Director to know if she had actually

encountered all of the recruiting difficulties described.* Maj. Gen. Miller G.

White, the Army man who, as G-1 of the War Department, worked most

closely with WAC policy, has read all of the manuscript and added comments

and excerpts from his diary. The Auxiliary Corps portion has been commented

upon by, among others, Maj. Gen. John H. Hilldring, Brig. Gens. Don C. Faith

and Thomas B. Catron, and Cols. Harold Tasker and Gilman Mudgett.

To the hundreds of other Army men and women—from general officer to

private—who have given me their opinions—each chapter will make proper

acknowledgment.

Within the Office of the Chief of Military History, I have received great

assistance from the Chief Historian, Dr. Kent R. Greenfield, the Deputy Chief

Historian, Lt. Col. Leo J. Meyer, and their entire staff, whose aid will be particularly acknowledged in the chapters concerned. Dr. Mae Link has contributed valuable research on the Army Service Forces, and Maj. Margaret Bacchus

on the British services. For typing and preparing the manuscript I am indebted

to Sgt. Amelia Madrak, Mrs. Lorraine Bonifant, Mrs. Lois Riley, and Mrs.

Elizabeth Phillips and her staff.

My particular aid and counsel has been Miss Ruth Stout, the editor of this

volume, who has provided much-needed help and encouragement as well as

perspective, advice, and good judgment. We are both grateful to the Chief

Editor, Mr. Joseph R. Friedman, for his sympathetic interest and advice, and to

Mr. Allen R. Clark for care and precision in copy editing. I am also indebted to

Mr. Clark for the comprehensive index. The work of selecting illustrations has

been performed by Miss Margaret E. Tackley, who lent the project not only her

technical skill but her experience as a wartime officer of the WAC, thereby

avoiding the errors common to inexperienced judges of WAC photographs.

Credit for the successful planning and launching of the project belongs to

the early staff of the Army's Historical Division, especially Col. Allen F. Clark,

Col. John M. Kemper, Col. Allison R. Hartman, and the first Chief Historian

of the Army, the late Dr. Walter L. Wright, Jr. And finally, the broad and constructive criticism, based on years of military experience, offered by Maj. Gen.

Orlando Ward, Chief of Military History during the last months of the volume's preparation, was of great assistance in completing the work.

Washington, D. C. MATTIE E. TREADWELL

15 April 1953

*Her answer: "No, more."

xiv
Contents

PART ONE

Organization and Growth of a Women's Corps

Chapter Page

I. FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II .......... . 3

Total War and the Industrial Revolution ........... . 4

T h e Army Nurse Corps .................. . 5

World Wa r I ..................... . 6

Twenty-three Tears o f Peace ................ . 1 0

Plans for a Women's Service Corps ............. . 12

T h e Hughes Plan .......... . ........ . 1 3

The Approach of World War II .............. . 15

H . R. 4906 ...................... . 1 8

II. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC .......... . 24

The Appointment of WAAC Pre-Planners .......... . 25

Selection o f a Director .................. . 2 8

Organization of Director's Headquarters ........... . 30

Assignment to Services of Supply .............. . 31

T h e British Parallel ................... . 3 2

Recruiting Plans .................... . 3 4

Search for a Training Center ................ . 35

T h e Uniform ...................... . 3 6

Housing Plans ..................... . 3 9

Allocation o f Units ................... . 4 1

WAAC Regulations ................... . 4 2

Passage o f WAAC Bill .................. . 4 4

III. THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER ............ . 46

T h e Press ....................... . 4 6

Establishment o f WAAC Headquarters ............ . 4 9

Location in the Services of Supply .............. . 50

Director's Schedule .................... . 5 1

Operating Duties .................... . 5 2

Selection of the First Officer Candidates ............ . 54

Screening o f Applicants .................. . 5 5

Special Groups of Candidates ................ . 58

The First WAAC Training Center ............. . 59

Expansion Plans, Summer of 1942 .............. . 61

xv
Chapter Page

III. THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER—Continued

The First WAAC Officer Candidate Class, 20 July-29 August 1942 . . 63

T h e Training Course ................... . 6 6

Graduation ....................... . 7 1

IV. SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1942: BEGINNINGS OF FIELD

DUTIES ...................... . 7 3

N ew Graduating Classes ................. . 7 5

The Second WAAC Training Center ............. . 77

Aircraft Warning Service Units ............... . 78

Appeals for Publication of Command Channels ......... . 82

N ew Expansion Plans ................... . 8 4

General Marshall's Intervention ............... . 8 5

Assignment of Regional Directors .............. . 88

Field Action ...................... . 8 9

Director Overseas .................... . 9 1

V. NOVEMBER 1942-JANUARY 1943: PLANS FOR A MILLION

WAACS ...................... . 9 2

T he Adjutant General's Estimates .............. . 92

Estimates Based on Field Requisitions ............. . 93

Proposals t o Draft Women ................. . 9 5

The Weakness of the Auxiliary System ............. . 96

Proposals for Expansion on Auxiliary Status .......... . 97

T h e Winter Months ................... . 9 9

Shipment of the First Post Headquarters Companies ........ . 103

First Overseas Shipment .................. . 10 4

E n d o f 1942 ...................... . 11 0

Indecision as to Planning Goals ............... . 110

VI. THE NEED FOR MILITARY STATUS ......... . 113

Administrative Handicaps of an Auxiliary. ........... . 113

The Auxiliary Disciplinary System .............. . 115

Remedial Legislation ................... . 11 7

Introduction of WAC Bill ................. . 118

VII. SPRING, 1943: EXPANSION AND DECENTRALIZATION. 122

Expansion Program Decided ................ . 12 2

Expansion of WAAC Training ............... . 126

Delegation of Command Authority .............. . 127

Inclusion in the Troop Basis. ................ . 128

Staff Directors Assigned to New Commands ........... . 130

Major Commands Receive Waacs .............. . 132

Readiness for Increase in Number .............. . 135

xvi
Chapter Page

VIII. STRESSES OF RAPID BUILD-UP: PERSONNEL AND

TRAINING .................... . 13 6

Training Center Confusion ................. . 13 6

Commissioning of Unqualified Officers ............. . 137

Unsuitable Mentors. ................... . 13 9

The "Nightmare" of Basic Training ............. . 140

Personnel Problems in Headquarters ............. . 144

Shipment o f T'/O Units .................. . 14 6

Replacement o f Soldiers .................. . 14 8

IX. STRESSES OF RAPID BUILD-UP: SUPPLY AND THE WAAC

UNIFORM ..................... . 14 9

Shortages o f Clothing ................... . 14 9

Appearance of the Uniform ................. . 155

The Need for New Types of Work Clothing ........... . 161

Public Reaction to Unsuitable Uniforms ............ . 166

X. STRESSES OF RAPID BUILD-UP: RECRUITING ... . 168

Danger Signals ..................... . 17 0

Disputes Over Lowering Standards ............. . 173

AGCT Standards .................... . 17 4

Medical Standards .................... . 17 6

Moral Standards .................... . 17 8

Inexpert Sales Methods .................. . 17 9

Transfer of Responsibility to WAAC Headquarters ....... . 181

The Restoration of Standards ................ . 183

T h e Advertising Contract ................. . 18 4

The Revised Campaign .................. . 186

T h e Cleveland Plan ................... . 18 8

XI. THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" ............ . 191

Record of the WAAC'S First Year . ............. . 191

Publicity Machinery ................... . 19 3

Attacks by Private Letter and Gossip ............. . 195

T h e Civilian Uniforms .................. . 19 8

T h e Organized Rumors .................. . 20 0

W a r Department Denial ................. . 20 4

Investigation by Intelligence Service ............. . 205

Investigation at Daytona Beach ............... . 208

Other Investigations ................... . 21 1

The Question of Axis Influence ............... . 214

Ineffectiveness o f Denials ................. . 21 6

xvii
Chapter Page

XII. JULY-SEPTEMBER 1943- THE CONVERSION TO ARMY

STATUS 219

The First Wac 220

The Conversion 221

First Companies in the WAC 224

Why Some Went Home 224

Why the Majority Stayed 228

The End of the WAAC 229

XIII. ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 231

The Search for a Recruiting Theme 231

The Manpower Theme 232

The All-States Plan 235

The Recruiters 236

Sources of Assistance 237

The Air-WAC Plan 238

The Quota 239

The Campaign 239

Opposition of the War Manpower Commission 242

Public Apathy 244

The Success of the All-States Campaign 245

Revival of Plans to Draft Women 246

The Austin-Wadsworth Bill 247

Army Manpower Crisis 249

Sudden WAC Popularity 249

The Job-and-Station Promise 250

Women-in-War Campaign 254

Campaign Conclusions 255

XIV. INTEGRATION INTO THE ARMY 256

Abolition of Separate Grades 256

The Office of the Director WAC 259

General Impression of Director's Status 262

First WAC Regulations 263

Rights and Benefits of the WAC 265

Army Advisers Depart 266

Field Needs After Integration 266

Close of 1943 268

XV. REMOVAL OF DIRECTOR'S OFFICE TO G-1 DIVISION 269

G-3 Recommendation 269

Handicaps on ASF Level 270

Move to General Staff Authorized 272

The Meek Report 272

Corrective Action by the Chief of Staff 274

xviii
PART TWO

World-Wide Employment

Chapter Page

XVI. THE ARMY AIR FORCES .............. . 28 1

Acceptance of Wacs on Airfields ............... . 282

T h e Air WAC Division ................. . 28 2

A A F "Firsts" ..................... . 28 3

Flying Jobs fo r Women .................. . 28 5

Specialist Training ................... . 28 6

Conventional Clerical Jobs ................. . 28 9

Technical Assignments .................. . 28 9

Officers ........................ . 29 3

Grades an d Ratings. ................... . 29 3

Overseas Assignment ................... . 29 4

Conclusion o f Program .................. . 29 4

XVII. THE ARMY GROUND FORCES ............ . 29 6

A G F WA C Jobs .................... . 29 9

Experiment With Mixed Tactical Units ........... . 301

Problems o f Full Integration ................ . 30 2

Effect of Manpower Shortages ................ . 304

XVIII. THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES ............ . 30 7

T h e Signal Corps .................... . 30 9

Chemical Warfare Service ................. . 32 1

T h e Corps o f Engineers .................. . 32 6

Ordnance Department ................... . 32 9

T h e Quartermaster Corps ................. . 32 9

T h e Transportation Corps ................. . 33 1

T h e Adjutant General's Department ............. . 33 6

Finance Department ................... . 33 7

Corps o f Chaplains ................... . 33 7

T h e Provost Marshal's Department ............. . 33 8

XIX. THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) ......... . 33 9

Female Medical Technicians Campaign ............ . 34 0

Success o f Training ................... . 34 1

Relative Success in Medical Jobs .............. . 341

Commissioned Duties ................... . 34 4

Medical an d Surgical Technicians .............. . 34 4

T h e Hospital Orderly .................. . 34 5

Request fo r Survey .................... . 34 7

Hours o f Work ..................... . 34 8

Cessation of Medical Department Recruiting .......... . 349

Wacs vs. Nurses' Aides .................. . 35 2

T/0 Units for General Hospitals .............. . 353

General Hospital Campaign ................ . 35 4

Conclusions ...................... . 35 8

xix
Chapter Page

XX. THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS ....................... . 36 0

Arrival of First Unit ................... . 361

Administrative Difficulties ................. . 36 2

Further WAC Shipments ................. . 36 4

Fifth Army Wacs .................... . 36 6

Headquarters Duties ................... . 36 8

Degree of Adjustment Required ............... . 370

Health, Discipline, and Morale ............... . 371

Social Association .................... . 37 4

Other Women's Groups .................. . 37 6

Demobilization ..................... . 37 7

XXI. THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS .... . 380

First WAAC Separate Battalion .............. . 381

Build-up of Units Prior to D Day .............. . 383

The Move to the Continent ................ . 385

W AC Jo b Assignments .................. . 39 0

Officer Assignments ................... . 39 3

W AC Staff Director's Office ................ . 39 4

Housing, Supply, and Clothing ............... . 395

Health, Morals, and Discipline ............... . 397

Civilian Competition ................... . 40 0

Social Association .................... . 40 2

Policy o n Marriage ................... . 40 3

Public Relations ..................... . 40 4

Posthostilities Period ................... . 40 6

Demobilization ..................... . 40 6

Appraisal ....................... . 40 8

XXII. THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA .......... . 410

Direct Commissions ................... . 41 3

Arrival o f WAC Staff .................. . 41 4

First WAC Contingent in Australia ............. . 418

Arrival in New Guinea .................. . 420

Headquarters Rendered Mobile ............... . 42 2

O r o Ba y ....................... . 42 3

Hollandia ....................... . 42 6

T h e Philippines ..................... . 42 8

Other Bases ...................... . 43 0

Manila ........................ . 43 2

J o b Assignments .................... . 43 3

T he Question of Expense .................. . 437

Medical Evacuation Rate. ................. . 43 9

Deficiencies in Uniform and Supply .............. . 440

Morale ........................ . 44 4
Chapter Page

XXII. THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA—Continued

Length of Working Day .................. . 445

Discipline an d Morals. .................. . 44 6

Restrictions on Daily Life ................. . 449

Inferior WAC Commanders ................ . 45 1

Command of Enlisted Women by Male Officers ......... . 453

Transfer of Responsibility to WAC Section ........... . 455

W a r Department Investigation ............... . 45 6

Demobilisation ..................... . 45 9

Conclusion ....................... . 46 0

XXIII. OTHER OVERSEAS THEATERS ........... . 46 3

Southeast Asia Command. .................. . 46 3

T h e China-Burma-India Theater .............. . 46 4

T h e China Theater .................... . 47 1

T h e Middle East Theater ................. . 47 4

Other Overseas Areas ................... . 47 8

Independent Commands Overseas ............... . 47 9

XXIV. THE OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR WAC ....... . 480

Removal of Operating Duties ................ . 481

Liaison With Other Women's Services ............. . 483

Liaison With the National Civilian Advisory Committee ..... . 484

Liaison With the American Red Cross ............. . 485

Liaison With Other National and Local Organizations ...... . 485

Liaison With Congress .................. . 48 6

Liaison With Private Citizens ................ . 487

PART THREE

War Department Policy Concerning the Women's Army Corps

XXV. LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS ...... . 495

Discharge ....................... . 49 5

Discipline ....................... . 50 3

Confinement ...................... . 50 5

Maternity Care ..................... . 50 7

Marriage ....................... . 51 0

The Social Caste System .................. . 511

XXVI. HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING. ......... . 515

Housing ........................ . 51 5

Unit Messes ...................... . 52 5

Clothing ........................ . 52 7

xxi
Chapter Page

XXVII. THE EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED

WOMEN ..................... . 54 3

Restrictions o n Nonmilitary Assignments ........... . 54 4

Restrictions on Permanent Kitchen Police Duly ......... . 546

Restrictions on Food Service Assignments ........... . 548

Other Questions of Proper Employment ............ . 550

Results of Enlisted Personnel Policies . ............ . 559

XXVIII. THE EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OFFICERS ... . 564

Restrictions on Officer Assignment .............. . 564

Limitations on Further WAC Commissions .......... . 566

T h e Officers' Pool .................... . 56 7

Reclassification Proposals ................. . 56 8

Shortage of WAC Troop Officers .............. . 569

Proposals for an A Corps ................. . 571

Integration of Specialist Officers ............... . 573

The Question of Direct Commissions ............. . 574

Promotion o f Officers ................... . 57 4

Officer Education .................... . 57 7

Warrant Officers. .................... . 57 7

XXIX. THE EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OVERSEAS SHIPMENT ....................... . 57 8

Medical Screening .................... . 58 0

Psychiatric Screening ................... . 58 1

Shipment o f Nonvolunteers ................. . 58 2

Objections to Filling Requisitions .............. . 583

Processing fo r Shipment .................. . 58 4

Rotation ........................ . 58 7

Shipment in T/O Units. ................. . 588

Effectiveness of Shipment Program .............. . 588

XXX. THE EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: MINORITY

GROUPS ..................... . 58 9

Negro Personnel ..................... . 58 9

Conclusions ....................... . 60 1

XXXI. HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE ........... . 602

Medical Standards fo r Enlistment .............. . 60 2

Rejection and Discharge Rates. ............... . 607

Monthly Physical Inspection ................ . 60 8

Sick Call, Dispensary Care, and Hospitalization ........ . 610

W AC Morbidity Rate .................. . 61 0

Gynecological Care .................... . 61 1

Psychiatric Problems ................... . 62 2

Accidents an d Injures .................. . 62 6

Weight an d Diet .................... . 62 7

xxii
Chapter Page

XXXI. HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE—Continued

Fatigue an d Health Impairment ............... . 62 7

Reconditioning ..................... . 62 9

Separation ....................... . 63 0

XXXII. TRAINING ...................... . 63 1

W A C Training Centers ................. . 63 1

Basic Military Training Courses. ............. . 63 4

Basic Technical Courses ................. . 64 0

Miscellaneous Courses .................. . 64 6

W AC Officer Candidate School .............. . 64 8

Intermediate Officers' School (IOS) ............. . 64 9

Leadership Courses for Enlisted Women ........... . 650

Testing Procedures ................... . 65 1

Evaluation of Effectiveness of Training ........... . 651

Closing o f Training Centers ............... . 65 8

Attendance a t Army Specialist Schools .......... . 66 0

Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) ......... . 661

Continuation Training in the Field ............ . 661

Opposition of Personnel Officers .............. . 662

Physical Training for Field Units ............. . 664

Personnel vs. Training Needs ............... . 66 6

XXXIII. THE LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN ........... . 669

Capabilities of the Woman Leader .............. . 670

Efforts To Determine Qualities of Leadership ......... . 672

Sensitivity t o Discipline .................. . 67 2

T h e Maternalistic Commander ............... . 67 3

Other Leadership Problems ................ . 67 4

Problems Peculiar to WAC Leaders ............. . 676

T he One Essential Quality ................ . 677

Selection and Training of Leaders ............. . 680

The Army Commander as a Leader of Women Troops ...... . 681

XXXIV. RECRUITING AN D PUBLICITY ............ . 68 4

Recruiting ...................... . 68 4

"Fighting Me n an d Wacs" ............... . 68 5

Improvement o f Recruiting Machinery ........... . 68 6

Diagnosis of Resistance to Enlistment ........... . 688

Remedial Action by The Adjutant General .......... . 692

Establishment of a Separate WAC Recruiting Service ...... . 694

Achievements of the WAC Recruiting Service ......... . 696

Last Days of WAC Recruiting .............. . 696

Public Relations Support ................ . 69 9

Establishment of the WAC Group ............. . 701

Support by Films and Stage Shows ............. . 705

Evaluation ...................... . 70 8

xxiii
PART FOUR

Last Days of the Wartime WAC

Chapter Page

XXXV. 1945: THE CLOSING MONTHS OF THE WAR .... . 711

Rotation Proposals .................... . 71 2

Refresher Training o f Officers ................ . 71 3

School for WAC Personnel Administration ........... . 715

Evaluation o f Refresher Training .............. . 71 7

Director Hobby's Resignation ................ . 71 9

Recommendations fo r Promotion ............... . 72 1

Choice o f Successor .................... . 72 1

Final Recommendations .................. . 72 4

XXXVI. DEMOBILIZATION .................. . 72 6

Action Following V- J Da y ................ . 72 8

Slowing of WAC Demobilization .............. . 729

WAC Effort To Hasten Demobilization ........... . 732

Cessation of WAC Demobilization .............. . 733

Separation Procedure ................... . 73 5

Veterans' Administration Policy ............... . 73 7

Reserve Proposals .................... . 73 9

Plans for a Regular Army WAC .............. . 741

T h e Interim ...................... . 74 3

Congressional Action ................... . 74 6

XXXVII. EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..... . 75 0

Cost t o th e Army .................... . 75 0

Recommendations fo r th e Future .............. . 75 2

Report of the Hoover Commission .............. . 762

T h e Final View .................... . 76 3

Appendixes

A. TABLES

1. Strength of the Women's Army Corps: July 1942-December 1946 . . . 765

2. Accessions of Personnel in the Women's Army Corps: 1942-1946 . . . 766

3 . WAAC Personnel Statistics .................. . 76 7

4. Strength of Women's Army Corps in Continental United States: May

1943-December 1946 .................. . 768, 76 9

5. Women's Army Corps Enlisted Personnel in Army Air Forces, Continental United States, by Military Occupational Specialty: 31 January

1945 .......................... . 77 0

6. Women's Army Corps Officer Personnel in Army Air Forces, Continental United States, by Military Occupational Specialty: 31 January

1945 .......................... . 77 1

7. Strength of Women's Army Corps in Overseas Theaters: 1943-1946 772, 773

8. Decorations and Awards Made to the Women's Army Corps: December

1941-30 June 1947 .................... . 77 4

xxiv
Appendixes

A. TABLES—Continued page

9. Personnel Discharged From the Women's Army Corps Because of Pregnancy: 1942-1946 ..................... . 77 5

10. Percent Distribution of WAC and Male Personnel in the U. S. Army, by

Grade: December 1942-December 1946 . ........... . 776

11. Strength of Negro Personnel in the Women's Army Corps: 1943-1946. 777

12. Enlisted Personnel Separated From the Women's Army Corps: August

1942-December 1946 ................... . 77 8

13. Officers Separated From the Women's Army Corps: September 1942-

December 1946 ...................... . 77 9

B. EXCERPT FROM REPORT ON BRITISH WOMEN'S SERVICES 780

C. A SUMMARY OF CONTROVERSY ON LEGAL STATUS OF WAAC . 782

D. A SUMMARY OF WASP CONTROVERSY .......... . 784

E . COURSE CONTENT .................... . 78 6

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE ................... . 79 1

LIST O F ABBREVIATIONS ................... . 79 8

INDEX ............................. . 80 7

Charts

Favorable Comment on Women's Services .............. . 448

Average Cost Estimates on Enlisted Personnel ............. . 751

Illustrations

Colonel Oveta Culp Hobby ................... . Frontispiece

Women During World Wa r I .................... . 9

Gen. George C. Marshall ..................... . 22

WAAC Insignia ......................... . 4 0

Mrs. Oveta Culp Hobby ...................... . 4 7

Screening o f Applicant ...................... . 5 7

WAAC Staff and Members of the Press ................ . 64

First Officer Candidate Class .................... . 68, 69

WAAC Officers Assigned for Duty in Washington ........... . 74

Filter Board, Mitchel Field, New York ................ . 80

Lt. Col. Helen H. Woods ...................... . 90

Brig. Gen. Don C. Faith ...................... . 103

On the Job at Fort Sam Houston, Texas. ............... . 105

First American Waacs En Route to North Africa ........... . 107

Processing for Overseas ..................... . 108, 109

First Officer Elizabeth Strayhorn .................. . 125

Maj. Betty Bandel ........................ . 13 3

K P Duty ............................ . 14 2

WAAC Band .......................... . 15 7

"You'll just have to get used to low-heeled shoes!" .......... . 160

Physical Training ......................... . 16 3

Recruiting Officers of Sixth Service Command ............ . 170
Illustrations—Continued

Page

Recruiting Poster ......................... . 18 5

"What makes you think the WAAC is coming to this camp?" ...... . 196

The President and Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt ............ . 202

Clergymen Visiting Fort De s Moines ................ . 21 7

Mass Enlistment Ceremonies .................... . 22 5

Maj. Jessie P . Rice ........................ . 23 5

All-States Recruiting Campaign ................. . 240, 24 1

Station-Job Recruiting Demonstrations ............... . 25 3

Training a t Lowry Field, Colorado ................. . 28 7

First Officer Emily E. Davis .................... . 29 7

Women Assigned to the Army Ground Forces ............ . 298

L t. Col. Katherine R. Goodwin .................. . 30 8

Quebec Conference, August 1943 .................. . 31 3

Instruction i n Radio Theory .................... . 32 2

Women Decontamination Experts ................. . 32 3

Medical Recruiting Display .................... . 35 5

Maj. Westray Battle Boyce .................... . 36 3

Wacs Arriving a t Caserta, Italy .................. . 36 6

Gen. Henri H. Giraud Reviewing Waacs .............. . 375

Docking i n Scotland ....................... . 38 2

Landing i n Normandy ...................... . 38 6

Lt. Col. Anna W. Wilson ..................... . 38 9

Postal Directories in the European Theater .............. . 391

Arriving i n Sydney, Australia ................... . 41 7

Commanding Officer of Third Contingent of Wacs .......... . 424

Hollandia, Netherlands New Guinea ............... . 428, 42 9

W AC Area, Tacloban, Leyte Island ................. . 43 1

T a j Mahal ........................... . 46 6

Maj. Gen. Miller G. White .................... . 48 1

W A C Housing ......................... . 518, 51 9

Recreation Rooms ........................ . 52 3

On Leave In Paris, 1945 ..................... . 534

Suitable Army Jobs for Women ................. . 560, 561

General Marshall ........................ . 57 5

Overseas Training ........................ . 58 6

Maj. Margaret D . Craighill .................... . 60 3

Processing a t Training Centers ................... . 63 3

Chemical Warfare Training .................... . 63 7

Member o f th e Cooks Course ................... . 64 4

Motor Transport Training .................... . 64 6

Last Basic Training Inspection ................... . 65 9

Vocation Counseling ....................... . 73 6

Photographs are from the Department of Defense files.

xxvi
PART ONE

ORGANIZATION AND GROWTH OF A

WOMEN'S CORPS

CHAPTER I

From 1776 to World War II

On the hot and sticky morning of

Monday, 20 July 1942, the green parade

ground at Fort Des Moines, Iowa, was

lush with grass, daisies, gnats, and members of the press. The photographers required the most supervision because of

their tendencies toward photographing

female underwear or latrine scenes. There

were representatives of four press associations, nineteen newspapers, four foreign

news organizations, six motion picture

companies, and two photographic services, plus many well-known writers. The

occasion was the opening of the United

States Army's first training center for

women.

Centuries of evolution in warfare and in

society had been required to make possible this unprecedented event. From the

days of the American Revolution to the

early twentieth century, there could be

found little serious consideration of a

women's corps in the United States Army.

For the pioneer woman, home defense was

a readily acceptable activity, but it had no

connection in the public mind with an

organized military corps of women.

However, from the earliest days there

were innumerable popular stories of females who had disguised themselves well

enough to enlist in the Army as individuals. None of these stories could be

verified from Army files, and they apparently occurred more often in legend than

in fact, but there was evidence that not all

were fictional. The American Congress

went so far as to recognize the claims of

one Revolutionary soldier, Deborah

Sampson Gannett, by granting her husband a widow's pension.

Every succeeding war had its Molly

Pitchers, most of whom made good copy

for the young American press. Nineteenth

century newspapers reveled in such headlines as SERVED BY HER LOVER'S SIDE, Or

THE DEAD SOLDIER WAS A WOMAN. According to these accounts, the Union Army inadvertently awarded some women the

Kearny Cross and the Confederacy placed

others on a Roll of Honor. One Confederate wife, declaring that she was "perfectly wild about war," was said to have

donned a false mustache and successfully

raised and commanded a regiment of recruits. Such stories were legion, but

scarcely of help to later Army planners.1

Of more significance for the future were

scattered cases in which, because of an

actual need for women's skills, the Army

employed groups of civilian women as

nurses, laundresses, clerks, and emergency

aides of many types, sometimes in uniforms of their own devising. It was not unusual, for example, that each regiment of

the Braddock expedition was allowed

some forty women employees, one ration

1

 (1) Magazine of History, Vol. XXV, pp. 33-34

(July 1917). (2) Ltr, TAG to Editor, Rural New Yorker,

May 12, 1915. WD Rec AGO, Enl Br 7275-C, with

3132-C-1884, 2285035 National Archives. (See Bibliographical Note.) (3) Francis Henry Gribble,

Women in War (London: Sampson Low, Marston &

Co., Ltd., 1916).
4 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

per woman. In 1775 General Washington

sponsored a bill that created a hospital

department for the Army and allowed it

to pay civilian nurses approximately

twenty-five cents a day. In time of emergency, civilian women of prominence and

reputation continued to nurse the sick,

sew, operate canteens, and lend what assistance their skills permitted. However,

for a reputable woman to accept such employment was often considered daring in

view of the danger of confusion with the

more numerous women camp followers,

whose ill repute was apt to attach itself to

any female employee. In later wars, the

employment of women became more common; drill, mascot, and social groups were

also organized, complete with uniforms

and sometimes rifles.2

There was a very clear distinction in the

Army's and the public's minds between

such groups and a corps of women with

soldiers' legal status, rights, and discipline.

Just before the nation's entry into the first

World War, the Army stated positively:

No official record has been found in the

War Department showing specifically that

any woman was ever enlisted in the military

service of the United States as a member of any organization of the Regular or Volunteer

Army. It is possible, however, that there may

have been a few instances of women having

served as soldiers for a short time without

their sex having been detected, but no record

of such cases is known to exist in the official

files. Women were often employed as laundresses and as nurses, but they were merely

civilians while so engaged and were in no

sense in the military service of the United

States.3

Total War and the Industrial Revolution

Serious consideration of an official

women's corps was scarcely possible before

the twentieth century. Until then, war

was not organized and mechanized to an

extent that required more manpower than

a nation could provide from among its

men; the great supply systems and fixed

headquarters of total war were yet to

come. Also, women were skilled in few

duties that would have been useful to an

army even had it needed manpower, and

few women felt it proper to practice even

their traditional tasks of cooking and nursing outside the home.

Both reasons were swept away in the

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,

when the industrial revolution that mechanized men's wars also taught women to

work outside the home. Long before the

Army began to consider the admittance of

women, businesses and factories had employed them and had trained them as

clerks, typists, telephone operators, and

technicians. Some such fields were in fact

taken over by women so completely that

by the time of the first World War it was

already difficult for the Army to find any

number of competent male typists and

telephone operators.

Nevertheless, there remained considerable room for doubt as to the value of

woman as a military employee. Industry's

experience had produced the general impression that women were suited only for

work of limited responsibility; that

"women won't work for women" and certainly that men would not; that a woman

employee was handicapped by a weaker

constitution and more frequent ailments.

Business surveys as late as 1942 confirmed

the fact that women supervisors were unpopular with employees because of alleged

2

 (1) Sir John William Fortescue, History of the British Army (London and New York: Macmillan and Co.,

1890-1930), Vol. I. (2) Rapid City, S. D., Daily Journal, October 21, 1944. 3

 Ltr cited n. 1(2).
FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II 5

deficiencies in leadership. Army planners

also noted delicately that a woman had a

"physiological handicap which renders

her abnormal, unstable, etc., at certain

times."

 4 Medical statistics indicated that

women were in general smaller than men

in stature, lighter in weight, less in average

weight of skeletal muscles and heart, lower

in basal metabolism, and with only about

60 percent the strength to lift, grip, or pull

loads.5

It therefore was a matter for grave consideration whether an Army would be justified in accepting women into military

positions where unreliability would be not

merely uneconomical but disastrous, even

though farm and factory were thereby

stripped of their last man. In the relatively

flexible civilian economy, a woman might

soften in many ways her adjustment to

difficult work, but in the rigid military

framework, adaptation would be an allor-nothing affair. There would be no easy

absenteeism, home privacy and comforts,

or choice of working conditions, nor yet

the privilege of quitting a demanding job.

Even if these handicaps proved exaggerated, there was one obstacle that was

not—the opposition of the American public. The Army did not operate in the

vacuum of a dictatorship, but in a nation,

society, and culture whose traditions must

be considered. The course of public opinion regarding woman's place had by no

means kept pace with her economic

progress. The saying was still frequently

heard that "woman's place is in the

home," and it appeared certain that there

would be great public opposition to placing women in soldier's jobs and in positions of rank and command. Army

psychiatrists later noted that "in order for

women to gain an active participation in

military activities it was necessary for man

to change his basic concept of the feminine

role, to overcome his fear of' women generals.' " 6 Army planners realized that such

an obstacle existed, but it was not until

after the establishment of a women's corps

that its full extent was to be revealed.

The Army Nurse Corps

First to take the field against these obstacles was the Army Nurse Corps, whose

development provided a close parallel to

later WAC events. The admitted superiority of female nursing first caused acceptance of nurses as civilian employees, but

in war after war it was found extremely

difficult to maintain a civilian group within a military organization. Much inefficiency in Civil War medical care was

believed due to "the lack of a single unified Nurse Corps with official status." In

the Spanish-American War, it was noted

that "unified direction and control within

the Army framework itself was the only

way to avoid administrative confusion and

to assure maximum efficiency."

 7

Such full admission was delayed chiefly

by popular opposition to military status

for females, which led one early organizer

to remark, "The nurse question is the

women question; we shall have to run the

4

 Ltr, Maj L. W. McIntosh, Exec, Office Chief of

Air Corps, to Maj Everett S. Hughes, G-1, 17 Apr 30.

G-1/19835. 5

 Anna M. Baetjer, Women in Industry; Their Health

and Efficiency (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co.,

1946). Prepared in the Army Industrial Hygiene

Laboratory under auspices of the National Research

Council. 6

 Maj Albert Preston, Jr., History of Psychiatry in

the Women's Army Corps, 1946. SGO. Hereafter

cited as Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC. 7

 All references to the Army Nurse Corps, and to

nursing, unless otherwise stated, are from a pamphlet

published by the ANC, The Army Nurse. Copy in War

College Library.
6 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

gantlet of those historic rotten eggs."

 8 In

1901 Congress established the Army

Nurse Corps, with somewhat the same

status as the later Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC)—a military organization, but without Army rank, officer

status, equal pay, or Army benefits such as

retirement and veteran's rights. After the

first World War its members were given

relative rank and some retirement benefits, although pay and allowances still

were not those of the men. Full military

rank was not to be granted to nurses until

1944, a year after the WAAC had been

legally admitted to full Army status and

rank as the Women's Army Corps

(WAC).9

Nevertheless, in placing nurses in a

militarized and uniformed corps, the nation had taken one long step toward admission of women to full membership in

the armed forces. Neither the public nor

the Army was prepared to take further

steps; the serious proposal for the establishment of the Women's Army Corps

waited for the day when some great war

that would almost drain the pool of American manpower should coincide with an

availability of women workers trained in

the modern skills an army required.

World War I

The first World War narrowly missed

being that occasion. The first pinch of

manpower shortage was felt chiefly by

American industry and business, but by

the end of 1918 the military services were

also seriously concerned. The British,

whose war effort was more nearly total,

had already established women's auxiliaries in several of their services, and there

was considerable evidence that had the

war lasted a few months longer the United

States might have done likewise. At the

moment of the Armistice, the War Department General Staff was beset by serious

proposals to this effect from both within

and without the Army.10

One of the first of these proposals was

initiated by the American Expeditionary

Force in France. On 8 October 1917,

General Pershing cabled a request for one

hundred women telephone operators who

could speak French and recommended

that they be uniformed. This request was

approved and the women were sent as

civilian contract employees with privileges

very similar to those of the Army Nurse

Corps. Subsequently other groups were

sent overseas, under varying contracts, by

The Quartermaster General, the Ordnance Department, and the Medical

Corps, but none had military status. In

spite of extensive use of these groups, and

of French women for unskilled work, the

labor shortage of the AEF continued.11

At the same time, numerous civilian

volunteer welfare groups, using over 5,000

American women, thrived and multiplied

overseas in an un-co-ordinated manner,

and appeared to the Army to be striving

through competitive publicity to show

what they had done for "the boys." While

Army reports recorded almost no criticism

of the conduct of these women, they did

8

 Statement attributed to Mrs. Bedford Fenwick,

about 1887. Lucy Ridgely (Buckler) Seymer, A General History of Nursing (London: Faber and Faber, Ltd.,

1933). 9

 The use of the abbreviations WAAC (later WAC)

for the Corps and of Waacs (later Wacs) for its members was authorized, provided the full title of the

Corps was used first, by Office Memorandum 21, 11

September 1942. SPWA 300, 1942 WAAC files. (See

Bibliographical Note.) 10

 D. Colett Wadge, ed., Women in Uniform (London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co., Ltd., 1946). 11

 (1) Cablegram 276, par 15b, 8 Nov 17; (2)

Memo, Dir of Women's Relations for G-1, 6 Aug 26,

sub: Utilization of Women in Mil Serv. G-1/7000-2.
FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II 7

criticize the lack of orderly administration,

the overlapping of duties, and the absence

of any Army control. The confusion in the

welfare groups was in striking contrast to

the organized service given by members of

the British Women's Auxiliary Army

Corps, the largest of the British auxiliaries,

whose services were lent to the AEF when

the need for women's skills grew desperate. American Army officers in later

years remembered favorably the discipline, efficiency, and esprit de corps of the

British women's services.12

In still further attempts to solve the

AEF's labor shortages, the commanding

general of the AEF's Services of Supply,

Maj. Gen. James G. Harbord, cabled repeatedly to the War Department in August of 1918 for authority to send a representative to the United States to recruit

and organize a group of 5,000 women

clerical workers to replace enlisted men.

The representative was sent, followed by a

proposal from the AEF that a women's

service corps be organized as a part of the

Army Service Corps. After considerable

War Department debate as to whether the

women should be enlisted, Civil Service,

or uniformed contract employees, General

Harbord was informed that, because of

the change in draft age, 5,000 limited

service men would be sent instead of the

women. Concerning a women's corps, the

War Department stated that it was not yet

convinced of "the desirability or feasibility

of making this most radical departure in

the conduct of our military affairs."

 13

Meanwhile, strong supporting action

for the AEF's effort came from posts and

camps and from headquarters agencies in

the United States. All Army and National

Guard cantonments and camps had previously been forbidden to employ civilian

women in any capacity except as nurses.14

In the face of pleas from station commanders, this ruling was soon modified to authorize civilian employment of women "in

essential work for which men employees

cannot be obtained . . . taking only those

of mature age and high moral character."

 15

The War Department noted, "With careful supervision, women employees may be

permitted in camps without moral injury

either to themselves or to the soldiers."

 16

Even with this concession, enough employees could not be procured, especially

in isolated and uncomfortable stations, to

perform all necessary duties. The Washington headquarters offices also found it

difficult to obtain and hold an adequate

number of female Civil Service employees.17

Therefore, the conclusion was reached

almost simultaneously by several Army

agencies, both in Washington and in the

field, that a corps of women under military control would be the solution to these

problems. As The Quartermaster General

pointed out concerning laundresses:

Every effort in the past of this office to pro- vide a hired force of women at camps and

cantonments has been unsatisfactory . . .

12

 (1) Memo cited n. 11(2), Table G, Rpts on Welfare Work, AEF; Tables A, B. (2) Senate Com on Mil

Affairs, 77th Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on S 2240, 6 Feb

42, pp. 10-14. 13

 (1) Memo cited n. 11(2). Also: (2) Memo, CofS

for TAG, Oct 18, sub: Enlmt of Women for Serv in

France. WD Rec OCofS, 10730-19, National Archives. (3) Memo, TAG for GofS, 2 May 18, AG

011.2; approved by AGofS, 11 May 18, in Memo for

TAG, 11 May 18. WD Rec AGO, WPD 10730-7,

National Archives. 14

 Stf Memo, 8 Oct 17, in 1st Ind OQMG, 16 Oct

17. G-1/7000-2. 15 Ltr, TAG to CGs of all National Guard and National Army Divs, 11 Dec 17. AG 230.2211 (Misc

Div). See Memo cited n. 11(2). 16

 Memo, Lt Col Robert I. Rees, GSC, for CofS, 7

Dec 17. Copy in Memo cited n. 11(2). 17

 Memo 62, Col Ira L. Reeves, IGD, for ASW, 24

Aug 18. Copy in Memo cited n. 11(2).
8 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

only women of doubtful character show any

inclination to remain as long as the voluntary

system of employment is in vogue.18

The Quartermaster General thereupon

recommended that legislation be secured

to authorize the enlistment of women, ages

21-45, to be organized as the Women's

Auxiliary Quartermaster Corps. Similar

requests, giving similar reasons, were also

made by the Inspector General's Department, the Chief of Engineers, the Operations Branch of the General Staff, and the

Chief of Ordnance. The Chief of Ordnance estimated that the yearly turnover of civilian employees in his branch

was approaching 84 percent. Ordnance

and other branches went so far as to devise the uniform to be worn by enlisted

women. At a meeting with representatives

of The Quartermaster General, The Surgeon General, Signal Corps, Military

Aeronautics, and the Corps of Engineers,

it was decided that the uniform should be

of "soft silver brown wool material," with

a tan pongee blouse and brown Windsor

tie, and that "no furs shall be worn with

the uniform."

 19

These pleas did not receive favorable

consideration by the War Department.

Legislation to enlist "effective and ablebodied women" had in fact already been

introduced in Congress in December of

1917, but had been returned to the House

Military Affairs Committee by the Secretary of War with an expression of his disapproval. The memorandum upon which

this opinion was based stated in unmistakable terms:

The enlistment of women in the military

forces of the United States has never been seriously contemplated and such enlistment

is considered unwise and highly undesirable

. . . the action provided for in this bill is not

only unwise, but exceedingly ill-advised.

War Plans Division noted in May of 1918:

Industrial conditions in the United States

are not yet in such shape that it is necessary

to undertake a line of action that would be

fraught with so many difficulties.20

The War Department was equally unfavorable to an attempt by The Surgeon

General to commission women doctors in

the Medical Corps. The Judge Advocate

General was unable to discover in the terminology of the National Defense Act any

legal barrier to the appointment of women

under that act. Nevertheless, the War Department's opinion was upheld on the

grounds that only persons "physically,

mentally, and morally qualified" could be

appointed and that women doctors were

obviously not physically qualified.21

The dismay of certain Army agencies

at the lack of Army authority to enlist

women was heightened by the Navy's action in placing the opposite interpretation

upon its legislative authority and enlisting

all the women it needed without further

ceremony. As one Army planner later

complained, "By enlisting Yeomen (F) the

Navy Department ignored the Civil Service Commission and satisfied its needs regardless of the needs of others. They

18

 Memo, OQMG for TAG, 24 Apr 18, sub: Legislation Authorizing Enlmt of Women. WD Rec,

OCofS, War College Div, 10730-7, 400.6 General,

National Archives. 19

 (1) Memo cited n. 11(2), Tab F. (2) Series of five

studies by Dr. Kristine Mann, Civilian Workers' Br,

OCofOrd, 19 Sep to 28 Sep 18. (3) Memo, CofOrd

for WPD, 26 Sep 18. WD Rec, OCofS, War College

Div 10730-16 and 17, 342/8, National Archives. 20

 (1) HR 7112, 6 Dec 17. (2) Memo, Actg Chief,

War College Div, for CofS, 22 Dec 17, sub: Bill Introduced in House of Representatives. Rejection was by

Ltr, Newton D. Baker, SW, to Chmn, House Com on

Mil Affairs, 26 Dec 17. WD Rec, OCofS, War College Div, 10730-1, National Archives. (3) Memo, Dir

WPD for CofS, 8 May 18. WD Rec, OCofS, War College Div, 10730-7, AG 011.2, National Archives. 21

 Operations JAG 1917, I, 126. National Archives.
WOMEN DURING WORLD WAR I served in France as telephone operators in a civilian 

capacip, and with the Navy and Marine Corps in the same status as men. 
10 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

wanted clerks and they got them."

 22

Nearly 13,000 women enlisted in the Navy

and Marine Corps on the same status as

men and wore a uniform blouse with insignia. These women were the first in the

United States to be admitted to full military rank and status.23

In addition to the pressure on the War

Department from military advocates of

the enlistment of women, there was undoubtedly some activity by organized

women's groups. Prominent women in

various sections of the country went so far

as to organize semimilitary groups. In

New York the Women's League for SelfDefense, five hundred strong and dressed

in bloomers and puttees, drilled with

rifles in the 66th Regimental Armory,

and informed reporters that they had

written Secretary of War Newton D. Baker

and Maj. Gen. Leonard Wood "offering

our service as the only strictly military

women's organization in America."

 24

 The

YWCA proposed that any more women

sent to France be placed in a women's

army corps like the British WAAC, with

strict discipline and no individual billeting.25

 A similar proposal came from the

American Council on Education, which

concluded that military status would make

for fewer resignations among trainees for

war jobs.26

All such proposals came to an abrupt

end with the cessation of hostilities on 11

November 1918. With a one-page sigh of

relief the General Staff shelved the bulky

documents that had set forth the arguments pro and con, and declared:

In view of the present military situation it

is believed no longer desirable that arrangements be made to form military organizations composed of women. . . . A continuance of the war would have required the

United States in completing its program for

the year 1919 to make a much more extended use of women . . . to replace men

sent overseas or men shifted to heavy work

which men alone can do.27

With this, the serious consideration of

the establishment of a women's military

group was relinquished to another generation of planners and to another war.

Twenty-three Years of Peace

The nation had hardly settled itself into

postwar routine when it became evident

that considerable political power was being wielded by the newly enfranchised female sex and its many well-organized

national groups. It soon began to appear

to the Army, as well as to many female

leaders, that the mass of American women

was dangerously susceptible to the charms

of pacifism and other doctrines that advocated the abolition of the military as the

best means of insuring peace.28

To stem this tide of opinion the Army

sought to teach women voters more about

22

 Memo, Hughes for G-1, 21 Sep 28, sub: Participation of Women in War. G-1/8604-1. 23

 Memo cited n. 11(2). The legality of the Navy's

action was held in "grave doubt" in a later decision

of the Comptroller of the Treasury, but payment of

the women was permitted in order not to interfere

with naval efficiency. The Navy thereupon ceased enlisting women, but those already enlisted retained

rights of service personnel and later of veterans.

Memo, Maj Briant H. Wells, GS, for CofS, 22 Jun 17.

WD Rec, OCofS, War College Div, 8196-7, National

Archives. 24

 New York American, February 9, 1917. 25

 Memo, Dir WPD for CofS, 21 Oct 18, sub: Enlmt

of Women for Serv in France. WD Rec, OCofS

10730-19, National Archives. 26

 Memo, Chmn, Com on War Serv Tng for College

Women, American Council on Education, 18 Sep 18.

WD Rec, OCofS 10730-16, National Archives. 27

 Memo. CofOpns Div GS for CofS,—Nov 18, sub:

Orgn of WAAC and Equivalent Orgn in U.S. WD

Rec, OCofS, War College Div, 10730-23, National

Archives. Copy in Memo cited n. 11(2). 28

 Proceedings of Fifth Women's Patriotic Conference on National Defense, 29-31 Jan 30, Constitution

Hall, Washington, D. C. Copy in G-1/9835.
FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II 11

its own nature and purpose. To this end,

Secretary Baker in 1920 created a new position under the comprehensive title of

Director of Women's Relations, United

States Army, with an office in G-1 Division of the General Staff. The director was

to maintain liaison between the War Department and the women of the country

and to secure their co-operation by explaining to them that the Army was "a

progressive, socially minded human institution" and that women voters should not

"fanatically demand the dissolution of a

ruthless military machine."

 29

 There was

some consideration as to whether the director should have military status, but the

Army decided to await developments.

The first incumbent of the position resigned after one year, for personal reasons

and for what her successor believed to be

"dissatisfaction with the lack of support

given her."

 30

 The next appointee, Miss

Anita Phipps, the daughter of an Army

family, was also dissatisfied. There ensued

a decade-long battle as to whether her position should degenerate into that of a

supervisor of the Army's thirty-odd hostesses, or should be expanded into that of

planner-in-chief for a women's Army

corps, and first director.

Miss Phipps' difficulties, as set forth in

periodic lengthy memoranda to the Secretary of War, centered around War Department failure to support her commitments

and to give her military status. She thus,

in her opinion, lost prestige in the eyes of

powerful women's groups. She was embarrassed in the presence of Army and

Navy nurses by her "undignified makeshift" of a uniform. Headquarters divisions

and offices often failed to consult her when

corresponding with women's organizations. General officers, when asked to

speak before women's groups, ignored the

careful tip sheets Miss Phipps had prepared for their guidance, and often alienated those whom she had cultivated with

care. Her recommendations and staff

studies were frequently filed without further action. One of her chiefs in G-1 Division went so far as to state baldly that her

position should be abolished, since the

male members of the General Staff were

competent to plan the future utilization of

women by the military service.31

In 1929, after almost ten years of work,

Miss Phipps had nevertheless secured tentative approval of a plan that would unite

the support of the most powerful women's

groups behind the Secretary of War by

means of a system of civilian aides to the

Secretary—one chief aide, one in each

corps area, and one in each state. Secretary of War Dwight F. Davis on 25 February 1929 publicly announced this plan to

the press after a conference with women

members of the League of Women Voters,

American War Mothers, Daughters of the

American Revolution, National Federation of Business and Professional Women's

Clubs, and other such groups.

There at once arose a storm of letters

from Senators and clergymen and from

male civilian aides threatening to resign

if women were also made civilian aides.

Only fifteen days later a new Secretary of

War, James W. Good, was in office and

promptly sent telegrams to the women

representatives, canceling the meeting of

the nominating committee. This action,

which in Miss Phipps' opinion greatly

alienated the powerful women's groups,

29

 Memo, Dir Women's Relations for SW, 8 Jan 27.

G-1/9562. Copy, with history of the office attached,

in G-1/9835. 30 Ibid.

31

 Memo, Brig Gen Campbell King, G-1, for CofS,

29 Sep 27, sub: Duty of Dir Women's Relations for

U.S. Army. G-1/9835.
12 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

was followed in October by a final letter

from Mr. Good to the women concerned,

regretting that "the present is not a propitious time for appointing women civilian

aides."

 32

Discouraged and in ill health, Miss

Phipps in 1930 made a last appeal to the

Secretary of War to define her duties and

authority or to abolish her position.

Nothing definite was done, and in 1931

her work was terminated by illness and by

a new Chief of Staff, Gen. Douglas MacArthur, who overrode a favorable G-1

opinion and informed the Secretary of

War that he considered her duties to be of

no military value.33

Plans for a Women's Service Corps

The Director of Women's Relations left

behind her the first complete and workable plan for a women's corps. Over a

period of several years she compiled all

evidence concerning the utilization of

women during World War I, including the

opinions of the British, the Congress, the

Navy, and various Army commands. The

heart of the plan was that the proposed

women's service corps should be in the

Army and not an auxiliary. She rejected

the then-popular idea of enlisting women

and giving them a uniform and a job but

no military training, organization, discipline, housing, or required courtesies. This

idea, she noted, had been tried and proved

undesirable by both the Navy and the

British. Instead, she proposed that women

be fully trained and assigned only in units

under the command of women officers,

with not less than a squad at any station

and no individual billeting allowed. All

Army Regulations were to apply, plus

special regulations for women as needed.34

By sending questionnaires to eight corps

areas, three territorial departments, and

eighteen chiefs of branches or similar services, Miss Phipps discovered that about

170,000 women would be wanted in wartime, although only six agencies favored

giving them immediate military status.

In view of later debate about the proper

jobs for women in the Army, it was significant that at this time the concept of a

menial type of corps of low-grade personnel still loomed large in Army thinking.

Not quite half of the requests were for

clerks and stenographers; a few others

were for small numbers of skilled workers

such as draftsmen, dietitians, and telephone operators. The rest were chiefly for

large numbers for relatively unskilled

work: approximately 5,800 laundry workers, 7,000 cooks, 1,300 charwomen and

janitors, 5,000 chauffeurs, 2,000 messengers, 11,000 laborers, 8,000 seamstresses,

and so on.

The whole idea was rejected by the

General Staff in August of 1926, although

most divisions called it a "very splendid"

study.35 G-2 Division objected to the cost

of housing, G-3 to difficulties in transportation and toilet facilities, and G-4 to

the personnel policy involved. War Plans

32

 (1) Copies of Itrs and telgs are in G-1/9835

(1927). (2) Ltr, SW to Mrs. John Sippel, President,

Gen Federation of Women's Clubs, 19 Oct 29. G1/8604-3. 33

 (1) Memo, Miss Phipps for SW, 21 Oct 30; (2)

Memos, G-1 for CofS, 13, 14 Nov 30; (3) Memos,

OCofS, 5-6 Mar 31; (4) Ltr, CofS to SW, 10 Mar 31.

All in G-1/9835 (1931). 34

 (1) Her voluminous preliminary notes and studies

are still on file in several roughly bound volumes in

G-1/7000. (2) Memo, Dir Women's Relations for

G-1, 6 Aug 26. G-1/7000-2. For Navy and British

experiences see: (3) Memo, OCofOrd for 3d ASW.

WD Rec, OCofS, War College Div, 10730-16, National Archives. (4) Memo cited n. 25. 35

 Memo, G-1 for G-2, G-3, G-4, and WPD, 14

Aug 26, sub: Utilization of Women in Mil Serv, and

atchd replies. G-1/7000-3.
FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II 13

Division suggested that the study be used

only as a basis for further study and

planning.

Throughout the comments of the entire General Staff ran the conviction that

the mobilization of the United States

would be a leisurely affair. G-4 Division

noted: "To consider the development of a

training organization for women workers

in the beginning of a major emergency

appears unthinkable.'

 36

A more powerful reason for private opposition among officers of the General

Staff was noted by the Assistant Chief of

Staff, G-1, Brig. Gen. Campbell King.

General King wrote personally to the

Chief of Staff that Miss Phipps seemed to

wish to perfect within the Army an organization of women, headed by a woman,

with a hierarchy of subheads plus influential civilian advisers, which would constitute "a powerful machine difficult to

control and endowed with possibilities of

hampering and embarrassing the War

Department."

 37

Oddly enough, during a decade when

neither a military corps nor a civilian advisory group could receive approval, a few

women somewhat accidentally fell heir to

the full blessings of Army status. When, in

a more or less routine order, the supposedly

all-male category of Army field clerks was

blanketed into military service, it was

found to include a handful of women employees. While this occurrence was scarcely

noted on the planning level and was never

considered a precedent for an organized

women's corps, the few individuals concerned were later held by the Comptroller

General to have been full-fledged members of the military service, with the same

status as the Navy yeomanettes. Later,

Congress amended the armed forces' legislation to place the word male before persons,

thus effectually guaranteeing that neither

the yeomanette nor the field clerk episode

would be repeated without its sanction.38

The Hughes Plan

Male planners up to this time had not

come to very close grips with the problem

of planning for a women's corps. While

students at the Army War College had

studied a course entitled "Conservation by

Utilization of Women in Industry, in Military Service, and in Welfare Work," it was

ordinarily assumed that such "Conservation" would be most appropriately left to

industry. The chief Army planner for a

women's corps was appointed in 1928; he

was Maj. Everett S. Hughes of G-1 Division, General Staff.

 39

Pointing out that nothing but fruitless

conflict had resulted from previous arguments between extreme feminists on the

one side and male die-hards on the other,

all disagreeing endlessly over minor details, Major Hughes proposed acceptance

of the fact that women would inevitably

play a part in the next war—the more

nearly total the war, the greater the part.

No amount of wishful thinking could avert

that necessity, powered as it was by social

and economic trends beyond the nation's

powers to reverse.

On the other hand, he stated, the Army

should not attempt a detailed solution until the situation was known; it would be

futile to waste time debating minor points,

36

 Memo, G-4 for G-1, 13 Sep 26. G-4/20390. 37

 (1) Memo, G-1 for CofS, 6 Jul 27. G-1/9835.

(2) Memo, Lt Col George Grunert for G-1, 3 Feb 27.

G-1/7000-2. 38

 The Comptroller General's decision is discussed

in Ch. XII, below. 39

 Discussion of Hughes plan, unless otherwise indicated, is from Memo, Hughes for G-1, 21 Sep 28, sub:

Participation of Women in War. G-1/8604-1.
14 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

such as whether women should enter the

combat zone, until it was known what the

combat zone of the next war might include. Before the time arrived to make

these specific decisions, the women who

were to help make them must be trained

not merely in drill but in an understanding of Army thinking, a process that could

not be achieved overnight. And the men

who were to make the decisions must also

be trained in understanding the problems

of militarization of women. If the women

who were to lead the new corps were ignorant, said Hughes, "this ignorance, coupled

with man's intolerance, may be fatal." 40

The Hughes plan contemplated that

only women overseas or in danger zones

would be militarized. The only advantage

to the Army in militarizing other women

would be that of being able to order them

to perform certain unpopular duties such

as laundry work, and the plan noted the

fallacy of supposing that women of a

higher type would enlist after they knew

that only menial work was in store for

them.

The need for military status in danger

zones was strongly indicated by current

arguments then before Congress concerning women who had worked in France

and who were seeking compensation for

the loss of their health. The War Department had already decided that such

women were not entitled to veterans'

gratuities, ruling in one case:

Female telephone operators have no military status whatever . . . those serving with

the American Expeditionary Forces [were]

not even under civil service regulations. . . .

It is not believed that Congress intended that

a gratuity should be paid to any person not

actually a member of the military establishment.41

Nevertheless, the sentiment in Congress

favored those women whose disabilities

were directly due to war service, and

financial relief to prevent their destitution

was voted in certain cases. At this time

Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers of

Massachusetts developed an interest in the

problem which was to lead ultimately to

her sponsorship, fifteen years later, of the

WAAC bill.

 42

Major Hughes also stated that it was

uneconomical and confusing to have separate organizations of men and women,

and that qualified women could be integrated into the men's army, with a similar uniform and privileges. He argued

against camouflaging rank by odd titles

such as Deputy Controller, which spared

the male ego but confused the employing

agencies. "Why not take the whole step

and do the thing right?" he wrote.

Major Hughes' prophetic efforts were

embalmed with indorsements, laid out for

observation for a period, and then buried

so deep in the files that they were recovered only after the WAAC was six months

old and War Department planners had

already made most of the mistakes he predicted.43

 His study was sent to the Chief of

40

 Author's italics. 41

 Memo, Dir WPD for CofS, 18 Mar 19. WD Rec,

OCofS, War College Div, 10730-26, National Archives. 42

 (1) House Com on Veterans Legislation, 69th

Cong, 1st sess, Hearings, 6 Aug 26. (2) Interv with

Mrs. Rogers, 14 Dec 45. (This form of citation is used

throughout for interviews conducted by the author.) 43

 The study was recovered then only when Mrs.

Oveta Culp Hobby, Director, WAAC, on temporary

duty in England, was introduced to Maj. Gen. Everett S. Hughes, who demanded to know what G-1

had done with his masterpiece. Returning to Washington, she unearthed it but found no evidence that

it had been known to the G-1 planners. Interv with

Lt Col Helen Hamilton Woods, Deputy Dir WAC, 22

Oct 45.

Throughout the volume, the rank held by the officer at the time of the interview or of the discussion in

the text is given. Since this is not a completely chronological account, an officer who appears in an early
FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II 15

Staff in 1928 and again, refurbished, in

1930.44 At this time the new G-1, Brig.

Gen. Albert J. Bowley, also distinguished

himself in the field of prophecy by proposing an immediate campaign of education

for Regular Army officers, since

Successful co-operation between men and

women during the next war will depend to a

great extent on the attitude of the officers of

the Regular Army toward the women of the

country. To influence this attitude will re- quire much time and discussion.45

A dejected-looking sheaf of handwritten

scraps of paper indicated that the studies

were carried back and forth from G-1 to

the Chief of Staff to the Secretary of War

to G-1, bearing notations of diminishing

intensity, such as "Hold until Secretary of

War decides"; "Hold until fall when

women return to their homes after summer activities"; and, finally, merely

"Hold." The last one in the series, dated 5

January 1931, stated: "General B. says

may as well suspend; no one seems willing

to do anything about it."

So ended the peacetime planning for a

women's corps.

The Approach of World War II

On 1 September 1939, under the shadow of imminent hostilities, Gen. George C.

Marshall was appointed Chief of Staff,

and a month later planning for a women's

corps was resumed. A staff study of the

problem was shortly prepared by G-1

Division. The study did not reflect its

predecessors in any way; planners were

evidently not aware of the Phipps and

Hughes studies.46

The most important idea in the new

plan was that women must under no circumstances be given full military status.

The Civilian Conservation Corps was hit

upon as the model. The plan stated:

The CCC has shown how persons may be

grouped in units with a military form of organization, uniformed, given grades of rank,

paid and cared for, employed under orders

of Army Officers, administered by the

Army's chain of command, and governed by

War Department Regulations, without being

members of the Army.

WAAC leaders were later to consider

this analogy extremely unfortunate, since

the CCC had been a peacetime organization employed in separate camps, whereas

the WAAC was to be used in Army camps

and overseas where a legal distinction in

status would be far more difficult. The

plan likewise proposed that some women

would be set up in "quasi-military female

organizations" similar to companies, while

others would move about individually or

in small groups. It was stated that women's

probable jobs would include those of "hostesses, librarians, canteen clerks, cooks and

waitresses, chauffeurs, messengers, and

strolling minstrels." The plan was held in

abeyance, and for another eighteen

months the War Department did not commit itself.47

chapter as a lieutenant colonel subsequently may be

referred to as a major or a captain. It should also be

noted that, just as brigadier, major, and lieutenant

generals are customarily referred to. after their initial

mention, simply as General — — —. lieutenant colonels are referred to similarly as Colonel — — —. Colonel Hobby was the only full colonel in the wartime

WAC.

44

 (1) Memo, Gen King, G-1, for CofS, 24 Aug 28.

G-1/8604-1. (2) Memo, Brig Gen Albert J. Bowley,

G-1, 28 Feb 30. G-1/8604-4. 45

 Memo, G-1 for CofS, 4 Jun 29, sub: Participation of Women in War. G-1/8604-2. 46

 Memo, Capt Williston B. Palmer for G-1, 2 Oct

39, sub: Women with the Army (Emergency). G1/15839. 47

 (1) Ibid. (2) Personal Ltr, Col William Rose,

AGO, to Col Lawrence Whiting, 11 Jun 40, forwarded to Hist Div WDSS, 11 Apr 45, sub: Compilation of WAC History. OCMH.
16 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Meanwhile, numerous letters and telegrams began to be received from women's

organizations and from individuals offering their services. G-1 Division now expressed mild anxiety lest any of these

women arrive in a theater of operations

before they could be organized in some

civilian corps under military control. With

the collapse of France in May and June of

1940 and the subsequent Battle of Britain,

the offers of help redoubled. When in September of 1940 the first peacetime Selective Service Act became law, women's

groups increased their demands that they

be allowed to contribute to the nation's

defense. By March of 1941 a change in

tone could be noted in official statements.

In a letter to an inquirer General Marshall

stated:

While the United States is not faced with

an acute shortage of manpower such as has

forced England to make such an extensive

use of its women, it is realized that we must

plan for every possible contingency, and certainly must provide some outlet for the patriotic desires of our women.48

The pressure of these patriotic desires

was soon considerable. In Chicago, the

Women's League of Defense, 17,000

strong, set itself up as an agency for the enrollment and classification of "women who

can do anything helpful to replace a man

in the event of war." In Los Angeles, the

Women's Ambulance and Defense Corps

trained women in military skills and persistently sought recognition as an Armysponsored agency for training women officers. In Pittsburgh, the Memorial Gold

Cross First Aid and Ambulance Corps enrolled 2,000 members. In Washington,

D. C., the Green Guards stated that they

had "contended, urged, and pleaded with

the powers that be to include women in

the national defense plan in some capacity." In Ohio, the Toledo Unit of the

Willys-Overland Women's Motor Defense

Corps proposed to train women for duties

with the Army.

Many other such private organizations

arose, most of them genuine, but a few

spurious. G-2 Division was obliged to discontinue replies from the Chief of Staff to

organizations that had previously tried to

convince the public that they had Army

sponsorship. During these months, private

citizens without number also wrote to the

Army and to Congress offering their

services.49

More significant than this sporadic activity was evidence that Congress or national groups might act to set up women's

units outside Army control, or with full

military status. Congresswoman Edith

Nourse Rogers reported herself ready to

introduce a bill for full military status.

The Air Corps requested a woman's volunteer defense corps for duty with its Aircraft Warning Service; as the War Department delayed, the Air Corps decided that

a separate women's corps under its own

control might be preferable. U.S. Army

representatives in England also advised

that a women's auxiliary would be necessary in the event that larger forces were

sent overseas, since members of the British

Women's Auxiliary Air Force and Auxiliary Territorial Services could not be borrowed by the U.S. forces in sufficient

numbers because of the British manpower

shortage.

From the White House came two infor48

 See entire file G-1/15839 (5-11-42), especially

Memo, G-1 for CofS, 13 Aug 40; and Ltr, CofS to Dr.

John W. Colbert, 19 Mar 41. 49

 Examples are from: (1) Collection of Itrs and

documents in G-1/15839-1 (5-11-42); and (2) Rupert Hughes, "Shall We Have a Women's National

Guard?" Liberty, March 8, 1941.
FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II 17

mal proposals. Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt

suggested that American women, like the

British, be used in antiaircraft barrage

work, a duty that was considered by some

military planners as dangerously close to

combat work. In a separate proposal she

suggested a pool of women for service with

the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps, as

needed, but under the command of none

of them; instead, it would possibly be under the Office of Civilian Defense,

although members of Congress protested

such action from the House floor because

of the "miserable record of mismanagement" of that organization.50

Immediate impetus was supplied by

Congresswoman Rogers, for many years

an authority on legislation concerning

women. Mrs. Rogers stated later, when

asked her motives:

My motives? In the first World War, I was

there and saw. I saw the women in France,

and how they had no suitable quarters and

no Army discipline. Many dietitians and

physiotherapists who served then are still sick

in the hospital, and I was never able to get

any veterans' compensation for them, although I secured passage of one bill aiding

telephone operators. I was resolved that our

women would not again serve with the Army

without the protection men got.

 51

Mrs. Rogers later informed the House: "I

have been nursing this measure along

through the years."

 52

In the spring of 1941 Mrs. Rogers

called upon the Chief of Staff and informed him that she intended to introduce

a bill to establish a women's corps. General Marshall replied, "Give me a week to

consider it," and afterwards asked that

the week be extended to a month.53

During this month the War Department plunged into furious planning for a

bill that the Army could safely sponsor.

The planners' motives were made clear in

a staff memorandum from the Assistant

Chief of Staff, G-1, who wrote:

Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers has

been determined for some time to introduce

a bill to provide a women's organization in

the Army. We have succeeded in stopping

her on the promise that we are studying the

same thing, and will permit her to introduce

a bill which will meet with War Department

approval. Mrs. Roosevelt also seems to have a plan.

The sole purpose of this study is to permit

the organization of a women's force along

lines which meet with War Department approval, so that when it is forced upon us, as

it undoubtedly will be, we shall be able to

run it our way.54

The resulting plan was the work of Col.

James Taylor of G-1 Division and, later,

of Maj. Robert W. Berry. It provided for a

Women's Army Auxiliary Force (WAAF),

definitely a civilian auxiliary and not part

of the Army. The plan's authors believed

that it would avoid the errors made during

World War I. They stated:

The War Department initially made no

provision for the use of women in the last war

with the exception of the Army Nurse Corps.

50

 (1) Ltr, AC to TAG, 19 Mar 41. AG 324.4 (3-

19-41). (2) D/F, G-1 for AC, 8 May 41. G-1/15839-

10, Pt 1. (3) Ltr, GHQ AF to CofAAF, 27 Dec 41, and

subsequent documents. ACC 324.5 AWS (Women).

AG 291.9 WAAC Sec 1, Pt 1. (4) [Henry G. Elliott]

The Predecessor Commands, SPOBS and USAFBI,

Pt I of The Administrative and Logistical History of

the ETO, Hist Div USFET, 1946, MS, p. 255,

OCMH. (5) Memos, Chief, Women's Interest Sec,

WDBPR, for CofS, 14 Nov 41, and 9 Dec 41, sub:

HR 4906. AG 291.9 WAAC Sec 1 Pt 1 (6-2-41). (6)

Congressional Record, Vol. 88, No. 55, p. 2657, 17 Mar

42.

51

 Interv cited n. 42(2); also Congressional Record,

Vol. 87, No. 100, p. 4639, 28 May 41. 52

 Congressional Record entry cited n. 50(6). 53

 Interv cited n. 42(2). 54

 Memo, Brig Gen Wade H. Haislip, G-1, for

CofS, 29 Apr 41. G-1/15839-10. Also in WA 320

(5-29-41) DRB AGO.
18 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

. . . However, the services of women were

found to be so necessary overseas and in

posts, camps, and bureaus in the United

States that before the World War was over, a

large group of women were serving with the

Army in unorganized and uncoordinated

groups, hastily and inefficiently recruited,

under little if any discipline, and with no

military status or recognition.

 55

Cited advantages of the plan included not

only its greater controls but the fact that

"it will tend to avert the pressure to admit

women to actual membership in the

Army." Cited disadvantages included not

only the many special arrangements necessary for women's care but the fact that

the corps would "inject many other unpredictable problems into military

administration."

Most of the General and Special Staff

Divisions, when the plan was submitted to

them for comment, agreed with G-1's

reasoning. The name was changed from

WAAF to WAAC, at the suggestion of The

Adjutant General, because a parallel with

the earlier British name was believed desirable, although Mrs. Rogers and other

women advisers objected because of the

sound and the similarity to the word wacky.

G-4 Division concurred "in time of war

only."

 56

Although The Surgeon General concurred, the Director of the Army Nurse

Corps, Maj. Julia Flikke, did not favor the

bill, saying, "It is my opinion that the disadvantages outweigh the advantages . . .

complications would arise between that

organization and other existing organizations." She feared that it would inconvenience citizens by causing "a dearth of

domestic help" during the war and that

"this organization necessarily would be

composed largely of married women who

would find it difficult to comply with

regulations because of home ties, and

would always need special consideration

and no doubt there would be many who

would object to regimentation."

 57

 Only

the Judge Advocate General proposed full

military status, fearing—all too accurately, as it later proved—legal complications in an auxiliary.58

The Secretary of War rejected the plan

at first sight, declaring it "premature," but

upon learning the alternatives he acceded,

being reassured by G-1 Division that "if

the organization of this force is authorized

by law, it is the intention of the War Department to develop it slowly and by trial

and error. It is not the purpose of the War

Department to rush into this matter on a

large scale."

 59

H.R. 4906

On 28 May 1941 Mrs. Rogers introduced in the House of Representatives "A

Bill to establish a Women's Army Auxiliary Corps for Service with the Army of

the United States."

 60

 She accepted auxiliary status for the corps, saying:

In the beginning, I wanted very much to

have these women taken in as a part of the

Army. . . . I wanted them to have the same

rate of pension and disability allowance. I . . . realized that I could not secure that.

The War Department was very unwilling to

have these women as a part of the Army.6l

55

 Memo, G-1 for CofS, 31 Mar 41. G-1/15839-

10.

56

 Comments and concurrences are all in two

bound files, G-1/15839-10, Pts 1 and 2. 57

 Memo, Supt ANC for Col Howard T. Wickert,

9 Apr 41, atchd to Memo, SGO for G-1, 12 Apr 41.

SGO 322.5-1 WAAF. 58

 Bound files cited n. 56. 59

 Memo cited n. 54. 60

 HR 4906, 77th Cong, 1st sess, 28 May 41. 61

 Congressional Record entry cited n. 50(6).
FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II 19

She also correctly estimated Congressional

temper as being at this time much opposed

to any idea of full military status for

women.

H.R. 4906, as prepared by Major Berry

and other officers of G-1 Division, took

fourteen printed pages to outline the ways

in which the Corps did and did not differ

from the Army. The WAAC was to be a

corps of 25,000 women for noncombatant

service; it was "not a part of the Army but

it shall be the only women's organization

authorized to serve with the Army, exclusive of the Army Nurse Corps." There followed a statement of its mission that was

extremely significant, for it indicated a decision which was perhaps the most basic

and vital of the Corps' history: the WAAC

was established "for the purpose of making available to the national defense the

knowledge, skill, and special training of

the women of the nation." Deliberate emphasis was placed on the utilization of a

small number of skilled high-grade workers, instead of large numbers of unskilled

low-grade personnel, as contemplated in

earlier plans. Planners noted:

The problem in the United States is not

primarily one of utilizing women in the military service for the purpose of releasing manpower, but is one of utilizing women to

increase the efficiency of the Army.62

Both educational and technical qualifications should be set exceptionally high to

make of the projected organization an elite

corps, in order that it may quickly attain the

highest reputation for both character and

professional excellence.63

Later developments were to make it

appear that no one yet fully understood

the tremendous implications which this

decision would have in necessitating procedures different from those for men, who

were of course enlisted without any such

selectivity as to skills and character. In

fact, the same planners in a list of possible

duties included jobs manifestly unfit for

recruits of skill and education, such as

charwoman and laundry worker.

The bill neglected to spell out a point

that had been clearly stated in earlier

plans: the WAAC was to operate under

Army command channels above the company level. Instead, command responsibility was publicly placed on a woman

entitled Director, who was to "operate

and administer the Corps in accordance

with the normal military procedure of

command." The Director was also to "advise the War Department" and "make

recommendations as to plans and

policies."

Endless legal distinctions were also attempted. Waacs were to receive medical

service from the Army, but no medical or

other benefits after discharge except those

provided by the Employees Compensation

Commission. They were considered military personnel for benefits of the Soldiers

and Sailors Relief Act but not for benefits

of the act granting re-employment rights,

except for those who left Civil Service jobs.

Most important, the extent to which

Waacs could be disciplined was not clear.

It was stated that Waacs were to be subject to the Articles of War "when applicable," but it was to develop that no one

then or later ever knew when they were

applicable except in overseas areas.

The bill was obliged to be specific on

matters such as pay, allowances, grades

and the numbers in each grade, travel

pay, leave, and other points that were to

be quickly outmoded by subsequent Army

62

 Memo cited n. 55. 63

 Memo, Morale Br for G-1, 7 Apr 41. MB 320.2

(3-31-41) WR. Copy with G-1/15839.
20 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

legislation, thereupon requiring additional

WAAC legislation.

Still worse, the camouflaged grades

were not strictly comparable to Army

grades in either rank or pay and were to

cause great confusion in finance and personnel offices when the attempt was made

to replace men on Army Tables of Organization. Instead of lieutenants and captains, the WAAC had third, second, and

first officers. A first officer was comparable

to a captain in duties and insignia but

drew the pay of a first lieutenant; a second

officer drew pay somewhere between a

first and second lieutenant's; and a third

officer was comparable to a second lieutenant, with pay of $1,500.

Enlisted grades were still more confusing, with three grades of auxiliaries comparable to the Army's two grades of

privates and three grades of leaders in

place of the Army's five grades of noncommissioned officers. In addition there was

to be a director, who was authorized the

salary of $3,000, comparable to a major's,

and a few assistant directors, who were to

receive a captain's pay of $2,400.

This bill after its introduction immediately sank from sight; it was not to become law for a full year. It was referred

routinely to the Bureau of the Budget,

which did not reply for four months.

Meanwhile, G-1 Division had reversed its

previous stand and ventured the hope that

the Chief of Staff would withdraw his support or at least not commit himself until

the Bureau of the Budget was heard

from.64

Nevertheless, the Chief of Staff, almost

alone in the War Department, made it

clear in the fall of 1941 that he had come

to look on the bill with more than official

approval. Mrs. Rogers noted that "General Marshall now became very enthusiastic about the bill."

 65

 Col. John H.

Hilldring, soon to assume office as G-1,

stated later:

By the summer of 1941, General Marshall

was intensely interested in the WAAC business. He foresaw a cycle of shortages; that of

the moment was the supply shortage, in

which the scarcity of supplies hindered mobilization, but he now became convinced

that the bottleneck of the future would be

that of manpower. He also considered the

fact that war had become a complicated

business which needed many civilian techniques, and that many of these were almost

completely in the control of women. General

Marshall asked me why we should try to

train men in a specialty such as typing or

telephone work which in civilian life has

been taken over completely by women; this,

he felt, was uneconomical and a waste of

time which we didn't have. For example, the

Army's telephone service had always had a

reputation for being bad in spite of our

superior equipment, and women operators

could and did end all that. The Chief of Staff was also influenced by

the fact that the ladies wanted in; he literally

has a passionate regard for democratic

ideals.66

General Marshall at this time told

several of his staff members that, while he

did not see any immediate need for large

numbers of women in the Army, he would

like to have authorization for a women's

corps on his books so that, if the need for

quick action should arise, the point of debate would be past.67

 This agreed with

what he later wrote to Congress:

64

 Memo, Budget and Leg Plng Br for G-1, 18 Jun

41, sub: Rpt on HR 4906. AG 291.9 WAAC sec 1

pt 1 (6-2-41). 65

 Interv cited n. 42(2). 66

 Interv with Gen Hilldring, 17 Jan 46. 67

 Ibid.; also, statement was made to Mrs. Hobby

and repeated by her later to a Congressional committee. House Com on Mil Affairs, 77th Cong, 2d sess,

Hearings on HR 6293, 20-21 Jan 42, p. 33.
FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II 21

I regard the passage of this bill at an early

date as of considerable importance. In general, we have secured most of the legislation

required for the complete mobilization of the

Army so that we can go ahead with its development and definitely plan for the future.

However, we lack Congressional authority

for the establishment of a Women's Army

Auxiliary Corps, and as a result can make

no definite plans. Also, I am under continued pressure from many directions regarding this phase of our preparations.

It is important that as quickly as possible

we have a declared national policy in this

matter. Women certainly must be employed

in the overall effort of this nation. . . . We

consider it essential that their status, their

relationship to the military authority, should

be clearly established.68

The Chief of Staff therefore took personal action to needle the agencies still

brooding on the WAAC bill. Although the

U.S. Civil Service Commission and the

Employees Compensation Commission

both had been persuaded by Mrs. Rogers

to render favorable reports, the Bureau of

the Budget informed the War Department

on 7 October: "It is not believed that the

enactment of the proposed legislation, at

least at the present time, should be considered as being in accord with the program of the President."

 69

 The Bureau of

the Budget stated, "There appears to be

no need for a WAAC inasmuch as there

will never be a shortage of manpower in

the limited service field."

 70

In his attempts to get the measure past

the Bureau of the Budget, the Chief of

Staff employed a newcomer to the War

Department, one of its civilian consultants, Mrs. Oveta Culp Hobby. Mrs.

Hobby had, in the summer of 1941, been

"virtually drafted" to come to Washington

to set up the new Women's Interests Section of the War Department Bureau of

Public Relations, a section designed to

furnish soldiers' wives and mothers with

information that would reassure them

about the living conditions of their drafted

relatives. She had agreed to stay for not

more than four months, or until the

agency was functioning properly; any

longer absence from home she considered

undesirable in view of the fact that she

had a husband and two children and was

coeditor and publisher of a newspaper.71

General Marshall reported himself impressed with Mrs. Hobby's work in organizing a meeting, at which he spoke, of the

national presidents of the twenty-one largest women's organizations, designed to

secure their good will and assistance to the

Army.72 He therefore asked her to give the

G-1 planners any assistance on the public

relations aspect of the WAAC bill that

they might need. At the time of certain

discussions with the President's wife, General Marshall himself sent a handwritten

note to G-1: "Please utilize Mrs. Hobby

as your agent to smooth the way in this

matter through Mrs. Roosevelt."

 73

 As a

result, Mrs. Hobby was thoroughly familiar with the legislation and was appointed

68

 Ltr, CofS to Hon. John W. McCormack, 6 Feb

42. CofS personal files. 69

 Ltr, Bur of Budget to SW, 7 Oct 41. AG 291.9

WAAC sec 1 pt 1 (6-2-41). 70

 Quotation from Memo, Maj Berry for Gen Haislip, 2 Dec 41. WA 042.2 (12-2-41), DRB AGO. See

also Memo, Mrs. Hobby for CofS, 2 Dec 41, sub: HR

4906. CofS personal files. 71

 Senate Com on Mil Affairs, 77th Cong, 2d sess,

Hearings on S 2240, 6 Feb 42, p. 23. The Senate suspected that the office had been set up to lobby for the

WAAC, with which it actually had no connection. See

also Ltr, CG, Pacific Ocean Area (Lt Gen Robert C.

Richardson, Jr., formerly with WDBPR) to Col

Hobby, 12 Oct 44. WDWAC 320.2. Also see undated

MS draft, The Mission That Grew. WDWAC 314.7

(1945-46). 72

 Memo, Brig Gen Alexander D. Surles, Chief,

WDBPR, for CofS, 13 Oct 41. CofS personal files. 73

 Memo, Chief, Women's Interests Sec for CofS,

14 Nov 41, sub: HR 4906. AG 291.9 WAAC sec 1

pt l.
22 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

GEN. GEORGE C. MARSHALL speaking to a meeting of the national presidents of the

twenty-one largest women's organizations, 13 October 1941.

the only female representative of the War

Department in negotiations with the

Bureau of the Budget and in later Congressional hearings.

In further efforts to get the WAAC bill

past the Bureau of the Budget, General

Marshall made a personal call and sent a

highly favorable written report to the

effect that "this legislation has great

merit." Already overshadowed by the

coming events at Pearl Harbor, the report

on 25 November 1941 spoke of gaining

"valuable time while time is available" in

order to develop a small corps in an

orderly and efficient fashion.74

On Thanksgiving eve General Marshall

checked over with Colonel Hilldring the

measures now completed to make the War

Department ready for the gathering storm

and, noting that WAAC legislation was

still among the missing, directed him to

omit no step to ensure its immediate passage. Colonel Hilldring recounted later:

"General Marshall shook his finger at me

and said, 'I want a women's corps right

away and I don't want any excuses!' At

that, I displayed considerable energy."

 75

Colonel Hilldring's energy was shortly

reinforced by that of the Japanese at Pearl

Harbor. On 11 December, four days after

Pearl Harbor, the Bureau of the Budget

withdrew its objections.76 The way was

now clear to ask Congress for the orderly

74

 Memo, DCofS for Dir Bur of Budget, 25 Nov 41,

sub: Proposed Revised Rpt on HR 4906. G-1/15839-

10.

75

 Interv cited n. 66. 76

 Ltr, Bur of Budget to SW, 11 Dec 41. G1/15839-10. Also in AG 291.9 WAAC sec 1 pt 1.
FROM 1776 TO WORLD WAR II 23

and efficient development of a small

women's corps capable of expansion in

wartime.

When later criticism came to be leveled

against the agencies and individuals who

failed, in the five months now left before

the passage of the bill, to anticipate and

prevent every problem of the new organization's development, they were able to

note in reply that they were attempting in

one hundred and fifty days, and in the

midst of events that dwarfed the WAAC

in importance, to settle problems which

twenty-three years of leisurely planning

had not succeeded in solving. "Woman's

ignorance" and "man's intolerance" had

now come together in the fatal combination of Major Hughes' prophecy.
CHAPTER II

Establishment of the WAAC

From the date of Pearl Harbor onward,

plans for a women's corps moved with a

speed unequaled in the past decades. The

Secretary of War sent his approval of the

WAAC bill to Congress on Christmas Eve.

By the last day of 1941 Mrs. Rogers had

incorporated the War Department's proposed amendments into the bill and reintroduced it as H.R. 6293. The Navy

Department occasioned some delay while

it tried to persuade the War Department

not to sponsor the corps. Finally the Assistant Secretary of War in person succeeded in persuading the Navy to withdraw "their objections to our endorsing

it." Navy personnel chiefs flatly refused to

make the project a joint one, informing

Colonel Hilldring, "You are going to take

a beating and we'll wait to see what

happens."

 1

Congressional consideration was rapid

but rough. "It was a battle," said General

Hilldring later. "In my time I have got

some one hundred bills through Congress,

but this was more difficult than the rest of

the hundred combined."

 2 Opposition was

felt more on the floor of the House, and in

the cloakrooms, than in the Committees

on Military Affairs. At the committee

hearings Mrs. Rogers emphasized the protective and disciplinary aspects of the

measure.

The only real issue at these hearings was

that of militarization versus civil service.

Army spokesmen offered reassurance that

Waacs would be used only where civilians

were unobtainable, or where security required military personnel, and would

never under any conditions displace a

Civil Service employee. One powerful argument was advanced by the Air Corps,

which asserted that twenty-four-hour

daily security in the Aircraft Warning

Service could not be achieved with civilian

volunteers and that, unless Waacs could

be obtained, there would be actual danger

to the east coast, especially the capital.3

Much of the work of steering the bill

was personally handled by Col. Ira P.

Swift of the War Department. The committees moved with what Mrs. Rogers felt

was unprecedented speed. The House

hearing on 20 January was followed by the

committee's approval on 28 January, by

1

 (1) Ltr, SW to Chmn, House Com on Mil Affairs

24 Dec 41. AG 291.9 WAAC sec 1 pt 1. (2) Memo,

ASW for Hilldring, 21 Dec 41. G-1/15839-10. (3)

Interv with Maj Gen John H. Hilldring, 17 Jan 46.

Confirmed by interv with Mrs. Rogers, 14 Dec 45,

and by First Draft Narrative, U.S. Naval Administration in World War II: Bureau of Naval Personnel,

Women's Reserve, 18 January 1946. Dir of Naval

History. (Hereafter cited as WAVES Hist.) 2

 Interv with Gen Hilldring cited n. 1(3). 3

 All refs to com hearings are from: (1) House Com

on Mil Affairs, 77th Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on HR

6293, 20-21 Jan 42; (2) House Rpt 1705, 77th Cong,

2d sess, 28 Jan 42; (3) Senate Com on Mil Affairs,

77th Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on S 2240, 6 Feb 42; (4)

Senate Rpt 1051, Calendar 1086, 77th Cong, 2d sess,

9 Feb 42.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 25

Senate hearings on 6 February, and committee approval on 9 February. There

were no really angry remarks, although

there were a few such as "You are going to

have a few generals, aren't you? . . ."

"No, the women 'generals' will remain at

home"; or "Are you going to start a matrimonial agency?" Eventually the hearings

ended in a blaze of gallantry on the part of

the Southern senators.

Next, the bill stuck in the House Rules

Committee for some days. General Hilldring said later: "In all my experience

with legislation, I had never before had a

bill stick in the Rules Committee, but they

refused to report it out. I spent three hours

talking to them; I never confronted a

colder audience." Mrs. Rogers added,

"The Rules Committee was rough." Its

members eventually yielded, stating that

they dared not oppose their opinions to the

Chief of Staff's on the matter of measures

required for the national defense.4

When the measure finally reached the

House floor the real opposition developed.

Members argued that a soldier would go

forward in battle even if his buddy was

shot down beside him, but if his buddy

was a woman he would stop and render

first aid. Others declaimed, variously:

I think it is a reflection upon the courageous manhood of the country to pass a law

inviting women to join the armed forces in

order to win a battle.

Take the women into the armed service,

who then will do the cooking, the washing,

the mending, the humble homey tasks to

which every woman has devoted herself?

Think of the humiliation! What has become of the manhood of America?

 5

It was General Hilldring's opinion that

the bill was saved from immediate defeat

at this time only by the personal support

and prestige of the Chief of Staff. The

Secretary of War likewise threw his support behind the measure. Nevertheless, it

eventually became clear that, at best, passage would be delayed for some weeks

while other more important war measures

took precedence.6

The Appointment of WAAC Pre-Planners

Meanwhile, War Department planning

was racing to keep ahead of the bill's estimated rate of progress. Forty-five days

were lost in December and January before

it was decided to secure an officer with

wide experience and acquaintance in the

War Department to establish and guide

the new corps. He was to have the title of

Pre-Planner, WAAC, and was to operate

from a floating position in G-1 Division in

order to secure necessary action from all

other agencies. Such an officer was not immediately available in the War Department, and G-1 brought in from the field

and temporarily assigned Lt. Col. Gilman

C. Mudgett, ordering him to "build a fire

under WAAC planning."

 7 Colonel Mudgett was a Cavalry officer with twenty

years' experience in the Regular Army,

and an expert in Advanced Equitation.

Most of his experience had been as a

squadron officer with mounted units and

as an instructor at the Cavalry School; he

4

 Intervs cited n. 1(3); also Memos, Chief, Budget

and Leg Plng Br, for Secy, WDGS: (1) 11 Feb 42,

sub: HR 6293; (2) 19 Feb 42, sub: WAAC; (3) 26

Feb 42, sub: Leg Proceedings. G-1/15839-10

(7-8-42). 5

 All from Congressional Record, Vol. 88, No. 55, 17

Mar 42. 6

 House Rpt cited n. 3(2). 7

 (1) Ltr, Col Mudgett to Miss Faustine Dennis, 11

Feb 42; (2) Ltr Orders, AG 210, G-1 Gen Stf (1-13-

42). Both in Col Mudgett's Staybacks, 1942 WAAC

files. (Hereafter cited as Mudgett Staybacks.) (3)

Interv with Lt Col Harold P. Tasker, 20 Nov 42.
26 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

had never been assigned to the War Department until two weeks before he became WAAC Pre-Planner.8

Colonel Mudgett found that very little

information could be furnished him by the

War Department, most of that outdated.9

Except for copies of the legislation, he was

provided with little more than a statement

that civilian employees were hard to get in

such places as Pig Point, Va., and Matagorda Island, Tex.10

The problem at the time looked deceptively simple: The WAAC was to be a

small organization, developed slowly. A

director, and perhaps five assistant directors, and one hundred officer candidates

would be appointed. Colonel Mudgett

called the local YWCA to locate one hundred rooms for the officer candidates, who

would attend a leisurely three months'

course before enlisted women—called enrolled women or auxiliaries—were admitted. The War Department proposed to

get its first enrolled women from among

volunteers already working at Aircraft

Warning Service stations, placing them in

uniform and paying them for their rations

and quarters so that they could continue

to live at home—thus, incidentally, repeating the first mistake that British services had made. After the Aircraft Warning

Service companies were filled, it was

thought there would be ample time to

consider the ten other companies which

were to go to corps areas.11

Colonel Mudgett had one assistant,

Mrs. Marjorie Fling, selected by Civilian

Personnel Division because of her familiarity with War Department procedure

and her desire to join the WAAC when it

was established. Mrs. Fling set to work at

once to compile WAAC Regulations,

based on CCC Regulations and Canadian

and British WAAC Regulations.12

On his first day of operation, the WAAC

Pre-Planner, as directed by the War Department, distributed WAAC planning

among the various staff agencies of the

War Department, informing each of its

responsibility:

To The Adjutant General's Office: WAAC recruiting. All administrative functions performed for the Army.

To The Quartermaster General: WAAC uniform, design, and procurement. WAAC insignia. WAAC equipment.

To the Judge Advocate General: Disciplinary

regulations.

To The Surgeon General: Medical treatment

for women.

To the Chief of Finance: Fiscal responsibility.

To G-3: WAAC training and training regulations. WAAC organization.

To G-4: Housing and supply policy. Tables

of Basic Allowances. Burial.

To the Air Forces: Organization and training

of Aircraft Warning Service units.

Each of these agencies was asked to designate a representative for WAAC planning.

The instructions to these agencies did not

specify their relationship to any future

WAAC headquarters or who would have

the final word in disputes.13

On the same day corps areas were asked

8

 Personnel Abstracts, WAC files, OCMH. 9

 He later noted, "As I look back, I would have

given a great deal to have had access to the background material that you [Military History] have

collected. . . . The widely scattered data were apparently on file, but unfortunately . . . not made

available to me." Ltr, Mudgett to author, 19 Aug 49.

OCMH. 10

 Pencil note, Swift to Mudgett. WA 600.9

(1-20-42), 1942 WAAC files. 11

 All statements unless otherwise specified are

from Mudgett Staybacks. Original copies of most

documents are in G-1/15839-10. See references to

specific documents in following pages. 12

 (1) Memo, G-1 for Dir of Pers, 28 Jan 42.

G-1/15839-10. (2) Interv with Mrs. Marjorie Fling

Onthank, 16 Jan 46. 13

 Memos, G-1 for [each office], 4 Feb 42, sub:

WAAC. G-1/15839. Replies are in G-1/15839-10

(7-8-42).
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 27

to plan for the use of one WAAC company

each, and chiefs of branches were asked to

comment on the possible later use of

Waacs at their service schools. Letters to

these commands included a statement on

which the War Department was later to

reverse itself: Waacs could be assigned to

replace not only enlisted men but "civilian

employees not in the Civil Service now

used for purely administrative or housekeeping duties."

 14

It was not yet decided whether Waacs

counted against a station's Troop Basis, or

its civilian allotment, or both; most stations understandably assumed that Waacs

constituted some sort of happy bonus.

Also, the previous decision that the Army

needed a small elite corps with high clerical skills was nullified by the authorization

to use Waacs to replace non-Civil Service

civilians, most of whom were unskilled.

Consequently, corps area requisitions later

that month asked for Waacs not only for

skilled clerical and technical work but also

for work that it was difficult to get civilians

to accept: jobs as maids, charwomen,

janitresses, cooks, mess attendants, messengers, hostesses, mail orderlies, housekeepers, and hospital attendants.

As a result of the double misunderstanding—that Waacs would be recruited

for unskilled menial duties and that they

would not count against personnel allotments—not too much significance could

be attached to the corps areas' enthusiasm

in at once requesting not ten but twentyfour WAAC companies. On the other

hand, all of the chiefs of branches, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery, replied that they wanted none: "Strongly

advise that they not be assigned." The

Chief of Engineers asked to be excused

from taking a unit. The Surgeon General

refused to use Waacs in hospitals, saying,

"Can see no use for a WAAC unit without

displacing Civil Service employees."

 15

 No

attempt was made to force a unit upon

any reluctant command, since there would

obviously not be enough Waacs to fill even

the current requisitions.

In only a few days WAAC preplanning

had the requisite fire under it. Uniform

designs were being prepared by The

Quartermaster General; The Adjutant

General was converting Army blank

forms and records for WAAC use; the

Judge Advocate General was preparing

tentative disciplinary regulations; the Signal Corps and the Air Corps were planning Aircraft Warning Service companies.

Colonel Mudgett suggested that a female

director and staff of three male officers be

appointed at once, and action to secure

these was begun by G-1. Within another

ten days Colonel Mudgett had obtained

rough drafts of WAAC Regulations, was

working with G-4 on barracks plans, had

consulted the Office of The Surgeon General on the enlistment physical examination, and had planned recruiting with The

Adjutant General. In four more days he

had made plans for press releases on the

appointment of the Director and had secured G-3 approval of a training center

Table of Organization.16

14

 D/F, G-1 to TAG, 5 Feb 42, sub: WAAC.

G-1/15839-10. Branches included were Infantry,

Cavalry, Field Artillery, Coast Artillery, Engineers,

Air Corps, Armored Forces, Quartermaster Corps,

and Medical Department. 15

 Tally of replies is preserved in Folder U, (Utilization), Col Tasker's files, in 1942 WAAC files. (Hereafter cited at Tasker files.) 16

 (1) Memo, Preplanner for Col Oscar B. Abbott,

6 Feb 42; (2) Memo, Preplanner for Maj Gen James

A. Ulio, 11 Feb 42; (3) Memo, Preplanner for Lt Col

Lester D. Flory, G-4, 11 Feb 42; (4) Memo, Preplanner for Col Harry D. Offutt, SGO, 13 Feb 42; (5)

M/R, Conf with Col Harold N. Gilbert, AGO, 13

Feb 42; (6) Memo for Col Abbott, 19 Feb 42. All in

Mudgett personal or stayback files, 1942 WAAC

files.
28 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Planning could not await the appointment of the Director, WAAC, and in fact

planners deemed it wise "to be able to present [completed plans] to the Director,

when appointed, in order to avoid the initiation of plans based entirely on the viewpoint of one individual." By 23 February

1942, when the future Director was added

to the preplanning group, many plans

were too far advanced for much change

without controversy with the planning

agency. By this date the WAAC Regulations were already written and approved

by G-3 Division, as was the outline of instruction for the officer candidate school.

Budget estimates had already been forwarded to the War Department, and the

Finance Department had virtually completed all fiscal rules. A Table of Organization had been drawn up for WAAC

Headquarters, showing the numbers and

grades of persons required, as had similar

tables for WAAC companies and platoons.

The Army Recruiting Service believed itself prepared to conduct recruiting. G-4

Division was convinced that WAAC housing would present no great problem.

Finally, a request had been submitted for

the assignment of an experienced Regular

Army officer to act as school commandant.17

Other matters awaited the Director's

action. No location had been found for a

training center; no uniforms or other

clothing had been procured; no actual recruiting machinery was set up, although

it was suggested that the Director make a

transcontinental tour and personally select the first one hundred officer candidates. The future WAAC Headquarters

had not been organized, although a major

and two lieutenants had been ordered in

for immediate assistance.18

All of the Pre-Planner's work, complete

or incomplete, suffered from being based

on the War Department's assumption as

to the WAAC's future size, which was to

be discarded later in the summer when

manpower problems began to appear. It

was supposed that the Corps would, during its first year, train only 10,600 auxiliaries and 340 officers—a miscalculation

of some 600 percent. Most of the plans,

therefore, shortly had to be revised or

abandoned, but, as General Hilldring

later noted, they were not without value,

being in the same category as all military

"anticipatory planning."

 19

Selection of a Director

G-1 Division demanded that all candidates for the position of WAAC Director

be healthy, of an active temperament, between the ages of 30 and 50, with executive experience involving the successful

management of both men and women assistants, and, most important, they must

have had no previous affiliation with any

"pressure group."

Mrs. Hobby, then of the Bureau of Public Relations, was asked to recommend

women who met these requirements. She

submitted a list of nine that included some

of the nation's most successful career

women—an advertising executive, a business manager, a bank president, several

educators. Social and political leaders

were not included. Congresswoman

Rogers was also asked to recommend 17

 (1) Quotation from Memo for Col Flory, G-4,

11 Feb 42. Mudgett Staybacks. (2) Memo, Preplanner

for Dir WAAC, 23 Feb 42. 1942 WAAC file, unnumbered. (3) Memo, CofS for G-1, 26 Feb 42. CofS/

19481-60. 18

 Earlier draft of Memo cited n. 17(2). 19

 Ltr, Hilldring to Maj Gen Orlando Ward, Chief,

Mil Hist, 5 Jan 51. OCMH.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 29

candidates; she submitted only one

name—Mrs. Hobby's. G-1 Division likewise submitted its own list of candidates to

the Chief of Staff, and this included three

names, headed by Mrs. Hobby's. Colonel

Mudgett also approved of the recommendation, commenting later: "I have

never known a finer executive, man or

woman."

 20

Biographical data compiled by G-1

added that Mrs. Oveta Culp Hobby was

at this time 37 years old, the wife of former

Governor William P. Hobby of Texas, and

the mother of two children. She had served

for several years as parliamentarian of the

Texas legislature, and, after her marriage,

as newspaper and radio executive, publisher, lawyer, writer, president of the

Texas League of Women Voters, and civic

worker in numerous state and city organizations of both men and women. As of this

date she had been for almost a year the

chief of the Bureau of Public Relations'

Women's Interests Section, which she had

initiated and organized.

For a number of reasons the War Department's final choice fell upon Mrs.

Hobby. She had the advantage over all

other recommended candidates of already

being familiar with WAAC plans and with

War Department organization. Officers of

G-1 Division wrote: "She has ability,

vision, and is broad-minded enough to assemble a staff of capable assistants around

her. [She is] already known to most of the

key people in government and War Department circles."

 21

All acquaintances noted her personal

energy, magnetism, sincerity, and idealism, and observed that a very considerable

diplomatic ability on all matters was combined with a certain stubborn determination in pursuing major issues. Another

asset, from the Army viewpoint, was that

Mrs. Hobby was not a representative of

any pressure group, as it was deemed essential that the Director owe allegiance

only to the War Department. The Chief of

Staff informed the Secretary of War that

Mrs. Hobby was his choice for the position

of Director solely because of her brilliant

work in the Bureau of Public Relations

and in negotiations for the WAAC bill,

and that "I had never seen, or even heard

of, Mrs. Hobby prior to this time, and she

had no prior knowledge of the bill." He

added:

In all of these duties she displayed sound

judgment and carried out her mission in a

manner to be expected of a highly trained

staff officer. She has won the complete confidence of the members of the War Department Staff with whom she has come into contact, and she made a most favorable impression before the Committee of Congress.

. . . This Corps can be of great assistance

to our military effort, and it can easily be a

great embarrassment to the War Department. I therefore urge the appointment of

Mrs. Hobby, with the request that the decision be made in advance of the completion of

the legislation in order that the War Department can anticipate the burdens of organization so far as possible.22

Mrs. Hobby was not considered disqualified by the fact that she had children,

since women with children were to be accepted for immobile units like the Aircraft Warning Service, where they could

live at home.23

20

 (1) Memo, G-1 for CofS, 3 Feb 42, sub: Dir

WAAC. G-1/15838. Three lists are Tables A, B, and

C. (2) Ltr, Col Mudgett to author, 19 Aug 48.

OCMH. 21

 Memo, Chief, Misc Div G-1, for Gen Hilldring,

29 Jan 42, sub: Suggested Candidates for Position of

Dir WAAC. Mudgett Staybacks. 22

 Memo, CofS for SW, 18 Mar 42, sub: Chief of

WAAC. WDCSA 291.9 (3-18-42). 23

 Interv with Mrs. Hobby, 29 Jun 48. Also see Ch.

XXXV, below.
30 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Meanwhile, a number of prominent political figures, including members of Congress, had acquired their own candidates,24

and G-1 Division urged speed in the appointment of a director, since "efforts will

be made by certain pressure groups to influence the Secretary of War in his appointment of the Director."

 25

At the end of February, when no announcement from the Secretary of War

was forthcoming, the Chief of Staff took

upon himself the responsibility of moving

Mrs. Hobby from the Bureau of Public

Relations to join the WAAC Pre-Planners,

although in view of her lack of official

status all planning done by her was subject to reversal later if another candidate

was selected by the Secretary of War.26

Organization of Director's Headquarters

Mrs. Hobby now found herself in a

strange status; she was the unannounced

head of a nonexistent office which could

not become WAAC Headquarters until

passage of legislation at an uncertain future date, but which meanwhile must perfect very complete plans requiring the

formal co-ordination of many War Department agencies. Her "staff" was one

Cavalry lieutenant colonel and one civilian woman assistant. This little group began meeting in a corner of the Miscellaneous Branch of G-1 Division, but later in

March acquired several rooms and a telephone in the wooden Temporary M

Building.

On 27 February, a few days after Mrs.

Hobby's arrival, the man who had been

intended to be WAAC Pre-Planner, Lt.

Col. Harold P. Tasker, arrived. Colonel

Tasker was a Regular Army officer, with

fifteen years' service in the Coast Artillery

Corps and as instructor in mathematics at

West Point. He had been retired for disability in 1939 but later recalled on limited

service. Although he had never previously

served in the War Department, all members of the new group stated that his outstanding ability quickly rendered him

invaluable.27

With Colonel Tasker came two young

Reserve lieutenants, just called to active

duty, who had no Army experience.28 For

almost a month these six constituted the

headquarters. About the middle of March

the office acquired its senior member, Col.

William Pearson, who was selected by

The Adjutant General to be WAAC adjutant general. Colonel Pearson was the

only member of the staff who had previously served in Washington. His service

was not recent; he had been retired in

1936, after more than thirty-four years in

the Regular Army, and had just been recalled to active duty. Shortly, four more

officers arrived to complete the military

staff. Two of these were lieutenant colonels

who were intended to be school commandant and quartermaster, respectively,

but both were replaced within a few

months.29 The third was Maj. J. Noel

Macy of the Bureau of Public Relations,

on temporary loan to handle publicity,

and the fourth was another young Reserve

lieutenant.30

Mrs. Hobby also secured the services of

two women advisers. Mrs. Genevieve

Forbes Herrick, a prominent writer and

newspaperwoman, was designated adviser

24

 Ltrs, G-1/15839-10 (1942). 25

 Memo cited n. 20(1). 26

 Memo cited n. 22. 27

 Intervs with members of the group: Mrs. Hobby,

Mrs. Woods, Mrs. Fling, Mrs. Genevieve Forbes

Herrick. 28

 Lts. Charles L. Fleming and Henry Lee Munson. 29

 Interv with Col Tasker, 20 Nov 45. 30

 Lt. William W. Foulkes.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 31

on public relations and the press. Mrs.

Helen Hamilton Woods was named adviser on legislative matters, recruiting, and

administration in general. Mrs. Woods,

who was later to enroll in the WAAC, was

the widow of New York Police Commissioner Arthur Woods, and the mother of

three sons in the service. A civic leader and

political worker, and a descendant of the

first Secretary of the Treasury, she had

had much experience with volunteer

groups and had been employed by the

Treasury in connection with the information program for defense bond sales.31

Assignment to Services of Supply

Planning was somewhat hampered

when the little group of WAAC preplanners was immediately dropped two

echelons in the War Department during

the reorganization of 9 March 1942, one of

the major upheavals of War Department

history. At this time the entire General

Staff was reduced in size and bereft of operating functions, and the many organizations reporting directly to it were swept

away, leaving direct access to the General

Staff a privilege of three new major commands—the Army Air Forces, the Army

Ground Forces, and the Services of Supply (later renamed the Army Service

Forces). Many of the chiefs of services who

had formerly reported directly to the

Chief of Staff—such as The Adjutant

General, the Judge Advocate General,

and The Quartermaster General—now

were grouped under the command of the

Services of Supply (SOS), which was to be

the operating agency for the General

Staff.

The WAAC was similarly transferred

from G-1 Division to Personnel Division

of the Services of Supply, and directives

drafted by WAAC preplanners henceforth

had to be signed by that office rather than

by Brig. Gen. John H. Hilldring in G-1.

Few of the transferred agencies were very

happy about the change. WAAC planners

in particular realized its disadvantages,

since they no longer had the close guidance of the General Staff during the Corps'

formative period, and could not reach it

with any ideas that were disapproved by

the Services of Supply. The move made it

particularly difficult to work directly with

the Army Air Forces or the Army Ground

Forces.

The legality of the Director's assignment to this lower echelon was somewhat

doubtful, since the wording of the WAAC

bill made her adviser to the War Department. At the time of the move the Chief of

Staff therefore directed Mrs. Hobby to

come to him personally if she had any difficulty that she could not iron out by herself. This privilege Mrs. Hobby used

infrequently, since she understood that the

Services of Supply would scarcely be a

comfortable location if she bypassed its

channels whenever her proposals were

disapproved.

From this time onward General Marshall was consulted only when crucial decisions were required. The new and

smaller General Staff also obviously had

less time to advise the planners. At one of

its meetings, the WAAC was dismissed

with the brief and overoptimistic note that

its administration would be the same

whether it was in or with the Army; the

same meeting was devoted to dozens

of more important matters involved in

the world-wide combat situation. Nevertheless, WAAC planners united in giving

great personal credit to the Assistant Chief

31

 Intervs with Mrs. Herrick, 9 Jan 46, and with

Mrs. Woods, 14 Dec 45.
32 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

of Staff, G-1, General Hilldring, for the

fact that in the following hectic weeks they

actually did complete full plans, workable

if not perfect. General Hilldring repeatedly stepped down from his echelon to

give planners more of his personal time

and advice than the small WAAC organization could have expected from its current importance to the war effort.32

The Services of Supply immediately

delegated WAAC planning to the various

SOS divisions, in much the same way that

this once had been divided among War

Department staff sections. For example,

the SOS's Training Division received

authority to establish policies for the training of all WAAC officers, auxiliaries, and

units. In actual practice, the general nature of the subsequent WAAC plans was

worked out in joint conferences, put in

writing by the preplanners, and approved

by various SOS Divisions.33 It was not

made clear what procedure would be followed if disagreements occurred.

The British Parallel

Mrs. Hobby's first step was to pause and

assess the experience of the British and

Canadian women's services, already well

established.34 During the first days of

March she visited Canada, accompanied

by Colonel Tasker and the commandantelect, and was afforded the opportunity to

talk to leaders of the Canadian WAC and

of the Women's Division, Royal Canadian

Air Force, as well as to British women

officers then visiting Canada. She also

later dispatched Major Macy to England

to collect references and histories.

The visit did much to restore Mrs.

Hobby's morale, which had been depressed by the opinion of many of her

friends among older U.S. Army officers

that a women's corps could not succeed.

Every Canadian staff officer and post

commander to whom she talked told her

that he had experienced initial doubts but

was now enthusiastic about employment

of women in his command. British officers

likewise reported the success of their

women's services in spite of extensive early

hardships.35

The histories of the several British and

Canadian women's services presented patterns so nearly identical as to suggest a

certain amount of inevitability, with the

British, of course, one or two wars ahead.

Before and during World War I, the British had set up a few tentative women's

corps, on a civilian auxiliary basis. Manpower problems had proved so great, and

the women such efficient workers, that by

1918 such groups were to be found in

every branch of service. The only handicap had been the very considerable public

gossip concerning the alleged immorality

of women in France, which hampered recruiting and alarmed parents, although a

Royal Commission of Enquiry reported

after investigation that the charges were

"mischievous and false."

Nevertheless, when the British women's

services were revived in World War II,

they repeated the whole unhappy pattern

32

 (1) Interv cited n. 29, and from study of whole

series of documents and orders cited. (2) Min, Gen

Council, 4 May 42. 33

 1st Ind, Dir Tng SOS to WAAC Preplanners, 25

Apr 42, to Memo, Preplanners for Dir Tng SOS, 15

Apr 42, sub: Preliminary OCS. SPTRS 353 WAAC

(4-15-42). 34

 Unless otherwise indicated this section is based

upon, and quotations are from: (1) Report of the Committee on Amenities and Welfare Conditions in the Three

Women's Services, Presented to Parliament by Command of

His Majesty, August, 1942, (London: HM Stationery

Office, 1942). Hereafter cited as Conditions in the Three

Women's Services. Copy in 1942 WAAC files. (2)

Wadge, Women in Uniform. 35

 Interv cited n. 29.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 33

as far as public opposition was concerned.

"Vague and discreditable allegations"

were spread to such an extent that a Parliamentary committee investigation was

ordered. Gossip alleged a high rate of illegitimate pregnancy, excessive drinking,

and general promiscuity among servicewomen. The committee upon investigation

found that the women's morality was

actually better than that of the comparable civilian population, and deplored the

"malicious and careless talk" that had

again damaged recruiting and discouraged women members and their parents.

The British Auxiliary Territorial Services (ATS) and the Women's Auxiliary Air

Force (WAAF) had also suffered in the

first days of World War II from difficulties

caused by rapid mobilization—shortage of

uniforms, inadequacy of housing, improper medical attention, all intensified

by the lack of trained and experienced

women officers to care for the units. By

1942 many difficulties had been overcome,

supply shortages had eased, gossip had

been partially quelled, and the women's

work had proved so valuable that their

numbers had been tremendously increased and their jobs expanded from five

or six to several hundred. Finally, when

manpower conditions became more desperate and recruiting failed to fill needs,

the British National Service Act was applied to women and female draftees were

directed to fill the vacancies in the armed

forces.

At the time of Mrs. Hobby's visit to

Canada in March of 1942 the British services were thus well established and offered

a valuable precedent to the WAAC in the

United States. WAAC planners might

have regarded their history with even

more interest had they known that it

could, without alteration, have been a

summary of the WAAC's future, in all except the matter of eventual recourse to

Selective Service.

One major effect of the Canadian visit

upon the headquarters was that it became

what its members called "public-relations conscious." All future plans came to

be scrutinized in the light of their possible

effect upon public sentiment, and extreme

care was used to avoid any measure that

might provoke an outburst of slander and

gossip of the type that had hindered British recruiting and necessitated the drafting of women. This tendency was deplored

by some Regular Army members of the

staff, since it frequently raised the issue of

whether certain established Army practices were adaptable to the WAAC.

Another conspicuous lesson in the history of the British services was that the

civilian auxiliary organization was notably inefficient and friction provoking.

Already two of the three major British

women's services had been admitted to

full military status. In Canada Mrs.

Hobby noted that the Women's Division

of the Royal Canadian Air Force, which

was actually in the Air Force, had fewer

administrative difficulties than the Canadian WAC, which was only an auxiliary

with the Army. Most commanders heartily

disliked separate command channels, separate rules, and separate status for any

members of their station complements

and, in fact, the Canadian WAC was to be

admitted to full Army status within a few

months, and the Women's Royal Canadian Naval Service, just being organized,

never attempted to operate without full

Navy membership.36

Mrs. Hobby therefore proposed that an

amendment immediately be added to the

36

 Ibid.
34 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

WAAC bill before its passage, placing the

WAAC in the Army and giving its members full military status and discipline.

The War Department was not enthusiastic

about this change and Mrs. Rogers objected also, on the assumption, which

proved quite correct, that the attempt

would merely delay the bill's passage and

would not be accepted by Congress even

after the delay.37 Nevertheless, Mrs.

Hobby insisted that the amendment at

least be considered by the committee, and

consideration was finally agreed upon, a

step that was to delay passage of the bill

until May.38

Recruiting Plans

The British precedent was also quickly

reflected in other plans, primarily those

for the selection of officers. Mrs. Hobby

and Colonel Mudgett at once discarded

previous plans for her to appoint assistant

directors and to select one hundred officer

candidates. The number of applications

now on file from individuals with prominent social, political, or military figures for

sponsors indicated that, were appointments direct, the WAAC might be forced

to repeat the British ATS mistake of commissioning these women in such numbers

that forced retirements would later be

necessary. The ATS had come to the conclusion that selection by means of officer

candidate boards and schools was the best

way to produce women officers able and

willing to care for their troops effectively.

Accordingly, Mrs. Hobby formed a basic

policy from which she was never thereafter

to swerve39—that of Corps democracy: all

officers, even assistant directors, were to be

graduates of the officer candidate school

and not direct appointees. After the first

class, all officers would come from the

ranks. Mrs. Hobby also decided at the

same time that selection of the initial class

should be by impartial Army recruiting

machinery, and not by herself or any

other individual. Negroes were to be included in the same proportion as in the

Army.40

Preplanners hastily prepared and sent

to the printers detailed instructions for

corps areas to follow in selecting officer

candidates. Mrs. Hobby secured the advice of a conference of eight prominent

psychiatrists, as well as that of The Adjutant General's battery of test construction

experts, to determine qualifications and to

help devise a method of screening. All

corps areas were alerted to expect instructions and application blanks by air mail,

immediately upon passage of the bill, and

were given a military schedule whereby

date of passage was designated D Day.

The first officer candidates were to be selected and at the school by D plus 47.41

The WAAC D Day now bore down

upon the pre-planners. The WAAC bill

passed the House of Representatives on 17

March by a vote of 249 to 86, authorizing

an auxiliary corps only, and was sent to

the Senate, which had promised to consider full Army status.42

Public interest mounted daily. Planners

hid themselves away and answered the

37

 Interv with Mrs. Rogers cited n. 1(3). 38

 See text below for full discussion of War Department and other views in May committee hearings. 39

 See later chapters for discussion. 40

 (1) Interv cited n. 29. (2) Conditions in the Three

Women's Services. (3) Memo, G-1 for CofS, 22 Mar 42.

G-1/15839, in CofS 291.9. 41

 (1) Ltr. TAG to all Corps Areas, 16 Mar 42. AG

291.9 (3-16-42) E-R. (2) Memos, SOS for TAG, 17

Mar 42. G-1/15839-10. (3) Rough notes of conf of

psychiatrists. 1942 WAAC files, unnumbered. (4)

Interv cited n. 29. (5) See Ch. III, below. 42

 Congressional Record, Vol. 88, No. 55, p. 2657, 17

Ma r 42.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 35

telephone with a vague "Personnel Division," but were nevertheless plagued with

telephone calls, visitors, letters, and unsolicited offers. Candidates sought guarantees of commissions because of their

acquaintance with prominent people, or

their dubious experience in bossing

women; individuals sought to interest the

WAAC in mobile laundry units or furlined overcoats.43

 Prospective recruits

wrote, variously: "My husband is already

drafted and my mother cannot afford to

have me staying on . . ."; "My brother

was killed on December 7"; "I have always wished that I were a man"; "I am a

widow, with no dependents"; "At present

I am working as a warder at the Women's

Reformatory."

 44

This was only a foretaste of the merciless publicity that was to haunt the WAAC

from its inception. In desperation the

planners ordered thousands of acknowledgment cards thanking applicants for

their offers and telling them that, if the

bill became law, full details would be released through local recruiting stations.45

Considerable embarrassment appeared in

store if the WAAC D Day arrived before

the War Department was ready with plans

for it.

Search for a Training Center

For several frantic weeks it appeared

impossible to find a training center. The

idea of a CCC camp was considered and

abandoned, since extensive additional

construction and repair would have been

necessary. Premature rejoicing was general early in March when the Tome

School, a private institution in nearby

Maryland, was found to be available. Unfortunately, G-3 Division ruled that no

contract could legally be signed until the

bill became law. The Army's complicated

machinery of approval moved as far as it

dared—budget estimates were made, an

engineer survey for barracks space was

authorized, acquisition of property was

approved. After serious study of the relative fame of American heroines it was

recommended that the school be named

the Molly Pitcher School. Detailed grades

were even allotted to the Third Service

Command and personnel was being selected. All of these plans collapsed suddenly in the last week of March when the

Navy acquired the Tome School.46

Immediate passage of the bill was now

believed possible, with April occupancy of

some school a necessity. Army engineers

hastily surveyed Northwestern University

and found it full of naval trainees; Lake

Forest College had a capacity of only 400;

the University of Chicago was filled by the

Navy and the Signal Corps, and Ohio

State by the Air Corps; Eastern Kentucky

State Teachers College would not take

Negroes.

As the search continued through other

areas, it was found in general that all large

universities were training so many Army

and Navy technical specialists that even

their gymnasiums and classrooms were

converted to barracks; all small colleges

43

 Ltrs of application. 1942 WAAC files, unnumbered. 44

 Congressional Record, Vol. 88, No. 53, pp. 1078-81,

Mar 42. 45

 Memo, Preplanners for TAG, 31 Mar 42, sub:

Acknowledgment Cards for WAAC Applicants.

Mudgett Staybacks. 46

 (1) Memo, G-3 for CofS, 19 Apr 42. WDGCT

291.9 (4-15-42). Copy in CofS 291.9. (2) Memo, G-1

for G-4, 7 Mar 42. G-1/15839-10. (3) D/F, Pers Div

SOS to CofEngrs, 11 Mar 42. Same file. (4) Memo,

Pers Div SOS for CofS, 13 Mar 42. Same file. (5)

Memo, SOS for TAG, 28 Mar 42. Mudgett Staybacks. (6) Corps areas became service commands in

the reorganization of 1942.
36 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

could accommodate only a few trainees;

and most suitable resort hotels either had

been taken over by the Air Forces or

would have had to be condemned at a

prohibitive price. Engineers as a last resort surveyed even state fair grounds, but

found them either leased for government

storage or not convertible. For a time the

National Chautauqua Circuit at Jamestown seemed the best possibility, although

isolated and in a cold climate.47

At last, in late April, the mechanization

of the U.S. Cavalry made possible the use

for Waacs of an old mounted Cavalry post,

Fort Des Moines in Iowa. Fort Des Moines

was near the geographical center of the

United States, had no major defense projects in the area, would present no race

and color difficulties, had suitable utilities

to handle expansion to 5,000 population,

and already had room for 1,000 and suitable administration, supply, and recreation buildings. Its solid red-brick barracks,

needing only converted toilet facilities,

surrounded an impressively large green

parade ground. In addition, said the delighted planners, there were "nine large

stables suitable for conversion to barracks."48

 Time was short and there was no

inclination to quibble about the distance

from WAAC Headquarters, the climate,

or the previous equine occupants.

Immediate authority to start alterations

at the post was sought, but could not be

obtained until passage of the bill.49 It was

at least possible to bring into the planning

group nine Army officers to be indoctrinated before they went to Fort Des

Moines as a nucleus of the staff. To replace

the officer previously selected as commandant, G-1 Division chose Col. Don C.

Faith, a Regular Army officer of twentyfive years' service. He had been a National

Guard instructor and a staff officer, and

later a member of the War Department's

G-4 and G-1 Divisions.50

The Uniform

The most troublesome problem remaining to the planners was that of the WAAC

uniform, which soon assumed a difficulty

out of all proportion to its importance.

Procurement could not be undertaken until passage of the bill, but it was essential

to have agreement on design and number

of articles so that contracts could be signed

with manufacturers at the moment the bill

became law. At first, the problem of clothing only 12,000 Waacs appeared fairly

simple, and The Quartermaster General,

in one of the greater understatements of

recorded military history, anticipated "no

unusual difficulties."

 51

Three agencies sent representatives to

planning sessions: The Quartermaster

General's Office, the Philadelphia Quartermaster Depot, and WAAC Headquarters, although The Quartermaster General

later decided that this last was a mistake,

since "neither she [Mrs. Hobby] nor anyone on her immediate staff was qualified

to make decisions."

 52

 As a matter of fact,

47

 (1) Personal ltr, Tasker to Lt C. M. Carr, Cooks

and Bakers School, Ft Meade, Md., 21 Mar 42. Col

Tasker's personal file, 1942 WAAC files. (2) M/R,

9 Apr 42. sub: Inspection of Available Sites. WA

600.9 (4-9-42). (3) M/R, 11 Apr 42, sub: Facilities.

WA 600.9. 48

 Memo, G-1 for CofS, 22 Apr 42. G-1/15839.

Colonel Mudgett successfully persuaded Des Moines

newspapermen to ignore the conversion of stables to

barracks for fear of the possible effect upon recruiting. 49

 Memo, G-1 for CofS, 13 May 42, sub: Estab of

WAAC Tng Gen at Ft Des Moines, Iowa. WDGAP

352.01 WAAC. Approved by DCofS, 15 May 42. 50

 Personnel Abstracts, WAC file, OCMH. 51

 All references to WAAC clothing and equipment, unless otherwise noted, are from Erna Risch,

A Wardrobe for the Women of the Army (QMC Historical

Studies 12, October 1945). 52

 Ibid., Chs. II and III.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 37

none of the planning agencies included

any specialists in women's clothing. The

Quartermaster General had been responsible for the design and procurement of

nurses' uniforms since World War I, but

no great quantity had been involved, and

the products, although they photographed

well on a dress form (male), had admittedly always looked peculiar on the female

figure.

Responsibility for the WAAC uniform

program was delegated by The Quartermaster General, as a part-time duty, to

Col. Letcher O. Grice of the Standardization Branch. Before Mrs. Hobby's arrival,

Colonel Grice had secured some sketches

by famous designers, and had suggested

that the uniform be in two shades of blue.

Because of the word distinctive in legislative

authorization for a WAAC uniform, Colonel Grice was of the opinion that the uniform must be different in color and design

from that of the Army or any other organization; even the two shades of blue must

be different from that of the Army Nurse

Corps. Blue was selected because New

York designers informed him that blue

dyestuffs would be most readily available;

gray was rejected as too hard to match.

The representative of the Philadelphia

Depot was not summoned by The Quartermaster General until some three

months of planning were past and, upon

arrival, expressed some annoyance in view

of the depot's opinion that research and

development was its rightful province.

This officer also was not a specialist in

women's clothing, and expressed a strong

belief in "nothing fancier for Wacs than

for combat soldiers," which threatened to

leave the women equipped for office work

in boots and coveralls.

The WAAC representatives at this time

likewise included no clothing specialists

and in any case had no authority to take

action in the matter. Female members of

Mrs. Hobby's staff faithfully wore sample

undergarments while carrying on preplanning; male planners offered their best

guesses in the matter, and the staff became

accustomed, as one member noted, "to

seeing Lt. F. stalk through the office with

a cigar in one hand and a pair of pink

panties in the other."

Mrs. Hobby at once announced her

conviction that the WAAC uniform should

be identical in color with that of the Army

and as much like it in design as possible,

especially in view of her pending attempt

to place the WAAC in the Army. The battle of blue versus olive drab continued for

some time and was finally resolved by the

Philadelphia Depot, which wished to use

olive drab and khaki material already

procured, and deemed it madness to start

procuring two more shades of blue. The

materials, covert and barathea for winter

and 8.2 khaki for summer, were also determined by depot stocks, although some,

especially the khaki, were to prove too

heavy for the proper fit of women's

garments.

Sketches from well-known designers

were considered—Mangone, Maria Krum,

Russell Patterson, Helen Cookman, Mary

Sampson. The jacket could be called a

group product, since it incorporated desirable features from all designs—a lapel

from one, a pocket from another. A belt

for the jacket was on, off, and on again: it

would help faulty female figures, said

Mangone; it would rub holes in the jacket,

said The Quartermaster General; it should

be leather, said Maria Krum; cotton was

cheaper, said The Quartermaster General.

A rather narrow six-gore skirt was

adopted after War Production Board restrictions on the use of material made
38 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

pleats impossible, although all agreed that

pleats would have looked better.

Slacks had originally been a part of the

outfit, but they were eliminated as too

troublesome to fit; culottes were considered and rejected by Mrs. Hobby as unsuitable for mechanics. Since at this time

it was believed that the only outdoor work

that Waacs could perform was in motor

transport, no trousers except coveralls

were believed necessary. Mrs. Hobby also

desired that women wear skirts instead of

slacks wherever possible, in order to avoid

a rough or masculine appearance which

would cause unfavorable public comment.

All agreed that a shirt with tie would be

more military and dignified than one with

an open collar, and the regulation khaki

tie was chosen, although some designers

favored an ascot.

The choice of WAAC headgear involved most controversy then and later.

The Quartermaster General had suggested

a stiff service cap like the men's cap for

WAAC officers and an overseas cap for enlisted women, with a brimmed khaki summer hat, but Mrs. Hobby called for identical hats for officers and enlisted women, as

being more democratic. The overseas cap

was becoming, but was then being adopted

by many women's volunteer groups and

private service organizations. Mrs. Hobby

believed that it was essential to have a

WAAC cap that could not be mistaken for

that of any civilian group or, more precisely, that it was essential that the Waacs

not be blamed for any misconduct on the

part of the thousands of civilian women

soon to be wearing overseas caps. The

firms of Knox and Stetson therefore submitted designs of "miner" hats, visor caps,

and berets. A majority vote of the conference selected the visor cap as one that

would shield the eyes, not blow off in parades, and be both distinctive and military.

A heavy topcoat was designed by Mangone, very similar in cut to the men's

overcoat. In place of the men's field jacket,

a light utility coat was designed by Maria

Krum, resembling a hooded raincoat with

button-in lining. A handbag with shoulder

strap was authorized, since women's uniforms obviously had no pants pockets, and

experiments with carrying necessities in

breast pockets quickly produced a rule

against even so much as a pack of cigarettes in that location.

Tan oxfords, tennis shoes, galoshes, and

bedroom slippers were selected. Mrs.

Hobby recommended plain pumps for

dress shoes, but was outvoted on grounds

of economy. She also desired lisle stockings

for dress, but only rayons were available;

and plain cotton stockings for work were

chosen instead of the novelty-ribbed cotton she preferred.

There began to be apparent at this

time a significant difference of opinion as

to the number and type of garments to be

issued. By accepted practice, the Army

was obligated to furnish its members any

articles it required them to wear. This

clothing, in the Director's opinion, had to

be judged according to accepted civilian

custom for females, but in the opinion of

most quartermaster representatives could

most fairly be based on the amount and

type of clothing received by men. Thus,

concerning what were called "foundation

garments," it was noted that some women

required these in order to present a "neat

and military appearance," yet could not

be directed to wear them unless the garment was issued—an action without military precedent. Similarly, it appeared to

be discrimination against men to issue free

pajamas and bathrobes, yet it was also not

desired to authorize nude female appear-
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 39

ances in the various military installations

that did not have connecting latrines. As

for the required physical training, men received nothing similar to the seersucker

exercise dress, yet it appeared undesirable

for women to assemble on the drill field in

nothing but panties. In this last case, it was

luckily noted that Waacs, except for a few

women drivers, did not receive the fatigue

coveralls that men did; thus, the seersucker dress could be accepted as a nondiscrimatory substitute for men's coveralls. On most of the other items, authorization was not made until June and was

withdrawn again in a few months.

The Quartermaster General reduced

some of the requested allowances to the

number authorized for men; the WAAC

request for eight shirts was reduced to four.

The request for six cotton dresses and six

cotton aprons for cooks, and four coveralls

for drivers, was reduced by The Quartermaster General to three, three, and two.

In requesting two uniform jackets, preplanners pointed out that men received

heavy wool shirts to be worn without a

jacket, but that the WAAC's thin cotton

shirts were designed for wear with the

whole suit, and that "cleanliness, good

health, and appearance" required two suit

jackets. However, only one jacket was

finally authorized, since men got only

one.53

The Heraldic Section of The Quartermaster General's Office meanwhile had

submitted designs for insignia. Designers

were initially somewhat at a loss, since insignia usually portrayed the function of

the corps concerned and no one knew exactly what the Waacs were to do, except

that they would perform several Army

jobs. A first attempt produced only a busybee-like insect, which Mrs. Hobby pronounced a bug, adding that she had no

desire to be called the Queen Bee.

Designers then hit upon the idea of a

head of Pallas Athene, a goddess associated with an impressive variety of womanly virtues and no vices either womanly

or godlike. She was the goddess of handicrafts, wise in industries of peace and arts

of war, also the goddess of storms and

battle, who led through victory to peace

and prosperity.54 Accordingly, the head of

Pallas Athene, together with the traditional U.S., was selected for lapel insignia,

cut out for officers and on discs for enlisted women.

An eagle for the cap was also designed,

less intricate than the Army eagle and

later to be familiarly known to Waacs, for

reasons closely connected with its appearance, as "the buzzard." Since Army buttons could not be used for an auxiliary

corps, the WAAC eagle was also to be imprinted on plastic buttons. Only the insignia of grade required no planning; it

was to be the same as the Army's, with a

tab lettered WAAC sewed under the

chevrons.55

Housing Plans

Plans for housing were less urgent, since

field companies would not be ready for assignment for several months. On the basis

of British experience and of her conferences with psychiatrists, Mrs. Hobby

53

 All from: (1) Memo, OQMG for G-1, 3 Jun 42.

SPQRR 421. Copy in SPWA 421. (2) Memo, Dir

WAAC for OQMG, 5 Jun 42. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-

42)(1) sec 1 (1943). (3) Memo, Lt. W. W. Foulkes for

Dir WAAC, 20 Jun 42. Same file. (4) Memo, OQMG

for USW, 16 Sep 42. Folder, WAC Recruiting, ASF

Sp Coll DRB AGO. 54

 Personal ltr, Brig Gen Clarence Weems to Field

Artillery Journal, January 1943. 1942 WAAC files WA

600.9. 55

 Memo, Dir Mil Pers SOS for G-1, 23 May 42.

G-1/15839-10, in SPWA 421 (5-16-42) sec 1.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 41

feared that women might not react to

communal living exactly as did men.

While men were accustomed from childhood to the tribal living of scout camps,

gangs, teams, and clubs, no one could predict the results of the deprivation of privacy on women who were at all inclined

to be nervous—particularly since most

men's units remained only temporarily at

any camp before overseas shipment,

whereas a WAAC unit would settle down

in its barracks for several years.

Mrs. Hobby therefore proposed that

Waacs have dormitories of the type used

to house civilian women workers, with two

persons to a room. She was quickly overruled on this point on the grounds of economy and feasibility; housing plans had

already been made that would use existing

barracks, with minor modifications, or

new construction like the old.

Allocation of Units

Only one major phase of planning remained: that of the composition of units

and their allocation. It was decided that

post headquarters companies would consist of 147 auxiliaries and 3 officers, and

that Aircraft Warning Service companies

would be somewhat smaller. Any unit under 50 members was deemed uneconomical. The problem was how to devise a fixed

company with one Table of Organization

that would suit all stations, since not all

could use the same number of typists,

drivers, or other workers.

Already the Army had realized that the

fixed Table of Organization Company,

while excellent for combat units, was not

the proper means for allotting men to stations in the United States, where no two

stations had exactly the same needs. Colonel Mudgett later noted, "The bulk allotment system would have saved us many a

headache on this problem." Unfortunately for the WAAC, the bulk allotment

system was not yet adopted by the Army,

and preplanners were forced to try to set

up an inflexible T/O unit that would meet

the needs of all stations using Waacs. One

table for filter companies and one for operation companies was set up. For the

more difficult post headquarters unit,

planners hit upon the idea of having five

types of platoons: clerical, communications, service, machine records, and miscellaneous. It was believed that almost

any station, large or small, could meet its

needs by requesting the proper assortment

of platoons in its WAAC company.56

Concerning the disadvantages of this

system in eventual use, Colonel Faith said

later:

Post commanders didn't have the remotest

idea as to what they wanted to use women

for. . . . Their recommendations were studied, integrated into a type WAC company. . . . I am amazed that we did as well as we

did. We set up a semi-rigid organization

based upon ideas from the field, which in

turn were based on poor guess-work, which

the field accepted from us as being authoritative and scientific, which it was not. These

56

 (1) Ltr, Mudgett to author, 19 Aug 48. OCMH.

(2) T/O 35-37, WAAC Filter Co, AWS, 4 Jul 42;

T/O 35-67, WAAC Opns Co, AWS, Regional, 4 Jul

42; and T/O 35-12. WAAC Post Hq Co, 26 Aug 42.

The Clerical Platoon had 10 stenographers, 30 typists,

15 postal clerks, etc.; the Communications Platoon

included 18 switchboard operators; Service included

16 chauffers; Machine Records had various machine

operators; Miscellaneous had housekeepers, motion

picture projectionists, etc. For later modifications,

see M/T 35-2018, 14 Dec 42, WAAC Post Hq Co;

M/T 35-2026, 26 Nov 42, WAAC Bn; M/T 35-2137,

WMC Photo Lab Co, Aerial; M/T 35-2022, 26 Nov

42, and change 1, 9 Jan 43, WAAC Hq Co; M/T 35-

2122, 10 Dec 42, WAAC Post Hq Co, AAF. (3) D/F,

G-3 to CG SOS, 11 Apr 42. WDGCT291.9 (4-11-

42). (4) D/F, G-1 to TAG, 6 May 42. WDGAP 320

WAAC.
42 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tables provided for relatively few jobs for

women—overhead, clerical, motor transport,

service.57

Corps areas that had asked for Waacs

were now requested to specify the assortment of platoons desired in a T/O unit,

and planners optimistically proposed to

recruit skills exactly to specification, since

a woman with no skill or with some odd

skill would not fit into any platoon and so

could not be assigned. Only skilled women

were sought; it was not proposed to waste

time by taking women who needed technical training—except a brief course in

army driving, army cooking, or army

clerical work to help adapt civilian skills

to the military.

Although supposedly soothed by the assurance that no WAAC post headquarters

units would arrive for some time, or until

further warning, many station commanders now became extremely nervous,

and it was decided that Colonel Tasker or

some other representative of the group

must visit each designated station to prepare it for Waacs. In carrying out this indoctrination, Colonel Tasker later found

many stations in a state of virtual siege,

throwing up barbed-wire entanglements

around WAAC areas and setting aside

separate nights for Waacs to use post theaters and service clubs, so that men and

women could be kept isolated from each

other. Many post commanders were found

to be much opposed to having Waacs on

the post, and none of course had as yet any

information as to the proper employment

of such a unit.58

WAAC Regulations

The WAAC Regulations, which had

been prepared in G-1 Division before

Mrs. Hobby's arrival, were ready for publication as soon as the bill became law. As

provided in the Rogers bill, the WAAC

was set up as a separate command entity

headed by the Director. The Corps was to

be assigned to the Services of Supply, in

which its headquarters was located, with

its units only attached for duty to the Air

Forces and other stations where they were

employed.

The Director would at first command

all of these units directly, requesting The

Adjutant General to issue her orders for

assignment, transfer, discharge, or other

change in status. As soon as they could be

trained, regional directors would be sent

out to form an intermediate command

echelon. It was decided that the regional

directors would be nine in number and

would be located in the headquarters of

the nine corps areas in order that they

might use the area facilities.

For a unit in the field, the station where

it was located was responsible only for

furnishing supplies, housing, and medical

and dental care. As for the authority of

Army section chiefs, the Regulations

stated:

Officers and noncommissioned officers of

the Army under whom individuals or groups

or units of the WAAC are assigned for work

tasks have supervisory authority as they

would with civilian employees generally, but

have no disciplinary authority. Derelictions

of duty will be reported to the WAAC officer

commanding.59

The WAAC company commander and

higher WAAC officers were specified as

responsible for discipline, promotion, discharge, and other command matters.

57

 Speech to Meeting of Classification Offs. Min in

SPWA 201.6 (9-18-43). 58

 Interv cited n. 35. 59

 WAAC Regulations (Tentative), 1942.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 43

For a time there was consideration of

removing these powers from WAAC

Headquarters and delegating them to the

regional directors or even to the company

commanders, since for Army men powers

such as discharge were already held at the

station level. However, for men the correct

procedures were set forth in detail in

Army Regulations, thus insuring uniform

action and individual justice Army-wide.

Because of the Waacs' civilian status,

these Army Regulations could not always

be applied, particularly in matters of discipline—in which court-martial was not

possible except overseas—and of discharge—since certain types of discharge

could be given only by courts-martial.

Neither was it possible to make the first

WAAC Regulations as full as Army Regulations, which had been built up over a

period of years.

The first WAAC Regulations were

therefore marked Tentative and were

scheduled for amplification as soon as experience permitted. To permit such amplification, it was directed that all discharge

cases and other personnel actions be sent

to WAAC Headquarters for decision, until

a sufficient body of experience existed to

permit publication of detailed regulations.

Until this time, Mrs. Hobby noted that it

would be unsafe to allow action at the station level, since one woman officer would

be made both accuser and judge, contrary to the American system.60

In the exercise of its command prerogatives, WAAC Headquarters proposed to

be extremely cautious. It was directed that

women be sent only to stations where

housing and other arrangements had been

checked upon by Colonel Tasker or

another staff member; that no unit of less

than fifty women be assigned, in order

that supply and inspection would not be

unduly difficult; and that no enlisted

woman be sent to any station unless a

WAAC officer was located there.61

By April several agencies had already

begun to question this system. G-3 Division, which had previously approved the

regulations, now declared in conference

that Army commanders should have complete control of WAAC units on their stations, transferring them in the United

States or overseas without informing the

Director, and discharging, disciplining, or

promoting, presumably under Army

Regulations, since no other detailed ones

existed. Also, G-3 proposed that the command of a company be divided among the

different Army section chiefs for whom the

women worked, rather than vested in the

WAAC company commander.62

The Signal Corps concurred, fearing

that the Director might use her command

powers arbitrarily to remove women from

vital communications work; it was asserted that the British Signal Corps had

experienced many difficulties in employing servicewomen who were with and not

in the Army. Air Forces representatives

supported these views and also objected to

the Corps' location in the Services of Supply.63

 If command authority was given to

them, the Signal Corps proposed to place

women at once in mixed tactical groups

overseas, without a WAAC company com60

 These principles were incorporated in all subsequent WAAC Regulations. First ref to them seems to

be Memo, Tasker for Dir WAAC, 21 May 42. Tasker

Staybacks. 61

 (1) Senate Com on Mil Affairs, 77th Cong, 2d

sess, Hearings on HR 6293, 1 and 4 May 42. (2) Congressional Record, Vol. 88, No. 81, p. 3821. 62

 Memo, G-3 for G-1, atchd to Memo, G-1 for

Mil Pers Div SOS, G-3, G-4, WAAC, TAG, CofFin,

JAG, SG, 29 Apr 42. WDGAP 320 WAAC (4-29-

42).

63

 Memo, SigC for Dir Pers SOS, 4 Jun 42. G-1/

15839-10 (7-8-42) WAAC. (2) Memo cited n. 60.
44 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

mander, and the Air Forces announced

plans to assign an additional 10,000

women in mobile units of its Terrestrial

Service.

It soon became clear that the heart of

the difficulty was the auxiliary system itself. As predicted, it was plainly about to

prove most objectionable to Army commanders if they could not at once exercise

as full authority over women as over men,

or if they were obliged to apply different

regulations to men and women. On the

other hand, to apply Army Regulations to

a civilian auxiliary corps was clearly illegal. As for her own position as Director,

Army advisers informed Mrs. Hobby that

it would be unsafe to accept that office if

G-3's plan prevailed, since she would be

in the militarily impossible situation of

having responsibility without authority.

Thus, the WAAC's auxiliary status made

her legally responsible for the women's

command and well-being, yet she would

actually be ignorant of where they had

been transferred or what financial, supply,

disciplinary, or other measures were being

taken by station commanders.64

By 3 April the WAAC preplanners considered the situation so confused that they

appealed directly to the Chief of Staff,

stating: "Confusion exists as to the interpretation of the Bill which says: 'The Director shall operate and administer the

Corps in accordance with normal military

channels of command and administration.' " 65

 The Chief of Staff upheld the

WAAC preplanners by signing their draft

of the WAAC Regulations and approving

it for publication if the bill giving the

WAAC auxiliary status should pass.

This verdict had the effect of uniting

the Services of Supply with Mrs. Hobby

in supporting the amendment to place the

WAAC in the Army. The WAAC's immediate superiors in the Services of Supply in

fact opposed the separate command system so strongly that they neglected to

prepare the necessary War Department

circulars that would make the WAAC

Regulations binding upon the Army in

the event that the amendment failed.66

Passage of WAAC Bill

In their drive to complete plans before

passage of the legislation, all echelons

were seriously handicapped by uncertainty as to the type of bill that would pass

Congress. After the WAAC bill had passed

all committees and the House, thus virtually assuring it of passage in some form,

the Navy had introduced a bill to establish the WAVES in the Navy and not as an

auxiliary.

True to prediction, the brunt of argument had been borne by the WAAC, and

the WAVES bill passed the House without

difficulty. It seemed only reasonable that

Congress would approve the amendment

to place women in the Army. The unhappy planners were therefore forced to

make two sets of plans: one for an auxiliary and one for an Army corps. Two

versions of regulations were prepared and

approved by nine interested agencies.

Fourteen different agencies were asked to

reconsider their plans in the light of the

possible adoption of the amendment, and

some, like the Judge Advocate General,

64

 Ibid. (1) M/R, sub: Conf Concerning WAAC

Admin, 24 Jun 42. Col Tasker's file of rough drafts,

under "WAAC Hqs Org," 1942. (2) Memo, AG

WAAC for CofAdm Serv SOS, 27 Jun 42. WA 210.31

(6-4-42). 65

 Memo, Preplanners for CofS, 3 Apr 42, sub:

Responsibility for Opn of WAAC. G-1/15839-10. 66

 Memo, Dir Mil Pers SOS for G-1, 20 Apr 42,

sub: Amendment to HR 6293. G-1/15839-10 WAAC

(7-8-42).
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WAAC 45

replied despairingly that none of their

previous plans would apply.67

In spite of support from the Services of

Supply and Mrs. Hobby, the War Department was unable to push the amendment for equal status. Comment on the

floor of the House of Representatives was

unrestrained and caustic. Members objected strenuously to placing women in the

Army because this would give them the

disability benefits and pensions that men

received. Some also feared that women

generals would rush about the country

dictating orders to male personnel and

telling the commanding officers of posts

how to run their business.

This opposition was not tempered in

the least by the fact that the House had

just passed and sent to the Senate the bill

placing the WAVES in the Navy with all

of these possible benefits. As members

pointed out, Congress was now in the

incongruous position of giving Waves the

full protection of military status while forbidding them, in their bill, to go overseas,

whereas the WAAC bill allowed women

to go overseas without the protection of

military status. Opinion in the Senate

committee was divided, but members

finally became convinced that great delay

would result from any attempt to change

the Rogers bill.

There was one last flurry when it

seemed that the Director of Selective

Service would secure Presidential approval to a plan to request the voluntary

registration of all women. This step would

have made little change in the WAAC

plan, but might have considerably increased the prospect of recruits if women

had believed the registration a prelude to

forced service in farms and factories.

However, on 4 May 1942 the President

decided against the plan.68

It was shortly apparent that Congress

would pass the Rogers bill immediately

without any of the proposed amendments.

The War Department and the WAAC

planners waited, braced for the outburst

of publicity and the need for furious

action, which they knew must accompany

the bill's passage. Their plans were complete, as far as human guesswork could

foretell the future. Men who had never

seen an enlisted woman and women who

had never been one had together planned

for the future welfare and efficiency of

women who were to be enlisted to work

for the Army.

On 14 May 1942, the Rogers bill was

approved by the Senate, 38 to 27, and

when signed the next day by the President

became Public Law 554, An Act to Establish a Women's Army Auxiliary Corps for

Service with the Army of the United

States.

67

 (1) The nine: G-3, G-4, TAG, JAG, SGO, Fin,

Mil Pers Div SOS, G-1, SW. See D/F, G-1 to [above],

20 Apr 42. Copy in Mudgett Staybacks. (2) The fourteen: G-4, Budget and Leg Plng Br, Fin, JAG, Req

Div SOS, SGO, CofAdm Serv SOS, Tng Div SOS,

TAG Enl Br, TAG, G-3, G-1, OQMG. See Memo

for each, 24 Apr 42. G-1/15839-10. (3) Memo, JAG

for Dir Pers SOS, 5 May 42. SPJGA 354.01. 68

 (1) D/F, G-1, 27 Apr 42, sub: Voluntary Registration of Women. G-1 /15839-27; (2) Ltr, SW to

Dir SS, 27 Apr 42, and reply, SS to SW, 8 May 42.

G-1/15839-1 (5-11-42).
CHAPTER III

The WAAC's First Summer

On the rainy morning of 16 May 1942,

Mrs. Oveta Culp Hobby took the oath of

office as Director, WAAC. This event represented a neatly executed coup d'etat on

the part of the Army, which, on the night

of 14 May, had sent Col. Robert N. Young

of the General Staff hurrying to the home

of the Secretary of War with the letter of

appointment in his hand. The Secretary

demurred at the haste but was persuaded

that this was the only way to avoid irresistible political pressure the next morning

to appoint other candidates who would be

disastrously unfamiliar with the Army's

plans. Competition for the position was by

now so open that newspaper columnists

were speculating on various candidates'

qualifications, or lack of them.1

Thus on 15 May there was simultaneous announcement of the President's

signature and of the appointment of the

Director. The appointment ceremony the

next morning was witnessed by the Secretary of War, the Chief of Staff, Congresswoman Rogers, Governor Hobby, and a

few others. Mrs. Hobby accepted, saying,

"You have said that the Army needs the

Corps. That is enough for me." The occasion was not particularly inspiring for

participants: klieg lights blazed; the

speeches had to be given over and over for

cameramen; Mrs. Hobby was asked to

raise her hand and repeat the oath several

times. Furthermore, her wide-brimmed

hat proved unreasonably difficult to photograph. Thus the first Waac was sworn

in.2

From this moment forward, Director

Hobby was faithfully credited by some

millions of Americans with having personally initiated the Corps and dictated its

every move. Although she had neither

originated the idea, written the legislation,

nor determined the Regulations, her office

repeatedly had to answer inquirers such

as an Army private, who wrote: "From

whom or whence did she derive the idea of

organizing such a unit?"

 3

The Press

There followed immediately a wellattended press conference, the first of

many to come. The War Department

realized the importance of the initial reac1

 Interv with Brig Gen Robert N. Young, CG

MDW, 14 Dec 45. The syndicated column, "The National Whirligig," May 20, 1942. WDBPR Newspaper Clippings, WAC, DRB AGO. 2

 Letter of appointment was dated 15 May 1942.

Memo, WAAC Hq for TAG, 18 May 42. WA 314.7

(6-2-41) sec 1, DRB AGO. Director Hobby's assigned serial number was OA-1. For others, the letter

A was prefixed for auxiliaries, and L for officers. It

was never specified what the L represented—presumably "Lady." The numbers from 100,000 to 199,999

were assigned to the First Service Command, 200,000

to 299,999 to the Second, and so on. Memos, TAG for

Dir WAAC, 16 and 20 May 42. SPWA 341. 3

 Ltr, Pvt Frank Wetrich to OWI, 22 Feb 44, forwarded to Dir WAC. SPWA 095.
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 47

MRS. OVETA CULP HOBBY is sworn in as the first Waac by Maj. Gen. Myron C.

Cramer. General Marshall, second from left, and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson were among

witnesses of the ceremony.

tion, and General Hilldring said, "This

whole thing stands or falls on the next 60

days."

 4

The basic idea of the Corps which the

Director and the Chief of Staff wished to

impress upon the public was that of a

sober, hard-working organization, composed of dignified and sensible women.

Their work must be shown as real, just as

the war was real and the nation's danger

was real. Although there might be problems of feminine adjustment, the War

Department did not intend to encourage

frivolity.

This excellent but somewhat staid approach was not expected by even the most

sanguine to offer any great appeal to the

press. The Director's staff noted that

"news" about women had long been patterned on three stereotypes of the American woman: (1) she was a giddy featherbrain frequently engaged in powder-puff

wars and with no interest beyond clothes,

cosmetics, and dates; (2) she was a henpecking old battle-ax who loved to boss

4

 Details, unless otherwise indicated, are from

intervs with Mrs. Herrick, 9 Jan 46, Mrs. Eric

Knight, 27 Feb 46, and Gen Hilldring, 17 Jan 46.
48 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the male species; or (3) she was a sainted

wife and mother until she left her kitchen,

whereupon she became a potentially scarlet woman. Director Hobby had already

taken issue with these views, saying,

"Waacs will be neither Amazons rushing

to battle, nor butterflies fluttering about."

 5

One idea which she was particularly

anxious to avoid was the familiar "morale

purposes" accusation—that Waacs were

not wanted to fill Army jobs so much as to

provide companionship for soldiers. General Marshall had been deliberately careful, in urging Congress to pass the bill, to

use solely the arguments concerning the

usefulness of Waacs as workers, and never

those that treated them chiefly as women.6

Here at this first conference was to begin

a never-finished battle as to which idea of

woman in the Army would prevail—

whether the public would get stories

mainly of her real work and useful jobs, or

of her underwear, cosmetics, dates with

soldiers, her rank-pulling, sex life, and

misconduct. Certain sections of the press

were expected to co-operate, in the interest of the war effort, by playing down

sensational angles that might hinder

recruiting. Since not all could be expected

to do so, the Director and her public relations consultant, Mrs. Herrick, sat up the

night before the conference listing all possible embarrassing questions that reporters

might ask, and rehearsing and polishing

the Director's replies so as to minimize

frivolous matters and emphasize the serious purpose of the Corps. A comparison of

their list with the questions asked the next

day showed that they did not miss even

one, and in fact thought of a few that the

reporters overlooked.

At the press conference, the Director

was supported by the Chief of Staff himself, General Marshall, and the head of

the Bureau of Public Relations, Maj. Gen.

Alexander D. Surles. A routine handout

was devoted to recruiting and training

plans, enlistment requirements, and other

statistics. A description of the uniform,

especially the underwear, for which reporters were eager, was tactfully withheld

a few days because its procurement was

not yet finally approved. Frustrated here,

the reporters opened up the expected barrage of questions directed at Mrs. Hobby:

 7

Q. How about girdles?

A. If you mean, will they be issued, I

can't tell you yet. If they are required, they

will be supplied.

Q. Will Waacs be allowed to use make-up?

A. Yes, if it is inconspicuous.

Q. What do you consider that to be?

A. I hope their own good taste will decide.

Q. Nail polish?

A. If inconspicuous, yes.

Q. Will the women salute?

A. Yes, they will salute.

Q. Will they march and carry arms?

A. They will learn to march well enough

to parade, but they will carry no guns.

Q. Will they be put in guardhouses?

A. No, no guardhouses.

Q. This is a burning question. Will officer

Waacs permitted to have dates with privates?

A. [Here Mrs. Hobby turned to one of the

generals

 8 for a description of Army tradition.

He explained that Army policy was that officers when not with troops, and enlisted men

when off duty, might associate, but that he

5

 MS history of First WAAC Training Center.

Folder, Supplementary Hist Material Sent to Washington Nov 1945. WD Library. (Hereafter cited as

Hist of 1st WAAC Tng Cen.) 6

 Interv with Gen Hilldring, 17 Jan 46 7

 Compiled from Associated Press and United Press

releases as well as syndicated columns for May 16,

1942. WDBPR Newspaper Clippings, WAC, DRB

AGO. 8

 Associated Press said it was General Marshall;

United Press said General Surles.
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 49

hadn't been to the field lately and didn't

know how it worked for nurses.]

Some questions became even more

pointed. "There was one male reporter in

particular," reported a spectator, "who

kept prodding the woman reporter next to

him to ask more and more about illegitimate babies." To this query, Mrs. Hobby

replied briefly that pregnant women, married or unmarried, would be discharged.

"The Director handled herself excellently," reported another observer. "She

was very direct, forthright, composed, and

as candid as could be. She made a good

impression." The next day's newspaper

stories confirmed this, although a few

women columnists

 9 pointed out that Mrs.

Hobby's previous "unavailability" had

not made her popular with newspaperwomen who wanted intimate details, and

the Negro press attacked the appointment

of a woman from Texas.10 In general, the

hundreds of clippings collected by the

Bureau of Public Relations showed widespread praise for the Corps and the Director. A few spiced up the story with

headlines such as "Petticoat Army" or

"Doughgirl Generalissimo,"

 11

 and some

punsters were obviously unable to resist

such opportunities as "Wackies," "Powder-magazines," "Fort Lipstick," and

(concerning girdles), "It wouldn't do to let

the fighting lassies get out of shape."

 12

Male columnists were the worst offenders, in spite of Damon Runyon's remark, "A lady in the uniform of her

country will scarcely be an object of jesting on the part of a gentleman not in the

same garb."

 13

 Some of the attacks contained savage comparisons to "the naked

Amazons . . . and the queer damozels of

the Isle of Lesbos."

 14

 Others, as expected,

had a field day with the idea that woman's place is in the maternity ward. Said

one: "Women's prime function with relation to war is to produce children so that

the supply of men for fighting purposes

can be kept up to par." Another: "Give

the rejected 4-F men a chance to be in

the Army and give the girls a chance to

be mothers." Others became emotional

over their assumption that all Waac recruits would be married women who had

deserted infants.15

Thus began the fight to hold the line on

public relations, which had wrecked recruiting for British women's services. Prematurely hopeful that the worst was over,

the Director and her staff began their first

day as a recognized and operating headquarters.

Establishment of WAAC Headquarters

"The next month was chaos," said a

staff member later. "Every newspaper and

magazine writer came down to see us. Important people of all sorts were also now

willing to advise us."

 16

 The open bays of

the office at Temporary M swarmed with

new clerks, insistent visitors, and hurrying

staff members; telephones buzzed and

boxes of supplies were stacked in corners.

On the day after the Director's appoint9

 Columns mentioned n. 7. 10

 Pittsburgh Courier, May 23, 1942, and others.

WDBPR Newspaper Clippings, WAC, DRB AGO. 11

 Fargo (N. D.) Morning Forum, May 17, 1942, and

Niles (Mich.) Star, May 20, 1942, respectively. 12

 First three in Little Rock Arkansas Democrat, May

23, 1942. The last in the column "The Totem Pole,"

Seattle Star, May 20, 1942. 13

 The column, "The Brighter Side," May 22,

1942. WDBPR Newspaper Clippings, WAC, DRB

AGO. 14

 The column, "Miami Story," Miami (Fla.) News,

May 20, 1942. 15

 Editorials in New York Daily News and Augusta

(Ga.) Herald, and a column in Oklahoma City Daily

Oklahoman, May 1942, respectively. WDBPR Newspaper Clippings, WAC, DRB AGO. 16

 Interv with Mrs. Herrick, 9 Jan 46.
50 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ment, the little headquarters pulled itself

together and began to issue numbered

memoranda. Now that there legally was

a WAAC, the long-delayed funds could

at last be allotted for a training center;

the tentative Regulations could be published; the items of uniform could be approved for procurement and details released to the underwear-conscious press.

More important, the still-nebulous group

of preplanners could now be solidified into

a real WAAC Headquarters, complete

with charts and ready for rapid expansion.

Thirty-seven civilians were also allotted,

including another woman consultant,

Mrs. Gruber, wife of Brig. Gen. William R.

Gruber, to advise on military protocol and

manage the Director's schedule. The

office now totaled some fifty people.17

By any military standards this was

hardly an impressive headquarters,

scarcely the equal of that of a respectable

Army regiment; and in spite of the exaggerated power that was attributed to it by

the press and general public, its members

by this time entertained few delusions of

grandeur. As an insignificant civilian

group, which included no general officer,

they expected and got a low priority of

attention as compared with the more vital

phases of the combat effort, particularly in

such matters as office space, cafeteria

hours, entertainment allowances, and

transportation.18

The office had at least a military-looking chief when, in June, there arrived the

first WAAC uniform, especially made for

Director Hobby. She promptly put it on,

reported formally to the Chief of Staff,

and came back wearing a colonel's silver

eagles, which he had pinned on and directed her to wear. The relative rank of

Director was thus established at that of

colonel, although Congress had authorized pay equal only to that of a major.

Both relative rank and pay were thus

established as the same as that recently

given to the Superintendent, Army Nurse

Corps. The relative rank of full colonel

was also necessitated by the grades of the

Army officers on her staff, since Director

Hobby would be superior in the WAAC

chain of command to the commandant of

the training center, Colonel Faith, as well

as to her own staff, which now included

Col. William Pearson as adjutant general

and Col. Bickford Sawyer as finance

officer.

No later Waacs ever suffered from uniform shortages as did Director Hobby at

this time; there was in existence only one

WAAC shirt, and in her travels her luggage contained little but an electric fan

and an iron, which enabled her to wash,

dry, and iron the shirt nightly.

Location in the Services of Supply

Meanwhile, the Services of Supply was

considering a more important matter: the

proper place in the headquarters chart to

insert the square labeled WAAC. Competition for the honor of supervising the

WAAC was not exactly brisk; it might be

said that each agency outdid the other in

striving to bestow this gift on its neighbor.19

17

 (1) Various Hq Memos in WA 300 (5-20-42)

Office Memos, sec 1. (2) Memo, G-1 for CofS, 13

May 42. WDGAP 352.01 WAAC. (3) Memo, TAG

for Dir WAAC, 26 May 42. AG 291.9 (5-15-42). (4)

Memo, OQMG for G-1, 16 May 42, and Inds.

SPQRE 420 WAAC. Copy in SPWA 421 (5-16-42)

sec 1. (5) WD SO 129, 17 May 42; Memo, WAAC Ln

Off for Pers Div SOS, 15 May 42. Tasker Staybacks. 18

 (1) Memo, W. Pearson for TAG, 19 Mar 42, and

atchd answer. WA 029.21 (3-19-42). (2) Memo, Dir

WAAC for SOS, 16 May 42, and atchd reply from

TAG. WA451 (5-16-42). 19

 Intervs with Lt Col Woods, 14 Dec 45, and Lt

Col Betty Bandel, 15 Dec 45. (Both former Deputy

Directors.)
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 51

At one time it seemed that Civilian Personnel Division would be forced to assume

control, although this was obviously inappropriate, since WAAC administration

would be conducted along military lines.

Military Personnel Division, from whence

the preplanners had operated, was also

inappropriate, as it was strictly a policymaking agency and did not operate, while

WAAC Headquarters would operate a

training center and various units. The

loser in this unique contest was eventually

the Chief of Administrative Services, at

that time Maj. Gen. John P. Smith. General

Smith was shortly to be succeeded by Maj.

Gen. George Grunert, who, as a lieutenant

colonel, had in 1927 been one of the War

Department staff officers to recommend

postponement of plans for a women's

service corps. The Administrative Services,

a large subdivision of the Services of Supply, included many comparable operating

agencies, such as the Army Specialist

Corps, the Army Exchange Service, and

the National Guard Bureau. WAAC

Headquarters would now be removed

from the Chief of Staff by three echelons:

first, the Chief of Administrative Services;

over him the Commanding General, Services of Supply; and over both on personnel matters the Assistant Chief of Staff,

G-1. The new position was not advantageous in many ways, but it appeared to

the Director's advisers that there was at

the moment no alternative.20

The WAAC's new status as one of the

Administrative Services was set forth to

the field by the first important War Department Circular governing the WAAC—

Circular 169 of 1 June 1942—which, after

two weeks of the Corps' existence, at last

made the WAAC legitimate. The circular

was so brief that a second circular was

clearly needed at once, although it did inform the Army that (1) the Director would

command the Corps and (2) other Services

of Supply offices would set WAAC policy.

It gave no details either of command channels or of interoffice co-ordination; neither

did it refer to the tentative WAAC Regulations. All WAAC plans and recommended policies were required to be sent

to the Chief of Administrative Services

"for reference to the appropriate staff division of the Services of Supply." The

Chief of Administrative Services wrote:

"While the WAAC is not a part of the

Army, yet the entire administration of the

Corps, including its organization and development, must be supervised and assisted by the Services of Supply."

 21

Director's Schedule

As the new Corps began the selection of

officer candidates and the establishment

of its training center, the work load upon

the headquarters, never light, suddenly

became so great as seriously to threaten its

efficiency.22 A fourteen-hour day and a

seven-day week became standard in the

Director's office, a schedule of course not

uncommon throughout the War Department at this date. Even this was often exceeded; staff members reported that for

days at a time Mrs. Hobby and her assistants worked every night until three,

five, and sometimes seven in the morning,

averaging only two or three hours of sleep

each night, or merely going home for a

shower and coffee before returning to

work. Staff members worked under condi20

 Memo, Dir Mil Pers SOS for CofAdm Serv, 21

May 42. SPGAP/1619-49, in AG 291.9 WAAC

(5-15-42). 21

 Ibid. 22

 This section from interviews, already cited, with

staff members; or from Hq Memos cited n. 17(1).
52 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tions of what they called "awful confusion" and pointed out that the developments of the following months could be

seen in perspective only if it was understood that they occurred, not separately

and in order, but simultaneously and in

the midst of wildly growing national

publicity that was in itself a full-time

problem.

Director Hobby attempted to cope with

the confusion by rigorously budgeting her

time. To Mrs. Gruber was given the task

of scheduling all persons wishing to see the

Director, in the belief that "more speed

can be made if she finishes one subject

without interruption." Staff members prepared summaries of staff papers and kept

a chart for the Director's daily briefing;

Colonel Pearson also directed that the Director be left free for "formulation of basic

policies." Unfortunately, at this stage

everything was new and policy was inseparable from detail; the situation resolved

itself into a struggle to meet the daily crises

without crushing the Director with decisions. The War Department Bureau of

Public Relations required the Director to

hold a full two-hour press conference twice

weekly. Also, interviews with the public

were scheduled four times a week, thus

leaving only a few days entirely free for

military problems. Even this amount of

time was highly unsatisfactory to members

of the press and Congress and other citizens who now came to call, and some

criticism resulted. One Congressman complained, "I can get to the President in five

minutes, but I can't get to Mrs. Hobby at

all."

The Director was aware of the problem

and stated in an office memorandum:

The successful launching of the WAAC is

a public relations problem to probably a

greater extent than any other War Department activity. We must establish a reputation

for not giving the "brush-off" or "runaround" to those calling.

However, she felt little sympathy toward

those who wanted merely a sight of her or

some personal favor. She said later:

Many of them were just curiosity-seekers;

they could have got accurate information from any Army officer in our headquarters,

but they wanted to sit and chat with that new

curiosity, a woman in Army uniform.

More important than seeing such people,

she felt, were her military responsibilities

to the Army and to the women about to

join the WAAC.

Operating Duties

These military duties, and not the

public pressure, constituted the real problem of the heavy work load. The Director

realized from the beginning that her duties

were exactly the reverse of what they

should have been; she said later: "We had

foreseen this problem in Canada, and it

was one of the reasons why we wanted

Army status. Now, we were an Auxiliary

and it was none of Army offices' legal

business."

For example, the office set out to prepare Tables of Basic Allowances for the

WAAC Training Center and for units, and

was at once struggling with terms such as

"T-Square, Maple, Plastic lined, one per

publications section"; "Chart, Anatomical,

Blood System, one per training center";

"Can, corrugated, with cover, 32 gal, one

per 20 mbrs." Realizing that the WAAC's

staff of eleven officers did not possess the

necessary specialist training to prepare accurate tables of chemical, signal, medical,

and other equipment and that the tables

could be done quickly by the Army spe-
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 53

cialists who prepared tables for men,

Colonel Pearson attempted to send the

work to the Chief of Administrative Services for distribution to other Services of

Supply offices. It was promptly returned

to him with the statement that the only

thing wanted for distribution to the SOS

offices was the final plan or policy for

approval.23 Director Hobby noted further:

We had to prepare our own budget for

presentation to Congress—a complicated

statistical matter—because the people who

prepared Army budgets said it wasn't their

responsibility. Then, three of us worked all

one night until 9 the next morning writing

the recruiting circulars which I had to present for approval to The Adjutant General;

TAG wouldn't write them. We had to check

all the blueprints for housing at every station—endless, bewildering blueprints.24

In every field of military responsibility,

it was the same story. The technical work

of the WAAC was done by an office that

knew little of the method, and the policy

approval was given to agencies that knew

nothing of WAAC over-all needs. Staff

members realized that, had Army status

made it possible, just the opposite organization would have been most efficient.

Under the circumstances, most of the

summer's tasks were accomplished, if at

all, only by a process of mutual irritation.

Colonel Pearson, the office's oldest and

most experienced adviser, was likewise

unable to obtain from the Services of Supply any clear-cut decision that would

enable him to distinguish between policy

matters which he must refer to other

offices and routine decisions which he

could make and put into effect without

delay. Colonel Pearson finally forced the

issue by sending direct to The Adjutant

General for publication a minor decision

which he considered routine—that of raising the age limit for the first officer candidate class from 45 to the legal limit of 50.

Refusing to publish it, The Adjutant General sent it to Control Branch, SOS, for

clearance; Control Branch sent it for comment to Military Personnel Division,

which commented and sent it back to Control Branch, which a week later returned

it to the WAAC, with directions to draft

the circular instead of asking The Adjutant General to do it, and a brief verbal

spanking: "In the future, please transmit

all matters of this nature to the Chief of

Administrative Services."

It was thus established that even simple

WAAC decisions would probably be considered policy matters and thus require

approval by several SOS branches before

they could be put into operation. While

such a procedure proved useful in avoiding errors, it became impossible for WAAC

Headquarters to act with anything like

speed and decisiveness in the emergencies

bearing down upon it.25

Drastic expedients were suggested to the

Director by her Army advisers, some involving the disbandment of WAAC Headquarters. The most plausible of these—

although probably not legal—was to dismember the office and give the various

pieces to the SOS divisions that handled

the same matters for men, while the Director and a small office for control and

inspection would soar upward for several

SOS echelons and attach themselves to the

office of the Commanding General, Services of Supply, Lt. Gen. Brehon B. Somervell. From this vantage point the Director

could then heckle other offices when dif23

 Memo, Chief, Sup Div WAAC for GofAdm Serv,

1 Sep 42. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-43) (1) sec 1. 24

 Interv with Mrs. Hobby, 23 Aug 48. 25

 Correspondence cited is a series of papers under

dates of 25 and 27 May, 11, 12, 13, 15, and 16 Jun

1942. AG 291.9 (6-2-41). Staff comments are from

interv with Mrs. Onthank, 4 Sep 46.
54 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ficulties occurred. "As it is now," the

Army advisers wrote mournfully, "we

have to ask help from all of these branches,

and maybe get it and maybe don't, and

get bounced all around unless we want to

go to the top to help us out, and that is a

bad system."

 26

 This plan, although eminently workable, was not be adopted until

the WAAC became part of the Army.

In spite of the unresolved confusion and

the demands upon them, staff members

remained enthusiastic and optimistic;

Director Hobby publicly thanked them

for their loyalty and for putting so much

into the struggle.27

Selection of the First Officer Candidates

From the public viewpoint, selection of

the WAAC officer candidates was the only

important matter that the WAAC now

had on its hands. From the moment of

passage of the bill, WAAC Headquarters

had been besieged, to the detriment of its

other duties, by long-distance telephone

calls, telegrams, visitors, and letters of application, all asking commissions. Congressmen, Army heads, and public officials

were swamped by demands from friends

and constituents. Officers of all the armed

forces sought to get commissions for their

friends and relatives, while powerful pressure groups sought to name assistant directors. "Every important person had a

candidate," said a woman staff member,

"and they all wanted guarantees of commissions and important positions."

 28

Under its legislation, the WAAC could

have commissioned many of its officers direct from civil life with appropriate rank,

as the Army did and as the WAVES and

other women's services were later to do.

Mrs. Hobby's previous decision to grant

no direct commissions was severely tested.

Mrs. Rogers, the Corps' sponsor, urged her

to commission several lieutenant colonels

at once, as she feared that otherwise the

WAAC leaders would have no prestige in

their dealings with ranking Army officers.29

 However, it appeared that if even

two or three women were commissioned

directly, it would be impossible to refuse

hundreds of others with prominent sponsors, and Director Hobby believed that

Mrs. Rogers' objection concerning rank

could be overcome by rapid promotion as

soon as the women had demonstrated

their ability.

It was General Hilldring's belief that

the Director was strengthened in her original decision by the opinions of General

Marshall.

The Chief of Staff was a great democrat

[said General Hilldring]. I told Mrs. Hobby

how, at his direction, I had made a fight to

get more officers from the ranks of enlisted

men. I told her that he might not object to

appointing a few civilian women for the top

jobs, but the rest of the officers must come

from the ranks. They must be the best

women in the ranks even if this was not

necessarily the best in the nation.30

Also, staff members in their discussions

of this point gave some weight to what

they called "the man-woman element," a

factor which did not ordinarily operate in

the selection of male officers for commissions, but which now made it difficult to

judge with entire accuracy the motives

behind demands for the commissioning of

female friends and secretaries.31

The experiences of other nations indi26

 (1) Min, Stf Mtg, 24 Aug 42. (2) Memo, PRO for

Dir WAAC, 9 Sep 42. SPWA 300.4. 27

 Unnumbered Memo, 1 Jun 42. WA 300

(5-20-42). 28

 List of some applicants in SPWA 029 (1942). 29

 Interv with Mrs. Rogers, 14 Dec 45. 30

 Interv with Gen Hilldring, 17 Jan 46. 31

 All interviews confirm this.
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 55

cated that, by its initial choice of officers,

the entire future course of a women's corps

might be determined. In England initial

limitation of commissioned rank to socially

or politically prominent women had left a

corps without adequate troop officers. In

some Continental countries commissions

had been awarded chiefly to enable certain personnel to travel with ranking

officers. It was recognized that, without

firm leadership at this moment, the first

American auxiliary might set out on a

similar course. Finally, a General Staff

decision was obtained that confirmed the

Director's original policy of limiting the

future WAAC leadership to those women

who would enlist without guarantees, and

making it possible to refuse all requests

from high authorities without incurring

charges of discrimination.32

 All applicants

who stormed WAAC Headquarters were

therefore told to apply at their local Army

recruiting stations. Director Hobby's own

civilian advisers, Mrs. Woods and Mrs.

Fling, had to follow this procedure when

they desired to enlist.

By 27 May, Army recruiting stations all

over the United States were supplied with

application blanks, and newspapers carried the story that the doors were now

open for officer candidate applications.33

The response was a rush that swamped recruiting stations and startled recruiters.

The Adjutant General had optimistically

sent each corps area 10,000 application

blanks, a total of 90,000, although only

360 candidates were to be selected. Three

days later, urgent calls had already come

from the Second, Third, Fourth, and Sixth

Corps Areas for 10,000 more each, and

from the Fifth and Ninth for 5,000. Of the

140,000 blanks given out, it was assumed

that many would not be returned, as the

4 June deadline gave little leeway on

delayed applications. Some recruiting

officers attempted to weed out the obviously unqualified and to give the scarce

blanks only to eligibles.

In New York City, 1,400 women

stormed the Whitehall Street office on the

first day and stood in line from 8:30 to

5:00 o'clock. In five days over 5,200 had

received application blanks in New York

City alone, although only 30 women

could be picked from the whole of New

York State, New Jersey, and Delaware. In

Washington 1,700 applied for the eight

positions open to the District of Columbia.

Numbers as reported by newspapers

varied in different cities: Sheboygan—20;

Lowell—65; Richmond—65; Baltimore—

500; Portland—380; Sacramento—135;

Minneapolis—600 given out, but only 50

returned; Butte—"a few cautious inquiries." Nothing could be told as yet of

the type of woman who had applied.

Newspapers featured an Indian woman in

full tribal regalia, a sixteen-year-old who

wanted to get away from home, a wildeyed mother brandishing a pistol and

demanding to get to the front. It was

hoped that these were not typical applicants.34

Screening of Applicants

It had been decided that Army induction facilities could be used for women,

with of course the necessary segregation

32

 Document not positively identified; possibly

Memo, G-1 for CofS, 22 Mar 42, sub: WAAC.

G-1/15839, inCofS 291.9. 33

 WDBPR Press Release, 26 May 42. All WDBPR

Press Releases are in WDBPR file, DRB AGO. 34

 New London Day (Conn.), New York WorldTelegram, Washington Post, Sheboygan Press (Wise.),

Lowell Sun, (Mass.), Richmond Times-Dispatch, Baltimore Evening Sun, Portland Morning Oregonian, Sacramento Daily Union, Minneapolis Tribune, all of June 2,

1942; Butte Montana Standard, May 24, 1942.
56 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

for physical examination.35 This decision

provided an extra and unscheduled

screening device, for only women of some

valor dared approach the Army offices.

Members of the first class commented:

"The recruiting station was the dirtiest

place I ever saw." "It was in the post office

basement next to the men's toilets." "I

was whistled at by the selectees." "Everyone in the room turned to look as the

Captain bawled out 'Are you one of them

Wackies?' " 36 WAC recruiters were later

to find the location and nature of Army

recruiting facilities a major handicap in

recruiting women.

Some 30,000 women braved this obstacle and filed applications. Their papers

were reviewed by the stations, and those

who were not obviously disqualified for

age, citizenship, or other causes were summoned for an aptitude test. This test had

been prepared by the Personnel Procedures Section of The Adjutant General's

Office to eliminate 55 percent of all applicants.37

 It was attempted to make standard questions more appropriate for females, but some were not easily converted,

and women were confronted by such

problems as, "You are a first baseman, and

after putting the batter out by catching

the ball (not a fly) with your foot on the

bag, you . . ."

 38

Those who passed the aptitude test were

further screened by a preliminary local

interviewing board of two women and an

Army officer selected by the corps area.

To avoid appointment of unqualified

women to these boards, the preplanners

had sent out instructions that members

were to be local personnel directors, business executives, YWCA supervisors, and

women of like standing. These local

boards weeded out those applicants who

were visibly unsuited by reason of character, bearing, or instability. Members

were asked to consider the question:

"Would I want my daughter to come

under the influence of this woman?"

 39

The numbers passing both the test and

the first board still hopelessly overcrowded

Army medical facilities for the examination of women. It was therefore directed

that only the top five hundred applicants

in each corps area be given physical examinations. The examination was not entirely

consistent throughout the corps area and

it was evident that the Army still had far

to go in working out a satisfactory physical

examination for women, but it did eliminate those with the more obvious physical

disqualifications.

There then arrived at each corps area

headquarters an especially selected woman

to be the Director's representative on the

final screening board. Among the women

selected were Dean Dorothy C. Stratton of

Purdue, later head of the SPARS, and

Dean Sarah Blanding of Cornell, later

President of Vassar.40 In spite of the pres35

 (1) M/R 1-7, Oct 40, sub: Reception of SS EM.

(2) Folder, Selection Processing, Hobby files. 36

 Related to author by members of first officers'

candidate class. 37

 (1) WDAGO Mental Alertness-1, X-Z, Mar 42,

called MAT-1. (2) Speech, Col Tasker to Corps Area

G-1 Cong, 12 Jun 42. WAAC Hist File, 1942 WAAC

Files. (3) D/F, SOS to TAG, 11 Mar 42, sub: WAAC.

G-1/15839-10. 38

 It proved very difficult to discover the correlation

between the WAAC Mental Alertness Test (MAT)

and the Army General Classification Test (AGCT).

For details of testing, see Folder, Tests, in WAAC

Planning files (unnumbered files now with Staff Rec

Sec, DRB AGO), containing: (1) Memo, Dir WAC

for TAG, 10 Aug 43, SPWA 201.6; (2) M/R, undated, 2d Lt Ruth W. Brainerd, sub: AGCT and

MAT; (3) Memo, Opns and Tng Div AGO for Dir

WAC, 16 Dec 43, AG 220.01 (12-16-43)OC-L. 39

 Memo, Hq SOS for TAG, 17 Mar 42, sub:

WAAC. G-1/15839-10. 40

 All members listed in WDBPR Press Release, 30

Jun 42.
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 57

SCREENING OF APPLICANT for first officer candidate class by local interviewing board

at Fort McPherson, Georgia, 20 June 1942.

sure of time, the final personal interviews

were more extensive, and delved thoroughly into each candidate's record in

school, college, and business to see if signs

of leadership were evident.41 The Director's representatives then returned immediately to Washington bearing the candidates' complete papers, pictures, and

interview records. Their private comments

varied with the corps areas. One said,

"Decidedly disappointed in both number

and general type of applicants"; another,

"A complete cross-section from young

things to professional women"; and a

third, "I was impressed with the common

denominator shared by the extremes in

types—wanting to do organized effective

war work."

 42

The final selection process was of unequaled intensity. An evaluating board of

eleven prominent psychiatrists

 43

 searched

the work histories for evidences of mental

instability, choosing women who showed

steady progress and acceptance of responsibility rather than frequent unexplained

changes of jobs. Application forms also

revealed data on parents and family life,

41

 Memo, Dir WAAC for Pers Div SOS, 2 Jun 42.

G-1/15839-10 (7-8-42). 42

 Off-the-record comments, Folder, Selection Processing, Hobby files. 43

 Named in WDBPR Press Release, 30 Jun 42.
58 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

whether applicants had ever lived in clubs

or dormitories, their travel, sports interests, and health. Answers to the essay

question on "Why I Desire Service" were

believed to be particularly revealing.

There followed what Director Hobby

called "four days of careful, almost prayerful, work of making the final selections."

 44

The Director personally read each of the

final papers. The 30,000 applicants had

been reduced to the 4,500 who appeared

before the final boards, and in the midst

of selection procedure, word came from

the Chief of Staff to pick not 360, but

1,300, the papers of the extra candidates

to be kept for call to later classes as

needed.45

The work was finally completed late on

the night of 30 June. Within a week, corps

areas had notified the 360 top-rated applicants, who thus had less than two weeks to

close out their jobs, take the oath, and get

to Fort Des Moines for the opening on 20

July.

The selected candidates had one characteristic in common: 99 percent had been

successfully employed in civil life. Although there was no such educational

requirement, 90 percent had college training and some had several degrees. Most

fell in the age group of 25 to 39, although

16 percent were under 25 and 10 percent

were 40 and over. About 20 percent were

married, most of them to men in service,

and there were some mothers, especially

mothers of servicemen, though none with

small children.46 The candidates included

many women who had held responsible

jobs: a dean of women, a school owner

and director, a personnel director, a Red

Cross official, a former sales manager, and

several editors, and there were many more

who had been reporters, office executives,

lawyers, social workers, Army employees,

and teachers. In compliance with promises

made to Congress, it had been necessary

to choose a certain number from each

corps area and from each state, regardless

of density of population, with the result

that many highly qualified women in certain crowded areas had to be turned

down, while in certain sparsely settled

states it was necessary to take almost every

woman who applied.47

Special Groups of Candidates

Two other problems complicated the

task of the selecting authorities: the selection of Negro officer candidates and the

selection of Aircraft Warning Service candidates. The Negro problem was particularly delicate, for the Negro press had

immediately attacked the choice of a

Director, and the National Negro Council

had written President Roosevelt protesting the appointment of a Southern

woman.48

The opposition was unexpected, since

the War Department had early informed

Congress that it would train Negro WAAC

officers and auxiliaries up to 10 percent of

the Corps and Mrs. Hobby had declared

her support of the plan; while the Navy

Department's WAVES, although not

headed by a Southerner, did not accept

any Negroes at all for almost three years.

The real cause of the objections came

out in later news stories, which revealed

that Negro leaders had hoped to use the

44

 Speech at Howard University, 6 Jul 42. WDBPR

Press Release, 6 Jul 42. 45

 Memo, Preplanners for G-1, 7 May 42. Tasker

Staybacks. 46

 Some of the Aircraft Warning Service candidates

later added to this group had young children, as it

was supposed that they would live at home. 47

 (1) Figures given to Senate Com on Mil Affairs.

(2) List in WDBPR Press Memo, 3 Sep 42. 48

 Atlanta Daily World, May 17, 1942.
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 59

new Corps to break the "traditional and

undemocratic policy of the Army and

Navy" of placing Negro personnel in separate units.49

 Their demand that the

WAAC place Negro and white women in

the same unit was rejected because the

WAAC had been directed to follow the

Army policy. Now the National Negro

Council recommended to the Secretary of

War that Dr. Mary McLeod Bethune and

one other Negro leader be commissioned

assistant directors, which was of course

impossible under the no-direct-appointment policy. To make relations more precarious, it soon became apparent that not

enough qualified Negro women had presented themselves as applicants for officer

candidate school, and it was feared that

WAAC failure to fill the quota of 10 percent would be interpreted by the Negro

press as discrimination. Accordingly,

Army officers made hurried trips to Negro

colleges to attempt to recruit qualified

women. Mrs. Bethune assisted in the

selection of these candidates, not being

within the age limit to attend the school

herself.50

For the Aircraft Warning Service the

Army Air Forces asked that it be allowed

to put women in uniform without sending

them to school, but after long consideration it was decided that AWS officers must

graduate from the regular officer candidate school before donning the WAAC

uniform. On the matter of selection the

Director felt unable to offer opposition,

since the women to be selected were

already running the operations and filter

boards. The Air Forces were therefore

allotted eighty vacancies for the first officer candidate class, which brought that

class to a total of 440. WAAC Headquarters suffered some misgivings about the

absence of the usual tests. However, while

choices were later found to include some

women without responsible paid experience and with test scores in the lowest

aptitude category, Group V, the majority

made successful officers.51

There was one applicant for attendance

at the school who gave the War Department more trouble than all others combined. This was Director Hobby herself,

who had made up her mind to attend the

school as an ordinary student in order to

understand through her own experience

the problems of a woman's adjustment to

military training. She stood firm in this

decision for some time while the expostulations of shocked advisers raged around

her.52 The Director carried this determination unaltered up through several strata

of general officers and was stopped at last

only by General Marshall himself, who

told her sympathetically but with finality

that the thing was impossible under the

Army system of rank.

The First WAAC Training Center

Meanwhile, the situation at Fort Des

Moines could scarcely have been termed

tranquil. Immediately upon passage of the

WAAC bill, Colonel Faith and his staff of

ten Army officers shot out of Washington

in the race to have the training center

ready when the women arrived.53 They

reached Des Moines with less than two

months to spare before opening date.

49

 Chicago Defender, May 23, 1942. 50

 (1) Ibid. (2) Copy of plan in Folder Recruiting,

Tasker files, 1942 WAAC files. (3) Interv with Lt Col

Woods, 21 Mar 46. 51

 Memo, AG WAAC for Dir WAAC, 3 Jun 42.

Tasker Staybacks. Also from intervs. 52

 This incident related separately by former staff

members present at the time: Mrs. Herrick, Mrs.

Knight, and Mrs. Woods. 53

 Memo, G-1 for CofS, 13 May 42. WDGAP

352.01 WAAC. Approved 15 May 42.
60 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Colonel Faith's basic plan in beginning

the undertaking was to make the course so

military that Army skeptics could find

little to criticize. Reporters who interviewed him came away stating, "It will be

no glamour girls' playhouse." They gathered that few concessions would be made

to "feminine vanity and civilian frippery."

 54

 Colonel Faith deplored the press

phrasing of the matter, and stated later:

It was obvious to all of us that a considerable percentage of the Army was either

opposed to the WAAC idea or very doubtful

of its potential success. The best way to combat this attitude was to train the new soldiers

in those qualities which the Army values

most highly: neatness in dress, punctiliousness in military courtesy, smartness and precision in drill and ceremonies, and willingness

and ability to do the job.55

The students were, however, to be taught

the Army's reasons for the things they

were required to do. "The American

woman is the most co-operative human

being on earth if she fully understands an

order," Faith declared hopefully.56

Remodeling and new construction at

Fort Des Moines began as soon as the

induction station and reception center

could be moved. Classrooms were erected,

stables and plumbing converted, and separate housing provided for the male cadre.

The rest of the staff, forty-one officers and

192 enlisted men, arrived about 30 May.57

The director of training was especially

selected by Colonel Tasker; he was Lt.

Gordon C. Jones, a former instructor at

The Citadel.

Direct communication had been authorized between Colonel Faith and the

Director, and this proved indeed fortunate

for the training center, which began to

send by telephone, wire, and mail a steady

stream of requests.58 Dayroom furniture

was needed, also a Special Services officer,

two women doctors, a post utilities officer,

pictures of uniforms for the local press,

instruments for the band, and money for

everything. Boxes of training literature

had not arrived, nor had test forms.

A hostess and a librarian were needed

for the service club, also a Red Cross field

director. Highly skilled classification

teams had to be found to interview and

classify the women, who might be expected to have job experience not ordinarily encountered by the Army. The Chief

of Finance "strenuously objected" to furnishing a fiscal officer. The Corps of

Engineers had no capable post utilities

officer to offer. The $20,000 already

allotted to the Seventh Corps Area was so

restricted that Colonel Faith could not use

it to purchase many of the miscellaneous

items needed. There was no money for

entertaining the scores of prominent

people who desired to view the school.

These assorted requests, coming as they

did during the period when WAAC Headquarters was struggling to establish its

own organization and policies and to

select officer candidates, quickly began to

reveal still more of the difficulties which

the Director's office must face as an operating headquarters. Most of the fairly

minor matters discussed with Colonel

Faith could easily have been decentralized

to the Seventh Corps Area had the WAAC

been in the Army, but since it was a

separate organization, all of its funds and

54

 (1) AP Release, June 1, 1942, quoted in New York

Times, June 2, 1942. (2) Lee Carson, INS Release,

May 19, 1942, in Los Angeles Examiner, May 20,

1942. 55

 Ltr, Faith to Ward, 18 May 50. OCMH. 56

 Press Releases cited n. 54. 57

 Memo cited n. 53. 58

 Personal ltrs; rnemos, and transcripts of tp convs

in: (1) Folder T, Tasker files, 1942 WAAC files, dated

3, 8, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29 June, 3, 6, 20, 21, 28 July. (2)

Tasker Staybacks, dated 3, 10 June, 6 July.
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 61

personnel allotments had to be handled

separately and justified by the Director's

office.

The Adjutant General had meanwhile

directed various Army commands to select and send to Des Moines the men who

would serve as instructors and cadre until

Waacs could take over.59 This personnel

had no sooner reported than it was discovered that few if any of the instructors

were qualified for the exacting and unprecedented task ahead. The director of

training wrote:

Out of 41 officers which we requested

originally, we got one man who is fitted for the job at hand. The others are all doing their

best to fill jobs far beyond their former

experience. The new officers are all fine

fellows (we are fortunate to have gotten no

duds) but professionally. . . .60

As the time grew shorter, it became

apparent that some deficiencies were

inevitable. Requisitions for field and technical manuals, circulars, forms, and Army

Regulations were only partially filled or

back-ordered, with no assurance from

harassed supply depots that they could be

filled within the next six months. The

post's two mimeograph machines ran continuously to duplicate missing material.61

Funds for certain equipment did not arrive

on time, and neither did some of the

faculty. Colonel Tasker wrote, "The lieutenant who was to join your force cannot

be located. Please let me know if others

are missing."

 62

 Even ahead of these difficulties came the greatest problem of all,

and an unexpected one—expansion.

Expansion Plans, Summer of 1942

In the midst of the WAAC's hurried

preparations there occurred an event

which was to bring far-reaching changes

to all plans. On 13 June 1942 the Chief of

Staff called into his office three Army officers representing the Chief of Administrative Services, the Office of the Director,

WAAC, and Aircraft Warning Service.63

General Marshall informed these men

that in view of the approaching Army personnel shortage it was his desire that every

effort be made to organize and train personnel of the Women's Army Auxiliary

Corps at the earliest possible date. He felt

it would be possible to have considerable

numbers in active service a great deal

sooner than existing plans provided. The

staff officers were directed to formulate the

necessary speed-up plans.

All British precedent indicated that

such a move meant great difficulty for the

WAAC. British observers had commented,

"It is difficult for the general public to

realize the strain created by the great

expansion of the women's services, built

up as they have been . . . from almost

non-existent foundations."

 64

 Director

Hobby and the preplanners had fervently

hoped for at least "time for trial and error

before going into an assembly-line type of

production."

 65

Nevertheless, WAAC expansion was a

calculated risk that the Army's current

situation made necessary. In spite of earlier

optimistic estimates, the armed forces were

now experiencing what historians called

"the manpower crisis of the summer of

59

 Telg, TAG to CG Second Army at Memphis,

Tenn., 22 May 42. AG 220.31 (5-23-42)EA, in

G-1/15839-10 (7-8-42). 60

 Personal ltr, Jones to Tasker, 27 Jun 42. Folder T,

Tasker files, 1942 WAAC files. 61

 Ltr, Faith to Dir WAAC, 24 Aug 42. SPWA

400.311 (8-24-42). 62

 Ltr, Tasker to Faith, 28 Jul 42. Tasker files, 1942

WAAC files. 63

 Memo, Lt Col James L. Tarr to CofAdm Serv, 13

Jun 42. G-1/15839-10 (7-8-42). 64

 Conditions in the Three Women's Services. 65

 Ltr, Mudgett to author, 19 Aug 48. OCMH.
62 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

1942."

 66

 The Army Ground Forces was

already short more than 160,000 men.

Only two days before General Marshall's

decision the War Department had admitted the necessity either to train units

understrength or to slow down the activation of new units, thus jeopardizing invasion plans. It was also being forced toward

unpopular measures such as drafting

eighteen-year-olds and fathers and cutting

more deeply into defense industry and

agriculture.67

On the other hand, the WAAC was

concurrently rocking along with its modest

prewar plan for about 12,000 women in

the first year. Meanwhile, thousands of

women were clamoring for admittance,

and requisitions for over 80,000 of them

had by this time been received from Army

commands, of which at least 63,000

seemed suitable for employment. This did

not include the needs of overseas theaters

and many other domestic commands

which had also shown interest.68

Thus, WAAC expansion seemed logical

in spite of its practical difficulties. The

Army itself was faced with the same

expansion problems, and men were training with wooden guns, sleeping in tent

camps, and wearing clothing often inappropriate to the climate, all with greater

success than might have been expected.

The WAAC move was nevertheless the

greater risk, since men could be drafted to

face these hardships while women would

have to volunteer.

Plans for expansion were drawn up by

the Services of Supply at hasty conferences

on 14 and 15 June and submitted to the

Chief of Staff on 17 June. The WAAC's

ultimate strength was to be increased at

least fivefold, from 12,000 to more than

63,000. Within a year, by May of 1943,

there would be in the field 25,000 instead

of the 12,000 previously planned for that

date. Within two years, or by April of

1944, the entire 63,000 would be trained

and at work. The divisions of the Services

of Supply concerned believed it would be

possible to manage this expansion successfully, and gave it their written concurrence.69

The plan was approved by the Chief of

Staff, although within three months it,

too, was to be discarded by the General

Staff in favor of still greater expansion.

This moment marked an important turning point in Corps history: up to this date,

it was obvious that the WAAC had been

forced upon an unwilling Army by a combination of circumstances; from this time

forward, its employment was not only

voluntary but was extended more rapidly

than its original sponsors had contemplated.

As the first result of the plan, construction at Fort Des Moines was stepped up

by 20 percent, and action was taken by

condemnation to lease Des Moines hotels,

garages, office buildings, college dormi66

 Kent Roberts Greenfield, Robert R. Palmer, and

Bell I. Wiley, The Organization of Ground Combat

Troops, in UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD

WAR II (Washington, 1947), pp. 206-08. 67

 Remarks of Lt Gen Joseph T. McNarney, Min,

Gen Council, 12 Oct 42. 68

 Memo, Brig Gen James E. Wharton, Dir Mil

Pers SOS, for CofS, Attn: G-1, 17 Jun 42.

G-1/15839-10.

Command Requisitioned Approved

Total....................... . 80,750 63,750

AAF, AWS. ..................... . 31,600 31,600

AAF, airfields .................... . 19,300 19,300

AAF, ferrying commands. ......... . 1,100 1,100

Service Commands............... . 6,450 6,450

Signal Corps..................... . 7,500 a 2,500

Antiaircraft commands............ . 750 750

Weather Bureau.................. . 2,050 2,050

Post Exchanges.................. . 12,000 0 a

 Disapproved 5,000 intended for overseas.

69

 Ibid. Concurrences: SOS Tng Div, Reqrnts Div,

Pers Div, Opns Div, Cof Adm Serv, and Dir WAAC;

also Rctg Div AGO.
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 63

tories and classrooms, and even the local

coliseum, so that specialist training might

be given in the city, leaving more room for

basic trainees at the post.70 A tent camp

was set up at Fort Des Moines for an additional 634 male cadre, who were intended

to stay only four months, until Waacs

could graduate and replace them. Action

was not taken until 3 July to order these

men in, and most arrived at Des Moines

scarcely one jump ahead of the women

whom they were to instruct.

It was now determined that the first

officer candidate class of 440, which began

on 20 July, would be followed by classes of

125 women weekly until at least 1,300

officers had been trained. Officer training

time had already been cut from three

months to six weeks. It had also been

decided to start the first class of enrolled

women soon after the first officer candidate class, without waiting for WAAC officers to graduate and assist in their training. Enrolled women would have only a

brief four weeks of basic training, instead

of the originally planned three months.71

Specialist schools—for cooks, clerks,

and drivers—would be ready to function

in August when the first enrolled women

graduated from basic training. Thus it was

believed that it would be possible as early

as 9 November 1942 to begin sending three

fully trained headquarters companies,

with officers and cadre, to field stations

each week, and to train and return to their

station 300 Aircraft Warning Service

Waacs weekly, beginning in September.72

The First WAAC Officer Candidate Class,

20 July-29 August 1942

By 20 July 1942, with the opening of the

first officer candidate class,73 the mounting interest of press and public reached a

point of near-hysteria. The old post at

Fort Des Moines swarmed with dignitaries, invited and uninvited, who braved

the steamy midsummer Iowa weather in

order to view history in the making. Every

angle of the new scene was well documented by the press, while photographers

invaded the barracks in search of the stillelusive WAAC underwear. Authorities

were particularly alarmed to discover that

a number of women reporters had resolved

to participate in the first week of processing in order to reveal to the waiting public

a woman's every sensation as she was converted into a soldier. Because it was not

yet known whether the women's sensations

would be printable, this request was refused, and the press was informed that the

post was theirs for one day only. After

that, a two-week news blackout was to be

enforced while the Army and the women

became acquainted in comparative privacy. This step seemed necessary to avoid

complete disruption of training, but was

later believed by some staff officers to have

alienated certain writers and news agencies.74

Before crowds of interested Des Moines

citizens the arriving Waacs were whisked

70

 Memo cited n. 63. Also Folder, Lease of Real

Estate, 27 Jun 42, SPWA 481 (6-7-42). 71

 Memo, Preplanners for G-1, 2 Apr 42. Tasker

Staybacks. 72

 (1) Memo, Brig Gen Idwal H. Edwards, G-3, for

CofS, 3 Jul 42. WDGCT 291.9 WAAC, in CofS 291.9

WAAC. (2) 1st Ind, AG WAAC for Dir Mil Pers SOS

through CofAdm Serv, 29 Jun 42. WA 320.2

(6-25-42). Copy in Tasker Staybacks. 73

 Dir WAAC for CofS, 4 Aug 42, 1st Ind, Exec Off

CofAdm Serv, for Dir WAAC, 10 Aug 42. SPAAI 320

WAAC, in Dir Adm Serv ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 74

 If no other source is stated, descriptions of this

first class are based upon: (1) accounts given by

women participants to the author, and upon her own

impressions as a member of Company 1. Other accounts differ only as to whether Company 1, 2, 3, or

4 was the best company. (2) Hist of 1st WAAC Tng

Cen.
WAAC STAFF AND MEMBERS OF THE PRESS at Fort Des Moznes, Iowa, 20 

3ub 1942. 
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 65

from incoming trains to waiting Army

trucks. At the fort processing moved efficiently and included a brief physical

check, an immediate meal, and assignment to one of the four companies. Each

woman was assigned a bed, a wall locker,

a footlocker, and a metal chair, and soon

discovered that the Army had no bathrooms, only something two flights of stairs

away called a latrine. Male company officers and cadre clung to their orderly and

supply rooms, designating the first arrivals

as barracks guides for the rest and hastily,

if inaccurately, informing all comers that

only married men with children had been

given this assignment.

The issuance of uniforms was the main

interest. Mobilized at the clothing warehouse were almost all of the saleswomen

and fitters from department stores in Des

Moines, and the Waacs were passed down

an assembly line from one curtained booth

to another. The underwear and foundation garments proved to be of excellent

quality, although the rich mud-brown

color of slips and panties was slightly disconcerting.

The morning was not an hour old

before more was learned about women's

uniforms than had been discovered in the

past six months of research. It was immediately apparent that the articles shipped

to Des Moines by the Philadelphia Quartermaster Depot bore little resemblance to

the model that had been approved by the

preplanners. The heavy cotton khaki

skirts were cut as if to fit men's hips, and

buckled and wrinkled across the stomach,

so that even the slimmest Waac presented

a potbellied appearance after she had sat

down once. When Waacs walked or

marched the skirts climbed well above the

knee, unless a desperate grip on the skirt

was substituted for the required arm

swing. The hot, stiff cotton jackets, made

of men's materials, draped as becomingly

as a strait jacket and were of much the

same texture. Shrieks of dismay arose as

women tried on the WAAC caps, uncharitably christened "Hobby hats,"

which were not only unbecoming to many

women but also cut the forehead and were

easily warped, crushed, or soiled.

Furthermore, the Quartermaster size

range had apparently been set up for a

race of giants, and there were not enough

small sizes in outer garments. As extensive

alterations were necessary to cut down

larger sizes, most of the women emerged

with nothing to wear for a day or two except the brown-striped seersucker exercise

suits—short button-front dresses worn

over matching bloomers. However, the

cameramen were diverted to a few women

whose uniforms fitted without alteration;

these were placed in the front row for

platoon pictures or posed beside the post's

one cannon.

The rest of the processing, carried on

intermittently during the week, closely

followed the Army pattern for men. There

were simultaneous tetanus, typhoid, and

smallpox shots; outside the dispensary

stood an embarrassed Army sergeant with

smelling salts, which actually proved little

needed. The Articles of War were solemnly

explained, although they applied to a

Waac only in the improbable event that

she should find herself "in the field."

Lessons were given in bedmaking, care of

clothing and equipment, the difference between fall out and fall in, the beginnings of

close order drill, and the other Army

orientation that for men was usually given

at reception centers. Women were given

the standard Army General Classification

Test (AGCT), and their skills were classified.
66 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

On the fourth day, with processing completed and the women at last neatly uniformed in khaki skirts and shirts, Director

Hobby addressed the group for the first

time. She had been at the Fort since the

first day, observing somewhat wistfully.

Now she spoke words calculated to remove

the military trees and reveal the forest, to

give the women perspective on history and

where they now stood in it:

May fourteenth is a date already written

into the history books of tomorrow. . . .

Long-established precedents of military tradition have given way to pressing need. Total

war is, by definition, endlessly expansive. . . .

You are the first women to serve. . . . Never

forget it. . . .

You have just made the change from

peacetime pursuits to wartime tasks—from

the individualism of civilian life to the

anonymity of mass military life. You have

given up comfortable homes, highly paid

positions, leisure. You have taken off silk and

put on khaki. And all for essentially the same

reason—you have a debt and a date. A debt

to democracy, a date with destiny. . . .

You do not come into a Corps that has an

established tradition. You must make your

own. But in making your own, you do have

one tradition—the integrity of all the brave

American women of all time who have loved

their country. You, as you gather here, are

living history. On your shoulders will rest the

military reputation and the civilian recognition of this Corps. I have no fear that any

woman here will fail the standards of the

Corps.

From now on you are soldiers, defending a

free way of life. Your performance will set the

standards of the Corps. You will live in the

spotlight. Even though the lamps of experience are dim, few if any mistakes will be

permitted you.

You are no longer individuals. You wear

the uniform of the Army of the United States.

Respect that uniform. Respect all that it

stands for. Then the world will respect all

that the Corps stands for. . . . Make the

adjustment from civilian to military life without faltering and without complaint. . . .

In the final analysis, the only testament

free people can give to the quality of freedom

is the way in which they resist the forces that

peril freedom.75

As one of the women later said, "It was

only then that I really knew what I had

done in enlisting. I looked around the

roomful of women and suddenly had no

more doubts that it was right. My feet

stopped hurting, and the war and my

place in it became very real."

The Training Course

From this time on the work began in

earnest. The women were up at five-thirty

or before in order to be neatly dressed for

six o'clock reveille, a process that took

most women somewhat longer than men.

After making beds, cleaning, and picking

up cigarette butts and photographers'

flash bulbs in the area, the women

marched to breakfast and then began

classes, which lasted until five in the afternoon, with an intermission for lunch. After

supper there was a required study hour

and then a session devoted to the washing

and pressing of uniforms and the shining

of shoes.

The WAAC basic and officer candidate

courses were identical with corresponding

courses for men, except for the omission of

combat subjects. Women studied military

sanitation and first aid, military customs

and courtesy, map reading, defense against

chemical attack, defense against air attack,

interior guard, company administration,

supply, mess management, and other

familiar subjects. A few courses were more

or less adapted to women. The hygiene

course was designed by the local hospital

75

 WDBPR Press Release, 23 Jul 42, revised copy,

Remarks by Mrs. Hobby, Dir WAAC, to Students at

WAAC Tng Cen.
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 67

personnel to apply to women's hygiene.

The Army organization course contained

vague references to WAAC organization,

which no one even in Washington understood too well. Drill was without arms,

and the physical training course was

devised and conducted by a civilian consultant.76

The military courtesies course, which

set out to permit no deviations for women,

soon ran into the inescapable fact that

there were socially accepted differences for

women to which the Army must perforce

conform. For example, women of some

faiths could not remove their hats in

church as was proper for men, and most

women felt self-conscious about removing

hats in such places as dining rooms and

lobbies. Endless commotion was also

caused when women attempted to open

doors and show other required courtesies

for men who outranked them. Army officers were, for the first time, confronted

with a situation in which a man might be

either an officer or a gentleman, but not

both; there resulted much sprinting for

doorways and leaping out of the wrong

side of vehicles to avoid the eager assistance of a nearby Waac.

As the women learned about the Army,

the Army also began to learn the many

minor yet important items about the administration of women that could be

learned only by experience. Oddly

enough, these were not the expected difficulties that the planners had feared, for

the women were agreeable about inspections and did not have hysterics in the

barracks or faint at the discomforts of

latrine ablutions. Instead, unique specific

needs arose, more practical than psychological.

For example, a few laundry tubs and

ironing boards had been provided, although men's barracks ordinarily did not

have them. On the first day, the Waacs as

one woman headed for these—a true

WAAC pattern which was not to vary

through hundreds of stations in the field—

and it was discovered that the women considered the number of laundry tubs, drying

racks, and irons inadequate. Women stood

in line until late at night for a turn at the

irons. Many Waacs were found to have

brought their own irons, in numbers which

so frequently blew out barracks fuses that

their use had to be limited. The allowance

of four khaki shirts and four skirts did not

permit use of local laundries, which took a

week, for the women considered that neat

appearance in the sticky hot climate required at least one and often two clean

shirts daily.

Lack of opportunity to launder and iron

her shirt for the next day was to prove a

greater morale hazard to a woman soldier

than any lack of movies, camp shows, and

pinball machines. The women's anxiety

about the matter gave strong support to a

fact which civilian psychologists had already suspected, and which was to prove a

new problem to station commanders: that

a woman's grooming was vitally connected not only with her morale but with

her health and actually with her conduct.77

Similarly, the women felt that the

Army provided too few brooms, too little

scrubbing powder, and not enough dustcloths. The women also suffered somewhat, as did male recruits, from sleeplessness, sore feet, heat and humidity, and—

somewhat more than men did—from the

general lack of privacy.

Other expected difficulties with wom76

 For a full discussion of physical training and all

other courses, see below, Ch. XXXII. 77

 See later chapters, particularly XXII and

XXXI.
FIRST OFFICER CANDIDATE CLASS, 20 July-29 August 1942. Lej page, top, 

reveille; middle, instruction in Military Customs and Courtesy; bottom, close order drill. Right 

page, top, classroom instruction; middle, physical training; bottom, chow line. 

70 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

en's administration did not arise. Most

Waacs were entranced with parades and

bands and ceremonies of all sorts. They

took well to drill, and after an exhausting

day enthusiastic squads could be seen in

the summer twilight, giving themselves

extra drill practice. One company officer

alleged, "They learn more in a day than

my squads of men used to learn in a

week." They were not disconcerted by the

necessity for discipline and regimentation;

their shoes were shined, uniforms spotless,

beds tightly made, footlockers neat.

Neither did they prove especially subject

to quarrels, but appeared to be as good

comrades as were the members of men's

units.

On the other hand, the exciting publicity about the Corps and the steep competition for places had prepared women very

little for the fact that the Army lacked

wings and a halo. One disappointment

was the caliber of the instruction at the

training center. Ninety percent college

women, the Waacs expected classes of

challenging difficulty. Realizing this,

WAAC Headquarters had sent Military

Personnel Division a long account of the

qualifications desired in the instructors

assigned, saying, "The results to be obtained at the WAAC Training Center will

depend in a large measure on the type of

instructors which are detailed. . . . Time

is too short to permit training these individuals after their arrival at Fort Des

Moines."

 78

Colonel Faith felt that the resulting

selection had been good, since the instructors were a "group of fine and sincere

young men" who, although with little

Army experience, were for the most part

graduates of The Adjutant General's

School or others of similar level.79 Nevertheless, it became apparent to the students

on the first day of classes that most of the

instructors were not teachers, not public

speakers, not college men, and sometimes

without Army experience in the subjects

they were teaching. It was a lucky young

instructor who did not confront in every

class some students with college training

or years of teaching experience. The situation was similar to that which the WAVES

were to encounter a few months later, of

which the Navy noted, "The early indoctrination was largely farcical, with youthful male Reservists parroting material they

had just received, to women their seniors

. . . especially in teaching experience.

Politeness and good humor on both sides

made the situation tolerable."

 80

 The

Waacs' most respected instructors were

often the teachers of company administration, newly commissioned former sergeants

who really knew the peculiarities of the

morning report, although one of them

startled his first class by welcoming them

with, "Put dem hats on dose tables."

 81

There were other situations that the

women solemnly noted for correction in

the days when they would be running the

Corps. All companies habitually marched

out to mess at the same time, so that the

last of the 440 stood in line for an hour.

The aptitude tests were given at 7:00 P.M.

of a stifling summer evening, immediately

after a heavy meal. The summer uniforms

were like nothing ever before worn by

woman, with five sweat-soaked layers of

cloth around the waist and three around

78

 1st Ind, WAAC Hq for Dir Mil Pers SOS, 29 Jun

42. WA 320.2 (6-25-42), Tasker Staybacks. 79

 Ltr cited n. 55. 80

 WAVES Hist. 81

 Vol., General Information, SPWA 314.7, WAAC

Hist File.
THE WAAC'S FIRST SUMMER 71

the neck.82 The young officers did not

seem to know how to put in their places

the female apple polishers and classroom

show-offs whose tactics were transparent

to other women. The food was good and

abundant but not always attractively prepared. These and similar occurrences gave

the first hint of what was repeatedly demonstrated: that Waacs were often less tolerant of imperfection than men—a trait

which some Army psychologists believed

was due less to their sex than to the fact

that all were volunteers, since male volunteers also frequently showed greater impatience than did draftees.83

This first class was nevertheless still too

uncertain as to correct procedure, and too

eager to please, to be very critical. General morale was at unprecedented heights.

Women stood retreat with real appreciation of the ceremony. They trembled lest

their company officers give them a gig.

They crossed streets and ran out of doorways to practice their salute on everything

that glistened, until the outnumbered

male officers were forced to flee the front

walks. No imperfection seemed of much

importance when weighed against the

general desire to justify the Army's admission of women to its ranks.

Graduation

On the eve of graduation there occurred

one further test of the new soldiers' soldierliness: the release of the roster of class

standing. Herein, it was discovered that

young women who had dated their company officers had mysteriously soared in

rating to outrank the older women who

had led their classes in training.84

Since many of the company officers

were ex-college boys of 19, any woman

over 30 had evidently appeared antique.

Katherine R. Goodwin, who later headed

some 50,000 Army Service Forces Wacs,

recalled: "Captain B. called me in and

told me I was so old he didn't see how I

could have made the journey to Des

Moines, and that he couldn't imagine

what use the Army could ever make of

me, and perhaps I had better go home

before I got any older."

Angry members rose in class to ask an

explanation of the mathematics involved

in rating, and an inquiry was launched by

WAAC Headquarters. In general it was

found that the honest tendency of the

male officer was to consider a glamorous

young woman, or a mannish loud-voiced

one, the best material for leadership of

women, whereas the women themselves

had given highest ratings to women of

mature judgment, and to those with a

faculty for sweeping and polishing their

share of the area. It was concluded that

the problem would correct itself in later

classes where women company officers

had replaced men. However, the same

situation was later to cause some difficulty

in the field where men ordinarily selected

and promoted WAC officers.

Graduation day, on 29 August, saw 436

new WAAC third officers, all with shining

new gold bars but no WAAC insignia,

82

 Around waist: (1) heavy jersey panties, (2) sturdy

girdle, (3) heavy jersey slip, (4) cotton shirt, (5) double 8.2 chino waistband of skirt; plus for dress uniform: (6) heavy cotton jacket, (7) double jacket belt.

Around neck: (1) neckband of shirt (about four layers

of cotton), (2) mohair tie; and for dress (3) jacket

collar. 83

 Opinion of Maj Albert Preston, Jr., MC, head of

Consultation Serv at Ft Des Moines. See below, Ch.

XXXI. 84

 Rating was based one third each on grades, platoon rating, and company officer rating, but in the

final results the last item was found to have outweighed the other two.
72 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

which The Quartermaster General was

late in procuring. Mrs. Hobby spoke to

the women, and Congresswoman Rogers

told them: "You are soldiers and belong

to America. Every hour must be your

finest hour."

 85

 The Army was represented

by Maj. Gen. James A. Ulio, The Adjutant General, and Maj. Gen. Frederick E.

Uhl, Commanding General, Seventh

Corps Area. General Marshall personally

wrote out a congratulatory telegram for

Director Hobby, saying, "Please act for

me in welcoming them into the Army.

This is only the beginning of a magnificent

war service by the women of America."86

85

 Congressional Record, Vol. 88, No. 151, p. 7242,

August 1942. 86

 (1) WDBPR Press Release, 8 Sep 42. (2) TWX,

CofS for Mrs. Hobby at Ft Des Moines. WDCSA

291.2 (8-29-42).
CHAPTER IV

September-October 1942:

Beginnings of Field Duties

Among the more important officer assignments were those of the eighteen

carefully selected members of the first

graduating class who arrived in WAAC

Headquarters on 17 September 1942.

They reported with a formality that delighted Regular Army staff members, having been particularly trained by Colonel

Faith in how to knock, enter, and salute.1

Third Officer proving unwieldy for direct

address, the use of Lieutenant and

Ma'am—instead of Sir, as WAVES officers were addressed—was adopted.2

For their own guidance, the Director

and her advisers decided that WAAC

Headquarters should be irreproachably

military, with salutes rendered when

entering the office of a superior, and with

a command-type organization wherein no

junior member of one section conferred

with a junior member of another except

through their respective Army section

chiefs. The Director observed, "War Department officials will have to get used to

the idea of treating Waacs as officers

rather than as women."

The impeccably formal behavior of the

Waacs did cause comment, not to say consternation, in War Department offices; it

also was to impose considerable handicaps on staff operation, which did not

reach maximum efficiency for many

months, until the WAAC was part of the

Army and could stop being military. The

very junior WAAC members reported that

few of them ever at this time saw the Director or had opportunity to influence

Army policy. However, they grasped their

assignments with rapidity and covered the

scheduled three-month indoctrination

course in three weeks.

Prominent among the eighteen members were Third Officers Helen H. Woods

and Marjorie D. Fling, the former civilian

assistants, who were now assigned, respectively, to Control Division and to Office

Management. Third Officer Emily E.

Davis, a former insurance company employee, was assigned to a position in the

Executive Office. An especial point was

made of securing a Negro Waac, Third

Officer Harriet West, as one of those assigned to Personnel Division, in order that

minority needs might not be overlooked in

planning. Other offices receiving Waacs

included Public Relations, Supply, and

Plans and Training.

Possibly the most important assignment

1

 All references to staff opinions or meetings, unless

otherwise specified, are from the WAAC Daily Journal. (See Bibliographical Note.) 2

 Office Memo 22, 15 Sep 42. SPWA 300. This

directs that they not be called Third Officer except in

correspondence, and never Miss nor Mrs.
WAAC OFFICERS ASSIGNED FOR DUTY IN WASHINGTON sign the register, 

above, and receive explanation of Tables of Organization in Temporay A4 Building, below. 
BEGINNINGS OF FIELD DUTIES 75

was that of the Director's first WAAC

aide, Third Officer Betty Bandel, formerly

a reporter, music and drama critic, and

woman's page editor for an Arizona newspaper. Her duties at once tended to expand beyond those of aide, for which in

her own opinion she was the world's least

qualified. She recalled later a moment in

a London hotel when "the Director came

to herself to find that she was sewing a button on my uniform; she pointed a finger at

me and screamed, 'You're fired!' " Lieutenant Bandel came to be employed chiefly

as a traveling deputy; on visits to field stations the two officers developed tactics

whereby, if the Director was hopelessly

immobilized by local dignitaries, the aide

unobtrusively detached herself and explored the enlisted women's viewpoints.

New Graduating Classes

Meanwhile, a steady stream of new

members, officer and enrolled, graduated

weekly at Fort Des Moines. Most initial

assignments were naturally to the training

center. Enrolled women were shortly doing most of Fort Des Moines' office work,

driving its vehicles, and staffing its messes.

There was even a Waac bugler, and a

band was being organized. WAAC officers

at once took over much of the instruction:

a former aircraft spotter taught the course

in Identification of Enemy Aircraft; home

economics teachers revised the mess management courses; a graduate chemist

taught the course in Defense Against

Chemical Attack. WAAC officers were

also assigned to staff the incoming training

companies, with the aid of Army "tactical

advisers." No major responsibilities were

turned over to women, but they were assigned as understudies to various section

chiefs.

During these weeks Colonel Faith reported himself as harassed by all the ills

known to similar growing institutions, and

a few previously unknown. With thousands of new students scattered through

officer candidate school, basic training,

administrative school, motor transport

school, and cooks and bakers school, the

training center was still lacking in training manuals, film strips, balopticons,

photographic equipment, and instructional materials of all kinds. For lack of

typewriters, the administrative school

could not train typists in Army methods;

it was to be almost a year before a typing

school could be opened. The motor transport school, unable to obtain vehicles,

graduated women drivers who had driven

an Army vehicle only once, and built its

own demonstration engines from junk salvaged from nearby Army posts. The burden of cutting orders for hundreds of

graduates was a heavy one, but teletypewriter service to Washington was not to be

obtainable for eight months.

Colonel Faith's increasingly urgent reports of these matters were necessarily referred to the Services of Supply's Military

Training Division, which delayed action

while making further inquiry into the

basis of his estimates and whether he had

properly staggered schedules in order to

reduce requirements.3

The most alarming shortage, however,

was that of winter uniforms. For reasons

unknown to the training center, The

3

 (1) Ltr, Comdt to Dir WAAC, 24 Aug 42, and

Inds. SPWA 400.312 (8-24-42). (2) Min, Stf Conf, 14

Nov 42, WAAC Daily Journal. (3) Ltr, 1st WAAC

Tng Gen to Dir WAAC, 15 Feb 43. SPWA 400.34

(3-21-42) (1) sec 3. (4) M/R, Stf Conf, 6 Jan 43.

Folder, Memos Prior to 7 Jan 43 in WAC Planning,

WAAC Planning files. (5) Memo, WAAC Hq for

CofAdm Serv, 18 Jul 42. WA 483 (7-18-42).
76 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Quartermaster General's specified shipment schedules were not being met. The

supply of summer uniforms became erratic, while almost no winter clothing of

any sort—underwear, coats, or uniforms—

had been received. The Iowa weather

proved un-co-operative, and an unseasonable cold spell struck in September, blanketing Fort Des Moines in snow. Temperatures stood near the freezing mark inside

the newly constructed barracks and classrooms, known informally as Boomtown,

where heating equipment had not yet

been installed.

Within a few days the training center

was plunged into a crisis of health—and,

it was feared, of public relations—as respiratory disorders swept the student body.

Hospitals filled suddenly, while continued

instruction was made difficult by coughing

and sneezing in the unheated classrooms.

At this point Director Hobby herself

hastened to the training center. Putting on

the summer raincoat the women were

wearing, she immediately caught a bad

cold, and, more practically, telephoned to

higher headquarters in Washington in a

manner that evoked a promise to expedite

clothing shipments without delay. She also

took the precaution of demanding several

thousand enlisted men's overcoats from a

neighboring station's surplus stock, and

these were on their way before nightfall.

They were to be worn all winter while action was being expedited in Washington.4

The men's overcoats proved excellent

substitutes not only for WAAC coats but

also for mittens and leggings, since they

covered hands and feet and trailed on the

ground. Unfortunately, Waacs found

them so amusing in appearance that they

could not forbear taking pictures, which

they sent indiscriminately to friends and

relatives, to the dismay of recruiters.

Close behind the Director came the

Deputy Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. Joseph T.

McNarney, who verified her comments

and immediately wrote to the Services of

Supply: "Although the weather was cold,

the Waacs were still wearing summer uniforms. They had been issued enlisted men's

coats as an expedient. Please look into the

matter of expediting winter uniforms.'"

 5

Meanwhile, a brief Indian summer intervened to make summer uniforms again

adequate.

In spite of supply difficulties, officers

who inspected the training center in late

September and early October reported

that an excellent state of training had

been attained. The WAAC graduates,

both officer and enrolled, won unanimous

praise. What seemed most remarkable to

reviewing officers was the somewhat unremarkable fact that women could march

and drill, a sight which melted the sternest

critics. WAAC Headquarters' superior,

General Grunert, Chief of Administrative

Services, reported upon his return from

Des Moines in early October:

I was received at the entrance to the post

by the band and an escort of honor which I

complimented on its smart appearance, correct procedure, and excellent marching. . . .

I was particularly impressed by the uniform

smart appearance of all personnel, with the

instructional setup, with the orderliness and

arrangement of quarters, and with the punc- tilious saluting. . . . A late afternoon re

was a gratifying sight to behold. The forma- tions, evolutions, marching, and saluting

compared favorably with the best I have seen

anywhere. . . .

I feel assured that the WAAC is off to an

excellent start and that the commands re4

 From: (1) Persons at Des Moines at the time,

including the author; (2) the Waac aide to the Director, 3d O Betty Bandel. 5

 Memo, DCofS for Somervell, 11 Oct 42. WDCSA

291.9 (9-11-42).
BEGINNINGS OF FIELD DUTIES 77

ceiving WAAC units will be agreeably surprised to find how much these units can contribute to the war effort.6

Also, in spite of the inconveniences of

supply and climate, the women's morale

remained high. Psychiatrists later remarked that the women seemed pleased

with the idea that they were approximating the hardships of Army men. Whatever

the cause, the trainees joked through their

sniffles, laughed at their own appearance,

and felt great pride in their new status and

enthusiasm for the Corps' future. At night,

wrapped in blankets, they sat on the floor

in freezing unfurnished dayrooms to sing

Army songs, including one written by a

member of an early class which soon

swept the training center:

All you fighting men, keep on fighting to win,

For the WAAC is in back of you;

If a plane you fly, keep it flying high

For the WAAC is in back of you.

Spread the news around that we're victory

bound,

And our hearts we pledge anew

That our flag shall wave o'er the home of the

brave,

And the WAAC is in back of you.7

The character and ability of the incoming recruits also continued to receive approval. By the end of September there

were more than 3,000 Waacs at Des

Moines, including 792 officers, with more

arriving daily. Some 3,300 more had also

been enrolled but could not yet be called

to active duty for lack of training space.8

The average ability of these recruits remained surprisingly higher than that of

the Army or the civilian population. In

the month of September, some 60 percent

were found to be in the first two AGCT

groups, I and II, having scores ordinarily

required only of officers, and only 0.8 percent were in the fifth or lowest group.9

Furthermore, every recruit possessed a

civilian skill expected to be readily useful

to the Army.

The Second WAAC Training Center

It had been known since summer that a

second WAAC training center would be

required to meet the expansion program

directed by the General Staff. The only

site offered the WAAC was that of Daytona Beach, Florida, where it was proposed to train women in leased city buildings, rather than to dispossess the

occupants of any established military post.

It was also believed that the climate would

prevent suffering from the current lack of

winter clothing for women.

However, soon after Colonel Faith first

inspected the proposed facilities, Director

Hobby appealed to the Services of Supply

for any other location, stating that a military atmosphere and reasonable discipline

could not be inculcated at any such establishment. The town itself was a resort area,

with streets perpetually crowded with sail6

 Ltr, CofAdm Serv to Dir WAAC, 6 Oct 42.

SPAAE 333.1. Such favorable impressions of Des

Moines do not appear to have been exactly accidental. A staff note concerning other important visitors

observes privately: "Des Moines will be prepared to

. . . put on the same sort of show which has been

arranged for General Grunert." Min, Stf Mtg, 6

Oct 42. 7

 By Ruby Jane Douglass. WAAC Parodies, pamphlet published by WAAC Publications Office, Ft.

Des Moines, May 1943. Copy in OCMH. 8

 (1) Memo, Stat Br GS for CofS, 6 Oct 42.

WDGSA 291.9. (2) Memo, Dir WAAC for CofAdm

Serv, 28 Sep 42. SPWA 291.9 (9-28-42) E. Copy in

SPWA 314.7 sec3. 9

 Table III, in History of Military Training:

WAAC/WAC Training, Army Service Forces, prepared by Maj. Lavinia L. Redd, WAC, 5 Feb 46.

OCMH. Hereafter cited as ASF Hist of WAC Tng.

An even higher average score in July was due to the

relatively large number of officer candidates, but by

September there were only 350 in this group.
78 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ors, soldiers, and coastguardmen from

nearby military stations. For barracks, it

was proposed to house the Waac trainees

in a number of scattered hotels and apartment houses, ranging in capacity from 37

to 600, as well as auto courts, inns, and villas; and a 6,000-woman tent camp was to

be built in a cantonment area. For classrooms there were to be provided the Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches,

a golf course, several garages and storerooms, the city auditorium, the Fifth Avenue Gown Shop, a theater, and other

business houses. There were no recreation

facilities other than the resort nightspots

plentifully sprinkled among the buildings

to be leased.10

In her appeal to the Services of Supply,

Director Hobby asked instead for any

regular Army post, preferably part of Fort

Benjamin Harrison, which currently had

vacant space.11 This request was refused

by the Services of Supply, the various

facilities at Daytona were leased by the

Army, and Colonel Faith was ordered to

divide his staff and to activate the Second

WAAC Training Center on 10 October,

with recruits to arrive 1 December.

Both Army and WAAC cadre at Des

Moines were divided as equally as possible, and efforts were made to duplicate

courses of study, instructional materials,

and the operation of staff sections. Over

his written protest, Colonel Faith was assigned as commandant of the Second

WAAC Training Center, with the promise

that he could return to Des Moines in six

months. A member of the Des Moines

staff was promoted to be commandant at

the First WAAC Training Center, but

lasted only a few days after planning a

series of measures considered discriminatory by the National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People. A third

commandant was then selected—Col.

John Hoag, Field Artillery, who was to remain at the First and Fifth WAAC Training Centers for the next seven months.12

Aircraft Warning Service Units

The first enrolled women to reach the

field were those of the Aircraft Warning

Service, to which shipment of units began

in early September. These units went out

complete with officers and formally activated under Tables of Organization for

operations and filter companies.13 Within

less than two months, nine operations

companies and eighteen filter companies

were in the field, located at First Fighter

Command stations along the east coast—

New York, Norfolk, Boston, Philadelphia,

Portland, Albany, Harrisburg, Baltimore,

Syracuse, Wilmington, Charleston, Jacksonville, and Miami.14

In preparing these units for the field,

there became apparent in rapid succession the unexpected problems that these

early WAAC field units were to face.

Although a number of the units went to

northern and eastern stations where winter clothing was already required for men,

winter uniforms were not available at the

training center, and the first units went

10

 (1) Min, Stf Mtg, 24 Aug 42. WAAC Daily Journal. (2) Ltr, Faith to Chief of Mil Hist, 18 May 50.

OCMH. 11

 (1) Memo cited n. 8(2). (2) Min, Stf Mtgs, 24

Aug and 29 Sep 42. (3) Rpt, Daytona Beach, WAAC

Housing files; (4) Memo, CG SOS for CofEngrs, 30

Nov 42. SPWA 600.1 (7-2-42) sec 1. 12

 (1) Memo, CofS for G-1, 15 Oct 42. WDCSA

291.9. (2) Interv with Actg Dir WAAC who received

NAACP in Dir Hobby's absence, 9 Oct 48. 13

 T/O 35-37, WAAC Opns Go, AWS, 4 Jul 42;

T/O 35-57, WAAC Filter Co, AWS, 4 Jul 42; Also

series of Memos in AG 320.2 (6-15-42)(14) Const and

Activ of WAAC Units. 14

 WDBPR Press Release, 26 Nov 42.
BEGINNINGS OF FIELD DUTIES 79

out in summer khaki. By October the supply of even this was exhausted, and whole

units trained, graduated, and crossed the

country by public carrier, costumed only

in the short seersucker exercise dresses and

bloomers. The long-curious citizens who

lined the streets to see a Waac in uniform

were reportedly thrown into a state which

wavered between panic and hilarity. The

problem soon became one of health as well

as publicity, as Waacs in short-sleeved

seersucker marched to work through the

October weather of Maine and Massachusetts.15

It had been planned to have WAAC regional directors on hand to complete advance arrangements for the women, but

this had not been possible because of the

Services of Supply's continued delay in

publishing authorization for these positions. In the total absence of published

Army Regulations on the subject, the Air

Forces' station commanders fended for the

women as best they could in the unfamiliar

matters of auxiliary supply, finance, and

discipline. Luckily, few discharges, promotions, or other personnel actions were yet

required. It was supposedly understood

that the companies were assigned to the

Services of Supply and attached to the Air

Forces for duty; it became clear at any

rate that the Air Forces were firmly attached to the units.

The women were assigned at once, a

few as clerical help in the wing headquarters offices, but the majority to staff the

filter boards and operations centers on

which they had worked before enlistment.

Here they received telephone calls from

civilian spotters as to aircraft sighted,

plotted the information on the boards, and

traced the path of every aircraft to cross

the area, for the benefit of liaison officers

from the various services who identified

them or sent up interceptors. Some filter

boards had as many as fifteen or twenty

positions, each filled by a woman wearing headphones and enduring endless

boredom while waiting for the scarce

telephone calls. Company commanders

argued ceaselessly to keep the women assured of the importance of the work, since

an unfilled position meant an uncovered

area of several square miles into which an

enemy plane might penetrate before detection.

The Air Forces soon reported that the

boards and centers showed a marked increase in efficiency when freed from reliance upon the uncertain attendance of

part-time volunteers. It also appeared that

the use of Waacs might be more efficient

than the use of soldiers in duties of such a

monotonous, sedentary nature. Therefore,

the Air Forces announced that Waacs

would be requested to staff literally hundreds more Aircraft Warning Service stations to be established on both coasts and

eventually inland. Other units were requested for regular air bases, and a new

type of company, the WAAC Headquarters Company, AAF, was devised to fit the

need. After less than three months' experience with the employment of Waacs,

the Air Forces in November approached

WAAC Headquarters with a discussion of

the possibility of obtaining 540,000 more

and of giving them full Army status.16

In spite of their efficiency, the units encountered a series of difficulties which em15

 Unless otherwise specified, statements in this section are from interviews with former Staff Directors,

First and Third Service Commands, who had many of

the units and who were charged with correcting the

conditions described, which had occurred before their

arrival. 16

 Memo, CofS for Gen Stratemeyer, 27 Nov 42.

WDCSA 291.9.
80 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

FILTER BOARD, MITCHEL FIELD, NEW YORK. The Waacs, wearing headphones, plotted the path of every aircraft that was called in by civilian aircraft spotters.

phasized the need for regional directors to

get to the field. Problems began when the

Air Forces found themselves unable to recruit sufficient local women to fill the enlisted vacancies, although officers had

been easily obtainable. To fill out the

units, WAAC Headquarters was obliged

to divert to the Aircraft Warning Service

many women who had been recruited

elsewhere for general service, although

such women were seldom very happy

about loss of the expected work on a military post. Since these nonlocal recruits

could not live at home, government quarters had to be hastily provided. No sooner

was this action under way than it was

found that Army Regulations forbade any

member of a unit to live at home if government quarters were provided. Many local

women with husbands and young children

had been enlisted on the promise of being

able to live at home; the only solution in

such cases was to offer immediate honorable discharge, which a number of newly

trained women accepted.17 Enlistment

regulations were amended to prevent the

acceptance of any more women with dependent children.

Since many of these centers were located in the poorer areas of large cities, the

17

 Ltr, WAAC Opns Go, Wilmington, N. C., to

Wilmington Air Def Region, 19 Dec 42, and Inds.

SPWA 620.
BEGINNINGS OF FIELD DUTIES 81

leased hotels sometimes proved to be, in

the best phrasing of the matter, third-rate.

Women living in such quarters were not

only frequently insulted and accosted, but

were at times endangered by drunken invaders who pounded on hotel doors or

crawled up fire escapes and into windows.

At several stations the surrounding slum

areas were so dangerous that women were

advised not to leave their quarters except

in groups. The effect of such housing upon

the women themselves was not serious,

since they proved far from helpless to meet

their own problems. One commander

later recalled with pleasure, "When a

man climbed the fire escape at the

— — — hotel, he was bopped by a Waac at

the top."

The effect upon civilian opinion was a

different matter; combined with the appearance of the women's clothing, it

appeared sufficient to bring the whole

WAAC recruiting program to a halt in the

cities concerned. Director Hobby eventually besought the Engineers to avoid

acquiring WAAC housing previously used

for "questionable purposes."

 18

 In a few

cities, hotel accommodations were excellent. In Philadelphia, one of the best hotels

was secured for WAAC housing, but was

lost at once to the WAVES, since the Navy

was able to pay more per enlisted person.19

At all stations proper food for the

women was frequently lacking, since

members had been expected to eat at

home and units contained no mess personnel. On moving to government quarters,

women were therefore given the Army

ration allowance of about $1.25 a day—a

sum that might have been adequate in

some localities, but was found by those

stationed in large cities to be scarcely

enough to purchase one nutritious meal in

city restaurants.20

The impact of enlisted men's opinion

was another problem that had not been

fully anticipated. One company commander reported:

My women came of good local families,

and as civilian volunteers had all been respectfully treated . . . now every man

assumed that their uniform gave him the

right to insult them. They were actually

afraid to ride up in the elevators with the

enlisted men because of the language they

heard. . . . I went to the commandi

cer but he didn't do anything; I heard that

the men's actions were only reflections of his

private remarks to his staff.21

Also, because of the Air Forces' inability

to recruit women to staff the stations completely, it was necessary temporarily to

retain part of the volunteer civilian

workers. Many of these, although for

various reasons not desiring to enlist,

wished to take part in some form of patriotic activity, and were not pleased at the

prospect of being eventually ousted by

Waacs. Prominent women in several communities caused Congressional pressure to

be placed upon the Air Forces to withdraw the Waacs. Where working groups

were mixed, it quickly became clear that

Waacs were in no position to compete with

"free" labor which could quit at any time.

Waacs were almost invariably given the

18

 Memo, WAAC Hq for Reqmts Div ASF, 18 Jul

43. SPWA 600.12 (1942). 19

 Passages on AWS, except as otherwise documented, are based on: (1) The WAC Program in the

Army Air Forces, by Lt Col Betty Bandel, hereafter

cited as AAF WAC Hist. (See Bibliographical Note.)

(2) Intervs with WAAC Stf Dirs, 1st and 3d SvCs, and

with company officers of Jacksonville, Philadelphia,

Charleston, and Norfolk. 20

 Ltr, Stf Dir 1st SvC to Lt Betty Bandel, 2 Dec 42.

SPWA 319.2 WAAC Stf Mtg, WAAC Planning files. 21

 Intervs with Maj Caroline Essex, formerly of

Norfolk unit, Capt Caroline Varn and Maj Madge

Williams, formerly of Jacksonville company, and Maj

Mary Anderson, formerly in Charleston and Philadelphia.
82 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

graveyard shift, or the least desirable

hours, while supervisory positions usually

went to civilians and the least interesting

work to the Waacs. A few civilian women

were as insulting in their remarks as had

been the enlisted men.

Under the circumstances, it was considered remarkable that few applications

for discharge were received. The women

remained in generally high spirits, although expressing considerable indignation against a vague WAAC Headquarters, which they regarded as all-powerful,

because of the absence of published regulations, regional directors, necessary supplies, and attention to other obvious needs.

Appeals for Publication of Command Channels

The same months of September and

October had seen a final struggle waged

in WAAC Headquarters to get WAAC

command channels published and WAAC

regional directors sent out. In the months

since the passage of the WAAC bill in

May, the Services of Supply had repeatedly refused to take any such action. Its

reasons for this stand were never to be

made entirely clear. Only what staff members called "mysterious silence" had met

their repeated attempts, throughout the

summer, to clarify the power and responsibilities of WAAC Headquarters.

The Director's appeals had begun in

July, even before the first Waacs had

reached Des Moines. At this time she first

began to be apprehensive about the forthcoming winter clothing shortage, as a

result of the action of Requirements Division, Services of Supply, in refusing to approve signing of contracts for winter clothing. Although General Marshall himself

had personally approved every item on

the list, the Services of Supply took issue

with some of his decisions. Appeals from

both the Director and The Quartermaster

General failed to get approval of contracts

until winter was at hand and the September supply scandal unavoidable.

The Director believed this problem to

be only one facet of the larger issue: the

need for publication of some directive on

the powers of her office and its relation to

other Services of Supply staff sections. A

parallel problem that she cited was the

action of The Surgeon General in calling

a meeting of civilian doctors, at which the

WAAC was not represented, which formulated and came close to announcing to

the public a plan for issuance of prophy;

lactics and contraceptives to the women to

be enlisted. This plan was suppressed only

when Mrs. Hobby went directly to the

Deputy Chief of Staff, General McNarney.

In August, after a series of such incidents, the Director appealed in writing to

General Marshall to clarify her responsibility in relation to Services of Supply

offices, alleging that the current lack of

co-ordination was resulting in "serious

jeopardy of the military and civilian acceptance of the whole idea of the Corps."

 22

She recommended that:

(a) all papers dealing directly and specifically with WAAC matters be routed through

the Director WAAC for comment or concurrence. (b) . . . clarification [be made] as to final

authority for decision in cases of non-concurrence. . . . (c) no meeting of civilian agencies or individuals be called . . . without prior approval of the Director.23

General Marshall did not receive the

appeal addressed to him. The Services of

22

 Memo, Dir WAAC for GofS, 4 Aug 42. Copy

(partial) in SGO files, SPMC 322.5-1 (Wash, D.C.)F;

Copy in Adm Serv ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 23

 Ibid.
BEGINNINGS OF FIELD DUTIES 83

Supply returned it to Director Hobby in

August with the statement that there

would be no change in "established practice."

 24

The same reception was given to the

Director's request that the Services of

Supply approve publication of the WAAC

command system with its authorization

for regional directors. The necessary circular was prepared by WAAC Headquarters and forwarded for approval in midsummer, but no publication resulted. It

was rumored that the Services of Supply

was not in accord with either the circular

or the WAAC Regulations on which it was

based, although previously these had been

approved by General Marshall. In August, without notice to WAAC Headquarters, the Services of Supply published a

directive that contradicted these regulations. In a section of its new Organization

Manual, it gave the commanding generals

of service commands the authority, vested

in the Director by WAAC Regulations, to

transfer and assign WAAC personnel; this

action could be taken without reference to

WAAC Headquarters. The Manual also,

without advance notice, removed the

training center at Des Moines from under

the Director's command and placed it

under the Seventh Service Command.

This publication thoroughly puzzled

the Director's staff, since by removing

command from the Director it contradicted, but did not rescind, Circular 169

and WAAC Regulations. It came as a surprise to the Air Forces and Signal Corps,

who liked SOS control even less than the

system of command by WAAC regional

directors. The Director's staff appealed to

General Grunert for clarification, but was

informed only that the Manual meant

what it said.25

Director Hobby therefore requested her

Army staff officers to explain the situation

to her and to formulate some plan of operation that would comply with all directives. The senior staff member, Colonel

William Pearson, had just been removed

from the office after a dispute with The

Adjutant General over the custody of

WAAC files, which were also removed

from the office, over its protests.26 The new

Executive, Colonel Tasker, stated that he

was unable to devise any military method

of reconciling the directives, since it appeared impossible for the Director to exercise those remaining portions of her command responsibility concerning discipline,

discharge, and promotion while lacking

that portion concerning assignment and

transfer. Even to locate the women, if they

were transferred by other agencies, it

would be necessary to go through some

four echelons to reach post headquarters

companies and possibly seven to reach

certain Air Forces units. The time factor

rendered this system impossible, since evidently more than a month would elapse

before any action could be secured

through so many echelons. On the other

hand, unless the cases were sent to WAAC

Headquarters, it would never be possible

to expand the Tentative Regulations, as

had been intended, on the basis of experience.

The staff therefore informed the Direc24

 1st Ind, SGO for CofAdm Serv, 8 Aug 42, to

Memo cited n. 22. SPMGR. 25

 (1) SOS Orgn Manual, Aug 42, sec 405.04. (2)

Memo, Dir WAAC for CofAdm Serv, 4 Aug 42.

SPWA 300.3 (4-29-42) sec 2. (3) Memo, CofAdm

Serv for Dir WAAC, 11 Aug 42. SPWA 300 (8-8-42). 26

 (1) Office Memo, 8 Aug 42. SPWA 300. (2)

AGO Memo 111, 7 Aug 42. SPWA 314.7 (6-2-41) (1)

sec 3. This states that all file papers on the WAAC,

regardless of where prepared, will be sent to file in

AGO Civilian Components Branch. Col Pearson had

maintained that the WAAC needed its files in the

same building for planning purposes.
84 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tor that in coping with current emergencies

it was still "violating all the above" by

writing and telephoning directly to Colonel Faith. Staff members warned her that

she was now in the position, feared since

passage of the Rogers bill, of bearing legal

responsibility without authority; the

Services of Supply had evidently removed

not only policy but command powers,

while leaving her legally designated as the

women's commander.27

New Expansion Plans

The WAAC staffs alarm over the Director's position was increased by the fact

that, meanwhile, a series of directives from

the General Staff had made the June expansion plans obsolete and posed problems

of administration that would have been

difficult to solve under even the clearest

command system.

The first such directive called for overseas shipment. The Director had intended

that no units be sent overseas for "the

experimental period of a year," since supply and supervision would be proportionately more difficult overseas.28

 However,

in August word was received from Europe

that General Marshall, on tour, had

promised an allotment of Waacs to General Eisenhower. The Joint Chiefs of Staff

informed the Director briefly that "Eisenhower's headquarters is badly in need of

clerical help and Waacs seem to be the

best answer."

 29

 The Director at once dispatched Major Macy to England to discover how WAAC supply and its vague

administration could be stretched so far.

As the first few classes graduated at Des

Moines, the training center was charged

with organizing and equipping two overseas units, and much of the scarce winter

equipment so far received was held for

their use in case the momentarily expected shipment call should come from

the General Staff. The Director was informed that dozens more overseas units

would be wanted shortly.30

The problem of expansion overseas

paled into insignificance when, on 15 September 1942, G-3 Division dropped a

veritable blockbuster on WAAC Headquarters—a directive that immediate steps

be taken to plan for an expansion of the

Corps to a strength of well over a million

members.

As the Chief of Staff had predicted a

year earlier, the nation was now in the

grip of a manpower shortage. Industry

had already turned to womanpower as a

supplement; in one aircraft company the

employment of women had increased by

2,575 percent.31 Not to be left behind in

the developing competition, G-3 Division

stated:

1. Tentative mobilization plans projected

through 1946 indicate a necessity for a materially increased use of the Women's Army

Auxiliary Corps in the overall structure of the

Army.

2. The widespread character of current and projected operations is well known. One

major and very serious effect of such a scheme of operations has been to force the design of

an Army in which the ratio of personnel in

service and overhead installations to person- nel in combat units is undesirably high. As

the Army further increases in size, it is evident that unless this ratio is reduced, and

unless sources other than the able-bodied

manpower of this nation are used to provide

27

 (1) Min cited n. 10(1). (2) Memo, PRO for Dir

WAAC, 9 Sep 42. SPWA 300.4. 28

 Memo, Tasker for Dir WAAC, 21 May 42.

Tasker Staybacks. 29

 Memo, Secy JCS for Somervell, 3 Aug 42. Dir

Adm Serv ASF, Sp Coll, DRB AGO. 30

 Memo, CofOpns SOS for TAG, 20 Sep 42.

SPOPU 320.2 (9-20-42). 31

 "The Margin is Womanpower," Fortune, January 1943.
BEGINNINGS OF FIELD DUTIES 85

a major portion of this service and overhead,

we face a situation where we have mobilized

a tremendous force which is strong everywhere except on the battlefield.

3. It is requested that your Division [G-1]

cause a study to be initiated to determine all

the occupations in the Army which can satisfactorily be filled by members of the WAAC.

Such study should contemplate their use at

home and abroad in practically every field

except the actual handling of weapons. They

should constitute the bulk of personnel assigned to overhead installations in the Zone

of the Interior. Extensive use in defense command installations appears logical.

4. As a basis for an approach to the solution of the problem, it is recommended that

an expansion of the Corps from its present

authorized strength to an ultimate strength

of 1,500,000 be contemplated.32

The earlier June plans for an increase

of 500 percent—to an ultimate 63,000

members—were thus obliterated after only

three months of existence. Complete new

plans were obviously required: new

schools, new recruiting quotas, new clothing procurement, and new legislation.

Director Hobby was convinced that the

new quota could not be filled by voluntary

recruiting but would require the drafting

of women.33 Such plans, and such an expansion in size, were clearly impossible

without immediate agreement upon, and

publication of, a system of command for

the WAAC.

General Marshall's Intervention

Simultaneously with the arrival of G-3's

directive, General Marshall sent his staff

officers to confer with the Director's staff,

at which time they learned of the contradictory existing instructions on Corps administration and command.34

 On 17

September the Chief of Staff intervened to

direct General Somervell to restore the

Director's command powers. Even had

the WAAC been legally subject to military

law, General Marshall was of the opinion

that it would be dangerous to assume that

no new Army-wide policies would have to

be set. He stated:

I find that the WAAC has been fitted into

the SOS somewhat on the same basis as the

Military Police. For a new organization, particularly one composed entirely of women, I

think that this is not an effective arrangement. While units assigned to various localities and theaters must come under the local

commanders, yet it would seem to be important for some time to maintain a rather direct

relationship between the Director and these

highly special organizations. There is too

much that is entirely new and that demands

a woman's point of view to decentralize to the

extent that we do with Infantry, Cavalry,

and Field Artillery, as well as other special

units.35

For his guidance in publishing necessary

instructions, General Marshall sent General Somervell a copy of the regulations

that had been prepared earlier by the

Director's staff.

At the same time, General Marshall

informed General Somervell that WAAC

Headquarters must be furnished with

more assistance to carry the new planning

load. He noted that Mrs. Hobby looked

"rather overworked" and that, while her

assistants "are doing a good job," she

needed a high-ranking officer with experience and prestige in the War Depart32

 (1) Memo, G-3 for G-1, 15 Sep 42. WDGCT

291.9 WAAC (9-15-42). (2) Memo, Opns Div SOS

for Dir Mil Pers SOS, 19 Sep 43. SPAOG 201, copy

in AG 320.2 (6-15-42)(14) Const and Activ of

WAAC Units, with Incl G-3 Memo, G-1 paper, and

request for study. 33

 WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, particularly Min,

Mtg, 14 Jan 43. 34

 (1) Memo, Tasker for Dir WAAC, 31 Aug 42,

sub: Results of Confs with Col Faith, 29 and 30 Aug

42. SPWA 334.8 Conf (8-21-42). (2) Memo, Tasker

for Young, 17 Sep 42. SPWA 300. 35

 Memo, CofS for Somervell, 17 Sep 42. WDCSA

291.9 (9-17-42).
86 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ment "to get things going on the most

efficient basis and to relieve her of many

time-consuming details and also to obviate

many delays." Such an officer, he stated,

"might make an important contribution

as a sort of military secretary during the

formative period of the Corps."

 36

This second portion of the Chief of

Staffs instructions was the first on which

General Somervell took action. Directing

that "immediate action be initiated to

assist and aid the WAAC in the execution

of its duties,"

 37

 he sent inspectors from his

Control Division to repeat the inspection

they had just made in August, at which

time little had been reported out of place

except the furniture.38 Control Division

now noted that "the WAAC occupies an

unusual and peculiar position . . . it is

both within and without the military

framework." However, they vetoed the

Chief of Staffs suggestion for a "military

secretary" and proposed instead an executive, who would be in the chain of command instead of an adviser, for which "a

Regular U.S. Army Officer is essential . . .

to guide the Director in Army methods."

 39

General Marshall had called for an officer "conversant with War Department

procedure," but such an officer was not

found available and the Director was assigned a retired Regular Army officer, Col.

Thomas B. Catron, who had not served

in the War Department in twelve years.

Colonel Catron had, however, thirtyseven years' experience in the Regular

Army, and was personally known to General Grunert's deputy, Brig. Gen. Madison

Pearson, WAAC Headquarters' immediate superior.40

 The Services of Supply also

regrouped the six major divisions of the

Director's office into two—Personnel and

Operations-Training. Both divisions were

to be headed by newly assigned Regular

Army officers since, Control Division

noted, "The War Department and the

Services of Supply must rely on the data

furnished . . . so it should be relia

WAAC Headquarters' Supply Division

was abolished, since "it is apparent that

the functions of a supply division are not

of sufficient importance to justify a separate division."

 42

General Somervell approved the reorganization pattern, saying, "This is splendid. . . . With General Grunert personally assisting, I think you are on the right

track for future progress."43 Colonel

Catron replaced Colonel Tasker as Executive; Colonel Tasker and other senior

members of the former staff remained for

a few more months, while new Regular

Army officers gradually arrived. The

junior Army members had already begun

to depart as new contingents of WAAC

officers reported to take over routine

duties.44

Under Colonel Catron's direction, the

office adopted the motto: "Simplify,

Qualify, Consolidate." Colonel Catron

also directed that the staff begin to use

36 Ibid.

37

 Rpt, Col Betters, Contl Div SOS, 7 Oct 42.

SPWA 020 (1943). 38

 Memo, Chief, Contl Div SOS for CofAdm Serv,

1 Aug 42. SPWA 317.7 (6-2-42) sec 3. The Director's

Office then had 14 Army officers and 50 civilians.

There were four divisions, corresponding to G-1,

G-3, G-4, and OPD of a general staff. 39

 Rpt cited n. 37. 40

 Personnel Abstracts, WAC file, OCMH. 41

 There were also three small branches: Office

Management, Control and Inspection, and Technical

Information. 42

 Rpt cited n. 37. 43

 Memo, CG ASF for Dir WAAC, 7 Oct 42. File

SPICY, in Folder, WAC Recruiting, ASF, Sp Coll,

DRB AGO. 44

 (1) Intervs with members of the group. (2) Min,

24 Aug, 17 and 21 Sep 42. WAAC Daily Journal. (3)

Memo, Macy for Dir WAAC, 24 Sep 42. SPWA

352.0. (4) Mimeographed Tng Program, 11 Sep 42.

SPWA 352.0 (8-24-42).
BEGINNINGS OF FIELD DUTIES 87

both sides of the stationery, and that they

write or wire the training center instead of

telephoning.45 The training center was

restored, by General Somervell's direction,

to WAAC command, under which it had

in fact operated all summer.

Some four weeks elapsed before the publication of the system of WAAC command

prescribed by General Marshall. Meanwhile, Director Hobby was not informed

that the Chief of Staff had already decided

the issue, and her staff continued in some

confusion, attempting to devise another

system which would be acceptable to General Somervell, for the command of the

WAAC units, now already in the field.

In one paper the Director offered to use a

British system of command, in which the

Director retained assignment authority

only over company officers and cadre,

thus allowing Army commanders to transfer other women, yet insuring that transfer

would not be made to stations where barracks and cadre were not located. When

this suggestion received no response, she

proposed an alternate command system

wherein she would gradually give up all

command power to commanding generals

of service commands, provided that they

refrained from exercising this power until

civilian auxiliary rules could be published

on the basis of cases sent directly to WAAC

Headquarters.46 This proposal also received no reply. The Director begged

General Grunert's office for some published system, stating, "If the War Department and the public are to hold the Director of the WAAC responsible for the proper

administration of the Corps, the proper

authority to accompany this responsibility

is a natural and automatic requirement."

 47

By the second week in October, there

were already a dozen Aircraft Warning

Service companies in the field and some

two hundred officers in recruiting stations

and Army specialist schools. On 11 October General McNarney, General Marshall's Deputy, sent a second message to

General Somervell:

On a recent trip to the West Coast, includ- ing a stop at Des Moines, I gained the distinct

impression that there exists no basic plan or

schedule for the use of the WAAC. At two

stations, Randolph Field and Fort Huachuca, they had been informed that they would

receive WAAC companies, but they seemed

very hazy as to the trades, skills, qualifica- tions to be expected, where they should and

could be used, together with a distinct lack

of any indication that the use of Waacs should

result in a nearly corresponding decrease in

the number of men assigned to an activity.

Station commanders scheduled to receive

Waacs should be furnished, without delay, sufficient information to permit effective utilization, and directives for a corresponding

decrease in men assigned. . . .48

It was not until 13 October 1942 that

the Services of Supply published an explanatory statement to the field—Circular

344, the second important War Department publication in WAAC history. The

circular at last made WAAC command

channels clear to the field, although the

channels themselves were complicated.

45

 Min, Stf Conf, 27 Oct 42. 46

 (1) Memo, Civ Components Br AGO for AG

WAAC, 18 Jul 42, and reply, 10 Aug 42, office notes

atchd. WA 300.3 (4-29-42) sec 2. (2) Memo, Tasker

for Dir WAAC, 5 Oct 42. SPWA 314.7 (6-2-41)(1)

sec 3. (3) WAAC Cirs 4 (10 Jul 42), 13 (14 Oct 42),

and 16(1 1 Dec 42). Cases are cited in Memo, Dir

WAAC for CofAdm Serv, 3 Oct 42. SPWA 300

(10-3-42). 47

 (1) Memo cited n. 8(2). (2) Memo, WAAC Hq

for CofAdm Serv, 29 Sep 42. SPWA 300.3 (4-29-42)

sec 2. (3) Memo cited n. 46(3). (4) These were all recalled on 5 October 1942, when the Director first

learned of General Marshall's action, by Memo, Dir

WAAC for Contl Div SOS, 5 Oct 42, sub: Revision of

WD Cir 169. SPWA 300.3 (4-29-42). 48

 Memo cited n. 5.
88 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Three sets of channels were required in

order to maintain the Corps' legal auxiliary status while allowing it to work for,

and be supplied by, the Army.

Job performance was rated through the

same normal channels of command as for

soldiers and civilians at a station, and so

offered no problems or causes of complaint

from any station—Air Forces, Signal

Corps, service command, or other. Supply

and routine post administration were also the

responsibility of the post commander, just

as they were for men. However, above post

level only service command stations could

follow normal channels of supply, since

WAAC clothing was stocked only at a few

service command depots. Non-service

command stations had to follow unfamiliar channels of requisitioning through the

service command to get WAAC supplies.

Finally, in personnel matters, the short

WAAC command channel would operate,

from the WAAC company commander to

the WAAC regional director to Director

Hobby. Personnel channels were specifically defined as including the disputed

right of assignment and transfer, as well as

promotion, discipline, and discharge, plus

"all policies involving the welfare of members of the WAAC which, by virtue of the

fact that they are women, differ from those

prescribed for men."

Assignment of Regional Directors

Upon the moment of publication of Circular 344, nine WAAC regional directors

departed for their posts in a race to remedy

the Corps' field situation. These nine

women had been chosen in early October

and brought into WAAC Headquarters

for assignment to the nine service commands as soon as the Services of Supply

published authority for them. Of necessity

the choice was made in ignorance of military aptitude although, as Director Hobby

later noted, "Every one [service commander] said, 'You must put your very

best officer on this.' " 49 The women

chosen were all required to be over 35

years of age. They included two former

business administration supervisors, a college teacher and a dean of women, a sales

director, a government executive, a lawyer, and a housewife. In spite of the haste,

the selection proved generally good, and

included four women who were later to

play a leading part in world-wide WAC

administration—Third Officers Katherine

R. Goodwin of the First Service Command,

Jessie P. Rice of the Third, Westray B.

Boyce of the Fourth, and Mary-Agnes

Brown of the Eighth.50

The ten-day indoctrination of these

women in WAAC Headquarters understandably proved something of a farce.

Detailed auxiliary regulations and guides

to WAAC needs had not yet been worked

out, and could not be until more Waacs

reached the field and until the regional directors themselves discovered their needs.

Members of the group related that Colonel Catron told them, "No one can tell

you what to do, because there's never been

a job like this. No one knows what you're

going to encounter when you get there."

 51

Circular 344 gave the job a difficult

dual status: when handling matters pertaining to the "Personnel Channel" the regional director was responsible only to Director Hobby and signed herself "Director's Representative" (later, "WAAC

Service Command Director"); but in all

49

 Speech at WAAC Stf Dirs Conf, 15-17 Jun 43.

SPWA 337 (6-1-43). 50

 WDBPR Press Release, 28 Oct 42. 51

 Related to author by Lt. Col. Jessie P. Rice and

other members of the group.
BEGINNINGS OF FIELD DUTIES 89

other matters such as supply she was only

a staff adviser to the commanding general

of the service command and could take action only through military channels, signing herself "Chief, WAAC Branch."

 52

The latter position was roughly comparable to that of service command special

staff officers such as the surgeon, finance

officer, or quartermaster. However, these

officers were chiefly colonels and were

expected to be experts in one field only,

while the Waac was a second lieutenant

and was supposed to be an adviser in all

fields—health, supply, housing, personnel,

discipline, finance, public relations, and

all others. If there were no WAAC Regulations to cover a situation, she must determine whether Army Regulations could

legally apply, or whether it would be

necessary to recommend new WAAC

Regulations. In addition to her work in

headquarters, she must visit every service

command station where Waacs were assigned or expected, as a traveling trouble

shooter to resolve difficulties and promote

efficiency. She was also responsible for the

command and well-being of Waacs at airfields, ports, Signal Corps stations, and all

other exempted activities within the service command, most of which were already

bristling at the thought of control through

alien channels.

Because of the alarming responsibilities

of the positions, some thought was given

to the possibility of promoting all service

command directors at once to the rank

that was allotted to the position: assistant

director or lieutenant colonel. After much

debate, Director Hobby decided to postpone promotions until each woman's efficiency on the job was proven. However,

Acting Director Helen H. Woods some

days later secured permission to send an

explanatory letter to each commanding

general, noting: "We were conscious of the

fact that we were sending out second lieutenants to the field to break ground, and

to confer with major generals concerning

their relative command powers."

 53

Only one major policy was fully impressed upon the regional directors before

their departure: they must as far as possible act as if the Corps were a part of the

Army; they must demonstrate that women

needed no extra frills and comforts such

as Army commanders might feel a gallant

desire to provide.54

Field Action

The initial reception accorded these

women upon their arrival at service commands varied from "all the co-operation

a person could ask or need" down through

various degrees of lesser warmth to "standoffish."

 55

 One fact became abundantly

clear the moment each staff officer reported, and that was that most of the service commands—in fact, eight of the nine—

had no intention whatever of complying

with War Department Circular 344 insofar as it pertained to a WAAC command

channel. Said one director, "When I arrived at this station and was presented to

the Commanding General, he informed

me, with some emphasis, that he was in

charge of the Service Command and did

not propose to tolerate any dual channels;

that my loyalty was to him and to no one

else." Others told much the same story.

52

 AGO Memo S635, 4 Dec 45. SPWA 314.7

(6-2-41)sec 3. 53

 Interv with Mrs. Woods, 9 Oct 48. 54

 Undated Draft of Dir WAAC speech to SvC mtg,

Dec 42, in personal papers of Col Rice. 55

 Ltrs from SvC Dir, 30 Nov-9 Dec 42. SPWA

319.2 (12-2-42) WAAC Stf Mtg, WAAC Planning

files.
90 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

LT. COL. HELEN H. WOODS (then

Third Officer).

The four service command directors on

the Atlantic seaboard plunged at once into

the work of aiding the Aircraft Warning

Service units to obtain supplies, warm uniforms, three meals a day, and safer quarters, as well as of providing a legal means

for the personnel actions that began to be

necessary. Particular difficulty was experienced in persuading non-service command stations to permit such efforts. Some

measure of success was eventually obtained. For example, after repeated telephone calls and correspondence had failed

to convince the Norfolk Air Defense Wing,

Third Officer Jessie P. Rice of the Third

Service Command paid a personal visit

and reported a "long and pleasant" conversation with the commanding officer,

during which he alleged that he had never

seen War Department Circular 344, but

agreed to abide by it and WAAC Regulations in the future.56

In stations at which units had not yet

arrived, service command directors set

themselves to prevent the hardships and

poor publicity that unpreparedness had

brought to the Aircraft Warning Service

units. One surviving memorandum on

"How to Visit the Field" offered strenuous

advice:

1. Visit the commanding officer and

explain the WAAC's status.

2. Visit the quartermaster and check

with him methods of requisitioning WAAC

uniforms and other supplies and equipment peculiar to females; where stocked,

and so on.

3. Visit the post engineer and verify

safety and proper construction of WAAC

barracks, including plumbing, fire escapes,

shades, and distance from men's barracks.

4. Visit the post surgeon and arrange

for separate sick call and separate wards

for women, different medical supplies, and

the like.

5. Visit the finance officer and explain

how the Auxiliary is paid.

6. Visit the post exchange officer and

suggest toilet articles, sanitary supplies

and other items to be stocked for women

purchasers.

7. Visit the athletic and recreation officer and arrange for recreation suitable for

women, and for admission to post theater,

service club, and other activities.

8. Visit the provost marshal and discuss

the Auxiliary disciplinary system and its

wide difference from the Army system, the

power of military police over Waacs, and

related matters.

56

 (1) Ltr, Stf Dir 3d SvC to 3d O Betty Bandel, 1

Dec 42. SPWA 319.12. (2) Ltr, Stf Dir 3d SvC to Dir

WAAC, 1 Jan 43, sub: Rpt on Trip to Norfolk, Va.,

27 Dec 42. Same file.
BEGINNINGS OF FIELD DUTIES 91

9. Visit the post chaplain and discuss

the special problems of a woman's adjustment to the Army.

10. Visit the post adjutant and advise

that WAAC officers be allowed to use the

officers' mess and club, and discuss other

matters of administration.

11. Visit any other staff officers who

might have special problems caused by the

arrival of female personnel, such as the

public relations officer, or those who might

employ Waacs, such as the signal officer.57

Director Overseas

A few days before the regional directors

went out, Director Hobby was obliged to

entrust their further indoctrination and

guidance to her staff, having received orders to accompany Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt on an observation tour of the British

women's services. Third Officer Helen

Woods was left as Acting Director. On 19

October the Director and her aide, Third

Officer Bandel, left for the British Isles,

not to return until 11 November.58

At this time it appeared that the Corps

was in fair condition to meet the strain of

the oncoming expansion. As a result of

General McNarney's intervention to expedite WAAC supply, every Waac at Fort

Des Moines at last had a winter uniform

and an overcoat, and supplies had been

forwarded to those women who had left

the training center without uniforms. As

for the Second WAAC Training Center at

Daytona Beach, a full conference of Services of Supply agencies assured Director

Hobby before her departure that all necessary supplies and uniforms would reach it

before the 1 December opening date. Also

encouraging was the office's move to the

newly completed Pentagon, where co-ordination with other Army offices was

greatly simplified.59

The expansion program that had been

mastered was, however, merely that which

had originated in June. Still to be reckoned with was G-3's September plan for

1,500,000 Waacs.

57

 Table V-2, Vol. Gen Information, WAAC Hist

files.

58

 Memo cited n. 5. 59

 (1) Min, Stf Conf, 27 Oct 42. (2) Weekly Rpt,

WAAC Hq for CofAdm Serv, 1-7 Nov 42. SPWA

3 19.12. (3) Admin Memo 56, Hq SOS, 14 Oct 42.

SPWA 310.2.
CHAPTER V

November 1942-January 1943:

Plans for a Million Waacs

While Director Hobby was overseas, the

necessary steps were taken by the Services

of Supply to carry out the September expansion plan. To verify G-3's estimate of

a need for 1,500,000 Waacs, The Adjutant General's Office was asked to make a

list of all the Army jobs suitable for

women. A committee of classification experts at once began the project, the most

comprehensive study ever made of the

outer limits to which replacement of men

in the United States Army could theoretically be pushed.

The Adjutant General's Estimates

After pondering over each of the 628

military occupations listed by the Army,

The Adjutant General's committee came

to the conclusion that 406 were suitable

for women and only 222 unsuitable. A job

was deemed unsuitable if it involved combat, if it required considerable physical

strength, or if the working conditions or

environment were improper for women.

Jobs requiring long training time were

also eliminated. Typical of the jobs ruled

unsuitable were brake inspector and railway operator (too heavy and requiring too

much training time), switchboard installer

(too heavy), laborer (too heavy), intelligence specialties (improper environment),

and so on. All supervisory jobs were automatically declared unsuitable for women.

The committee likewise, after some disagreement, ruled that for psychological

reasons women should not be used in such

jobs as classification specialist, personnel

consultant, or psychological assistant,

since in these jobs they might be called

upon to classify recruits for combat duty,

and it was felt that men would resent being classified as suitable for combat by individuals who were themselves noncombatants. The committee nevertheless admitted that, in an acute manpower

shortage, women could actually be used

in many of the 222 jobs thus ruled

unsuitable.

The Adjutant General, using these lists,

determined that in 1943 there would be

3,972,498 men in Army jobs appropriate

for women—over half of the Army's

strength at that date. In the interests of

caution, this number was reduced to allow

for the fact that some jobs, although of a

suitable type, might be rendered unsuitable by their location or for some other

reason. For instance, it would not be economical to maintain women at small stations where only a few could be used; it

would not be wise to replace all of the supply clerks at any station, since work too

heavy for women might occasionally oc-
PLANS FOR A MILLION WAACS 93

cur; women could not conveniently do the

office work in men's units. With such deductions, it was decided that women could

fill 450,000 of the Army's 665,256 administrative and clerical jobs; 100,000 of

the 834,600 motor transport jobs; 25,000

of the 121,000 radio operators' positions;

30,000 of 96,755 supply jobs. The total of

women who could be used immediately

was 750,000, and by the end of 1943 it was

estimated that at least 1,323,400 could be

used. Thus it was discovered that G-3

Division had, if anything, been conservative in estimating that 1,500,000 Waacs

could be used by 1946.1

Estimates Based on Field Requisitions

Simultaneously with its request for The

Adjutant General's theoretical estimates,

the Services of Supply conducted a field

survey to provide a practical check on the

numbers usable by the Army. On 22 October, a few days after Director Hobby's

departure, the Services of Supply informed its subordinate commands that

further use of Waacs was contemplated,

and asked for recommendations as to

which jobs under their jurisdiction could

be filled by WAAC personnel.2

Requisitions prompted by this letter

were soon pouring into WAAC Headquarters, increasing those already arriving as a

result of the earlier June expansion plans.

They were listed in order of receipt, except for urgent cases, and forwarded for

final approval in turn to the Chief of Administrative Services, the Chief of Operations, and G-3 Division of the War Department.

In order to determine which requests

merited final approval, it was necessary to

devise a number of new policies concerning the types of work and places of employment which would be authorized for

Waacs. The number and variety of the

requests went far beyond the four simple

types of jobs originally authorized. The

Air Forces requested Waacs for some

thirty-one different technical and mechanical duties; the Signal Corps, Transportation Corps, Corps of Engineers,

Ordnance Department, Chemical Warfare Service, and other agencies listed

dozens of new types of work, many of

which could not be filled by women except

after Army technical training. There were

also requests for new types of companies:

Machine Records Units, Finance Department Companies, Base Post Offices, Mess

Companies, and others for which no

WAAC Table of Organization as yet

existed. There were many requests for

Waacs to replace civilians: as clerks in

post exchanges, as laundresses, and in

other non-Civil Service work. Several

commands wanted mobile units for combat theaters, and the Signal Corps wanted

these units mixed, with men and women

in the same company.3

As a guide for determining which of

these requests to honor, a most important

policy had been recommended by Director Hobby before her departure: that

Waacs not be allowed to replace civilians

and that they be considered only for the

406 Army jobs included in The Adjutant

1

 (1) Memo, Classif & Repl Br AGO for Col

Catron, 31 Oct 42; (2) Rpt, Classif & Repl Br AGO

for WAAC Hqs, 25 Nov 42. SPWA 201.6 (10-2-42)

(1) secs 1, 2. 2

 Memo, TAG for Chiefs of Servs SOS, 22 Oct 42.

SPX 320.2 (10-17-42) PR-W-SPAAE. Also AGO

Memo W635-2-42, 22 Oct 42. 3

 (1) Min of Stf Confs, Aug-Nov 42. Folder, Stf

Confs, Hobby files. (2) Memo, MPD SOS for G-1, 4

Nov 42. SPGAM 320.2 WAAC (9-15-42). (3) Ltr, FA

Sch to Dir WAAC, 25 Sep 42, and reply. AGF 320.2

WAAC, Binder 1, DRB AGO.
94 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

General's study. The Director stated that

she had understood from the beginning

that Waacs were to replace only enlisted

men, except in the Aircraft Warning Service. General Grunert disagreed, recommending that stations be allowed to use

Waacs in civilian jobs that they could not

get civilians to accept.4 G-1 Division upheld the Director, and the policy was

established that "First priority will be given

to requests which result in WAAC personnel

relieving enlisted men of the Army for combat

duty." 5 This was a policy of enormous importance to the Corps' entire future employment.

It was also decided that first priority

was to be given to fixed installations in the

United States and second priority to fixed

installations in foreign theaters of operations. Mobile units were not, however,

ruled out of consideration at some future

date when all other needs were filled.6

No requests for Waacs to perform new

or unusual military duties were disapproved, but it was obvious that actual

provision of Waacs for such work would

depend upon the establishment of new

training schools and of types of units other

than the standard Table of Organization

company. Research was authorized to find

some more flexible means of allotment

which would permit Finance, Hospital,

Mess, and other units.

The number of Waacs that could be

used was greatly limited by a decision not

to employ them in Washington, D. C.,

where as much as one third of the Navy

women were eventually to be employed.

This prohibition had originally applied to

the Services of Supply only, having been

announced by General Somervell at a staff

meeting as an off-the-record policy for his

Chiefs of Services, one of whom accidentally recorded it:

Our policy can be only the policy that he

has announced to us. That policy he particularly does not want committed to writing,

because the minute that anybody gets ahold

of it and puts it in the paper, there will be a

mess. This is the policy . . . he does not

want any of them here, except in the Office

of the Headquarters of the WAAC, and certain ones in G-2, whom for some reason they

prevailed upon him to have. Do you get it?

We don't want anything said about it.7

However, a few weeks later, when it

became clear that the War Department

and the Air Forces were planning to bring

Waacs into their headquarters, General

Somervell recommended the policy in

writing to the Chief of Staff, "in order that

field agencies may have full benefit of the

services of members of the WAAC." This

policy was approved by the Chief of Staff

and put into effect, with exceptions to be

granted only by his own office for important secret work.8

 It was also generally

agreeable to WAAC Headquarters, since

assignments to Washington were not popular with enlisted women who wished to

work on a military post. However, the

policy caused added confusion in current

planning, since agencies such as the Signal

Corps, which had attempted to get WAAC

officers to aid in planning for enlisted

4

 Memo, Dir WAAC for CofAdm Serv, 16 Sep 42,

and Inds. SPWA 320.2 (9-5-42). 5

 D/F, G-1 to Dir WAAC through Adm Serv SOS,

1 Oct 42. AG/WDGAP 212.31 WAAC; 1st Ind, 2

Oct 42, Adm Serv SOS for Dir WAAC. SPAAE 320

(9-16-42). 6

 Memo cited n. 2. 7

 Tp Conv, Col H. L. P. King and Brig Gen James

A. Code, Jr., OCSigO, 25 Sep 42, 11:05 A. M. SigC

320.2 WAC, 1942-45. 8

 (1) Memo, Somervell for CofS, 4 Oct 42, with approval 7 Oct 42. CofS 291.9. Also AGO Memo

W635-1-42, 12 Oct 42. (2) Memo, Opns WAAC for

CofAdm Serv, 28 Oct 42. SPWA 320.2 (10-28-42) O,

in Dir Adm Serv ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. (3) Memo,

G-1 for CG AAF, 9 Dec 42. WDGAP 320.2 WAAC

(12-9-42), in WDCSA 291.9 WAAC.
PLANS FOR A MILLION WAACS 95

women, were obliged to relinquish them

when informed that, "by order of General

Somervell, no WAAC officers will be

placed on duty in the space occupied by

the Office of the Chief Signal Officer."

 9

Even with the various limitations, the

results of the field survey generally upheld

The Adjutant General's estimates. It was

difficult to make an exact calculation of

the constantly shifting requests, but the

total, which had been 63,000 in midsummer and about 82,000 at the beginning of

October, jumped to 386,267 toward the

end of November and to 526,423 in December. These figures included only "actual requests . . . based on present

tentative plans as to how and where Waacs

can be used."

 10

 Thus, if more than 500,000

women could be assigned immediately,

before overseas theaters and many other

commands were heard from, it was clear

that the G-3 estimate of 1,500,000 by

1946 had not been in excess of probable

field requirements.

Proposals To Draft Women

Considerable change in planners' thinking resulted from the somewhat amazing

revelation that, in a modern Army, possibly half of all "soldiers' "jobs were appropriate for women. With little natural limit

thus existing upon the use of womanpower, major decisions were clearly required as to the Army's future policy: the

number of women that it would attempt

to employ in World War II, the rate at

which it would take these, and the means

by which it would attempt to get them.

The first and easiest solution to occur to

most planners was that of drafting women.

Although Director Hobby was not available for consultation, the Services of Supply on 4 November 1942 recommended

to the War Department that, in furtherance of G-3's plans, legislation be sought

to draft some 500,000 women yearly

through regular induction facilities. According to SOS estimates, there were

25,605,179 women of ages 20 through 44

in the United States, of whom about

13,000,000 should be available for the war

effort. Even if the WAAC required the

present maximum Adjutant General's

estimate of 1,300,000, this would constitute only 10 percent of the pool, leaving

90 percent for industry, farm, and other

armed services. In recommending that the

Army draft women, the Services of Supply

noted:

The nation is obligated to see that women

will be placed to best advantage, not only

from the standpoint of economical use, but to

avoid any disastrous aftermath due to mis- placement in the war effort, or by the employment of women who have definite obligation in other fields. . . . It is to the

advantage of the nation that the best use be

made of this pool of labor, and it certainly

should not be frittered away in useless com- petition between competing agencies in our

country.11

Unfortunately for the speed of WAAC

planning, this proposal was so serious as to

require extended War Department consideration and high-level negotiation with

other agencies. It was realized that any

such proposal from the Army would provoke considerable public outcry and Congressional opposition, and therefore could

9

 R&W Sheet, Col King to Aux C Sec through

Deputy Chief and Exec Off, 24 Nov 42. SigC 320.2

WAC, 1942-45. 10

 (1) Memo, Dir WAAC for CofAdm Serv, 28 Sep

42. SPWA 291.9 (9-28-42) E, in SPWA 314.7 (6-2-

41) sec 3. (2) Outline for speech "Role of the WAAC

in the Service Command," December 1942; given to

author by Lt Col Jess Rice. 11

 Stf Study, Dir Mil Pers SOS for G-1, 4 Nov 42.

SPGAM 320.2 WAAC (9-15-42).
96 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

be publicly made, if at all, only with the

full co-ordination of the sponsoring agencies. For this reason, as the winter of 1942

continued, no War Department reply as to

the possibility of drafting women was

received by either General Somervell or

WAAC Headquarters.

The Weakness of the Auxiliary System

A second possibility which presented

itself to planners was that of seeking legislation to give Waacs full military status. If

a draft was later to be sought, such status

was essential; even if it was not sought,

there was already considerable evidence

that no greatly expanded employment of

womanpower was possible on an Auxiliary

status.

In particular, it became clear during

the autumn that most plans for overseas

service must be canceled if the Auxiliary

status continued. This was a serious blow,

for the whole idea of the Corps had originally been thought of by the War Department as a means of preventing the confusion of civilian overseas service that

occurred in World War I. During her visit

to England, Director Hobby received from

Lt. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower a request

for immediate shipment of the two overseas companies then in training and for

quick organization of a number of others.

She also discovered—at that time top

secret information—that the invasion of

North Africa was imminent and that it

was General Elsenhower's intent to take

Waacs with him.

Director Hobby returned to the United

States on 11 November, much impressed

by the need for Waacs in General Eisenhower's headquarters, where she had

observed a colonel typing a letter by the

one-finger method. However, after conferring with her staff about current Comptroller General and Judge Advocate

General decisions on the WAAC's legal

status, her enthusiasm abated. It had

recently been decided that Waacs were not

eligible for the various benefits that protected men overseas—they could not, like

the men, receive extra overseas pay; they

were not eligible for government life insurance as men were, and would probably

invalidate their civilian insurance by

entering a war area; if sick or wounded

they would not be entitled to veterans'

hospitalization; if they were killed their

parents could not collect the death gratuity; if captured by the enemy they could

be treated as the enemy pleased instead of

being entitled to the rights of prisoners of

war. Under the circumstances, it appeared

impossible for the Army to assume the

responsibility of ordering women overseas;

nor did the military situation yet require

it, as the Director pointed out to the Chief

of Staff:

One of the primary reasons for the establishment of the WAAC was to replace men.

Until necessity dictates otherwise, conditions

in the theaters of operation indicate replacement in the United States. The Army classification system should be

able to find among men the skills needed by

the Army in the European Theater of Operations. Members of the WAAC can thus

properly replace men found in the United

States and release them for essential Army

service overseas. . . .12

General Marshall therefore somewhat

reluctantly postponed any consideration

of immediate shipment overseas except for

the two all-volunteer units already trained,

saying: "They do not enjoy the same privileges that members of the Army do who

12

 Memo, Dir WAAC for CofS, 14 Nov 42. SPWA

320.2 sec 1.
PLANS FOR A MILLION WAACS 97

become a prey to the hazards of ocean

transport or bombing."

 13

In addition to negating plans for overseas shipment, it appeared possible that

continued Auxiliary status would cause a

rift with the Army Air Forces, which had

been expected to employ more than 500,-

000 of the projected million-plus Waacs.

Shortly after the Director's return from

Europe, representatives of the Air Forces

informed her that they could not employ

Waacs on an Auxiliary status and would

prefer to seek legislation for their own

corps. General Marshall temporarily

squelched this effort with a note to the Air

Forces on 27 November:

I believe Colonel Moore this morning took

up with Mrs. Hobby the question of her attitude toward a separate women's organization

for the Air Corps. I don't like the tone of this

at all. I want to be told why they cannot train

these women, why the present legal auxiliary

status prevents such training.14

The attitude of the Signal Corps and other

employing agencies continued to be very

similar to that of the AAF.

It also began to appear that the Army

would have difficulty in obtaining any

large corps of women on an Auxiliary

status in competition with the newly

organized WAVES, who could offer

women all military benefits—free mailing,

government insurance, allotments to dependents, reinstatement rights to jobs,

veterans' bonuses, and other advantages,

none of which the Waacs were entitled to.

However, the granting of full Army

status to women still appeared to many

Army men as a drastic step, particularly in

view of the fact that only a few units had

as yet left the training centers. In late November it was finally decided to delay

decision on both draft legislation and on

Army status for the WAAC. The head of

the Army's Legislative and Liaison Division, Brig. Gen. Wilton B. Persons, advised

the General Council to postpone consideration of further legislation of any sort

"until the Waacs have taken the field and

demonstrated their usability."

 15

A few days later, Director Hobby submitted a substitute proposal believed to be

more palatable to Congress: that of merely

registering women in order to obtain

accurate knowledge of the manpower

potential of the nation according to numbers, skills, and other data. This recommendation was also approved by General

Somervell and sent to the Chief of Staff on

the first anniversary of Pearl Harbor.16

However, it also was known to have small

chance of immediate approval.

Proposals for Expansion on Auxiliary Status

There remained to planners the least

desirable of the possible means of Corps

expansion: to attempt to undertake G-3's

directed program by voluntary recruiting

and on an Auxiliary basis. A certain

amount of action could be taken under

existing legislation. It was therefore decided that, as a preliminary measure, the

full 25,000 authorized by executive order

should if possible be enrolled by the end of

December 1942 instead of by the following

June. Next, the Secretary of War petitioned the President to change the executive limitation from 25,000 to the full

150,000 authorized by Congress. The

13

 Memo, CofS for G-1, 3 Dec 42. CofS 291.9

WAAC. 14

 Memo, "G.C.M." for Gen Stratemeyer, 27 Nov

42. WDCSA 291.9 (11-27-42). Reference is to Col.

Aubrey Moore, head of AAF's Allocations and Programs Division. 15

 Min, Gen Council, 23 Nov 42. 16

 Memo, Dir WAAC for CG SOS, 26 Nov 42.

SPWA 324.71 (11-26-42) D, and Ind. Folder, WAC

Recruiting, ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO.
98 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

President agreed and on 19 November

1942 raised the WAAC strength limit to

150,000. The Secretary of War indicated

that the 150,000 women would be enrolled

as fast as training facilities permitted, after

which further legislation would probably

be recommended.17

Meanwhile, recruiting quotas were

opened as wide as training capacity would

permit. From a beginning of 1,259 in July

and 2,019 in August, the number of reported recruits had increased to 3,536 in

September. In October and November, as

Des Moines neared its maximum capacity,

slightly over 4,000 women a month were

enrolled. For December, estimated training capacity permitted advance quotas of

approximately 6,000.18

In order to determine how fast the rest

of the 150,000 could be enrolled, the General Staff called upon WAAC Headquarters for estimates as to the recruiting and

training facilities that would be required

to train 150,000 women by various possible dates, as well as greater numbers by

later dates. The two WAAC training centers' combined peak capacity would

plainly be insufficient to supply such numbers except over a period of years. The

General Staff's desire was to take as many

women as possible as rapidly as possible,

since Army jobs were already waiting and

since applicants might accept other war

work if required to wait. Against this

desire had to be balanced the practical

question of where to get basic and specialist schools, of which the Army currently had none to spare. Compilation of

a list of suitable schools was begun. It was

also necessary to work out large flow charts

to govern intake and output of proposed

training centers and specialist schools, so

that on a given date each would simultaneously produce exactly the required

number of basics and specialists to make

up exactly the number of WAAC companies departing for the field on that day,

and for whom exactly the right amounts

of housing and clothing were ready. Such

charts had to be worked out for every possible total strength that the War Department desired to consider for every possible

date.19

Opinions differed widely as to how

quickly the WAAC should attempt to

reach the 150,000 mark. Maj. Gen. Miller

G. White, the new G-1 of the War Department, recommended to the General

Staff in November that the Corps reach

this number by July 1943—a deadline that

would require at least 20,000 recruits a

month for the intervening months, as well

as several new training centers. An even

more optimistic recommendation came

from the new head of WAAC Headquarters' Recruiting Section, Capt. Harold A.

Edlund, who advised a target of 50,000 a

month, or 750,000 in 1943. Captain Edlund stated: "It may be that the goal

outlined will appear to some as outside the

realm of reason or possibility . . . but the

reaching of a more modest goal is doubly

assured if we bend every effort for the

greater enrollment figure." On the contrary, General Surles, chief of the War

Department Bureau of Public Relations,

gave his opinion that not even 150,000

17

 (1) Ltr, SW to Bur of Budget, 12 Nov 42.

WDGAP 320 WAAC (1 1-7-42), in WDCSA 291.9

WAAC. (2) Exec Order 9274, 19 Nov 42, in WD Bull

58, 28 Nov 42. 18

 (1) Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq to CofAdm Serv, 8-

16 Nov 42. SPWA319.12 (11-9-42) sec 1. (2) Memo

cited n. 10(1). (3) Table III, ASF Hist of WAC Tng.

OCMH. (4) Although not reported fully at the time,

actual nationwide enrollments as finally credited by

The Adjutant General were: 1,259, July; 2,019, August; and 3,536, September. 19

 (1) Min, Stf Mtgs, 25 Sep, 6 Oct 42. (2) Flow

Charts, WAAC Planning files, 1943.
PLANS FOR A MILLION WAACS 99

could be obtained, and added: "We have

about exhausted that group of women who

are willing to volunteer to leave their

homes."

 20

 This was also Director Hobby's

opinion; after her return from Europe she

expressed the opinion that not even 150,000

women could be recruited by voluntary

means.21

The somewhat unfortunate effect of this

division of opinion was that, for the remainder of 1942, the War Department

was no more communicative upon the

subject of WAAC 1943 goals than it had

been upon the questions of legislation. As

a staff member later observed:

The Corps was placed in the position of a

small businessman who overnight was told

he must increase his business more than eight

times, and to do it at once even before he

knew what he was to produce, out of what

materials, when or how the product was to

be made, and with practically no organization to assist.22

The Winter Months

While it was realized that major decisions concerning womanpower could not

be made easily in these, the darkest months

of the war, their absence caused continued

confusion in the new headquarters. At the

same time, developments in the two training centers gave grounds for grave doubt

as to whether any sort of expansion program could be supported.

In the second week of November, just

before Director Hobby's return from England, urgent telegrams were received from

the commandant at Fort Des Moines,

pointing out that clothing shipments had

again failed just as recruits were increased.

The improvement caused by General McNarney's intervention in October had

lasted scarcely a month.

Immediate investigation by WAAC

Headquarters drew an alarming reply

from The Quartermaster General: clothing promised to Fort Des Moines could

not be delivered as scheduled. Also, no

clothing could be sent to Daytona Beach

by its opening date, as previously agreed

by the Services of Supply. The Quartermaster General stated that his previous

commitments had been contingent upon

immediate letting of contracts and, for

unexplained reasons, Requirements Division, Services of Supply, had again held up

approval of the contracts for more than six

weeks.23

On 11 November Director Hobby returned from England to find a recurrence

of the September crisis at Des Moines:

hundreds of recruits without winter clothing, and sickness rates again high. Colonel

Hoag reported the entire supply of clothing now exhausted except for a little summer-weight underwear. The civilian

clothing in which recruits arrived was far

from adequate protection for four weeks of

winter training in snow-covered Fort Des

Moines. Most women had been instructed

to bring only one outfit, and this, particularly in the case of women from the

southern and southwestern states, frequently included nothing warmer than a

dress, a light topcoat, and open-toed shoes.

20

 (1) Memo, CofS SOS for CofAdm Serv, 26 Nov

42. SPEX, in SPAA 320.2 WAAC, CofAdm Serv file,

Sp Coll DRB AGO. (2) Surles statement in Min, Gen

Council, 23 Nov 42. (3) Memo, Capt Edlund, Chief,

WAAC Rctg Sec, for Dir WAAC, 22 Dec 42. Folder,

Memos Prior to 7 Jan 43 in WAAC Planning, WAAC

Planning files. 21

 Min of Speech, 31 Mar 43. SPWA 334.8 Conf,

1943.

22

 Miss B. Eugenia Lies, Civilian Consultant to Dir

WAAC, The Overall WAAC Picture, (first draft), 28

Mar 43. Folder, Planning Serv Notes, WAAC Planning files, 1943 in SPWA 291.9. 23

 Weekly Rpts, WAAC Hq to CofAdm Serv, 1-7

Nov and 8-16 Nov 42. SPWA 319.12 (10-19-42) and

(11-9-42) sec 1.
100 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Units were now being shipped to the Aircraft Warning Service in the same civilian

clothing in which the women had reported

for training. It was known that trainees

had written of these conditions to friends

and relatives.24

Director Hobby's attempts at remedial

action were somewhat delayed by the fact

that, upon her return, she was immediately ordered to Fort Leavenworth,

Kansas, to lecture to the Command and

General Staff School on the proper administration of Waacs. She had brought back

from England much valuable material on

this subject, none of which had any effect

on the situation. The fact was that the

American WAAC was helplessly repeating

every one of the British WAAC's mistakes,

not because the WAAC did not know

them and how to avoid them, but because

their occurrence hinged on outside factors

over which it had no control.25 Nevertheless, three days after her return from England, the Director called in the two

training center commandants, Colonels

Faith and Hoag, for a meeting with Colonel Catron, Colonel Tasker, and herself.

Here, in a stormy session, Colonel Faith

alleged that the Services of Supply were

neglecting the Waacs because they were

not military personnel. He had particular

reference to his experiences in trying to

open the Second Training Center; for

example:

Colonel Faith: I feel it is the function of this

department [WAAC Headquarters] to get

the War Department to understand that the

Waacs are soldiers. It looks like I am going to

have to open a training center at Daytona

without anything. . . . I am not going to lie

down because I do not have clothing, but I

do sense the feeling that the War Department

believes they have an Army, and some

Waacs. . . .

Colonel Catron: No, the War Department

feels that the Waacs ought to have what they

need, but the clothing is not available. . . .

I do not believe there is a tendency to say

there is an Army and some Waacs; not in the

Services of Supply. . . . Lt. Colonel Tasker: I think there was that

condition. . . .

[Colonel Faith goes on to describe how The

Services of Supply refused him other equipment normally furnished to Army schools.]

Director Hobby:. . . Let me straighten out

the position of this headquarters. You are

given a job to do and a time schedule to do it

on, and when your equipment does not come

through I want to know about it. I will say

another thing: you will find a lot of people

with a bureaucratic frame of mind that would

kill anything new unless you fought for it. It

is my job to fight for it.26

A number of events therefore occurred

on 21 November. On that day the Director stopped all further shipments of uniformless units to the Aircraft Warning

Service. She simultaneously directed recruiters to warn recruits to bring enough

warm civilian clothing to last for several

months. She also requested and received

from her Army staff a report on the action

they had taken to date. This report showed

not only that all Services of Supply staff

divisions had concurred before expansion

plans had been put into effect, but also

that the Quartermaster General's Office

had been informed by telephone in June

and again in September as soon as WAAC

Headquarters had itself learned of the

plans. With this report in her office, and

also General Madison Pearson, she therefore telephoned General Somervell's Chief

of Staff, Maj. Gen. Wilhelm D. Styer.27

24

 (1) Ibid., and Rpt of 15-21 Nov 42. (2) Account

in the possession of Capt. Charlotte Dyer, made available to the author, 31 January 1946. 25

 Folder of British materials in 1942 WAAC files. 26

 Min, Tng Gen Comdts Conf, 14 Nov 42. Folder,

Stf Confs, Hobby files. 27

 (1) Ltr, WAAC Hq to all SvCs, 21 Nov 42.

SPWA 421 (11-19-42). Also Rpt, 15-21 N

n. 24(1). (2) Memo, Tasker for Dir WAAC, 21 Nov

42. WA 421 (11-20-42).
PLANS FOR A MILLION WAACS 101

What was said was not recorded, but

observers reported that it was sufficient to

bring General Styer down the hall to

WAAC Headquarters. Staff members were

under the impression that Director Hobby

mentioned that her own resignation

would be necessary if the Services of Supply did not intend to give the WAAC the

equipment for survival in the coming

winter. In any event, General Styer was

found to be not in agreement with the

previous management of the WAAC supply program by his subordinates, which he

attempted to correct by personal telephone calls on the spot. Emergency procurement of any available kind of coldweather garments was authorized.28

The situation at Daytona Beach also

was found to be critical. Before Director

Hobby's return, a meeting had been held

in General Grunert's office to consider

whether to cancel the scheduled opening

of the second training center, since it could

not be supplied with uniforms. Lieutenant

Woods personally made the decision that

the Army's stated needs must be met, in

spite of the inconveniences to trainees. The

Second WAAC Training Center therefore

opened on 1 December 1942 as scheduled.

It was virtually without equipment; shoes

had been sent, and 600 utility coats—

scarcely enough for one week's trainees.29

Colonel Faith forwarded requests for

improvement in the scattered housing and

other facilities at Daytona Beach. A British

report brought back by Director Hobby

noted that to house women in scattered

billets usually damaged health, administration, and the "amenities," and that "for

young recruits undergoing basic training

it is generally very unsuitable."

 30

 It was

obvious that Waacs in Daytona Beach

must either do without recreation or attend

civilian night spots of doubtful respectability. Since a tent camp was being built

to house some 6,000 of the trainees, Director Hobby asked in early December that

it include the recreational facilities normally provided for an Army camp of

6,000 men—one theater, one service club,

one library, and one post exchange. However, the Chief of Engineers objected on

the grounds that critical building material

would have been required, and the request

was rejected by Requirements Division,

Services of Supply. Colonel Faith also believed the commercial laundry facilities

inadequate, but his requests for military

supplements were refused by the Services

of Supply.31

Colonel Faith's most serious concern,

however, was not the lack of material

facilities so much as the difficulty in getting competent Army cadre to augment

the staff, which remained inadequate even

after the original Army cadre was divided

and the newly graduated Waacs assigned

to all possible duties.32 The greatest need

was for highly competent key Army offi28

 (1) Interv with Col Woods, 9 Oct 48. (2) Rpt, 15-

21 Nov 42, cited n. 24(1). (3) Memo, ACofS, Opns

Div SOS, for QMG, 27 Nov 42. SPDDQ 420 Clothing, in SPWA 421 (11-27-42) 1942. (4) 1st Ind,

Reqmts Div SOS to QMG, 3 Dec 42. SPRMD 421

(11-26-42), in WA 400.34. 29

 (1) Memo, OQMG for CG SOS, 10 Nov 42, with

1st Ind, 13 Nov 42. SPQXA 420 WAAC, in SPWA

400.34 (3-2-42) sec 1. (2) Ltr, WAAC Hq to Ft Des

Moines, 19 Nov 42; and Ltr, WAAC Hq to 2d Tng

Cen, 20 Nov 42. SPWA 421. 30

 Conditions in the Three Women's Services. 31

 (1) Memo, WAAC Hq for Chief, Reqmts Div

SOS, 17 Dec 42; refused by 1st Ind, 6 Jan 43. WA

600.1 (1942). (2) Memo, WAAC Hq for OQMG, 2

Nov 42, and Inds. WA 486.3. 32

 Waacs were made chiefs of sections (Motor

Transport, Officers Candidate, Basic, and Administrative) on 6 February 1943 at Fort Des Moines; dates

for other centers not preserved. On 23 April 1943 at

Fort Des Moines, Waacs became commanders of

training regiments, chiefs of training sections, mess

officers, public relations officers, and the like. On 24

April 1943 Waacs were designated Chief of Plans and

Training, Assistant Commandant, and Chief Public

Relations Officer at Fort Des Moines. MS Hist of 1st

WAAC Tng Cen.
102 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

cers. The Director's requests for certain

individuals by name had been refused,

and General Grunert informed her that

the WAAC would be assigned only officers

unfit for duty with male troops. At the

November commandants' meeting, Colonel Faith and Colonel Catron came to

open dispute over this decision, with Colonel Faith stating: "I absolutely refuse any

reduction in the quality of material. We

cannot go any lower. We cannot allow any

more culls. . . . I don't want a one of

them. I cannot make it any stronger." To

this Colonel Catron replied, "You will find

lots of good material in the over troop age

group. I think you are going to have to

take it." Director Hobby added, "My own

limited service in the War Department has

taught me that it is difficult to get quality

for the WAAC. It seems to be against the

theory."

 33

The seriousness of the objections to the

Daytona site was not to become fully evident for several months, but it was sufficiently clear to Director Hobby, when she

saw the center for the first time in December, to cause her to demand that the

already scheduled Third WAAC Training

Center be located on an Army post. Accordingly, she requested assignment of

Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, just outside of

Chattanooga, Tennessee. Fort Oglethorpe

was in a central location, which would

make it convenient to draw trainees from

most of the United States; it was also in a

temperate climate. Nonconcurrences on

its use for Waacs were offered by the Provost Marshal General, who maintained an

internment camp there, and by the Commanding General, Army Ground Forces,

one of whose mechanized regiments would

also be forced to move. These objections

were overridden by the Chief of Staff himself and Fort Oglethorpe was designated

the Third WAAC Training Center. Col.

Hobart Brown was selected to command

it, and its activation date was set for 1

January 1943, with recruits to report in

February.34

In order to co-ordinate the work of the

three training centers and the others that

might be expected, it was decided to

group them into a WAAC Training Command, which would form an intermediate

echelon between the training centers and

WAAC Headquarters.35 Colonel Faith

was chosen to command the new agency,

and was promoted to the rank of brigadier general—an action that created a

somewhat peculiar military situation,

since the head of the WAAC Training

Command was himself immediately under

the command of Director Hobby, who

wore colonel's eagles. Nevertheless, the

rank of brigadier general was obviously

quite modest for the commander of three

large posts. General Grunert accordingly

proposed that action be taken to change

the Director's relative rank to that of

brigadier general, and the Director immediately asked that equal rank be given

Colonel Catron. General Somervell

shelved both proposals and directed that

no action be taken, pending decision on

his proposal to draft women, which would

necessarily place the WAAC in the Army.

If the Corps should be given Army status,

its Director and regional directors would

become staff advisers instead of commanders, and an upward adjustment of

33

 Min, Stf Conf, 14 Nov 42. Folder, Stf Confs,

Hobby files. 34

 (1) Memo, G-3 for CofS, 15 Dec 42. WDGCT

291.2 WAAC (12-8-42), in OCS 291.9 WAAC. (2)

Weekly Rpts, WAAC Hq for CofAdm Serv, 7-12 Dec

and 14-19 Dec 42. SPWA 319.12 (11-9-42) sec 1. 35

 Request for establishment approved 17 Nov 42

by CofAdm Serv, according to notes for speech, "Role

of WAAC in the SvC."
PLANS FOR A MILLION WAACS 103

BRIG. GEN. DON C. FAITH shortly

after his promotion and assignment to command the WAAC Training Command.

the allotted grades of female leaders as the

Corps expanded would not be obligatory.36

Shipment of the First Post Headquarters

Companies

For some time disgruntled station commanders had complained about the repeated postponement of arrival dates

originally given them for WAAC post

headquarters companies. Many, ignorant

of the fact that all available Waacs had

gone to staff the Daytona Beach training

center, began to repeat the rumor that the

Corps was a failure and would never materialize in the field. One WAAC service

command director noted, "I spent most of

my time apologizing to my General for the

peculiar behavior of WAAC Headquarters."

 37

The necessity for staffing the Third

WAAC Training Center with cadre again

set back the shipment schedule of post

headquarters companies. By Christmas of

1942 only two Army stations had received

their promised shipment—Fort Sam

Houston, Texas, and Fort Huachuca,

Arizona.38 These units went out well

equipped with winter uniforms at the expense of those remaining in training centers, in compliance with the Director's ban

on shipment in civilian clothing. They

were also more fortunate than the pioneer

Aircraft Warning Service companies, in

that careful preparations had been made

for them by the WAAC service command

directors.

The women as a whole were consumed

with eagerness to reach genuine Army stations, and both morale and discipline were

good. Mrs. Woods noted later, "In spite of

the difficulties topside, the spirit of the

women was remarkable, especially the

fervor with which they accepted all sorts

of unexplained difficulties. There sprang

up among them an unexcelled esprit de

corps." 39

The arrival of the first Waacs at Fort

Sam Houston on 17 December was described by a WAAC spectator, who wrote:

The consensus of opinion at Fort Sam

Houston was that it would be unfair and unwise to parade a company upon the day of its

arrival by troop train. In fact the remark was

made: "They will not make a good impression while disheveled." You would have been

36

 (1) Memo, ACofS Pers Div SOS for Cof Adm

Serv, 23 Jan 43, SPAP 322.5 WAAC (1-18-43), ref to

Memo, CofAdm Serv for Gen Dalton, 13 Jan 43; (2)

Memo, Dir WAAC for MPD SOS, 14 Jan 43, and

Inds, SPWA 210. All in ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 37

 Intervs with Stf Dirs, 1st and 3d SvCs. 38

 Date of shipment given as 2 Dec 42 for Ft Huachuca units, in MS Hist of 1st WAAC Tng Cen;

WDBPR Press Release, 19 Dec 43, gives 15 Dec as

date of shipment and 17 Dec as date of arrival. 39

 Interv with Mrs. Woods, 9 Oct 48.
104 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

proud, however, if you had been standing

there when they got off the train—their noses

were powdered, their shoes were shined, they

showed that they were well-trained and welldisciplined. Before the last ones had got off

the train, the cannon was fired for retreat.

Like one woman they came to attention and

saluted. . . . The salutes so impressed the

photographers that they stopped taking pictures and faced the flag. . . . I am sorry

that no pictures were taken at that time.40

The other unit, composed of Negro enrolled women with Negro officers, was

likewise well received at Fort Huachuca,

and housed in new barracks with hairdressing facilities, recreation room, and

athletic area. Upon arrival the women

found their bunks already made up and

their first meal prepared.41

Shipment of post headquarters companies to the seven other service commands was postponed indefinitely to

permit the opening of new training centers, but the defrauded commands set up

such protest that certain exceptions had

to be made. Just before Christmas Director Hobby called a meeting at New Orleans of WAAC directors from the service

commands, to explain the situation and to

point out that delay at this stage would result in tremendously greater supply when

all training centers came into full production. Nevertheless, all appealed so earnestly for at least one unit per command

that Director Hobby promised to send it,

as token to the service commands that

Waacs really did exist. This was done, and

during the last of December 1942 companies were placed on orders for shipment

to stations in the remaining seven service

commands. Very little could yet be told of

what their assignments or job performance

would be, although WAAC Headquarters

eagerly awaited such news.42

In December also two experimental

antiaircraft units reached the field, their

"secret" station being actually Boiling

Field, within sight of the Pentagon. The

Antiaircraft Artillery, as directed by General Marshall, began the task of determining which of its duties could be performed

by women and with what degree of

success.43

First Overseas Shipment

Considerably more complications attended efforts to get the first two units

overseas in December. These units had

been ready for shipment since September,

and were by this date trained to a hairtrigger state of tension while waiting for a

shipment priority from England, which

had not arrived. To ease the crowding at

Des Moines, they were shipped to Daytona Beach, as soon as its cadre arrived,

for another period of training.44 Their

morale was scarcely improved by the constant turnover of officers. Since no one yet

knew what qualities a women leader

needed, there was a process of trial and

error by which several officers were successively relieved from duty because of in40

 Ltr, Lt Charlee Kelly, Rctg Off, to Capt MaryAgnes Brown, WAAC Stf Dir 8th SvC, as quoted in

Ltr, Capt Brown to Dir WAAC, 9 Jan 43. SPWA

319.1. 41

 (1) Ft Huachuca file, SPWA 291.21. For difficulties experienced by the first Negro Wac units, see Ch.

XXX, below. (2) WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, 30

Jan 43. 42

 (1) Notes of Dir's speech to CGs of SvCs, New

Orleans, La., 17-18 Dec 42. SPWA 334.8 Conf (11-

18-42). (2) Weekly Rpts, WAAC Hq for CofAdm

Serv, 14-19 Dec 42 and 27 Dec 42-1 Jan 43. SPWA

319.12 (1942). 43

 AG Ltr, WD 320.2 WAAC (12-23-42) PR-WWPOPU, 24 Dec 42, sub: Activation of 150th and

151st WAAC Tech Cos, and 1st Ind from MDW, 17

May 43. AG 320.2 WAAC (5-10-43). 44

 Ltr, WAAC Hq to Comdt 2d WAAC Tng Cen,

31 Oct 42, sub: 75th and 76th Cos, and two Inds.

SPWA 320.2 sec 1.
ON THE JOB AT FORT SAM HOUSTON, TEXAS. Motorpool attendant, above; 

dental assistant in the post dental SG~OO~, below. 
106 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

sufficient experience, lack of outstanding

ability, or domineering traits and a habit

of "treating adult women like high school

freshmen."

 45

The prolonged delay could not be explained to the women, since even their

destination, like all troop movements, was

classified; in general, they attributed it to

vacillation and bungling in WAAC Headquarters. Actually, shipment waited upon

authority from the European theater,

which had requested activation of the

units but had not yet furnished shipment

priority. At the same time, Operations

Division of the General Staff informed

WAAC Headquarters that shipment without a priority was impossible because of

the shipping jams resulting from the invasion of North Africa in November.46

Disbandment of the units was being

considered when, a few days after the invasion, General Eisenhower cabled for a

company of WAAC typists and telephone

operators for North Africa, and provided

a high shipment priority. However,

although the units earmarked for London

contained the necessary specialists, Director Hobby felt unable to assume the responsibility of ordering them into the more

active North African area without the protection of military status.

The danger was graphically demonstrated a few days later when, in answer

to a cabled request from the European

theater setting high air priority, the first

five of the Waacs were flown to England—

five officers qualified to act as executive

secretaries. These officers were immediately placed by the theater on a ship for

North Africa; General Eisenhower had in

fact cabled for them on the fifth day of invasion. Nearing the coast, the ship carrying the Waacs was sunk by enemy action,

with loss of all equipment. The five Waacs

were fortunate enough to be rescued by a

lifeboat and a British destroyer, but the

scare was sufficient to emphasize the War

Department's untenable position had the

issue of hospitalization, capture, or death

gratuity arisen publicly.

At this, Director Hobby herself flew to

Daytona Beach and told the assembled

women that their shipment must be either

canceled or diverted to an unnamed but

dangerous combat theater to which she

would not order them against their wishes.

She noted later that she reminded them of

their lack of military status and its protection and "that I wanted them to appreciate the full significance of what I was

saying." Then, in a speech which spectators called reminiscent of another Texan's

at the Alamo, she called for volunteers to

step forward to fill the unit. There were

300 women in the room, of whom 298 volunteered upon the instant, At this, Director Hobby was unable to continue speaking and hastily sought privacy in a broom

closet.47

Half of this number were chosen, processed, and ordered to the staging area in

December. The remainder were held until the European theater had three times

more postponed its shipping priority,

when they were disbanded and sent to

other duties.48

45

 Documents dated 23 Oct 42 and 27 Nov 42.

SPWA 320.2 sec 1. 46

 (1) D/F, OPD to G-1, 24 Nov 42. OPD 322.999

WAAC (11-14-42); (2) Cbls, London to AGWAR,

4416, 3 Nov 42, London to WAR, 5057, 19 Nov 42,

and London to AGWAR, 5445, 4 Dec 42. All in

SPWA 320.2 secs 1 and 4a. 47

 The two nonvolunteers had invalid parents. (1)

Senate Com on Mil Affairs, 78th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on S 495, 3 Feb 43. (2) Interv with Col Bandel. 48

 (1) Hist of WAAC-WAC in ETO, 1942-44, by

Hist Sec, ETO. (Hereafter cited as ETO WAC Hist.)

OCMH. (2) Ltr, WAAC Hq to Col Abbott, Hq ETO.

27 Jan 43. SPWA 320.2 sec 2.
FIRST AMERICAN WAACS EN ROUTE TO NORTH AFRICA. (Photograph 

was taken in London, 30 Nouember 1942.) 
PROCESSING FOR OVERSEAS. Members ofthefirst WAACunit togo ouerseas receive 

their immuni<ation shots, above, and are inspected ly the WAAC director, below. 
PROCESSING FOR OVERSEAS. Waacs give each other a ZzJt to waiting trucks, above, 

and, below, are helped over the rail and onto the sh$’s deck. 
110 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

End of 1942

Thus, by the end of 1942, the WAAC

could boast two training centers open and

a third being readied, twenty-seven Aircraft Warning Service units, nine service

command companies shipped or ready to

ship, two secret units with the Antiaircraft

Artillery, and one on its way overseas. In

late December Director Hobby reminded

her staff that, in spite of the uncertainties

and hardships of rapid expansion, "Our

six months' achievement is really something to boast about."

 49

 Whereas she had

originally promised the War Department

12,000 Waacs by July of 1943, the Corps

had achieved that strength by December

of 1942, with 12,767 enrolled. The year

had witnessed a complete revolution in

military thinking on the use of womanpower: in January, 12,000 Waacs had

seemed too many; but in December,

1,200,000 seemed too few.50

The WAAC's first Christmas brought

added praise from the Chief of Staff, in the

name of the Army, for the Corps' spirit

and contributions.51 At Christmas also,

anticipating the greater effort that would

be required by the impending General

Staff decision, the Director telegraphed

her staff, "May God bless you and give

you strength for the task ahead."

 52

Indecision as to Planning Goals

Strength of some sort was needed, for by

January of 1943, planners feared that the

WAAC could not survive unless the General Staff's decision as to its size and future status came quickly. It had now been

almost five months since G-3 had called

for 1,500,000 Waacs without setting definite goals. When these were not announced by the beginning of 1943, it was

necessary to set an interim recruiting quota

for January of about 10,000, based on existing training capacity. Reports indicated

that this was being met, and that training

centers were seriously overcrowded, yet by

all evidence the Corps was still far from

approaching the peak of General Staff expectations. It was learned informally that

it was the General Staff's intent to

authorize at once still another training

center, the fourth. Again field shipment

schedules were outdated and previous

plans held up.53

At a meeting on 6 January, staff officers

noted that, until it was known how big the

Corps would be and how many new training centers would be required, it was impossible to set up shipping schedules or to

tell Army stations when Waacs would arrive. The Quartermaster General and the

Chief of Engineers were frantic for estimates on clothing and housing requirements which could not be given them.54

Neither was it possible to publish detailed

discharge and other regulations—to remove the burden of cases still coming to

the office—since the Judge Advocate General desired to wait for a decision on the

Corps' future status.55 Staff members, in49

 Note on Memo, Mrs. Knight for Dir WAAC, 2

Dec 42. SPWA 300.6 (3-30-42) sec 2. 50

 M/R, Stf Conf, 6 Jan 43. Folder, Memos Prior to

7 Jan 43 in WAAC Planning, WAAC Planning files. 51

 Ltr, CofS to Mrs. Hobby, 19 Dec 42, in CofS personal file, made available to author in December 1945

by his secretary. 52

 Telg, Dir WAAC to Stf, 24 Dec 42. SPWA

335.15. 53

 Memo, Tasker for Exec WAAC, 1 Feb 43. SPWA

600.914 (2-1-43). 54

 Comment 2, WAAC Hq to CofAdm Serv, 5 Dec

42, to Memo, Dir Reqmts Div SOS for CofAdm Serv,

26 Nov 42. SPRMP 291.9 WAAC, DRB AGO. 55

 (1) ETO WAC Hist. (2) Ltr, WAAC Hq to Col

Oscar B. Abbott, Hq ETO, 27 Jan 43. SPWA 320.2

sec 2.
PLANS FOR A MILLION WAACS 111

terviewed later, commented, "No one

seemed to know what he was doing." One

of the ablest of the early staff members,

Colonel Tasker, who had been replaced as

Executive by Colonel Catron, now gave

up in despair and transferred to the General Staff in spite of Director Hobby's protest that "his knowledge concerning the

creation and growth of this activity is such

that his reassignment would be a very real

loss."

 56

 Similarly, First Officer Helen

Woods, the first woman to serve as Acting

Director, applied for transfer to a regional

directorship as far from Washington as

possible.57

By the end of the year it was obvious

that the October office reorganization directed by General Somervell's inspectors

was a failure, and Colonel Catron again

reorganized the headquarters. Previous

divisions were abolished and two new

main halves were set up—Operating and

Planning. It was thus hoped that the daily

crises and emergencies of operation could

be kept from disturbing the calmer atmosphere necessary to finely calculated

schemes and schedules, while at the same

time action on urgent field needs would

not be delayed because staff members

were busy preparing estimates for the

General Staff. The Planning Service was

headed for a few weeks by Colonel Tasker

and later by a new arrival, Lt. Col. Robert

F. Branch; the Operating Service was

headed by another new arrival, Col. Howard F. Clark, a regular Army officer of

many years' experience. For the more

technical aspects of personnel planning

and statistics, a civilian woman consultant, Miss B. Eugenia Lies, was also employed. The employment of a civilian appeared to be the Director's first move to

overcome the rigid channelization which

prevented her contact with junior staff

members, since Miss Lies was given authority to ignore all office channels in securing information for the Director.58

This reorganization also was a failure

almost from the beginning. Colonel

Branch soon recommended that his large

Planning Service be dissolved, saying, "It

is a good deal like having a Diesel engine

connected with a sewing machine."

 59

With Planning and Operating Divisions

both the same size and considering the

same subjects, it proved virtually impossible for planners not to operate, or for operators not to plan; overlapping and disagreement resulted. Also, as Colonel

Branch pointed out, it was useless for the

WAAC to make any plans at all in the

face of its dependence on other un-co-operative or dilatory agencies. He said:

The opportunity scarcely exists for original

or creative planning, since the problems of

the Corps have been principally composed of

situations after the fact. Action is therefore

remedial in nature and choices are limited. Congressional action, War Department

policy, and the attitude of other agencies are

limitations which, regardless of their pro- priety or necessity, reduce the scope of plan- ning work.60

Many badly needed improvements, which

were never made or which were delayed,

were ordered by Director Hobby during

this period. Finer adjustments and accurate research were to be impossible until

56

 Personnel Abstracts. WAC files, OCMH. 57

 AAF Western Flying Tng Comd, Santa Ana,

Calif. 58

 Memo, Plng Serv for Dir WAAC, 18 Mar 43,

sub: Progress Rpt, 16 Feb-15 Mar 43. SPWA 319.1. 59

 Memo, Chief, WAAC Plng Serv, for Dir WAAC,

10 Apr 43. SPWA 020. 60

 Memo, Chief, WAAC Plng Serv for Dir WAAC,

15 Apr 43, sub: Progress Rpt, 16 Mar-15 Apr 43.

SPWA 600.914.
112 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

a solution could be found to the basic

problems of survival.61

By the end of January, when no directives were forthcoming from the General

Staff, the WAAC planners, milling about

helplessly among their schedules and flow

charts, were in dispair. The office's Daily

Journal for 1 February indicated: "Director asked General Grunert to obtain from

the General Staff a definitive directive

governing recruitment, training, and use

of Waacs, particularly within remainder

of fiscal year." As a result, General Grunert's office wrote the General Staff asking

a quick decision on: "(1) how many Waacs

we are to recruit and train by July, (2)

where we can get training capacity, and

(3) how we are to slow down recruiting if

we do not [get the above]."

 62

61

 (1) WAAC Office Memo, 23 Feb 43. SPWA

300.6 (3-30-42) sec 2. (2) Folder, Stf Confs (1942),

and WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I (1943), in Hobby

files. See also list of 24 Planning Service projects in

WAAC Planning files, 1942. 62

 WAAC Daily Journal, dates cited.
CHAPTER VI

The Need for Military Status

The delay in the decision to launch the

expansion program was partially attributable to debate on a controversial matter:

whether to give full Army status and rank

to women. The War Department's decision in this matter was never to be fully

understood by many outside its planning

group, representing as it did a complete

reversal of the opinion of the previous

year. For those inside the War Department, and for many station commanders

employing WAAC companies, there actually was no room for question in the matter: the General Staff in fact was obliged

to make the decision to grant Army status

before it could authorize the expansion

program. The evidence at hand overwhelmingly indicated that no great employment of woman power was even remotely possible under the Auxiliary

system.

Administrative Handicaps of an Auxiliary

Almost from the moment the first Waacs

reached them, Army field agencies had

begun to bombard WAAC Headquarters

with questions concerning which Army

administrative procedures were applicable

to the WAAC and which were illegal. This

had once been considered a simple matter; it was now discovered that in almost

all legal and technical matters it was far

from simple, and that the problem was far

more than that of dispensing information.

The questions were such that it was frequently necessary to consult authorities

ranging as high as the Secretary of War,

the Comptroller General, and the Bureau

of the Budget before a legal answer might

be obtained.

Thus, on the universal question of

whether Waacs might use the franking

privilege when mailing their letters, The

Adjutant General ruled that Waacs were

"persons in the military service" for this

purpose, but the Judge Advocate General

ruled that they were not, and the privilege

was rescinded after being widely used—a

situation that distressed Waacs and caused

many to realize for the first time that they

were not soldiers or members of the military team.1

 As time passed, almost no two

authorities agreed upon the occasions

when Waacs could be considered "persons

in the military service." To permit WAAC

units to shop at post exchanges and share

dividends, the Secretary of War was forced

to declare them persons in the military

service.2 On the other hand, General Grunert, the Judge Advocate General, and the

Veterans' Administration united to overrule Director Hobby's request for Na1

 (1) Memo, WAAC Hq for TAG, 21 May 42, and

Ind. Published in WAAC Cir 2, 6 Jun 42. (2) Ltr,

Postmaster Gen to SW, 17 Aug 42, and atchd decisions. WAAC Cir 9, 16 Sep 42, rescinded Cir 2. 2

 Ltr, Tng Cen to Dir WAAC, 31 Jul 42, and Inds.

SPWA 331.3 (7-31-42). AR 30-2290 amended 24

Oct 42.
114 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tional Service Life Insurance for Waacs,

declaring:

Such persons are not in the active service

in the land or naval forces of the United

States. . . . The WAAC as constituted under existing law is essentially a civilian group.

The principle upon which war risk insurance

is founded . . . has no application to those

in civilian occupations.

G-1 Division believed this decision unfair,

and attempted to process new legislation,

but this was vetoed by the Bureau of the

Budget.3

Likewise, the Judge Advocate General,

General Grunert, and the Comptroller

General agreed that Waacs were not "persons in the military service" for purposes

of making allotments under the Servicemen's Dependents Allowance Act, nor

could they even allot money from their

own pay, since the act granted this privilege only to "members of the Army, Army

Nurse Corps, contract surgeons, and civilians overseas."

 4 On the other hand, Congress itself indicated that Waacs were

"persons in the military service" under the

Soldiers and Sailors Relief Act, so that

The Adjutant General was able to issue

Certificates of Military Service to protect

members from litigation.5 As for re-employment rights, Congress indicated that

Waacs who left Civil Service jobs had soldiers' rights to reinstatement, but that

those who left other jobs had not. When

queried concerning state bonuses and

other state benefits, The Judge Advocate

General decided that each state would

have to determine for itself whether Waacs

were "persons in the military service" as

interpreted by its laws.6 In some matters

of finance, the Chief of Finance ruled that

Waacs were "members of the military

forces of the United States," but the Chief

of Transportation was unable to find similar authority to pay for mileage or for

transportation of dependents.7

Such administrative annoyances were

endless and apparently would continue to

be so while the WAAC remained an auxiliary. It was necessary to refuse Army station commanders' requests to award

Waacs the Good Conduct Medal, to issue

them the command's sleeve patch, to appoint them as warrant officers; even the

chaplains were obliged to secure a special

amendment before they could give each

Waac a free New Testament.8 The final

3

 (1) Ltr, WAAC Tng Gen to WAAC Hq, 19 Jun

42, and Inds; (2) Memo, Dir WAAC for Adm Serv

SOS, 14 Jul 42, WA 291.9; (3) D/F, CofAdm Serv to

WAAC Hq 29 Jul 42, SPAAS 243 (7-6-42); (4) Ltr,

VA to SW, 21 Jul 42; (5) Min, Gen Council, 28 Jul

42; (6) Ltr, Bur of Budget to SW, 1 Oct 42, and incl

ltr, AG 291.9 (6-2-41). All in SPWA 314.7 (6-2-

41)(1) sec 4. 4

 (1) TWX, WAAC Tng Cen to Dir WAAC, 3 Jul

42; (2) Memo, Dir WAAC for Adm Serv SOS, 6 Jul

42, with Ind, SPJGA 354.01; (3) WAAC Cir 4, 10 Jul

42; (4) Memo cited n. 30(3); (5) Ltr, Compt Gen to

SW, 6 Aug 42, B-27558; (6) WAAC Cir 7, 29 Aug

42; (7) Min, Gen Council, 28 Jul 42; (8) Decision,

JAG to CofAdm Serv, 4 Aug 42, SPJGA 354.01, 2d

Ind. All in SPWA 314.7 (6-2-41)(1) sec 4. 5

 Memo, JAG for CofAdm Serv, 6 Aug 42.

SPJGA 354.01, in WA 014.3. 6

 (1) Ltr, State of N. J. to TAG, 11 Jul 42, and reply; (2) Ltr, Los Angeles to JAG, 5 Oct 42; (3) Ltr,

Induction Station, Portland, Ore., to Hq 9th SvC, 19

Apr 43; (4) Ltr, Pittsburgh to WAAC, 17 Oct 42, and

Ind, SPJGA 354.01, in SPWA 315.7 (8-2-41)(1) sec

4. All in SPWA 230.57 (6-15-42). 7

 (1) 2d Ind, CofFin to San Antonio Avn Cadet

Cen, 8 Dec 42. SPWA 01 2.33. (2) Memo, TC for Dir

WAAC through CofFin, 4 Sep 42. SPTOT 531.2 (AR

30-925), in SPWA 300.3 (4-29-42) sec 2. 8

 (1) Memo, WAAC Hq for G-1, 24 May 43, sub:

Good Conduct Medal. SPWA 200.6. Eventually

granted. (2) Memo, Dir WAAC for CofAdm Serv, 21

Apr 43. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-42)(1) sec 3. T/E

amended to permit sleeve patches. (3) Ltr, Ft Oglethorpe to O Dir WAAC, 8 Jul 43, sub: Appointment

of Bandleaders as WOs, and Inds. SPWA 211 (11-

13-43). (4) Ltr, Dir WAAC to CofChaplains, 20 Jul

43. SPWA 300.5, 1943. (5) Compilation for ready reference to all points made by 3d Officer Bernice Keplinger, WAAC Hq, 23 Nov 42. SPWA 314.8 (6-2-

41)(1) sec 4.
THE NEED FOR MILITARY STATUS 115

word came from The Quartermaster General, who ruled that Waacs were not eligible for burial with a flag, military honors,

or an escort to accompany the remains

home. After conducting a Waac's funeral,

an indignant American Legion post protested: "It would probably interest you to

know that, at this particular Waac's funeral, she was given full military honors regardless of what her status is, even though

she has passed on into another world." To

this a harassed War Department made no

reply, probably believing that it was difficult enough to determine a Waac's status

in the present world without pursuing the

matter further.9

There were minor points without number in which Waacs did not receive all of

a soldier's privileges. Under the new military pay scale, the WAVES were able to

offer recruits $50 a month, whereas, the

Auxiliary legislation limited the WAAC to

$21 a month. A particularly serious discrepancy was the matter of disability

benefits and retirement. Soldiers and

Waves who suffered disabling injuries or

illnesses were entitled to lifetime pensions

and hospitalization, but Waacs, under the

Federal Employees' Compensation Act,

were entitled only to a few dollars' compensation. Under the law, the Army could

give a Waac hospitalization only until her

disability was pronounced permanent, at

which time she must be discharged and

ordered to leave the military reservation.

She had no right to a pension or to veterans' hospitalization.10

The Auxiliary Disciplinary System

Even had these lesser administrative

difficulties not existed, there was another,

important enough in itself to have invalidated the Auxiliary system, and not capable of solution by any course short of

full Army status; this was the question of

establishing a legally sound and equitable

WAAC disciplinary system.

It had been known since passage of the

legislation that Waacs, like other civilians,

could not legally be made subject to courtmartial and to the Articles of War unless

they were "in the field." This was not even

a matter of discretion; no citizen of the

United States could legally be tried by

military courts unless he had military

status or unless he accompanied an army

in the field. When not "in the field," the

WAAC had its own code of conduct,

which was extremely strict but which was

limited to civilian punishments for infractions—fines, reprimands, restrictions, or

discharge (white or blue); it could not

legally subject members to court-martial,

imprisonment, or dishonorable (yellow)

discharge.11

During the autumn of 1943, Judge Advocate General decisions began to make it

clear that Waacs could almost never be

considered "in the field" unless they were

overseas or in the unlikely event that they

should accompany an army on maneuvers.12

 One station commander did actually try a Waac by court-martial on the

grounds that his station on the Eastern

seaboard was subject to attack and therefore "in the field," but by the time the

9

 Ltr, OQMG to 6th SvC, 21 Dec 42; also Ltr, N. J.

American Legion Post 16 to WAAC Hq. SPWA 293

(12-10-42). 10

 Senate Com on Mil Affairs, 78 Cong, 1st sess,

Hearings on S 495, 3 Feb 43, p. 18. For six months after

discharge, pay and allowances continued if dischargee

was hospitalized; no provision was made for hospital

expenses in excess of WAAC pay scales. WD Memo

35-46, 24 Jan 46. WDWAC 705. Also Min, mtgs,

Jun-Jul 42. WA 300.3 (4-29-42) sec 2. 11

 WAAC Regs, 1942 (Tentative), sec 47. 12

 Memo, M. C. M., N. K. B., C. E. F.for Dir

WAAC, 15 Dec 42, sub: Interpretation of "In the

Field." SPWA 016.2.
116 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Judge Advocate General had considered

the legality of the proceedings, the Waac

had served her sentence and been discharged.13

 The Judge Advocate General

decided that other stations, if they wished

to take court-martial action against a

Waac, must first get a legal decision as to

whether the post was currently subject to

attack, and that "military police would be

liable for suit if restraint was found improper."

 14

At first there appeared to be little need

for military discipline to hold Waacs in

their jobs, but when recruiting quotas

were raised standards fell somewhat and

several WAAC "Awols" occurred. The

military police occasionally apprehended

a few and began to ask the correct procedure to follow in returning them. One

service command inquired: Could the

procedure in Army Regulations and the

Articles of War be followed? Or were only

members of the WAAC qualified to arrest

a Waac? Was it legal to confine them

until they could be returned?

 15

WAAC Headquarters at first replied

that the regular procedure should be followed, except that the women should not

be confined in the same guardhouses with

men and should have WAAC escorts on

the return trip. As WAAC Headquarters

attempted to revise the regulations to this

effect, it became evident that there was no

legal way to provide for the return of a

Waac to WAAC control; in the few cases

shipped back so far, the expenditure of

government funds had been illegal.16

Army staff members surmised that

nothing could be done except to let the

woman go and to mail her a blue discharge. To this the Judge Advocate General added that there was probably no

legal foundation to the whole WAAC disciplinary system: any punishment meted

out by WAAC company commanders

might be unconstitutional, since it was not

done by court-martial and therefore deprived the individual of civil rights without

due process of law. Only admonition or

reprimand would be safe. Restriction to

quarters would be legal if it was not considered "confinement." Summary (blue)

discharge, said the Judge Advocate General in an informal conference, was also

probably "legal" although "without due

process of law." This so startled WAAC

Headquarters that it hastily drew up a

directive to the field forbidding any further company discipline until the matter

was settled. After consideration, this was

not sent out; the Corps had gone too far to

retreat, and since the Office of the Judge

Advocate General itself had written the

WAAC disciplinary regulations only a

few months before, it was believed that

some legal basis must exist.17

Accordingly, steps were taken to set up

an exact procedure for trying offenses, so

as to protect the individual. Also, after

considerable debate, the authority of the

military police was extended to apply to

Waacs. This was somewhat risky in view

of representations previously made to

Congress that the women would be under

virtually no more restraint than civilian

employees except when "in the field."

Therefore, to ward off Congressional criti13

 Folder, Discipline, files of Air WAC Div, Hq

AAF, 1943. 14

 Memo cited n. 12. 15

 Memo, 7th SvC Internal Security Div for Gen

Faith, 18 Dec 42, and Inds. SPWA 300.3 (4-29-42)

sec 2. 16

 WD Memo W635-6-43, 1 May 43, sub: Apprehension of WAAC Absentees. 17

 (1) Memo, Maj James R. Gifford for Exec

WAAC, 6 Jan 43. SPWA 300.3 (4-29-42) sec 2. (2)

Memo, JAG for G-1, 7 Mar 42. JAG 354.01, in WA

300.3 (4-29-42) sec 1. (3) Two Memos, Stf for Dir, 15

Dec 42. SPWA 300.3 sec 1. (4) Weekly Rpt, WAAC

Hq to CofAdm Serv, 14-19 Dec 42. SPWA 319.12.
THE NEED FOR MILITARY STATUS 117

cism, the provision was made that Waacs

would not be placed in guardhouses. Such

official extension of authority was needed

quickly if WAAC Awols were to be returned at all, since some service commands

had already forbidden their military

police to take any responsibility in effecting apprehension of absentees.18

Even if absentees were returned to their

company, there was no way of holding

them. "Restriction to quarters" could obviously not be enforced on a determined

absentee unless several shifts of guards

were placed in the barracks.19 As time

went on, the situation became more than

faintly ridiculous. Two young sisters

named Lydia and Elvira wired Director

Hobby:

HAVE BEEN IN WAACS 31⁄2 MONTHS. NOW AT

HOME ON EMERGENCY FURLOUGH. HAVE NO

INTENTION TO RETURN. CANNOT TAKE BEING IN

CORPS. NERVOUS WRECK AND WILL LOSE OUR

MIND IF NOT RELEASED. MA NEEDS US BOTH AT

HOME AND CANNOT RETURN UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES. PLEASE TAKE IMMEDIATE ACTION

AND REPLY.20

This was probably the only occasion in

history when a deserter directed a commanding officer to "take immediate action

and reply." There were other cases even

more annoying; for instance, four women

who were picked up in Washington after

repeated absences without leave. The report said: "The girls claim they know

Regulations and nothing can be done to

them to hold them if they want to go

AWOL except discharge, which is what

they want most."

 21

 In another case, a

Waac from a large city alighted from the

train at the dreary and isolated station

which was to be her first assignment.

Upon being informed that there were 149

Waacs at a nearby station behind sand

dunes and brush, she remarked, "Well,

there won't be 150"; she climbed back on

the train and was never seen again.22

Some new recruits even refused to comply

with initial orders to active duty if they

had changed their minds since taking the

oath of enlistment.23

In other words, it was now clear that

the Army had little more hold over Waacs

than over civilian workers. The women

could obviously leave the service at any

time they desired, just as a civilian employee could. Under such conditions it

would be risky to replace thousands of

trained men on any very vital or secret

work with an equal number of Waacs who

might depart as readily as other civilians.

The large women's corps which the War

Department planned could scarcely be

built on such shaky foundations.

Remedial Legislation

Long before the examples cited had

come to light, the War Department had

perceived that remedial legislation would

be necessary. Some three months before,

General Marshall had directed preparation of such legislation to give the WAAC

the new pay scale beginning at $50 a

month. Noting that the Services of Supply

had taken no action on it in this period,

the Chief of Staff expressed some annoy18

 (1) Memo, Dir WAAC for Cof Adm Serv, 27 Mar

43; (2) Memo, WAAC Hq for JAG, 15 May 43, and

Inds. SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43) sec 1. (3) Ltr, 2d SvC to

WAAC Tng Gen, 16 Apr 43. SPWA 251.1. 19

 Ltr, SFPOE to WAAC Hq, sub: AWOL—

WAAC. SPWA 251.1. 20

 Telg, Lydia and Elvira B. to Mrs. Hobby, 15 Jun

43. SPWA 251.1. 21

 Memo, Stf to 1st O Kerins, Field Insp Div, 23

Jun 43. SPWA 25 1.5. 22

 Remarks of WAAC Stf Dir, 9th SvC. Min, Stf

Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun 43, SPWA 337 (6-

1-43). 23

 Ltr, 7th SvC to Dir WAAC, 20 May 43. SPWA

300.3 (1-7-43) sec 2.
118 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ance, in view of the WAVES' competition,

and wrote: "It should be pressed to the

limit."

 24

 In the same bill, it was asked that

the confusing WAAC grades, officer and

enlisted, be changed to correspond exactly

to the Army's, except that general officer

grades would not be open to women. Considerable Congressional objection resulted.

The House first voted to leave the Director's and assistant directors' pay at the

equivalent of major and captain, respectively, on the grounds that "the duties and

responsibilities of these officers" did not

merit higher pay. After some delay, the

pay bill was finally approved intact on 26

October 1942.25

Other piecemeal legislation followed.

On 23 July Congresswoman Edith Rogers

had introduced a bill to give Waacs the

benefits of National Service Life Insurance, but this got nowhere.26

 On 8 October Mrs. Rogers introduced a bill to grant

Waacs hospitalization and domicilary care

by the Veterans' Administration. Five

months later, after numerous vicissitudes,

this provision, plus burial benefits, was

enacted into law.27 In October, November, and again in January, bills were introduced to give free postage to Waacs, but

these also got nowhere.28 In October Mrs.

Rogers introduced a bill to place the

WAAC in the Army Reserve Corps.29

This was intended to supplant the pay bill

and other partial legislation by making

pay and everything else equivalent. It did

not pass, because General Marshall informally sent word to Congress that he believed the pay bill urgent and did not wish

to delay it with a more controversial measure. General White reported:

He [General Marshall] said that at that

time the Corps was still in a formative period,

we had no units actually organized and functioning with the Army [as distinguished from

the Aircraft Warning Service], and under the

circumstances he preferred that we go ahead

as we were until we had gone far enough to

know just how valuable this Corps was going

to be to the Army.30

Introduction of WAC Bill

By the beginning of 1943 General Marshall had changed his mind. He informed

the Director:

Although the Corps is still in the formative

period of organization, its members have con- vincingly demonstrated their ability to render

a vital military service. The standards of dis- cipline, training, and general efficiency are

on the highest level and are a complete reassurance to the officials of the War Department

as to the outstanding services which will be

rendered by this organization.31

In January Mrs. Rogers worked with

the Director's Office to draft a bill for

Army status. This she introduced on 14

January 1943. The bill very simply stated

that women might be enlisted and com24

 Memo, "G. C. M." to G-1. WDCSA 291.9 (8-

31-42), in AG 291.9 (6-2-41). 25

 (1) Memo, G-1 through CofS to MPD SOS, 24

May 42. WDGAP 421 WAC, in CofS 291.9 WAAC.

(2) Memo, Dir WAAC for Col Abbott, 20 May 42;

(3) Ltr, Bur of Budget to SW, 2 Sep 42; (4) Memo,

G-1 for CofS, 2 Sep 42; (5) Ltr, SW to Chmn Senate

Com on Mil Affairs, 3 Sep 42; (6) S 2751, 77th Cong;

(7) Senate Com on Mil Affairs, 77th Cong, 2d sess,

Hearings on S2751, 4 Sep 42; (8) Senate Calendar No.

1655, Rpt 1603; (9) HR 7539, 77th Cong, 10 Sep 42;

(10) HR Rpt 2475, 21 Sep 42; (11 ) HR Rpt 2524, 12

Oct 42; (12) PL 761, 77th Cong, 26 Oct 42. All except (1) in AG 291.9 (6-2-41). 26

 HR 7435, 77th Cong, 2d sess, 23 Jul 42. 27

 (1) HR 7673, 77th Cong, 2d sess, 8 Oct 42. (2)

HR 665, 78th Cong, 1st sess, 6 Jan 43. (3) Subcom of

Senate Fin Com, 78th Cong, 1st sess, Hearings on S

230, 25 Feb-1 Mar 43. (4) HR 1 749, 78th Cong, 1st

sess. (5) PL 10, 78th Cong, 2d sess, 1 7 Mar 46. 28

 HR 7748 (27 Oct 42) and HR 7812 (24 Nov 42),

77th Cong, 2d sess; HR 844, 78th Cong, 1st sess, 7

Jan 43. 29

 HR 7718, 77th Cong, 2d sess, 16 Oct 42. 30

 Senate Com on Mil Affairs, 78th Cong, 1st sess,

Hearings on S 495, 3 Feb 43, p. 4. 31

 Memo, 16 Dec 42. WDCSA 291.9 WAAC.
THE NEED FOR MILITARY STATUS 119

missioned in the Women's Army Auxiliary

Corps, Army of the United States. A later

version changed the proposed name to

Women's Army Corps. No limitations

were placed upon the Secretary of War's

authority over the size of the Corps, rank,

pay, or any other matter.32

The War Department's official attitude

toward the new bill was not at once made

clear, but on 1 February the Secretary of

War announced his support, stating: "Although in the past the War Department

has not advocated the establishment of the

Corps as a part of the Army, experience

has proved that the present arrangement

will not be satisfactory."

 33

 On 3 February

General White of G-1 Division told a

Senate committee:

We are now in the position of favoring that

which we have heretofore in a sense op- posed—not that we did not want it in the

beginning. . . . We have more than 10,000

now actually organized into units and on

duty in the field. . . . Wherever we have

put them they have proved highly valuable.34

However, General White informed the

committee that in his opinion a WAAC

unit would not be able to replace an equal

number of men, stating concerning the

replacement: "Well, I do not think it will

run quite one for one. I have always estimated that three women would release

two men."

 35

By the date of the next hearings in early

March, War Department support was

considerably more enthusiastic. Reports

from the first unit at Fort Sam Houston

indicated that three women had replaced,

not two men, but four. It was indicated

that one woman could not replace one

man in heavy work such as motor transport, but that women stenographers,

typists, and switchboard operators could

often replace two or more men apiece.

Equally good reports also began to arrive

from the North African unit and the antiaircraft experiment, accompanied by

requisitions for more Waacs. Thereafter

the War Department without hesitation

directed every station receiving 150 Waacs

to effect replacement of 150 enlisted men—

a rate which was actually better than one

for one, since part of the women had to be

used for unit housekeeping and were not

available to replace men.36

In an effort to secure speedy enactment

of military status for women, General

Marshall informed Congress in early

March:

In recent months great strides have been

made in the organization. Sufficient numbers

have now been trained, organized into appropriate units, and placed on duty in various activities to enable us to know that we are

moving in the right direction. I am now certain that the women's organization will be of

great value to the military service. . . .

It is evident also that the operation of the

women's organization will be simplified and

its efficiency vastly improved if it is made an

actual component of the Army. The personnel of the Army have definite, defined duties,

are subjected to prescribed disciplines, and

have clear-cut relations to each other and to

the civilian population. These have been found necessary to the effective functioning

of military establishments the world over. They are equally important in the WAAC, which in its present half-civilian, half-military

status will be seriously handicapped. . . .

Having the Corps with the Army, but not

32

 (1) Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq for CofAdm Serv,

10-16 Jan 43. SPWA 319.12 (11-9-42) sec 1. (2)

Identical bills HR 1188, 14 Jan 43, and S 495, 21 Jan

43, and later version, HR 1751, 8 Feb 43; 78th Cong,

1st sess. 33

 Ltr to Hon. Robert Rice Reynolds, Chmn, Senate Com on Mil Affairs, 1 Feb 42. 34

 Senate Com on Mil Affairs, 78th Cong, 1st sess,

Hearings on S 495, 3 Feb 43, p. 4. 35

 Ibid.

36

 House Com on Mil Affairs, 78th Cong, 1st sess,

Hearings on S 495, 9 Mar 43. Statement by Gen White.
120 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

in it, also results in inequalities and injustices

to its members. . . . There is, finally, the

important element of morale. Membership

in the Army carries with it a natural and

proper pride . . . for which service in an

adjunct of the Army provides no satisfactory

substitute.37

General White in his testimony was

even more specific on the administrative

annoyances of an auxiliary system. He

said:

We have found that we run into administrative, disciplinary,38

 and command difficulties. . . . The Army Regulations are not

applicable to the Waacs. The Army Regulations are contained in a set of books as long

as this table. It took years to develop them.

Now we are faced with having to develop

almost a parallel set of regulations to govern

another part of the Army. . . . There are

little things that are constant irritants. They

are the same difficulties we had in trying to

operate the Army Specialists Corps—people not in the Army working with and doing the

same thing people in the Army were doing,

on a different basis and in a different status.

There are questions of relative rank, command, administrative records, and so forth.

It just simplifies the whole operation of the

Corps to have them all alike. In other words,

in the Army we want one category of people.39

No difficulty was encountered in the

Senate, which passed the bill on 15 February 1943. The House of Representatives

was another matter; its Committee on

Military Affairs appeared hopelessly divided into two factions, which at public

hearings fell to quarreling so vigorously

that their chairman was obliged to remind

them that such discussions should be taken

up in executive session and not in the presence of Army witnesses.

One faction held with the congressman

from Texas who said, "I spoke against it

[putting the WAAC in the Army the previous year] four times from the floor. . . .

Then we went ahead and organized the

other women's auxiliaries as integral parts

of the other services; I feel that we are

going to have to do this now, no matter

how good my argument was before." However, a representative from Indiana argued

that draftees should receive soldiers' benefits, but Waacs and men who volunteered

should not because they were not "forced

into the Army." He also maintained that

Waacs should not get soldiers' benefits because they did not go into front lines; this

provoked an argument over whether General Eisenhower and the men in his fixed

headquarters were entitled to military

status. A congressman from Ohio joined

in objecting to compensation for both husband and wife if both were in the Army

and both were injured.

It was also feared that a Waac's husband would get a government allotment

whether he needed it or not, since the law

provided this for a soldier's wife whether

she needed it or not. On this General

White observed, "I am inclined to believe

that the Comptroller General, who at one

time recently ruled, in effect, that women

were not persons, would rule that husbands are not wives." The representative

from Ohio also failed to understand why

the Secretary of War could not legally

make the authority of military courts applicable to civilian women without giving

them military status and benefits; this

brought on another futile discussion of

what "in the field" meant.40

It very shortly became clear that the

37

 Ltr to Hon. Andrew Jackson May, Chmn, House

Corn on Mil Affairs, 1 Mar 43. 38

 At the word disciplinary, Congressmen interrupted to inquire details, and discovered that General

White was referring not to Waac misbehavior but

to the legal and technical questions discussed above. 39

 Hearings cited n. 36. 40

 Ibid.
THE NEED FOR MILITARY STATUS 121

House of Representatives would not pass

the bill without any number of hampering

amendments concerning the size of the

Corps, the top rank attainable, the types

of duty permitted, and the benefits to be

allowed. These amendments would have

to be fought out with the Senate and a

compromise reached, and when, if ever,

the legislation would pass now became

uncertain.

The first six months of 1943 were therefore, from the Corps' viewpoint, to be

much like the uncertain period of the

previous spring, when passage of the first

WAAC bill was not sure and all plans had

to be made subject to change without

notice. However, in this case, the Corps

was not merely a plan on paper; it was a

living organization which grew from

12,767 women in December 1942 to

60,243 in June 1943, and which required

detailed administration. Passage of the bill

was to be expected in March, in April, in

May. Director Hobby said, when it did

not pass in April, "I am sure it will come

in May as a birthday present to the

Corps.41 But it was not to come in May, or

in early June.

Meanwhile, from January of 1943 onward, the War Department, insofar as

legally possible, proceeded with plans for

the expansion program, both in the United

States and overseas, as if it were an assured

fact that the Corps would be given military

status.

41

 (1) Lecture by Comdt, Sch of WAC Pers Adm.

OCMH. (2) Min, Gen Council, 5 and 26 Apr 43.
CHAPTER VII

Spring, 1943: Expansion

and Decentralization

A few weeks after the decision to seek

military status, the General Staff on 30

January and 6 February 1943 announced

the long-awaited series of further decisions

on the Corps' future—perhaps the most

important staff action in the WAAC's

existence.

The first was that a draft of women

would not yet be sought: "Plans for the

procurement of personnel will be based on

the continuance of voluntary enlistment."

 1

The proposal to draft women was still

highly shocking to many individuals, and

clearly would stand no chance of approval

by Congress unless the military successes

in North Africa should unexpectedly turn

to disaster and the situation should approach that of Britain, which had perforce adopted national service laws. Events

of a year later, when national service was

finally proposed by other agencies, confirmed the present surmise that a draft

proposal would merely have involved the

Army in a bitter and ultimately futile legislative battle, without providing womanpower in time to aid in the current war.2

After making this decision the War Department faced a choice between attempting to secure a large Corps by other means,

or abandoning G-3's idea and increasing

the draft call on men. In a preliminary

conference with G-1 and G-3 Divisions

on 29 January, Director Hobby again informed them that in her opinion the

WAAC could not recruit anything like a

million women. Her frequently expressed

view was: "I don't believe we are going to

get even 150,000 volunteer women unless

there is some move by the Federal Government requiring national registration or

compulsory service."

 3

Expansion Program Decided

The important 6 February conference

of General Staff representatives, which

decided upon the expansion rate to be attempted, was headed by Maj. Gen. Idwal

H. Edwards of G-3 Division, and included

General Madison Pearson and other Services of Supply representatives, and both

Director Hobby and Colonel Catron from

WAAC Headquarters. There resulted a

decision that appeared a moderate compromise to all concerned, although actu1

 (1) Memo, G-3 for TAG, 30 Jan 43. WDGGT

291.9 WAAC (1-30-43). (2) Ltr, TAG to CG SOS, 10

Feb 43. AG 320.2 WAAC (1-30-43) PR-WWDGCT. 2

 See Austin-Wadsworth bill, HR 1742 and S 666,

78th Cong, 1st sess, 8 Feb 43; Congressional Record,

Vol. 89. 3

 (1) WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, 29 Jan 43. (2)

Speech, in Min, Conf of Tng Cen Comdts, Washington, D. C., 31 Mar 43. SPWA 334.8 Conf (3-29-43).
SPRING, 1943: EXPANSION AND DECENTRALIZATION 123

ally it was to have calamitous effects upon

every phase of the Corps' future program.

To the conferees it was obvious that

G-3's earlier optimistic calls for 1,500,000

Waacs could not be met by voluntary recruiting and that it would be necessary to

set a far lower figure, while simultaneously

increasing draft calls for men to make up

the deficit. Director Hobby outlined the

various recruiting difficulties that were

closing in upon the WAAC, particularly

the competition shortly to be expected

from the Navy and the War Manpower

Commission. The date at which these factors would be felt was uncertain, but she

expressed the view that by June they

would have cut off most if not all of the

WAAC's intake.

On the other hand, it was evident that

they had not yet had serious effect. Instead, the Army Recruiting Service had

overrecruited every quota to date, and was

obliged, for lack of training space, to turn

away qualified applicants. At Des Moines

70 women slept in poorly ventilated stablebarracks intended to hold 50; at Daytona

Beach, trainees were housed five to a tent

and eight to a double hotel room. Desperate calls and letters from training authorities indicated that "Training Centers

cannot stand such overloading."

 4

It was realized that to turn away applicants was probably to lose them. In order

to insure next month's quotas, Army recruiting stations therefore often swore in

surplus applicants and placed them on

inactive duty until training space was

available.

By February this trick had backfired,

placing the Corps under additional public and Congressional pressure. Enrollees

who had resigned from jobs, given up

apartments, and given away civilian

clothing were vociferously indignant at

months of delay and frequently wrote

their congressmen. Negro recruits on the

list alleged that they were not being called

up because of their race. The number of

enrollees on inactive duty, awaiting orders

to report, was by this time almost one

fourth of Corps strength. Some authorities

attributed the later difficulties of WAAC

recruiting to the fact that the presence of

thousands of recruits awaiting training in

these early days convinced other prospects

and the public that the Army actually had

no need for Waacs.5

As a result, conferees decided that the

sensible course was to make available to

the WAAC enough additional training

space to scoop up at once all inactive

members and current applicants—a course

that appeared doubly wise, since Army

jobs were already waiting and applicants

would probably accept other war work

unless taken at once. It would then be appropriate to decide, on the basis of the national picture, how much farther it would

be possible to go and whether further

legislation should be sought.

Accordingly, the goal finally set was

that which General White of G-1 Division

had earlier recommended—150,000 by

the end of June 1943, a mere one tenth of

G-3's first total. Minutes of the meeting

noted that "present training facilities

could . . . provide for a total enrollment

on June 28 of 122,234 . . . and an additional training capacity of approximately

10,000 . . . will permit a total enrollment by June 28 of 150,234." The matter

of later expansion was "discussed, accepted in principle, and left for future detailed consideration, with the idea that

4

 (1) Min cited n. 3(2). (2) Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq

to CofAdm Serv, 14-20 Mar 43. SPWA 319.12. 5

 Contemporary Rpts, 1 Mar 43: Active—35,662

(21,925 in tng, 13,737 in fld); Inactive—8,022.
124 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

training capacity adequate for 150,000 by

June 30 would be adequate for a greater

number at the proper time."

 6

The greatest obstacle to the training of

such a number was seen as the matter of

supply, since, in both the previous recruiting step-ups of June and September, the

Services of Supply had not been able to

meet its commitments. However, there

was placed in the record a schedule furnished to Colonel Catron by Requirements Division, Services of Supply, which

indicated that in the new program all essential items for the numbers contemplated could be provided.7

The conference therefore directed, in

language which in retrospect was to appear curious, that "a controlled recruiting

of approximately 5,800 a week will be put

into effect." Although this goal possibly

appeared small by comparison with G-3's

earlier ideas, actually the Corps was called

upon to triple its size in four months.

Corps strength in March would approach

50,000, of which only 14,000 would be

trained or in the field, the rest being still

in training or awaiting call to active duty.

The new requirement meant that by 1

July there must be about 104,000 in the

field and 46,000 in training. This was a

voluntary recruiting effort unlike anything

ever previously achieved by the U.S.

Army in any comparable circumstances in

its history.8

Within hours of the General Staff decision, the Corps was irrevocably committed

to large-scale expansion. Recruiting

quotas were at once doubled, with future

tripling a necessity. Some 6,126 recruits

had been admitted in December and

10,421 in January. With a fourth and

fifth training center in prospect, the quota

was now lifted to 18,000 for February and

27,000 for March. Thereafter it was expected to hold steady at around 33,000

monthly through June.9

The Services of Supply was already negotiating for a site for the Fourth WAAC

Training Center. After conferences with

the Chief of Engineers, it had recommended a part of Fort Devens, Massachusetts, which was excellently located to accommodate recruits from New York and

New England. This site was shortly approved but, like the site for the Third, only

after the General Staff overrode the nonconcurrence of the using command. It

was directed that this center's staff of more

than 1,000 be ordered in and be ready to

open the training center in March.10

The site offered for the Fifth WAAC

Training Center was less desirable; it consisted of three prisoner-of-war inclosures

at Camps Polk and Ruston, in Louisiana,

and Camp Monticello, Arkansas. This

minimum-standards housing was available

only because the Army had, at this date,

taken few prisoners. Its use for Waacs was

therefore proposed by G-3 Division, according to conference minutes:

General Edwards stated that the housing

situation had been carefully surveyed and

that neither the Ground Forces, the Services

6

 Min, Mtg in Office of G-3, 6 Feb 43. Only copy

found in file of Dir Mil Tng SOS, SPTR 337, DRB

AGO. 7

 Ibid.

8

 All figures are from M/R, WAAC Overall Picture, 1 Mar 43. SPWA 314.7 (l-7-43)(1) sec 1. No

two sets of estimates in the files ever quite agree; all

are unimportant in that even the lowest estimate was

never reached. WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, 6 Feb 43,

indicated that these goals were known to the WAAC

by that date. 9

 For recruiting data, see Ch. X, and Table 2, Appendix A, below. 10

 (1) Memo, Tasker for Exec WAAC, 1 Feb 43.

SPWA 600.914 (2-1-43). (2) WD Cir 63, 1 Mar 43.

(3) Memo, G-3 for SOS and AGF, 3 Feb 43, and

Inds. Tab, Fort Devens, WA 600.1 (7-2-42)(1) sec 2,

1943 WAAC Housing files.
SPRING, 1943: EXPANSION AND DECENTRALIZATION 125

FIRST OFFICER ELIZABETH H. STRAYHORN, of the Fifth WAAC Training

Center, with Governor Sam Jones of Louisiana, a visitor on the post.

of Supply, nor the Air Forces could make any

further housing available without deferring

the activation of military units. He stated,

however, that there was a possibility that

Prisoner of War housing, much of which is

now completed and unoccupied, might be

temporarily made available. . . . The total

housing program for prisoners of war was in

the neighborhood of 196,000 spaces, of which

we had commitments with the British for only 150,000 spaces, while actual prisoners of

war therein total only 6,600.11

The Provost Marshal General concurred

in allowing Waacs to train there, provided

they did not modify the group toilets and

showers and other masculine-type plumbing facilities, and provided they would

move out on thirty days' notice if German

and Italian prisoners should need the

place.12

The decision as to whether to accept

this location was, according to Director

Hobby, a difficult one. Its unattractive

features were obvious, especially when

compared to the WAVES and SPARS

training schools at fashionable colleges.

One recruiter asked, unnecessarily,

11

 Min cited n. 6. 12

 Memo, CofAdm Serv for TAG, 1 Mar 43. SPWA

314.7 (10-7-43)(1) sec 1.
126 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

whether the WAAC with its prisoner-ofwar camps was not "suffering by contrast

with the WAVES with Smith College,

Holyoke, and Hunter?"

 13

 The Director

therefore appealed to the Services of Supply for any other location, even city

hotels, but was offered nothing else except

a desert camp below sea level at Tulare,

California. The WAAC therefore was obliged to accept the prison camps in order

to comply with the directed expansion

program.14

The three scattered branches of this

training center, some one hundred miles

apart, made administration difficult. The

buildings were bare and rough inside and

out, located in desolate sandy stockades.

Colonel Hoag, who was ordered from Des

Moines to be commandant, said: "It was

necessary to place the moving-picture

theaters of Ruston 'off-limits' until they

were cleared of rats and other vermin. . . ."

 15

 General Marshall himself

was concerned about the situation and, in

a personal conference with Colonel Hoag,

told him to push Special Services operations at this training center. However, the

Eighth Service Command later turned

down Colonel Hoag's request for these

services on the grounds that it had had no

instructions from the Army Service

Forces.16 Director Hobby, upon a later

visit to the Fifth WAAC Training Center,

said, "I know of no finer example of patriotism by Waacs anywhere than that which

was shown by the women who worked and

trained successfully at these camps."

 17

Expansion of WAAC Training

In accordance with General Staff directives, Brig. Gen. Don C. Faith's WAAC

Training Command during the spring

months underwent an expansion which

overshadowed previous efforts. On 1

March the Fourth WAAC Training Center was activated at Fort Devens; on 15

March the Fifth WAAC Training Center

was activated in the three prisoner-of-war

camps, with recruits arriving a bare two

weeks later. With these additions the five

basic training centers had a capacity of

46,388. This meant that some 7,000

trained women—about 50 companies—

could now be sent to the field weekly.

There were 53 WAAC companies in the

field at the end of February; by July, it

was intended that there should be at least

375.18

In addition to the five basic training

centers, several specialist schools were set

up to relieve the training command of

some of the load of specialist training.

Most important of these were seven administrative specialist schools set up at

women's colleges in the South and Southwest. These were under the jurisdiction of

The Adjutant General, not General Faith,

and were commanded by Army officers,

with WAAC officers as instructors and

company officers. Each had a capacity of

about 600, and offered a six-week course

designed to turn out trained administrative specialists.19

 Students of The Adjutant General's schools, like men, were

given the rank of private first class,

although graduates of identical courses at

13

 Miss B. Eugenia Lies, The Overall WAAC Picture (first draft), 28 Mar 43. SPWA 291.9, in Folder,

Planning Serv Notes, WAAC Planning files. 14

 (1) Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq to CofAdm Serv,

7-13 Feb 43. SPWA 319.12 (1942). (2) WAAC Daily

Journal, Vol. I, 5 and 8 Feb 43. 15

 Ltr to Col Catron, 27 Apr 43. SPWA 291.1. 16

 (1) Statement by Comdt, Col Hoag, at mtg cited.

(2) Ltrs, Col Hoag to Col Catron, 14 Apr 43, Tab,

Ruston, and 3 May 43. SPWA 291.1. 17

 Lecture notes, Lt Col Jess Rice. WAC files,

OCMH. 18

 M/R, 1 Mar 43, cited n. 8. 19

 WDBPR Press Release, 3 Mar 43.
SPRING, 1943: EXPANSION AND DECENTRALIZATION 127

WAAC training centers could not be so

promoted, a circumstance that caused

some discontent at the latter.

The new schools were shortly successful

in removing a considerable load from the

WAAC Training Command; on the other

hand, inspectors soon noted a natural decrease in uniformity of operation, with

some schools making no reports of personnel actions. There was also reported at

some Army schools a growing need for a

senior woman officer to correct a certain

laxity of supervision of living conditions

which was causing public comment unfavorable to recruiting.20

In addition, three Army schools to

train WAAC radio operators and mechanics were set up at civilian schools in Missouri, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.

These had a capacity of about 300 each,

and were under the jurisdiction of the Signal Corps.21

 In February, the Army Air

Forces admitted 50 Waacs to the twelveweek photographic laboratory technician

course at Lowry Field, Colorado, and

others to later classes.22

From this time forward it became increasingly common to send Waacs to

Army schools when their numbers did not

justify separate schools for women. No

particular difficulties were noted, and an

ASF training inspector stated a few

months later: "WAAC training, strangely

enough, presents few problems. WAAC

students at schools are eager to learn, and

maintain discipline with less corrective action than men students in the same

class."

 23

Delegation of Command Authority

Before the increased numbers of

trainees could reach the field, hasty administrative changes were necessary.

While the training system was in process

of expansion, WAAC Headquarters therefore hurried to complete the delegation of

its command authority to the field. It was

realized that such decentralization was

perhaps too early for full justice to individuals, since the scanty field experience

to this date had not provided a basis upon

which all types of Auxiliary regulations

might be carefully formulated, and Army

Regulations could not yet apply; nevertheless, the approaching expansion made

the step necessary. Ready or not, it was

obvious that in a Corps of 150,000 women

WAAC Headquarters would no longer be

able to process the thousands of individual

transfers, discharges, and promotions.

Already the length of time required to

process discharge cases was such that, the

field reported, "Many of these members

are rapidly becoming mental cases due to

the length of confinement awaiting authority for discharge."

 24

It was desired to realign the WAAC organization in a way that would, as nearly

as possible, parallel the command system

for men and leave the Corps prepared for

conversion to Army status, although, as

the Director noted, planners were limited

to doing "only those things which can be

done legally" under existing legislation.25

Delegation of command authority to

the service command level had been under

way for some time. Before the end of 1942

20

 Memo, CG WAAC Tng Comd for Dir WAAC,

24 May 43. SPWA 319.1. 21

 WDBPR Press Release, 14 Apr 43. 22

 WDBPR Press Release, 5 Feb 43. 23

 Min, Conf of CGs of SvCs, Chicago, Ill., 22-24

Jul 43. 24

 (1) Ltr, 1st Tng Cen to Dir WAAC, 28 Jan 43;

(2) Ltr, WAAC Stf Dir 4th SvC to Dir WAAC, 18 Feb

43; (3) Ltr, TAG to Tng Cen Dirs, 27 Feb 43, SPX

291.9 WAAC PR-W. All in SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43)

sec 1. 25

 Min, Stf Mtgs, WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I.
128 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

service commands had been given power

to send Waacs on temporary duty and detached service away from their stations,

provided that enrolled women were sent

only to stations where they could be

housed with a WAAC company. Army

stations were also given power to grant

WAAC leaves and furloughs, with no restrictions except those that applied to men.

At the end of December that much-disputed power—assignment and transfer—

was delegated to the WAAC service command directors with no reservations, since

these officers now thoroughly understood

War Department ideas on safe and appropriate locations. The wording of the circular shortly had to be changed. It at first

read: "Orders authorizing assignment . . .

will be issued by the commanding general

of the Service Command upon the request

of the WAAC Service Command Director." This was pronounced offensive to

commanding generals, since it appeared to

place them under the command of a

WAAC officer. Accordingly the wording

was changed to: "The WAAC Service

Command Director will request the commanding general to issue orders. . . ."

In February authority to promote enrolled women was delegated to WAAC

service command directors and company

commanders, likewise the authority to demote, with certain safeguards to protect

the individual's rights. In March, after

some delay to get the approval of the War

Department, detailed instructions were

published to guide in the selection of

women for attendance at officer candidate

school; Army commands would receive

quotas, appoint selection boards, and issue

orders sending the selected applicants to

the school.

Finally, an even more important power

was delegated, that of discharge, which

would now be ordered by the commanding general upon the recommendation of

his WAAC director, unless he was in

doubt, in which case he could send it to

WAAC Headquarters. This delegation

had required months of study to set up exact and just grounds for each of the

WAAC's three types of discharge—honorable discharge, discharge without specification as to character, and summary

discharge—which did not correspond exactly to the Army's three types because

they could not legally include a dishonorable discharge.26

At the conclusion of this series of delegations of authority, in early April, WAAC

Headquarters retained within itself no

more power over operating functions than

that which The Adjutant General retained

over male personnel—initial assignment

of newly trained units, promotion of officers, and appeal on doubtful cases. Of

these it could not dispose until Army

status allowed The Adjutant General's Office to assume them.

Inclusion in the Troop Basis

At the same time, the General Staff decisions concerning Corps expansion and

status had committed the Army to a

course implicit in the program: the more

complete integration of womanpower into

every area and command. On 8 February,

two days after the expansion program was

launched, General McNarney informed

the General Staff of a further decision

which represented a new era in War Department thinking on the employment of

womanpower: the WAAC strength was to

26

 WAAC Cirs 14 (4 Nov 42), 17 (29 Dec 42), 5 (13

Mar 43), with note, in SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43) sec 1;

WAAC Cir 5 (10 Feb 43), 8 (17 Mar 43), 10 (9 Apr

43).
SPRING, 1943: EXPANSION AND DECENTRALIZATION 129

count against the Army's Troop Basis. G-3

Division, in recommending this action,

stated:

Since the legislation was passed, conceptions as to the most profitable methods of employing members of the WAAC have

undergone changes. . . . It is necessary to

employ both soldiers and members of the

WAAC only on those tasks which cannot

otherwise be performed.27

General McNarney stated that the

Army would voluntarily agree to draft

one less man for every WAAC recruited,

and that

From now on the strength of the WAAC

will be included as a part of the authorized

troop basis and will form a part of the 71⁄2

million Army.

On 22 February the General Council

noted:

General McNarney emphasized and reiterated again that the purpose of Waacs is

to replace soldiers. When Waacs are assigned

to a post, a corresponding reduction of enlisted men must be made immediately. G-1

will check on this.28

Accordingly, the War Department directed that Waacs be removed from all

employment that did not result in the replacement of soldiers. The decision particularly affected the plans, which some

agencies still had not abandoned, to employ Waacs in laundries, post exchanges,

officers' clubs, and similar duties which

had no allotment of soldiers. It was directed that WAAC Headquarters refuse

all such requisitions.

More important, the General Staff decision required the removal of approximately thirty WAAC units currently assigned to the Aircraft Warning Service.29

The demise of the Aircraft Warning

Service WAAC units caused no grief in

WAAC Headquarters. Nothing but difficulty had resulted from the use of Waacs

mixed with civilians in city stations, with

the Waacs inevitably getting less desirable

assignments and becoming convinced that

they had replaced not a soldier but a

debutante. Already the possibility of an

air attack on the United States appeared

remote. The Aircraft Warning Service, on

the other hand, declared Waacs essential

and refused to give up about half of the

women; instead, it allotted military vacancies for small clerical detachments at

various operations and filter centers. The

rest of the women were reorganized into

the newly created post headquarters companies, AAF, similar to service command

companies, for shipment to various air

bases to perform real military duties.30

The Services of Supply now suddenly

became concerned with the fact, which

had not previously troubled it, that all

WAAC units were assigned to the Services

of Supply and only attached to the using

service. It was immediately clear that

Waacs would have to be assigned to the

using commands in order to count against

their troop allotment and not against the

Services of Supply's. This coincided admirably with the desires of the Air Forces,

which had endured the service commands'

administration of the city-stationed Aircraft Warning Service units but could not

view with equanimity a Services of Supply

invasion of actual air bases.

Of the approved requests now on file,

some 57 percent were from the Army Air

27

 Memo, G-3 for CofS, 7 Jan 43. WDGGT 291.2

WAAC, in OCofS 291.9. 28

 Min, Gen Council, for dates cited. 29

 Transcript of Mtg, 15 Feb 43 (Col Catron, Gen

Grunert, Gen Madison Pearson). Dir Adm Serv ASF

Sp Coll DRB AGO. 30

 (1) See Memo and Ltr cited n. 1. (2) Weekly Rpt,

WAAC Hq to Cof Adm Serv, 17-30 Jan 43. SPWA

319.12 (1942). (3) AAF WAC Hist, p. 14. See Ch.

XVI, below, on AAF.
130 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Forces and the remaining 43 percent from

the Services of Supply and the Ground

Forces combined. Accordingly, a tentative

division of the first 150,000 was planned

on this basis, with the Air Forces receiving

the largest slice for field duty, although the

training center allotment continued to belong to the Services of Supply:

Command Strength Percent

Total. ................. . 150,000 —

Trainees, SOS.............. . 20,000 —

Field duty. ................. . 130,000 100

AAF. ................. . 70,000 54

SOS. .................. . 55,000 42

AGF. ................. . 5,000 4

Although this division had neglected to

take into consideration the future needs of

overseas theaters and the War Department and was soon to require revision, it

roughly determined the proportion in

which shipments were to be made for the

next few months.31

On 17 February it was directed that all

Waacs would in the near future be assigned, not attached, to the using agency,

which might be the Army Air Forces,

Army Ground Forces, Services of Supply

(shortly renamed Army Service Forces),

or an overseas theater. The formal transfer from attachment to assignment was set

for 1 May.32

Staff Directors Assigned to New Commands

If there had been risk involved in early

delegation of discharge and other powers

to the service commands, where were located experienced regional directors, it

was recognized that real danger lay in the

necessity for scattering Waacs through all

other Army commands and overseas theaters, which had neither WAAC advisers

nor experience in Auxiliary administration. Therefore, it was decided that, before

the formal assignment of enlisted women

on 1 May, a WAAC officer corresponding

to the service command director must be

assigned to each major command involved.

These included an eventual fifteen Air

Forces commands in the United States,

two Ground Forces commands, and many

of the Army Service Forces' administrative and technical services, as well as ports

of embarkation, overseas theaters, and

other miscellaneous commands. To designate all such WAAC advisers, the title

WAAC Staff Director was devised, and

the titles Service Command Director and

Regional Director were dropped. All

powers which had been previously delegated to a service command director were

simultaneously made applicable to all

WAAC staff directors.33

Immediate difficulty was experienced in

finding qualified WAAC officers in sufficient numbers to fill these new and responsible positions. The best possibilities

appeared to be those women with some

experience as assistant service command

directors, as senior recruiting officers, or in

WAAC Headquarters. These officers, except for a few in headquarters, frequently

proceeded hastily from the old assignment

to the new without any such indoctrination as it had been possible to give the

original nine service command directors.

Another problem in sending out these

officers was posed by an unexpectedly

31

 (1) Transcript cited n. 29. (2) Memo, Dir WAAC

for CofAdm Serv, 26 Jan 43. SPWA 320.2 (1-26-

43)PS, in WAAC Planning files. 32

 (1) WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, 17 Feb 43. (2)

WAAC Cir 11, 10 Mar 43. Since December, when

there first appeared the possibility of unprecedented

expansion into commands other than the service commands, WAAC third officers had been attached to the

AAF, the Signal Corps, and The Adjutant General's

Office, to assist those agencies in the necessary planning. WAAC SO 43, 5 Dec 42. SPWA 300.4

(8-18-42). 33

 Ibid.
SPRING, 1943: EXPANSION AND DECENTRALIZATION 131

quick transition from Auxiliary to Army

rules of promotion. The system of requiring all officers to graduate from officer

candidate school, with initial commissions

only as second lieutenants, had, in Mrs.

Hobby's opinion, proved sound and democratic in avoiding the choice of officers

on political or personal grounds and in

preventing the award of higher ranks to

individuals who failed on the job. Nevertheless, as the WAAC Pre-Planners had

recognized, the system was tenable only

if women who had proved capable were

advanced to ranks that would provide a

normal spread of grades for Corps administration. In line with this policy, WAAC

Headquarters had in December promoted

service command directors and battalion

commanders to the rank of first officer, or

captain. It was planned to repeat the process in April to give equal rank to the new

staff directors being sent out, to make experienced key officers majors, and company commanders captains.

However, when the Director proposed

this move, she was informed by the Army

Service Forces that the Army time-ingrade now applied to the WAAC, in anticipation of Army status later in the year.

The Director protested that such abrupt

application of the Army promotion system was impossible since the Corps had

not initially followed the Army system of

direct commissions:

The Army of the United States, faced with

a similar necessity for providing officers for a

rapidly expanding army, has commissioned

many men directly from civilian life, determining their grades both by the nature of the

job they have been asked to undertake and

by the nature of their civilian experience and

training.

If the WAAC had done the same, she

noted that in February the WAAC with

its current strength of over 30,000 members would have had, at least, on the

Army ratio, 183 lieutenant colonels, 329

majors, and 848 captains; actually it had

no lieutenant colonels, no majors, and

only 82 captains. While no one desired

these maximum numbers in a new organization, the Director suggested that staff

directors and unit commanders be advanced to the rank to which their age,

civilian experience, and military duties

would have entitled them under the Army

system of direct commissions. Otherwise,

she noted, "The responsibilities devolving

upon unit commanders and staff directors

will not be adequately recognized, and

they will be at a disadvantage in dealing

with other officers of like responsibility but

higher rank." Even under Army promotion policy, she noted that in similar emergencies West Point graduates and Air

Corps men had been granted exceptions to

the required time-in-grade.

However, the Army Service Forces'

final decision was that the Army time-ingrade must thenceforth be observed; even

women occupying Air Corps positions

must observe the longer time-in-grade of

the Army instead of the shorter time of

men in Air Corps jobs. General Grunert

noted: "Notwithstanding the contemplated expansion of the WAAC, there appears to be little justification for such

rapid promotion." One concession was

made, in which some promotions to captaincies were permitted in April, but none

to field grade. As a result, the new staff directors went out as captains or lieutenants;

by the end of the war, very few had

reached the originally allotted rank of

lieutenant colonel, and many company

commanders were not yet captains. For

promotions to the grade of major, only two

exceptions were made during the remainder of the WAAC's existence, the first
132 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

of these being for the officer sent to fill, in

the Army Air Forces, a position comparable to Director Hobby's in the Service

Forces.34

Major Commands Receive Waacs

Army Air Forces

At this point it was evident that the Air

Forces' share of the WAAC field units

would be almost double that of all other

commands combined. It was currently

scheduled to receive 253 field companies

as against the Service Forces' 120 and the

Ground Forces' 7. The receptive Air

Forces attitude toward the employment of

women was due largely to the announced

policy of Gen. Henry H. Arnold, Commanding General, AAF, who repeatedly

wrote field commanders that efficiency required the employment of Waacs to the

widest extent possible, to make up manpower deficiencies.35

The Air Forces Waacs began arriving in

March, accompanied by staff directors for

the various subordinate air commands.

The first unit, fifty-seven WAAC enrolled

women and two officers, arrived at Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, on 3 March 1943

to work for the AAF's Map Chart Division. On 22 March the AAF's first two

WAAC post headquarters companies arrived at Chanute and Scott Fields. Twentythree more WAAC units arrived at air

bases in April; by the end of the summer

there were 171 air bases which had WAAC

personnel as part of the permanent party.36

The choice of a woman to head this

organization and to serve on General

Arnold's staff was not announced until

May. Although the importance of the position was second only to Director Hobby's,

and in fact equal in echelon as long as

the Director remained assigned to the

Army Service Forces, the top rank which

could be allotted was that of lieutenant

colonel, in view of the legislative restrictions which limited the Corps to one colonel. The position was given the title of Air

WAAC Officer, and was set up as parallel

to that of the Air Quartermaster, the Air

Engineer, and other such staff officers.

The woman chosen for this position was

the Director's former aide and current acting deputy, First Officer Betty Bandel,

who upon assuming this duty was promoted to be the Corps' first field director,

or major; she was to remain the WAC's

second-ranking officer throughout Director Hobby's tenure of office. The new Air

WAAC Officer was at this time thirty

years old; as the Director's aide she had

accompanied Mrs. Hobby to Europe and

on most field trips and thus had a firsthand

knowledge of the WAAC situation. As

Acting Deputy Director since February,

she had written many of the Corps' more

important staff papers and had played an

active part in co-ordinating the decentralization plans with ranking officers of other

agencies.37

Army Ground Forces

Since the Army Ground Forces ordinarily trained on ASF-serviced posts and

needed overhead only at a few schools, it

had been allotted only about 5,000 Waacs

of the first 150,000 expected to be re34

 Memo, WAAC Hq for CofS through CofAdm

Serv, 18 Feb 43, and atchd corresp. SPWA 314.7

(6-2-41)(1) sec 3 (1941). 35

 See Ch. XVI, below, for details. 36

 AAF WAC Hist, p. 17. 37

 WDBPR Press Release, 4 May 43.
SPRING, 1943: EXPANSION AND DECENTRALIZATION 133

MAJ. BETTY BANDEL receives her leaves from Colonel Hobby.

cruited.38 Comment within its headquarters was unfavorable to integration of even

this number, and AGF Plans Section

stated:

In view of the educational, occupational,

and physical training of the average American woman, it is anticipated that it would be

extremely difficult to adapt them to military

duties. . . . With the exception of a very

limited number of assignments . . . there is

no reasonable field for utilization of women

in the military structure.39

Other comments added: "WAAC activities should not be expanded if it can be

avoided . . . definitely opposed to coed

organization."40 Accordingly, Lt. Gen.

Lesley J. McNair, Commanding General,

AGF, wrote the War Department that "for

the present, the WAAC should be continued only in limited size," and should

not be placed in the Army: "It seems premature to anticipate manpower shortages

38

 Ltr, TAG to CG AGF, 1 Apr 43. AG 320.2 WAC

(3-12-43) PR-W-WDGAP. 39

 The WAC in Army Ground Forces in World War

II (hereafter cited as AGF WAC Hist), Vol. I, p. 4.

This study was prepared by the AGF WAC Officer,

Lt. Col. Emily E. Davis. (See Bibliographical Note.)

Folder, WAC, AGF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 40

 Ibid., comment of G-1 AGF.
134 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

so critical as to demand the extraordinary

measures here contemplated."

 41

General McNair objected also to the

allotment of 5,000, which had been based

by the General Staff on proportionate

overhead strength of male personnel,

without his comment or consent; he asked

that the allotment be set back to 3,600.

This was done by the War Department,

and the remaining 1,400 reallotted to

overseas theaters.42

Under the impression that Waacs would

always be administered by the Service

Forces, the Ground Forces had already

consented to receive some 1,700 Waacs at

six different stations. The pioneer unit

went to the Second Army at Memphis on

26 March 1943, and in April the others

followed in rapid succession to Camp

Hood and Forts Benning, Sill, Riley, and

Knox. These installations followed their

own inclinations, some allowing service

commands to administer the Waacs, and

some prematurely employing AGF channels to WAAC Headquarters. Within

AGF headquarters, all WAAC matters

were referred to G-3 Section rather than

to G-1, under the impression that WAAC

problems chiefly concerned units rather

than personnel. The Ground Forces declined to accept the assignment of a

WAAC staff director or any WAAC officer

in its headquarters.43

Army Service Forces

Within the third of the major domestic

commands, the Army Service Forces, the

number of the service command staff directors was increased by the addition of

other staff directors for the ASF technical

services. This action was highly pleasing

to most such services, which had long

resented the interference of service command directors and had repeatedly asked

that their own command channels be

used. For example, Aberdeen Proving

Ground objected to sending officer candidate applications and discharges through

the Third Service Command, since Aberdeen was under the Chief of Ordnance.

Inasmuch as many of the technical services were engaged in highly secret research

and other activities, most felt that inspection by a member of another command

was inadvisable. The appointment of

WAAC staff directors for Ordnance and

other services ordinarily ended such objections, and made command channels the

same as those for men.44

Employment of Waacs among these

technical services now promised to become rather extensive. The Transportation

Corps placed a senior WAAC staff director

in its Washington headquarters, and others

in the various ports where Waacs were to

be stationed in numbers—New York,

Hampton Roads, New Orleans, San Francisco, and Seattle. Since most ports were

in labor-short areas, they were already

hard-hit by the loss of general service men.

The Chemical Warfare Service likewise

foresaw a future lack of military personnel

for permanent domestic installations, and

desired to obtain Waacs whose research,

once begun, would not be interrupted by

withdrawal for combat duty. A WAAC

staff director was therefore requested by

the Chemical Warfare Service in March

of 1943, and its first Waac company arrived in April.

41

 Memo, CG AGF for CofS, Attn: G-3, 1 Jan 43.

GNDCG 320.2 WAAC (12-7-42). Full text in appendix to Ibid. 42

 1st Ind to AG Memo, sub: Utilization of WAAC

Pers in AGF. GNGCT 320.2/5 WAAC (4-1-43).

Copy in App. VI of AGF WAC Hist. 43

 AGF WAC Hist, pp. 12-13. 44

 (1) Memo, WAAC Hq for TAG, 5 Jun 43; (2)

Ltr, Aberdeen Proving Ground to WAAC Hq, 7 Jul

43, and reply. SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43) sec 2.
SPRING, 1943: EXPANSION AND DECENTRALIZATION 135

The Corps of Engineers now also requisitioned Waacs for an important project at

Oak Ridge, Tennessee, so secret that its

character could not be revealed.

The Signal Corps secured adoption of a

plan to place in the WAAC some 8,000

civilian women, known as WIRES (Women in Radio and Electrical Service), whom

it was training in radio, telephone, and

other communications work; a staff director had already been accepted.

Medical Department requests also came

in for the first time on 13 March, and

totaled 20,869 or from 30 to 50 percent of

enlisted personnel in hospitals of 500 beds

or more. The requests were for women

trained in various medical skills and also

for clerks, drivers, and mechanics, plus

4,000 orderlies and others for low-grade

work around hospitals. No staff director

was accepted.45

Overseas Theaters

The decentralization of authority applied even to overseas theaters, since

approaching legislation would give the

Waacs the military status that would make

further shipment morally justifiable. Requests from the North African and European theaters were by now so extensive

that a War Department decision on priority was necessary. Director Hobby

favored priority to the zone of the interior,

but theaters argued that skilled Waacs had

proved able to replace from two to three

men apiece in North Africa, and that, in

view of the difficulty of maintaining personnel overseas, theaters should get the

most competent. Both General Somervell

and General Marshall inclined to this

view, and finally informed the Director

that overseas theaters' requests would

have priority.46

The staff director for the European

theater, Capt. Anna W. Wilson, arrived in

England on 13 April 1943 to plan for later

shipments. No firm shipment priorities

had yet arrived, and the several requisitions for Waacs were by this time so confused and overlapping that it was impossi-ble impossible to tell whether they concerned the

same or separate units. Captain Wilson

found that the theater had so little information about the Corps' mission and

capabilities that specific requests were

difficult; when this was supplied, the

Eighth Air Force in the theater requested

a WAAC battalion, and supplied a firm

shipping priority. The first unit for England therefore began to be organized, and

was to reach the theater in the summer

shortly after the Corps obtained military

status. Other earlier shipments to the

North African theater were also authorized.47

Readiness for Increase in Numbers

By late spring of 1943 the WAAC organization was thus fully decentralized

and well prepared, as far as mere skeletal

organization was concerned, for Army

status and for expansion to any number.

Its staff advisers were in almost every important Army command, learning its

needs and peculiarities; its command

powers were so delegated that shift to

Army status would scarcely be noticed; its

training system was fully staffed and capable of accommodating large numbers of

recruits. The administrative network was

ready. Had no other factor been involved,

expansion to a million or more upon this

frame appeared easily possible.

45

 See section on each service in Ch. XVIII, below. 46

 Office Memo, WAAC Hq Opns Br for Exec

WAAC, 29 May 43. SPWA 320.2 sec 4a. 47

 See Chs. XIX and XX, below.
CHAPTER VIII

Stresses of Rapid Build-up:

Personnel and Training

In spite of its excellent framework, the

expansion program was hardly launched

before it became evident what stresses

such a rapid build up would carry with it.

In some respects these had been anticipated, since they were comparable to those

which the Army as a whole had recently

encountered; but there remained one

major point of difference: the women's

services were dependent upon voluntary

recruiting. As the spring of 1943 wore on,

it became clear that stresses easily supportable in themselves might nevertheless

have an exaggerated effect upon public

opinion and the supply of recruits. It was

gradually recognized that any attempt at

quick expansion by voluntary recruiting

carried within itself the seeds of self-defeat.

Training Center Confusion

From the viewpoint of the WAAC training centers, the first six months of 1943

had all the aspects of chaos. As successive

new centers were staffed, commandants

and key officers seldom stayed more than

a few months in any location; experienced

instructors, cadre, supply officers, classification officers, all moved to open new

centers before projects could be completed

or reports made. As new field companies

had to be formed, some basic companies

were reported to have lost their cadre several times in the four-week basic training.

A recruit who trained at Camp Polk

wrote:

We changed officers so often that no one

knew who was looking after us. We seldom

had the same instructor or classroom two

days in a row, and some instructors must

have just taken over classes because they

knew nothing about them. We didn't learn a

thing. We never even had a retreat parade

the whole time, and I made a fool of myself

during one when I got to Fort Riley later. In

our last class the workmen walked in and

took out the furniture and just left us standing there.1

Field complaints indicated that training

authorities sometimes shipped units without advance notice to the station; service

records and classification cards at times

did not accompany unit movement but

arrived as much as two weeks late, incomplete and incorrect, after assignments had

been made without benefit of records. Stations protested when Waacs arrived after

cross-country trips in dirty coaches without lights or sanitary facilities and with no

one responsible in charge.2 At one station

1

 Interv with Miss Dorothy Pat Costello, former

WAC sergeant, 4 Aug 48. 2

 (1) Ltr, 2d SvC to Dir WAAC, 9 Mar 43, sub: 42d

WAAC Post Hq Co. SPWA 319.1. (2) Ltr, Col Howard Clark, Chief, Opns Serv WAAC Hq to 2d Tng

Cen, 20 Mar 43. SPWA 319.1-os. (3) Ltr, 2d SvC to

Dir WAAC, 1 Dec 42, and Inds. WA 513 (11-26-42)

Transportation.
PERSONNEL AND TRAINING 137

the unit was in the field ten days before an

officer arrived. The staff director reported,

"Undoubtedly the timing went wrong

somewhere, but it created an unfortunate

impression of WAAC organization."

 3

There were also more lasting inconveniences to stations receiving units. Enrolled

women of low ability or questionable

character, who once had been weeded out

at training centers, now were undetectable

in the general confusion and were the subject of complaint when they arrived at

field stations. Company officers and cadre

for outgoing units were lumped together

from whatever was available at the moment, without much consideration of such

factors as relative age and civilian experience, although these were often the margin between success and failure in groups

of women destined to spend the rest of the

war together in one installation. Untried

cadre were promoted by training centers

to the grades specified in the Table of Organization, often leaving units in the field

saddled with incompetents who had too

much rank to be reassigned. Officers were

sent out as company commanders who

had little or no experience or aptitude for

the work; Maj. Betty Bandel noted, concerning the Air Forces, "Our greatest

problem is our company commanders. I

make a special plea that at least one experienced officer go out with any new unit

to the field."

 4

Field stations frequently complained

that neither WAAC officers nor enrollees

arriving from training centers knew anything about WAAC rules and regulations,

and did not have copies of them. Some

company commanders considerably embarrassed their staff directors by informing

station commanders that the Army had

no jurisdiction whatever over WAAC

units. Others had little idea of real Army

life in the field, and attempted to inculcate

a state of discipline and daily routine suitable only for a brief and strenuous basic

course, but impossible to sustain in a

working unit.5

Commissioning of Unqualified Officers

Among early casualties of the expansion

program were the original perfectionist

plans for avoiding British mistakes in officer selection. As soon as the expansion

program was directed, it was evident that

the original carefully selected 1,300 officers would be insufficient to staff the new

units. Since officer candidate training was

weeks longer than basic training, it became

necessary to begin large officer candidate

classes before the women to be commanded were even recruited. Unavoidably, almost all came from the training

centers, since most companies in the field

were still in transit or had not had time to

set up boards and select officer candidates,

although it was well known that many of

the best-qualified women had been placed

in early field companies, while those in the

training centers had not yet had opportunity to demonstrate leadership under

actual field conditions.

As available personnel in training centers was combed over again and again for

successive classes, quality fell rapidly.

Daytona Beach complained that it had to

furnish four large groups of officer candi3

 Ltr, WAAC Stf Dir WFTC to Exec WAAC, 3 Jun

43. SPWA 319.1. 4

 Comment of Air WAAC Off, Min, Stf Dirs Conf,

Chicago, 15-17 Jun 43. SPWA 337 (6-1-43). Also see:

(1) other comments in Min; (2) Memo, Consultant

(Miss Lies) for Dir WAAC, 6 May 43. Plng Proj 6,

WAAC Planning files, 1943. 5

 (1) Rpt of 2d SvC, Min cited n. 4. (2) Interv with

Lt Col Katherine R. Goodwin, former Stf Dir 1st SvC,

31 May 46. (3) Statement by Lt Col Jessie P. Rice,

former Stf Dir 3d SvC, in speech at Purdue Univ.,

Apr 45. (4) Min, Stf Dirs Conf, New York, 1-3 Dec

43. SPWA 337 (11-10-43).
138 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

dates from its cadre alone, before trainees

arrived, and that while the first group was

good, the last three were extremely doubtful. Board members at Des Moines reported, horrified, that they had given the

lowest possible scores to certain applicants

who were judged impossible material because of poor appearance, manners, education, and possibly morals, yet to make

up the required quota they were directed

by the WAAC Training Command to go

to the bottom of the list and accept every

applicant on it.

General Faith, in directing this action,

noted that the WAAC had no choice if it

was to meet the expansion plans. He therefore ordered boards to be realistic and

admit some candidates who would make

good second lieutenants although they

would never be able to advance higher:

"The ability to advance to high rank,

which was very important in the original

selection of officer candidates, has become

of less importance as the total number of

officers already commissioned has increased."

 6 He directed boards under his

Training Command not to reject anyone

finally, since the ones rejected one week

might be better than those available the

next. General Faith suggested to the Director that she order officer candidate

boards in the field to follow this system,

but she did not concur, and instead published a field directive which established a

selection system much like the Army's.7

Even if good candidates were sent by

posts or training centers, they did not invariably receive commissions. During the

hectic months of expansion the WAAC

Officer Candidate School came to share

with men's schools a problem of which

Army inspectors noted:

In many [Army officer candidate] schools,

performance on the drill field was used as a

means of separating those with 'leadership'

qualities from those lacking such characteristics . . . a loud voice and a general 

confidence indicated that 'leadership' was

probably satisfactory.8

Numerous field complaints were received

on this score; for example, the Fifth Service Command protested the "washing out"

of three of its candidates who, in spite of

leadership ability demonstrated in the

field, had been rejected for "no voice and

command," "could not drill," and "no

pep and enthusiasm."

 9 Similarly, the

Transportation Corps protested concerning thirteen women who had all "washed

out for voice and command, nothing

else."

 10

 After frequent complaints, Director Hobby sent to the Training Command

for transcripts of "murder board" hearings, which convinced her that too much

emphasis was placed on youth and physical contour, and too little upon character

and past accomplishments. At a time when

field stations were pleading for mature

officers, boards had informed applicants

that an age as advanced as 35 years, if

apparent, was disqualifying.11

6

 Ltr, CG WAAC Tng Comd to Dir WAAC, 3 Feb

43rence , an. SPW d penci A 291. l note9 (2-3-43) s thereon. with Dir's nonconcur7

 (1) Ltr, Dir Tng, 2d WAAC Tng Cen to Dir

WAAC, 8 Mar 43. SPWA 3 19.1. (2) Rpt, 2d O Ann

Danovsky, et al, to 2d O M. E. Treadwell, Des Moines

Office Dir Tng. Confirmed by intervs with Maj Helen

Hanson, head of OCS and Dir Tng, 3d Tng Cen. (3)

WAAC Cir 8, 17 Mar 43, Sec VIII. Circular had been

requested a month earlier, Memo for CofAdm Serv,

19 Feb 43. SPWA 300.2 (1-7-43) sec 1. (4) Speech by

Dir Hobby, 9 Jun 43, Min, Conf of Offs to Supervise

OC Bds. SPWA 334.9 (6-10-43). 8

 ASF Hist of Military Training: Officer Candidate

Training, 1941-45. (Hereafter cited as ASF Hist of

OCT.) OCMH. 9

 Ltr, 5th SvC to Dir WAAC, 27 Jul 43. SPKEB

341, in SPWA 341 R(1942). 10

 Min cited n. 4, especially rpts by San Francisco

POE and by Dir Hobby. 11

 Ibid.; also interv with Maj Patricia Lee Chance,

Exec WAC, 1945.
PERSONNEL AND TRAINING 139

Her discovery of the collapse of standards at training centers came too late. In

the few brief months before the end of the

summer, half of all WAAC officers were

women without previous experience in

jobs more responsible than those of clerks,

typists, stenographers, and secretaries—

including sixteen actresses, fourteen chorus

girls, fourteen waitresses, and varying

numbers of beauticians, charwomen, laborers, chauffeurs, and housekeepers, as

well as one undertaker. Education had

also declined from earlier standards.

About 31 percent of WAAC officers now

had only high school education or less—

about 5 percent had less—while another

28 percent had not completed college;

only 41 percent were college graduates.

Still worse, 30 percent of officers were less

than twenty-five years old.

Upon learning these facts, WAAC

Headquarters took action to set up another campaign to get more officer candidates from civilian life, but before this

could well come into operation, the Corps

had reached almost the top officer strength

it was to be permitted. The WAAC by the

end of its first year had over 5,800 officers,

who were, with the later failure of the expansion plan, to be enough for the rest of

the war. Only a few hundred more were to

be commissioned in the remaining years,

so that many of the unsuitable officers so

hastily commissioned did not remain second lieutenants, as General Faith had

expected, but were pushed up gradually

as the Corps expanded. Embarrassing as

this deficiency was to everyone concerned,

the WAAC had experienced no more

problem in this respect than the Army;

remarkably enough, even this lapse had

not brought the average of WAAC officer

education below that of Army officers.

However, even a minority of unsuitable or

rank-happy officers were always to be extremely conspicuous in a women's service.12

Unsuitable Mentors

The expansion program also made it

impossible to carry out Director Hobby's

recent order that male officers in training

centers be replaced by Waacs, the most

unsuitable to be the first weeded out. The

"man-woman factor," unprecedented in

Army schools, afforded opportunities for

maladministration which all too frequently were found to have been realized.

General Faith later estimated that male

offenders under his command totaled not

more than 5 percent, and that these were

immediately relieved from duty if discovered in misconduct. Nevertheless, scattered reports continued to be received

from all training centers of cases in which

women's advancement was allegedly

based on matters other than merit.

The gravest situation in this respect was

that at Daytona Beach, which was investigated at Director Hobby's request by operatives from the Military Intelligence

Service in Washington as well as by the

Fourth Service Command's inspector general. These inspectors' reports noted that

certain of the Army officers in highly responsible positions were drinking and misconducting themselves with Waacs and

were promoting to positions of leadership

only those who offered them favors in

return. Members of the Army staff, when

written statements were taken, officially

accused each other of "running around"

12

 (1) Memo, Capt Ruby E. Herman, WAAC Hq,

for Dir WAAC, 12 Nov 43, with incl statistics, 12 Nov

43, made as of 15 Sep 43. Unnumbered folder, 1943

WAAC files. (2) ASF Hist of OCT, 1941-45, pp.

15-16, 74. OCMH.
140 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

and "carrying on" with Waacs, and of

using force on enlisted women while

drunk.13 A Waac visitor described a resulting situation of "sycophancy" by senior

WAAC officers and of "obsequious flattery" among junior ones. When a WAAC

inspector arrived, she learned that women

were in many cases not assigned in accordance with real skills and abilities.14

In view of the fact that many of the officers assigned to WAAC training centers

had been pronounced "culls" by the commandant when first assigned, it was perhaps remarkable that more serious situations did not develop in all of the various

training schools. Concerning the common

practice of assigning second-rate officers

to staff women's schools, the Bureau of

Naval Personnel observed that in the

WAVES' program "it was a penny-wisepound-foolish policy not to detail the

handful of first-rate men it would have

taken to have established the whole program on the best possible basis."

 15

Observers noted that these unsuitable

mentors often had an unfortunate effect

upon newly commissioned, inexperienced,

and eager-to-please female officers.

Through a process of what Army psychiatrists called "mimesis," or unconscious

imitation, as well as through a conscious

desire to secure advancement, women

copied supervisors who were not in themselves models of Army leadership. Imitation was noted not only in standards of

morals and public behavior, but in language and attitude toward trainees. The

senior WAAC officer at Des Moines, beset

by critics at a staff directors' meeting, admitted, "I have been told that some of our

officers are very rough in their language. I

think it is due to some of our Army officers

at the fort."

 16

 It was some time later that

Director Hobby formulated the difficulty

and told a group of women officers:

It seems to me lately that I have seen too

many women officers who are hard. The last

thing we want to accomplish is to masculinize

a great group of women. . . . I think 

[harshness] often comes from the officer's own

insecurity. When she is at a loss how to handle a problem, she relies on what she thinks

would be the Army attitude. Actually it is not

an Army attitude among leaders. Only insecure persons revert to harshness.17

The "Nightmare" of Basic Training

In these months many recruits used the

word nightmare to describe basic training,

although at earlier and later periods the

same course was pronounced "inspiring."

One recruit, an Army wife, noted that this

definition was literal: "For months after I

left there, I used to wake at night crying,

dreaming I was back at Des Moines."

 18

The difficulty, insofar as it could be diagnosed, appeared to lie chiefly in an

overabrupt and deliberately harsh introduction to Army life. The early high state

of training had been produced when recruits' ideas of membership in a military

team had been more nearly met, with

plentiful ceremonies and instruction in

Army tradition which produced a lasting

pride in military status regardless of what

hardships followed. This system continued

to be followed, by deliberate intent, at the

13

 (1) Memo, Dir WAAC for TIG, 13 Mar 43, sub:

Request for Investigation, and atchd corresp. SPWA

330.14, Folder, Daytona Beach, Dir Adm Serv ASF

Sp Coll DRB AGO. (2) Memo, IG 4th SvC for CG

4th SvC, 9 May 43, atchd as Exhibit B to Rpt, CIC to

MIS, 19 Jul 43, sub: Origin of Rumors Concerning

WAAC, G-2 files MID 322.12 WAAC. (3) Also see

Ch. XI, below. 14

 Memo, 1st O Anna W Wilson for Chief, WAAC

Plng Serv, 11 Mar 43. SPWA 319.1 (3-11-43). 15

 WAVES Hist. 16

 Min cited n. 4. 17

 Speech at Stf Dirs Conf, New York, 1-3 Dec 43.

Min cited n. 5(4). 18

 Diary of an Auxiliary, winter 1942-43, made

available to the author in a personal interview, 31

January 1946.
PERSONNEL AND TRAINING 141

WAVES' training centers, with the first

weeks devoted to inculcating a knowledge

of Navy tradition and ceremony, and with

only fully trained women graduates instead of recruits being used for the more

menial tasks about the school.

Gradual adjustment seemed even more

necessary for female recruits than for male

draftees, since the women were apt to be

more uncertain about their ability to "take

it," and had been subjected to the sales

talks of recruiters who accented the glamorous side of Army life. At a later period

these facts were to be recognized by

WAAC training authorities, but during

the winter and spring of 1943 there was

reported, at most training centers, an initial emphasis on military "hazing" which,

as one authority later noted, "tried to belittle a recruit's ideals, laugh at her patriotism, and make her a soldier in the first

five minutes."

 19

Thus, one recruit's diary noted what

other accounts confirmed as a typical experience at Fort Des Moines: "I was sent

out to scrub one of the offices on my first

day, before I got my uniform." Emphasis

on fatigue duties continued to take precedence over military indoctrination:

We seldom got to attend classes regularly,

as we were pulled off for all kinds of duties:

we did KP at our own mess, the officers' mess,

and the consolidated mess; we scrubbed

classroom floors and the theater daily; we

cleaned offices, orderly rooms, dayrooms,

storerooms, cleaned the outside of buildings

and washed the windows and the white pil- lars, though in zero weather. We hated to

miss those classes as there was so much to

learn in only four weeks.20

The absence of a uniform during much

of the training period was also keenly felt,

though to a less extent than the fact that

"the men who drilled us and marched us

through the snow had complete warm outfits." The fact that almost all recruits at

one time or another during training contracted colds and coughs, sometimes influenza or bronchitis, did little to increase

their endurance. Even more lamented was

the lack of drill and ceremony, which was

prevented at some centers by the winter

weather and lack of warm clothing, and

at others by lack of space, by scattered

housing, or by the necessity for pulling out

half-trained women to meet the shipment

schedule.

Under these conditions, some women

suffered breakdowns and had to be discharged before receiving a field assignment, in such numbers as later to cause

investigation by The Surgeon General.

For the majority, it was evident that surprisingly little permanent damage was

done. The time of basic training was brief,

the hoped-for military ceremonies were

eventually encountered on Army stations,

and in looking back from the vantage

point of years, trainees were if anything

inclined to boast about how they "took it."

Morale was reported in even the most confused months of the expansion program as

"unbelievably good," and "the women

were excited about their work, determined

to succeed, and felt that the worst would

be over if they could only get to the field

and to work."

 21

The women's generally good-humored

reaction was fairly well expressed in their

favorite songs, which grew up during these

months:

 22

WAAC Days, WAAC Days, Dear old break-your-back days. . . .

19

 Speech by Lt Col Jess Rice, "Development of the

WAC," at Sch of WAAC Pers Adm, Apr 45, notes in

WAC files, OCMH. Also see bulky studies in SPWA

331.1 (3-1-43), now in file of Dir Pers ASF. 20

 Diary cited n. 18. 21

 Ibid.

22

 Pamphlet, WAAC Parodies. The only song not

from the pamphlet is "AR 35-1440," most of which

is unprintable.
KP DUTY, Daytona Beach, Florida. Note seersucker exercise dress. 
PERSONNEL AND TRAINING 143 

When you come to the end of a perfect day, 

And you sit alone with your gigs. . . . 

K-K-K-Ka-P, beautiful KP, 

You’re the only Army job that I abhor. 

When the moon shines over the mess hall, 

I’ll be mopping up the K-K-K-Kitchen floor. 

Troublesome rules and regulations were 

memorized to the tune of ditties such as: 

AR 35-1440, 

Deals with matters very naughty. 

Running a close second to the earlier favorite, “The WAAC Is In Back of You,” 

was a new original at Des Moines, entitled 

the “G. I. Song”: 23 

Once her Mommie made her bed, 

Cleaned her clothes and buttered her bread, 

And her favorite dress was redOh me, Oh my, that ain’t G.I. 

Hats and shoes and skirts don’t fit, 

Your girdle bunches when you sit, 

Come on, rookie, you can’t quitJust heave a sigh, and be G.I. . . . 

In the Mess Hall she now stands 

Buried ’neath the pots and pans 

Getting pretty dishpan hands, 

Oh me, Oh my, gotta be G.I. 

Then she came to camp one day, 

Quickly learned the WAACKIE way, 

Underwear cafe au laitOh me, Oh my, strictly G.I. 

Winter, summer, spring or fall 

Should you try to end it all 

You can’t die until sick call 

You see, if you die, you gotta die-G.I. 

However, even among such lighthearted 

versions of school days, the final song was: 

We’re in the Staging Area 

And we soon will go away 

We’ve finished all our basic 

Glory be and happy day 

Glory Glory we are staging 

Glory Glory we are staging 

Glory Glory we are staging 

Before we travel on. 

The more damaging aspect of the dislocations to basic training during the 

months of expansion appeared to have 

been the effect upon recruiting. In the letters written to friends and relatives during 

the first week or weeks, there was noted, at 

worst, a frightened disillusionment or 

frantic desire to escape from what at first 

glance seemed a trap and, at best, a tendency to boast about the unspeakable hardships the writer had survived. The Army 

as a whole was not unfamiliar with such a 

phenomenon, which had little effect upon 

draft boards. British women’s services had 

noted a less favorable public reaction, and 

that “The large majority adapt themselves 

in time . , . but a certain number, when 

writing home, may easily exaggerate. . . . Just how great a part the brief “nightmare” of basic training had played in the 

later failure of the recruiting program was 

never to be easy to determine. General 

Ulio, The Adjutant General, ascribed 

some importance, in a staff study made 

during these months, to “people writing 

home about . . . conditions.” 25 Recruiters attributed damage especially to publicity on the prisoner-of-war camps, in 

which no male soldiers had been reported 

as required to train. Later Gallup surveys 

also showed that many acceptable recruits 

were allegedly deterred from enlistment 

by the belief that they lacked the necessary strength to survive the reputed rigors 

and hazings of basic training.26 

It came to be the general belief within 

WAAC Headquarters that the echelon of 

the Training Command had been in itself 

77 24 

23 Words and music by Lt. June Morhman 

24 Conditions in the Three Women’s Seruices. 

15 See Ulio rpt, Ch. X, below. 

jfi See Gallup rpt, Ch. XIII, below. 
144 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

one of the less happy results of the expansion program. The Acting Deputy Director noted:

We were completely cut off from the training centers and could not even communicate

with them; instead, we should have had direct telephonic communication all winter in

order to find out their difficulties and expedite

corrective action in supply, officer selection

and training, and other matters.27

In March, Director Hobby petitioned the

Services of Supply to abolish the echelon

of the Training Command and restore its

functions to her office, as well as General

Faith in person, for its better assistance

and information:

The Training Plans Division [of WAAC

Headquarters] has no authority and receives

problems for decision which it is unable to

give. In addition, it is uninformed on training activities and programs. . . . Since the

functions now being performed by the

WAAC Training Command are properly

headquarters functions, it is recommended

that . . . the functions of the Training

Command be absorbed as rapidly as possible

in the appropriate organizational units of

WAAC Headquarters.28

This request was disapproved by the

Services of Supply, but some increase in

effective liaison was achieved by moving

the Training Command headquarters from

Daytona Beach to Martinsburg, West Virginia—a location as near to Washington

as possible, and one removed from the

scene of the scandal concerning maladministration at the Daytona Beach training center. At the same time, General

Faith was given additional duty as head of

a new Training and Field Inspection Division in the Director's office, where he now

spent part of his time. It was hoped that

the field inspection function would provide training centers with assistance and

some guide to field needs.29

Personnel Problems in Headquarters

Its loss of control over the training program was only one of the difficulties that

expansion had brought to WAAC Headquarters. The office still suffered from

chronic understaffing and overwork; since

January it had been reported that "the

pressing common problem throughout

Headquarters is a shortage of competent

dependable civilian help. Officers are doing clerical work."

 30

The Director, while supplying thousands of Waacs to the Army, was in the

position of being unable to get a requested

allotment of eleven for herself, because of

the Services of Supply's rule against bringing enlisted Waacs to Washington. Finally,

a few enlisted women were brought in on

temporary duty, which prevented their

promotion, and were soon also suffering

from overwork, while the headquarters

feared to let them go lest shipment orders

remain untyped and "a tremendous backlog accumulate at Training Centers."

Letters concerning individual Waacs

were referred unanswered to their posts,

and letters of inquiry from Army stations

were answered without being seen by the

Director or top authorities—a system that

provoked much unfavorable comment

from the public and the field, and resulted

in vague or inaccurate routine replies from

junior officers to inquiries which were

really matters of policy. The volume of

mail was clocked at an average of 406

27

 Interv with Lt Col Betty Bandel, 5 Oct 45. 28

 Memo, CofS ASF for Dirs of Stf Divs and Chiefs,

Sup and Adm Svs, 1 Mar 43; Dir WAAC's reply, 19

Mar 43. SPWA 331.1. (3-1-43), located and read in

Office Dir Pers ASF. 29

 TWX, Faith to Dir WAAC, 29 Jun 43. SPWA

314.7 (l-7-43)(1) sec 1. 30

 Memo, 1st O Anne Alinder for Contl Div

WAAC, 6 Jan 43. WAAC files.
PERSONNEL AND TRAINING 145

pieces daily. The stenographic pool in

April had a ten-day backlog and was

obliged to reject all but urgent work, while

some 1,200 papers remained unfiled. In

April, the headquarters petitioned the

Service Forces for an increase of civilian

personnel from 56 to 77, stating: "Necessary work is being delayed or left undone

with the result that the WAAC program is

being seriously impaired."

 31

The problems of an expanding organization did not receive too much sympathy

from the Army Service Forces, which had

passed its own critical period and was at

the moment engaged in a drive to reduce

personnel. On 1 March WAAC Headquarters, in common with all ASF offices,

was required to report on steps taken to

abolish nonessential functions and personnel. The Director protested that reductions could not safely be made at present,

but that in a few months, if legislation

passed, "it will be possible for WAAC

Headquarters to avail itself of existing

Army machinery for handling certain

functions, which will permit dropping

activities which parallel functions done

elsewhere in the War Department." In

this, she was overruled by General Styer,

who indorsed the papers back with a demand for immediate reduction of the office

force, stating: "You will submit a further

report . . . [which] will list . . . the

number of military and civilian personnel

released."

 32

The Director took the occasion to point

out that the January 1943 reorganization

of her office by General Somervell's Control Division, like that of October 1942,

was unworkable. She indicated that there

were friction and confusion among her

Army section chiefs, with different section

chiefs claiming the same projects. She

therefore asked that authority be given

her to redefine duties and regroup the sections concerned according to her own

ideas of office organization. There was also

some discontent among the WAAC officers who made up the junior working personnel, in that male officers still retained

key jobs and policy-making powers and

did not allow WAAC officers to say anything in staff meetings that had not been

written out and approved in advance, or

otherwise to give the Director "stories of

what is going wrong."

 33

In late April, Control Division, ASF,

partially acceded to the Director's request

and again revised the WAAC Headquarters organization—the third revision in

seven months—changing the wording of

the ASF Manual accordingly. A personnel

increase was also briefly granted, but nullified three weeks later, and a further cut

ordered.

The headquarters situation, during the

entire time when the expansion program

ran its course, therefore remained generally critical. The only prospect of relief

and improved efficiency was Army status,

which did not come until the hope of

recruiting success was ended.34

31

 (1) Memo, Dir WAAC for IPD ASF, 2 Apr 43,

sub: Civ Pers, and atchd. SPWA 230.14 (4-2-43). (2)

Memo, Dir Adm Div for Chief, Opng Serv WAAC,

31 Mar 43; Memo, Dir Adm Div for Dir of Opng

Serv, 22 Jan 43. SPWA 311.1. 32

 Three studies: (1) Ltr, ASF to all Divs, SvCs, etc.,

1 Mar 43; Dir WAAC reply, 20 Mar 43; 1st Ind, CofS

ASF, 10 Apr 43. (2) Memo cited n. 28, and 1st Ind,

CofS ASF, 14 Apr 43. (3) Memo, CofS ASF for

CofServs and SvCs, 1 Mar 43; Dir WAAC reply, 30

Mar 43; 1st Ind, CofS ASF, 19 Apr 43; 2d Ind, Dir

WAAC, 28 Apr 43. All in SPWA 333.1 (3-1-43), now

in Dir Pers ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 33

 (1) WAAC SO 78, 22 Apr 43. SPWA 300.4

(8-18-42), 1942. (2) Interv with Maj Elizabeth C.

Smith and Maj Irene Galloway, 11 Oct 45. (3) Interv

cited n. 27. 34

 ASF Cir 30, 15 May 43; also SOS Manual

M301, Jul 43, par 202.03.
146 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Shipment of T/O Units

In the field, possibly the most serious

publicly known personnel problem caused

by the expansion program was in the matter of job assignments. Again, the difficulty

was not the expansion itself, but the fact

that it was required before the end of the

Auxiliary system.

The separate WAAC Table of Organization—which could not yet legally be

merged with military job allotments—had

proved in itself a disaster for the Corps. Although large Army Tables of Organization

had vacancies for almost any variety of

skill, the small 150-woman T/O had positions for only a few general skills—chiefly

office workers and chauffeurs. As recruiting restrictions were eased, recruits were

accepted who had other and more varied

skills. However, when a WAAC was recruited with some rare and badly needed

skill, such as teacher of Braille, she could

not be assigned as such because the WAAC

allotment did not call for it. The WAAC

T/O could not be amended to add the job

without requiring every WAAC unit in

the world to have a teacher of Braille.

Under this system, the temptation for

training centers to misclassify women was

great. The teacher of Braille sat waiting

assignment which could never be given

her; a WAAC company could not be

shipped until a mail clerk was found to

complete its T/O; the teacher of Braille

overnight became a mail clerk. Still worse,

a Table of Organization could not be

amended by a post commander; when the

WAAC unit reached a station, the station

was helpless to remedy the misclassification and was obliged to assign the Braille

expert as a mail clerk, even though its hospital was badly in need of her skill and had

a military vacancy for it. "Many of our

stations faced this problem," reported Staff

Director Jess Rice of the Third Service

Command.

The WAAC Table of Organization called

for six housekeepers, so they fired the maids

in the guest houses and put the Waacs to

scrubbing floors, even though they might be

doctors of philosophy, teachers, or technicians, who had been classified as housekeepers just to get them out of the Training

Center.35

If training center classification teams

rebelled at the dishonesty of falsifying

such a woman's records and classified her

properly, she could not be assigned at all.

Training centers with such scruples gradually accumulated a number of women

with more or less odd skills—dental hygienists, X-ray technicians, translators,

key-punch operators, opticians, dietitians,

and many others. These, although badly

needed to fill military vacancies, could not

be assigned in the WAAC T/O unless

classified as unskilled. Training centers

reported that these women were in a state

of very low morale: many advised civilian

friends that the Army could not use their

skills; and some nervous individuals actually became psychopathic cases, after

months of delay and malassignment, and

had to be discharged.36

Malassignment of skilled workers was,

of course, well known to Army men in

times of rapid expansion. The effect of

malassignment on a woman, however, was

often greater, because she could not receive a combat assignment which might in

her own eyes justify the waste of a special

skill. The only reported cases in which

malassignment caused no morale damage

to Waacs were those instances in which a

35

 Speech, "Hist of WAC," at WAC Pers Adm Sch,

Purdue Univ. OCMH. 36

 (1) Memo, Classif and Asgmt Sec WAAC Hq for

Sp Consultant to Dir, 7 Jun 43. SPWA 201.6 (6-7-43).

(2) Rpt of WAAC Stf Dirs, 2d, 3d, and 4th Tng Gens.

Min cited n. 4.
PERSONNEL AND TRAINING 147

clerical or sedentary skill was ignored in

favor of a field-type job, which most

women were found to prefer.

The whole WAAC training system was

soon distorted to meet the rigid requirements of the separate WAAC T/O. Exact

calculations were made as to how many

cooks, clerks, and chauffeurs would be

needed in a certain number of companies,

and the WAAC specialist schools were

geared to turn out this number. Once the

school quota was set, it became an inexorable demand which had to be met

weekly regardless of the qualifications of

the new recruits who presented themselves

that week. Thus, if in one week there were

large numbers of typists, badly needed in

the field, they must be divided into three

parts, one for cooks and bakers school, one

for motor transport school, and one for administrative school. If, a week later, the

recruits were all skilled mechanics, they

must nevertheless also be divided among

the three schools.

General Faith admitted later, "We arbitrarily tried to maintain a balance.

Women who hated to cook were sent to

Cooks School and women who couldn't

spell were sent to Administrative

School."

 37

 One Air Forces representative

noted:

We don't mean to complain of the classification at the Training Centers, but we re- ceived a unit of 76 from one of the centers and

all 76 were supply clerks. When we interviewed . . . we found we had college graduates who had years of experience in hospitals or other jobs, and they had been sent to

administrative schools to become supply

clerks.38

Expert stenographers had been trained as

cooks, while former cotton pickers were

graduates of Administrative Specialists

School. Women had been sent to radio

school who had not only hated radio work

but also had medical or clerical skills.39

Airfields that requisitioned weather observers got former waitresses classified as

"potential weather observers."

 40

The War Department had for some

time realized that the T/O system, while

appropriate for rifle companies and other

identical combat units, was a poor means

of supplying either men or women to zone

of the interior stations, no two of which

had exactly the same needs. The Bulk Allotment system, prepared during these

same months, promised relief from the distortion of both WAAC and Army skills to

fit an inflexible Table of Organization.

Both WAAC and Army allotments were

eventually to specify only the numbers

and grades of individuals sent to most

noncombat commands, leaving their

duties to be determined and requisitioned

according to the needs of each station.

Although WAAC Headquarters worked

all spring to hasten the application of this

system to the WAAC, such did not become

possible until May. In late March Army

commands were warned to prepare for the

new system. For units already shipped,

they were expected to prepare Tables of

Allotment representing the women's real

skills; for units yet to come, any desired

assortment of skills could be requested. On

1 May WAAC T/O units were formally

inactivated, and Army commands were on

their own in determining WAAC jobs

within the limits of the total Bulk Allotments.41

37

 Speech. Min cited n. 4. 38

 Speech of WAAC Stf Dir AAF Tng Comd. Min

cited n. 4. 39

 Rpt of 2d SvC. Min cited n. 4. 40

 Rpt of Insp, Great Falls AAB, Montana, 20 Aug

43. SPWA 333.1. 41

 (1) WD Memo W635-3-43, 31 Mar 43. (2) Ltr,

TAG to CG ASF (AGF, AAF), 1 Apr 43. AG 320.2

WAAC (3-12-43) PR-W-WDGAP.
148 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Replacement of Soldiers

Even the Bulk Allotment system did not

solve another problem that resulted from

Auxiliary status, whether under a Table of

Organization or a more flexible Table of

Allotment: under either system it proved

difficult to determine whether a Waac had

really replaced a man. The General Staff

sent out repeated injunctions that Waacs

must count against the Troop Basis and

replace men one-for-one; a series of increasingly stringent War Department directives required a full report by skill and

rank of men shipped, to be tallied against

the number of Waacs received. Only

thirty days—fifteen in the Army Service

Forces—were allowed for the replacement, a shorter time than customary with

male replacements, on the theory that a

Waac could learn a job faster.

Nevertheless, it became increasingly

evident that few men were actually being

sent away, and might not be until the

WAAC became part of the Army and its

allotments could be merged with the military. Through a technicality of paper

work, minor but basic, it was found that

most Army posts were able to retain both

Waacs and men. Each station had an allotment of military personnel and an allotment of civilian personnel; when Waacs

arrived it had a third type, since each

company came complete with its own

Table of Organization or Allotment under

which its members could be promoted and

paid. Whether Waacs filled military or

civilian jobs, all three allotments remained

intact. All efforts, therefore, to get many

posts to send a soldier away failed except

on paper. A Waac might actually be given

a man's desk and see the man depart, only

later to find him at a new desk a few doors

down the hall, in work for which the installation often had a perfectly legitimate

allotment. If the man actually departed,

the station had a vacancy in its military

allotment, and promptly requisitioned

another man. So long as Waacs were not

legally recognized as military personnel,

and could not fill vacancies in military allotments, the General Staff directives concerning the Troop Basis remained administratively impossible to enforce.42

The apparently simple solution of reducing a station's military allotment for

each WAAC allotment, although directed

by the General Staff, was also administratively unworkable. A station's allotments, whether in the form of Tables of

Organization or the later Bulk Allotments, were complicated affairs which

could not be altered at station level. To reduce the allotment, it would be necessary

to republish it each time a new WAAC

unit arrived, or each time a Waac was promoted from one grade to another. The

time lag in this process was such that, reports indicated, most stations would not

apply to higher echelons for republication

of their military allotments, but clung to

both WAAC and Army personnel. Only

approaching military status could entirely

solve this problem, by making one military allotment apply to both men and

women.

42

 (1) WD Memo W635-2-43, 10 Feb 43. (2) WD

Memo W635-3-43, 31 Mar 43. (3) WD Memo

W635-4-43, 31 Mar 43. (4) WD Memo W635-5-43,

26 Apr 43. (5) ASF Cir 39, 11 Jun 43.
CHAPTER IX

Stresses of Rapid Build-up:

Supply and the WAAC

Uniform

As was to be expected from past Army

experiences, the difficulties of expansion

were also felt immediately in the matter

of supply. For the WAAC, supply problems had been more or less chronic since

the Corps' establishment, with crises following each new expansion plan, none

more than temporarily remedied.

Shortages of Clothing

Of these supply problems, the one most

apparent to the public was the Corps' inability to issue even one set of military

outer garments to recruits—a situation

that rarely pertained to male draftees. As

the Corps neared the end of its first winter,

fully half of the women in some training

centers still went through their entire

training without uniforms, while at others

only summer clothing was available. Fort

Dix, New Jersey, for example, was surprised to see descending from a train—in

the midst of a March snowstorm—the entire 42d WAAC Post Headquarters Company from Daytona Beach, dressed in

summer cottons. The women were

promptly restricted to barracks and put to

bed to keep warm, while Fort Dix forwarded comments derogatory to the intelligence of WAAC authorities in training centers.1

 One west coast airfield, expecting a company, received a single untidy-looking Waac whose only clothing

was the begrimed civilian outfit she had

worn from her home to the training center

and throughout basic training. After acid

comment by telephone to Washington,

one uniform was obtained. Other Waacs

arrived with one or two shirts at desert airfields where the daily temperature averaged 110 degrees. At other times stations

complained that women had been given

their complete clothing issue by a process

of issuing them grotesquely ill-fitting garments and, still worse, wrong-sized shoes,

with the assurance that "you can change

them when you get to your permanent station," even though the stations obviously

had as yet no maintenance supplies of

WAAC clothing.2

1

 (1) TWX, Comdt 1st WAAC Tng Gen to Dir

WAAC, 24 Dec 42. WA 421 (11-20-42) Status. (2)

Ltr, 2d SvC to Dir WAAC, 9 Mar 43, sub: 42d

WAAC Post Hq Co. SPWA 319.1. 2

 (1) AAF WAC Hist, p. 39. (2) Memo, Dir WAC

for QMG, 30 Aug 43. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-42)0) sec

4 (1942). (3) Ltrs, WAAC Hq to field, 24 Feb 43, and

replies; Memo, Lt Ryan for Plng Serv, 3 Apr 43.

Same file, sec 3a.
150 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Such failures were generally attributed

by the public, and by WAAC trainees, to

the numbers involved in the expansion

program, or to the difficulty of procuring

women's garments in an organization accustomed to dealing only with men's. The

latter view was at times held by WAAC

Headquarters itself, which noted in one

criticism of The Quartermaster General's

action: "Two manufacturers of women's

wear said . . . any one of fifty stores in

the country supplied many more women

with many more items."

 3 However, upon

later analysis, shortages—as distinguished

from defects in style—were seldom found

to be due to Quartermaster inexperience

or inability to let contracts for the relatively small numbers of women in the

Army, but rather to simple failure to let

WAAC contracts to manufacturers in

time. This in turn was caused by the repeated refusal of Requirements Division,

Services of Supply, to approve The Quartermaster General's proposals without

lengthy delay and debate over possible

discrimination in favor of women. At

other times failures resulted, in The Quartermaster General's opinion, from the

Services of Supply's action in approving

G-3's expansion plans without the concurrence of supply agencies.

Difficulties in this respect could be

traced back to the moment, a few days

after the passage of WAAC legislation,

when WAAC Headquarters and The

Quartermaster General completed and

sent to Requirements Division for approval the Table of Basic Allowances for

winter clothing. Its approval was believed

routine, since General Marshall had personally viewed and approved every listed

item at the time of the WAAC's establishment. Nevertheless, approval was not

forthcoming, and upon inquiry it was

found that Requirements Division took issue with the fact that women's military

clothing, like their civilian clothing, was

scheduled to cost more than men's. A

Waac's outfit would cost $177.45 as

against $102.33 for a man's. In its efforts

to equalize the total costs, Requirements

Division noted that, whereas men received

only one overcoat, women were scheduled

to get two—the heavy winter coat like the

men's and the light waterproof utility coat

instead of the men's field jacket. Requirements Division at once determined to save

$15.00 per woman by deleting the utility

coat.

Director Hobby, when informed,

pointed out that Requirements Division's

action had been taken in ignorance of the

previous months of planning on the

WAAC uniform, in which the whole outfit had been keyed to the two coats. Thus,

women's winter uniforms and underwear

were of a lighter weight than men's, and

women were not given either wool shirts

or field jackets. The heavy overcoat was

too warm for wear in spring and fall, and

she felt that sickness would result if women

faced those seasons with only cotton shirts

and light covert cloth uniforms. The

Quartermaster General sided with the Director, pointing out that no saving would

result from the deletion, since one utility

coat and one overcoat would wear as long

as two of the more expensive overcoats,

while a utility coat would protect the overcoat from rough wear in rain, mud, and

motor convoys. The Chief of Administrative Services, General Grunert, likewise

backed the Director in her arguments.4

Requirements Division nevertheless re3

 MS Draft, The WAAC—Its Mission, 6 Apr 43.

Folder, Plng Serv Notes, WAAC Planning files. 4

 Memo, CofAdm Serv for Reqmts Div SOS, 25

Jun 42. Same file.
SUPPLY AND THE WAAC UNIFORM 151

fused to restore the item: "Statement as to

possible increase in sickness may be questioned. On a cold winter day, it is a common sight to see women dressed in light

weight clothing, including silk stockings

and light shoes, while men are clothed in

heavy wool garments."

 5

For five weeks the matter remained

deadlocked. The Philadelphia Depot telephoned to state, "The girls will freeze this

winter,"

 6

 and wrote, "The time has

passed when they may elect the fabric

they desire and must take that which is

available."

 7 Director Hobby twice more

protested the refusal to approve her requests.

At the end of July, with Waacs already

at Des Moines, The Quartermaster General's Office (OQMG) had still received

no procurement authority for either coat,

and in desperation telephoned Director

Hobby to ask that she put "a lot of pressure" on Requirements Division. This feat

she believed to be militarily impossible

since Requirements Division was on a

higher SOS echelon than her office and

was headed by a major general. The Director stated, "It's going to be a tragedy,"

to which the OQMG representative

added: "And we don't want to be responsible for it. I know damn well that we will

be blamed for it if the things aren't available. And these people that sit up there

and can't make up their minds are going

to crucify us, and I don't like it. . . . God

Almighty, they are grown people!"

 8

What happened next was not recorded,

but two days later Requirements Division,

SOS, agreed to permit the procurement

of both coats. There was some indication

that the matter had not previously

reached a high echelon in the Requirements Division.9

 At all events, it was admitted that the delay in letting contracts

was already irreparable;

 10

 there shortly

ensued the September and October supply debacle at Des Moines, with its accompanying high sick rates and adverse

publicity.

Nevertheless, when increased expansion

plans were adopted in September of 1942,

the same situation arose again. In explaining his inability to supply uniforms to

either Des Moines or Daytona Beach in

November and December, as promised,

The Quartermaster General stated that

Requirements Division had again delayed

letting of uniform contracts for six weeks,

for unexplained reasons. In addition, it

proved impossible for The Quartermaster

General to get from the Services of Supply

authority to procure emergency coldweather items to make up the deficit. The

climate at Des Moines by this time had

proved such that, even had full winter

uniforms been available, additional arctictype clothing would have been needed for

outdoor workers and for all who had to

march or walk across the extensive post.

Temperatures of from zero to 20 degrees

below were not uncommon, and a foot or

more of snow often covered the parade

ground.

On 3 November 1942, the newly appointed commandant, Colonel Hoag,

wired: DUE TO SEVERE CLIMATIC CONDI5

 (1) Memo, Dir WAAC for Reqmts Div SOS, 25

Jun 42; (2) Memo, Reqmts Div SOS for Dir WAAC,

2 Jul 42. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-42)(1) sec 1. 6

 Memo, OQMG for Dir WAAC, 20 Sep 42.

SPQRP 421-C. Copy in SPWA 421 (9-30-42). 7

 Risch, Wardrobe for Women of the Army, p. 67. 8

 Tp Conv, Col Hugh B. Hester, OQMG, and Dir

WAAC, 20 Jul 42. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-42)(1) sec 1. 9

 Memo, Reqmts Div SOS for Dir WAAC, 2 Aug

42. SPWA 400.34 (1943). The memorandum says only

that the Director, Requirements Division, SOS directed its Allowance Branch, the contending party, to

change its stand. 10

 Risch, Wardrobe for Women of the Army, pp. 70,

82-85.
152 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

TIONS, FOLLOWING ITEMS WAAC CLOTHING

URGENTLY NEEDED TO PROPERLY PROTECT

AND SAFEGUARD HEALTH OF THIS COMMAND.

He asked for over 15,000 each of fourbuckle arctic overshoes, nurses' lambskinlined mittens, and wool-lined trousers,

and concluded: IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT THE

SUPPLY OF THESE BE EXPEDITED. 1 1 A few

days later Colonel Hoag appealed again

by letter, asking for wool socks, caps,

shirts, and trousers, also mittens, wool underwear, and overshoes; for drivers, he

asked for flannel-lined coveralls to replace

the cotton ones.12

In Director Hobby's absence in England during this month, Colonel Catron

immediately appealed to Distribution Division, Services of Supply, for orders to

ship emergency cold-weather items. Some

debate then took place between Distribution Division and Requirements Division.

Distribution Division felt that action on

the radio request should not be delayed

but that the whole problem must be approached more deliberately:

With reference to the broad problem posed

by basic radio, this division has noted numerous requests initiated, piecemeal, by the

Women's Army Auxiliary Corps for the

adoption of additional items of clothing. . . .

It is recommended that caution be observed

in authorizing any special procurement to assure the adequacy of items hurriedly requested to fill the requirement for which intended. This division has no information as

to the adequacy of the trousers desired, nor

as to the suitability of the Arctic overshoes re- quested for wear with shoes issued to the

WAAC.13

As a result, no decisive action was taken

except to schedule a conference for 25 November, some two weeks away.

The Quartermaster General also was

unable to take action, and in fact was in a

state of rebellion against the repeated expansion directives his office had been receiving. It was his opinion that the War

Department supply agencies that agreed

to G-3's expansion program—particularly

Requirements Division—had not co-ordinated the matter fully enough with their

operating agencies.

OQMG, which had requested twelve

months' notice of expansion plans, now

was lucky to get twelve minutes, so rapidly

did the WAAC estimates go up. The

Quartermaster history of women's clothing stated: "Army Service Forces did its

planning at much too short range, without

admitting the necessity for stock-piling

cloth. . . ." Admittedly OQMG was kept

fully informed, often by telephone, of the

latest developments, but no sooner did it

complete plans and let contracts than the

figures were again raised. The figures furnished The Quartermaster General had

increased within a few months from a

March 1942 estimate of 12,000 in a year

to later estimates of 53,000 for 1943; then

113,000; then 150,000; then half a million,

although the last figure was not used for

procurement purposes. As a Quartermaster historian later remarked, "The consternation this created can be imagined."

 14

Accordingly, an OQMG council was

held in November of 1942, at which it was

stated that no increased supply of winter

uniforms could be procured and no coldweather or arctic equipment, unless the

office was given twelve months from date

of notice if cloth must be bought, or six

months if the items could be procured

ready-made. This was the time customarily allowed for the procurement of men's

11

 TWX, Comdt 1st WAAC Tng Cen to Dir

WAAC, 3 Nov 42. SPWA 420. 12

 Ltr, Col Hoag to Dir WAAC, 9 Nov 42. SPQ

420, in SPWA 400.34 (3-21-42)(1) sec 1. 13

 Covering Memo and Inds to TWX cited n. 11. 14

 Risch, Wardrobe for Women of the Army, pp. 5, 6.
SUPPLY AND THE WAAC UNIFORM 153

clothing and equipment. This recommendation was approved by the Services

of Supply's Chief of Staff, General Styer,

in ignorance of the fact that the women

were already at Des Moines.15

Upon Director Hobby's return from

England in mid-November and her

threatened resignation, General Styer

shortly reversed this policy and directed

The Quartermaster General to get 2,000

winter uniforms to Des Moines at once

and 1,000 a week thereafter, regardless of

his twelve months' notice. General Styer's

immediate subordinate, the assistant chief

of staff for operations—Maj. Gen. LeRoy

Lutes—then directed The Quartermaster

General to procure at once 2,500 woollined trousers, 2,500 wool shirts, and 2,000

pairs of gloves for WAAC motor transport

personnel. General Lutes' immediate subordinate, the director of Requirements Division—Brig. Gen. Walter A. Wood, Jr.—

also directed the Quartermaster Corps to

procure 17,700 wool caps and wool gloves

and 2,574 more overshoes, and to take action to standardize necessary articles for

winter wear.16

To achieve this increase without diverting standard material from men's uniforms, the Philadelphia Depot was obliged

to gather up various odd lots of different

colored woolen materials which were then

in the depot, and to have them redyed to

the enlisted shade. These inevitably came

out in a wide range of nonstandard colors.

One branch of OQMG directed that some

skirts, some jackets, and some caps be

made in each shade, so that a woman

might receive a complete matching outfit

even if she did not match her neighbors.

Since this would have caused administrative difficulty for the depot, another

branch of OQMG canceled this order

without the knowledge of the branch that

had issued it. As a result, skirts and jackets

were of different shades and it was impossible to match them. Observed a Quartermaster historian: "The most grotesque

combination was that of the chocolatebrown barathea and the mustard shade

olive-drab."

 17

 From the viewpoint of the

Recruiting Service, these uniforms were

worse than the shortages, but they were at

least warm.

To avoid such hasty procurement in the

future, The Quartermaster General again

recommended that his office be given

twelve months' notice on any further increases, saying:

Experience indicates that it has required

approximately twelve months from the initiation of procurement of cloth required for

WAAC uniforms until the finished article is

ready for issue.

WAAC Headquarters again professed its

helplessness to give such notice:

Since the passage of the bill creating the

WAAC, four (4) distinct expansion plans

have been ordered by higher authority. In

each instance the plan was ordered into op- eration immediately, and The Quartermaster General was given the proposed figures

without delay.

Accordingly, the Services of Supply was

forced in December of 1942 to give The

Quartermaster General procurement authorization in advance of the General Staff

decision on the Corps' future size, stating

that the clothing could be used for main15

 Memo, CofS SOS for Cof Adm Serv, 19 Nov 42.

SPEX, SPWA 421 (11-19-42). 16

 (1) Interv with Lt Col Helen Woods, 9 Oct 48.

(2) Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq to Cof Adm Serv, 15-21

Nov 42. SPWA 319.12 (11-9-42) sec 1. (3) Memo,

ACofS Opns SOS for QMG, 27 Nov 42. SPDDQ 420

Clothing, in SPWA 421 (11-27-42). (4) 1st Ind,

Reqmts Div SOS (Gen Wood) to QMG, 3 Dec 42.

SPRMD 421 (11 -26-42), in WA 400.34. 17

 Risch, Wardrobe for Women of the Army, p. 51, ns.

95, 97.
154 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tenance stocks if the expected draft of

women did not occur. The enormous

amounts of 400,000 by the end of 1943

and 750,000 by June of 1944 were authorized, in the expectation that the plan

for a draft law to obtain those numbers

would be approved. In the light of future

events, it was perhaps fortunate that the

paper was recalled, and that it was decided to await the General Staff decision

on draft plans.18

In spite of General Styer's intervention

in November, there could be no immediate improvement in the supply of uniforms since the procurement process had

been long delayed. On Christmas Eve

Colonel Hoag again telegraphed from Des

Moines, reporting many items exhausted,

all stocks low. At Daytona Beach, which

opened in December, only summer uniforms were available for most of the winter. Trainees were necessarily shipped out

in summer khaki, regardless of destination. The Third WAAC Training Center,

at Fort Oglethorpe, opening in January,

reported that many women went through

their entire training without uniforms; at

the same time, the rate of respiratory disorders soared to twice that of men in the

area. Graduates were at first held idle in

staging areas. The previous shipment of

women in civilian clothes to the Aircraft

Warning Service had had such an adverse

effect upon recruiting that Director

Hobby had issued a ban on further shipments not properly uniformed. Overcrowded conditions in the staging companies soon forced repeal of this order, and

a report from Fort Oglethorpe noted that

"Fifty percent of personnel departing this

station during the week of March 21-28

will not be uniformed."

 19

In early March WAAC Headquarters

was informed that it was impossible for

The Quartermaster General to meet the

supply schedule furnished by Requirements Division at the time of G-3's February decisions on Corps' size. As a result,

the Fourth WAAC Training Center was

scheduled to open in the still-wintry Massachusetts weather without any clothing

supplies whatever.

At this, the Director sent her chief of

operations, Colonel Clark, to the training

centers to determine the actual situation.

Upon his return Colonel Clark directed

sharp criticism toward the Army Service

Forces' supply agencies. There had been

minor administrative faults at the training

centers, Colonel Clark reported, such as

occasional failure to establish close cooperation with depots or to utilize stock

fully. Thus, the Atlanta Quartermaster

Depot had shipped items to Daytona

Beach that were needed at Fort Oglethorpe, and vice versa, and Quartermaster

had refused to exchange them:

He objected strenuously on the grounds

that such action would confuse his records. My reaction to that is that records can always

be straightened out but a death from pneu- monia due to improper clothing can hardly

be laughed off.

In spite of such occasional administrative

faults, Colonel Clark concluded emphatically that fully 80 percent of the difficulties could be traced to insufficiency of

production rather than of administration.

He recommended that proper authority

assure that individual contractors were on

time, that surplus men's material "known

to be available in abundance" be used,

18

 Memo, Dir Reqmts Div SOS for CofAdm Serv,

26 Nov 42, and Inds dated 5, 21, 27 Dec 42 and 12

Jan 43. SPRMP 291.9 WAAC, in Dir Adm Serv ASF

Sp Coll DRB AGO. 19

 (1) Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq to CofAdm Serv,

14-24 Mar 43. SPWA 319.12. (2) Ltr, 3d Tng Cen to

Dir WAAC, 20 Mar 43. WA 421 (1942).
SUPPLY AND THE WAAC UNIFORM 155

"that a determined inquiry be made at

once to ascertain why certain articles are,

and have been, habitually lacking over a

period of months, and that steps be taken

to remedy this deficiency."

 20

In reply to Colonel Clark's report, The

Quartermaster General stated that WAAC

supply had been "expedited in every manner"; "contractors are well ahead"; "this

office, in supervising and directing the

procurement of WAAC clothing through

the procuring depot, has taken every action possible to eliminate delinquencies on

current contracts."

 21

 This view was supported by General Madison Pearson,

Deputy Chief of Administrative Services,

SOS, who wrote, "The report of action

taken by The Quartermaster General indicates that everything possible is being

done to expedite the manufacture and

shipment of clothing."

 22

Finally, representatives of WAAC

Headquarters, in a meeting at OQMG,

secured promise of makeshift action to

supply the Fourth Training Center. A

sufficient quantity of Civilian Conservation Corps spruce-green mackinaws were

made available; trainees were issued Army

officers' serge shirts in lieu of winter jackets; and 20,000 more off-shade skirts were

procured, also shoes and raincoats. The

Fifth Training Center, at Camps Ruston

and Polk in Louisiana and Monticello in

Arkansas, could fortunately get along with

summer khaki. The Quartermaster General, said a WAAC representative, was

"most sympathetic and cooperative."

The Quartermaster General now decided that the matter of supplying the

WAAC warranted the full-time specialized attention of one officer, and a WAAC

officer was assigned to his office to work on

the problem. Such an assignment had not

been possible previously because of General Somervell's order that no WAAC

officers would be assigned to any office

within his headquarters other than that of

the Director WAAC.23

If the supply of uniforms to training

centers was insufficient, that to field stations was virtually nonexistent. Army supply officers at these stations often were

uncertain what the WAAC supply channel was or what depots stocked WAAC

clothing, and they had no copies of the

WAAC T/BA, T/E, and T/O, which

were apparently not available at training

centers or in the field. Even if requisitions

were properly submitted, it took over a

month to get them filled from the two

depots—Kansas City and Atlanta—that

stocked WAAC uniforms. Sometimes the

requisitions were never filled, and the wait

for shoes was often two or three months.

As late as 15 March a service command

which had administered WAAC units for

seven months was told that there was still

no schedule set up for maintenance allowances for Waacs at posts, camps, and stations, and that none could be set up until

sufficient quantities of clothing were available for new recruits.24

Appearance of the Uniform

In addition to exaggerating shortages,

the expansion program had permanently

20

 Memo, Chief, Opns Serv WAAC, for Exec

WAAC, 6 Mar 43. SPWA 421 (11-20-42) 1942. 21

 Memo, QMG for WAAC Hq, 10 Mar 43. SPWA

421 (1942). 22

 Memo, DCofAdm Serv for Dir WAAC, 13 Mar

43. Same file. 23

 Memo, Chief, Opns Serv WAAC for Dir WAAC,

23 Mar 43. WA 421 (1942). For Somervell order, see

pp. 94-95, above. 24

 (1) Ltr, OQMG to field, 23 Sep 42. SPQX 420.

(2) Ltr, 8 Dec 42, sub: same. SPWA 421 (5-16-42)

sec 1. (3) Memo, 1st Tng Cen for WAAC Hq, 29 Oct

42. SPWA 421. (4) Ltr, 1st SvC to Dir WAAC, 15

Mar 43. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-42)(1) sec 3.
156 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

affected the appearance of the WAAC

uniform, by making correction of early

mistakes impossible before mass production was required. For every amateur

theorist who supposed that any other

cause had damaged WAAC recruiting,

there were ten who put the blame on the

appearance of the uniform. Some nine out

often of the unsolicited letters of advice

received by the WAAC went so far as to

place sole responsibility upon this one

factor.

Actually, OQMG had been well aware

from the moment uniforms were issued

that many items of clothing needed modification, and plans for such modification

were being made when the need for immediate mass production intervened. The

Quartermaster General, soon after the

opening of the First WAAC Training Center, sent to Des Moines an expert committee which included a representative of the

Philadelphia Depot and a civilian consultant, Miss Dorothy Shaver, vice-president of Lord & Taylor. These catalogued

various complaints, and Colonel Faith

reported others. All garments were cut

with wide collars and narrow hips, as for

men; skirts, shirts, and jackets were for this

reason generally ill fitting, uncomfortable,

and unbecoming to the average woman.

Hats were out of shape before they were

issued; raincoats leaked at every seam in

even a light shower; seams of hems were

sewed down so that they could not be

easily raised or lowered, and some garments had no hems at all. The suspenders

on girdles were too short and pulled runs

in stockings, as the War Production Board

had allotted insufficient elastic.25

The attempt to discover the reason for

the poor appearance of what had been a

basically sound uniform design revealed

that the Philadelphia Depot had never

made a graded designers' model of the

uniform, but had somehow got hold of a

rough pattern cut by a manufacturer to

estimate the cloth needed. This the depot

had henceforth called "the master pattern," and from it each manufacturer had

developed a set of sized patterns of his

own. Those manufacturers who received

contracts were all in the men's-wear industry, since, The Quartermaster General

reported, "The manufacturers of women's

clothing were not able to handle the production of WAAC uniforms at the prices

which the Philadelphia Depot was willing

to pay." Moreover, winter uniforms had

already been made upon the defective

patterns used for the summer ones.

For the poor results obtained, the Philadelphia Depot blamed The Quartermaster General for failing to consult it earlier,

thus giving it insufficient time for development of patterns. Further developmental

work was therefore relinquished to the

depot so that it might not be hampered.

A new jacket was developed, with a better-fitting collar. It had no belt, as the

women had shown a tendency to pull the

belt too tight. Unfortunately, the depot, in

omitting the belt, respaced the jacket buttons so that the bottom one fell quite low;

it was now impossible for a Waac to sit

down without unbuttoning the lowest

jacket button or suffering what Director

Hobby described as an "unsightly gap."

Since large quantities had been acquired,

The Quartermaster General refused to

correct the spacing. The new jacket, as

turned out by the men's garment contractors, was also too flat across the bust and

still too stiff and awkward.

25

 (1) Rpt, 20 Oct 42. SPWA 421. (2) Ltr, Faith to

Dir WAAC, 12 Aug 42. SPWA 421 (8-22-42). (3)

Risch, Wardrobe for Women of the Army, Ch. IV. The

following paragraphs, unless otherwise stated, are

based on Risch, especially pages 40-47 and 61-63.
SUPPLY AND THE WAAC UNIFORM 157

WAAC BAND, Fort Des Moines.

The skirt pattern also was modified to

round the hipline somewhat and to prevent wrinkling and rolling. The summer

material was too stiff to permit insertion

of a pleat, even if War Production Board

rules would have allowed it. The 8.2-

ounce cotton twill used in men's uniforms

had admittedly proved totally unsatisfactory for women's; OQMG now tried to

devise some other suitable summer material which would withstand laundering in

Quartermaster laundries, but various cotton-rayon combinations all proved doubtful. Seersucker was dropped from consideration because it would have required a

new uniform design and because of a

shortage of production facilities, although

the WAVES, SPARS, and women Marines

all found an adequate supply for summer

uniforms. Finally, it was decided that the

khaki uniforms must be retained.

Until the spring of 1943, both the Director WAAC and The Quartermaster

General found themselves in the position

of helpless bystanders, able only to make

suggestions, which were accepted by the

Philadelphia Depot but never seemed to

appear in the finished garments. In May,

OQMG discovered the cause—the depot

was frequently ignoring its recommendations, and for six months had not made all

the requested corrections, nor had it ever

placed the pattern in the hands of a good

tailor of women's clothing, which it had

been directed to do.

The Quartermaster General now took

back some control over developmental

work and, at the request of WAAC Headquarters, called in representatives of four

leading clothing firms and expert designers of women's patterns.26

 These immediately discarded the Army sizes, which had

been set up in long, regular, and short, as

26

 M/R, 19 May 43, Min of Mtg, and atchd Memo,

ASF for OQMG, sub: Summer Uniforms, WAAC.

SPWA 421 (1942).
158 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

for men. Now at last patterns in the usual

women's sizes were developed—half sizes,

misses', women's, and long sizes. These

proved better, but the Quartermaster's

Storage and Distribution Division insisted

that the old size designations and stock

numbers be used on the new patterns, to

avoid complicating its storage and issue

system, which was geared to handle only

short, regular, and long.

Even with improved patterns, the jackets still remained stiff and unbecoming,

and it was not until some months later

that OQMG detected the trouble: the

Philadelphia Depot was still writing specifications, which manufacturers were required to follow, that called for the use of

the same heavy construction with canvasses and interlinings of the weights used

in men's uniforms.

In late 1943 and 1944 a satisfactory uniform pattern was to be gradually developed, but its production by this time was,

as The Quartermaster General said, now

merely a matter of academic interest, as

large stocks of the earlier patterns had

been ordered in an effort to meet the

scheduled expansion program, and no

new procurement could be authorized

until these were worn out.

At first sight of the original ill-fitting

uniforms, Director Hobby in July 1942

had recommended to Requirements Division, SOS, that Waacs going to the field or

on leave be allowed to purchase individually tailored white dress uniforms, at

their own expense, as were male Army

officers, Army nurses, and, later, the Navy

women's services. It was believed that

such a measure would eliminate the worst

of the general criticism encountered earlier, since the dress uniform could be worn

for public ceremonies and appearances.

Requirements Division disapproved this

request: "No useful purpose can be served

in connection with efforts toward a successful prosecution of the war."

 27

 Three

subsequent requests by the Director to

General Marshall were stopped by the

Services of Supply from reaching him, and

the WAAC was not authorized a dress

uniform until later entry into the Army

automatically gave it to women officers.

The appearance of the WAAC cap was

also much criticized. It was worked over

by experts—the visor was made twice as

thick and heavy, to prevent buckling; the

side and top stiffening was increased; a

new type of lining was devised. Still the

cap remained almost impossible to clean

and block. Director Hobby in January

1943 finally gave up the idea of a distinctive cap and requested a garrison (overseas) cap for all but dress wear. The Director pointed out that winter and summer

garrison caps at a cost of 71 cents and 39

cents respectively would eliminate the

need for issue of extra visored caps at

$2.32 and $1.99 apiece. This request was

refused by the Services of Supply on the

grounds that it would increase the number of issued items. Although men got both

dress and service caps, it was at the time

believed that the War Department was

shortly to cease issuing the garrison cap to

men.28

The WAAC shirtwaist was also the subject of dispute, and more than one Army

man reported, quite accurately, "I never

yet saw a WAAC whose shirt collar fit

her." Commercial producers of women's

shirts had always sized them by bust sizes

rather than by collar size, since civilian

27

 (1) Memo, OQMG for G-1, 18 Jul 42, with Inds

and covering Memos; (2) Memo, Dir WAAC for

CofAdm Serv. 24 Aug 42, and Inds. SPQRE 421, in

SPWA 421 (7-16-42). 28

 Memo, WAAC Hq for CofAdm Serv, 20 Jan 43,

and Inds. SPWA 421.
SUPPLY AND THE WAAC UNIFORM 159

women's blouses seldom had a standing

collar and tie and therefore did not require exact collar measurements. Men's

shirts, on the other hand, were sized by

neck and sleeve measurements.

The Quartermaster General now perceived that women's military shirts should

have been sized like men's, but the shirt

contracts had been let to manufacturers of

women's garments, who were unable to

produce men's-type shirts with a standing

collarband and graded neck and sleeves.

To cancel their contracts and let new ones

would have caused a serious delay; it was

therefore decided to retain the convertible

collar and the original sizing system. Several sleeve lengths for each size were recommended, but the Quartermaster Storage and Distribution Division would not

concur, because of the "extra work this

would entail" in storing and shipping

several types of shirts.

One difficulty was solved, however: The

Quartermaster General discovered that

the Philadelphia Depot had again been

guilty of furnishing manufacturers a basic

pattern cut by makers of men's shirts. A

new pattern was devised with a collar that

was smaller than the previous one and a

bust that was larger, and this proved fairly

satisfactory. Again, large purchases of the

defective pattern had been made and had

to be issued throughout 1943 and 1944,

and complaints about the shirt never

ceased to come in.

The problem of providing satisfactory

government-issue shoes for women had

from the beginning been difficult to solve

so as to please everyone. The Director's

Office made surveys of the women's opinions as to various types of shoes and found

that there was a dissatisfied minority for

any type. Medical opinion also was divided. One school of thought recommended a flat-heeled shoe like the men's

for all purposes, pointing out that most

orthopedic patients in WAAC training

center hospitals suffered from sprains and

fractures caused by marching or doing

heavy work in the medium-heeled oxfords.

Other experts said that, on the contrary,

a sudden change to flat heels for constant

wear would cause even greater foot trouble and fallen arches for the majority of

American women. The dispute was resolved by the adoption of the nurses' highlaced flat-heeled field boot for outdoor

work and marching and the service oxford

for office and dress. Even for this limited

use, the field boot had to be broken in by

an elaborate routine involving heavy wool

anklets and ten-minute daily wearings.

The Director therefore recommended that

the women get one pair of these field shoes

in addition to the two pairs of ordinary

shoes.

This request was refused by the Army

Service Forces: men got only two pairs,

both of course flat-heeled, so women could

have only two—one of oxfords and one of

field shoes. The Director appealed again,

pointing out that in such case a woman

could not let her service oxfords be sent

away for repair, since repair of women's

shoes proved to be always slower than that

of men's and ordinarily took from two

weeks to a month, a prohibitive length of

time to be without shoes for office wear.

Finally, after the Director wrote a memorandum on the subject to General Somervell, the ASF agreed to issue Waacs three

pairs of shoes—two of oxfords and one of

field shoes for office workers, one of oxfords

and two of field shoes for outdoor

workers.29

29

 (1) Request, Dir WAAC to OQMG, for field

shoes, 4 Sep 42; (2) Rpt on test of 500 WAAC oxfords, 14 Nov 42; (3) Ltr, Surg, Ft Oglethorpe, to Dir

SUPPLY AND THE WAAC UNIFORM 161

The WAAC utility bag had likewise

proved unsatisfactory. The cheap imitation leather adopted by the economyminded Quartermaster General almost at

once cracked and peeled. The Director

then presented him with a leather bag designed by Richard Koret, and requested

its adoption. Mourned a Quartermaster

historian: "It was apparently immaterial

that the bag was expensive and that it

used calfskin leather, a critical material."

 30

This sample was delivered to the Philadelphia Depot, which immediately let the

contract to such low-priced manufacturers

that the resulting bag was unrecognizable

and quickly wore out. Finally, OQMG

announced with pleasure that it had located a quantity of seal leather, tanned

goatskin, and genuine water buffalo. These

were durable and noncritical materials,

and an excellent utility bag resulted.

The Navy avoided most clothing difficulties by giving its Waves a clothing allowance with which to purchase uniforms.

Various commercial firms produced the

uniforms, apparently without any of the

Philadelphia Depot's misfortunes, and

sold them through department stores

which gave expert fitting. Shoes and other

personal items could thus be chosen from

standard models whose fit suited the individual. The Army was unable to adopt

this system, since to provide a money

allowance in lieu of clothing would have

required Congressional action to amend

existing Army legislation. Army women

eventually benefited in that they received

maintenance of the uniform by free replacement of worn-out items, whereas the

Waves' monetary maintenance allowance

of $12.50 every three months was reputedly scarcely enough to keep them in

stockings, much less in new uniforms,

shoes, and underwear.31

The Need for New Types of Work Clothing

As Waacs began, under the expansion

program, to do various kinds of Army jobs

which had not been anticipated by the

WAAC Pre-Planners, a need arose for new

types of work clothing. Of the four types of

jobs which had been originally authorized—clerks, drivers, cooks, and telephone

operators—the first and last could be performed in the A uniform. Accordingly, the

only work uniforms authorized for Waacs

were white dresses for cooks and coveralls

for drivers to put on over their uniforms

while making motor repairs. These work

uniforms were issued only to the few specialists concerned. The majority of Waacs

when shipped to the field had only the A

uniform plus two of the seersucker exercise

dresses, which were worn to protect the

service uniform during physical training,

kitchen police, and barracks fatigue duties.

With the expansion of the Corps, Waacs

soon were working in hospital wards and

laboratories, driving light trucks as well as

staff cars, and being assigned as full-time

mechanics, welders, pier checkers, messengers, and gas pump attendants. In the Air

Forces many worked "on the line" in aircraft maintenance and in other jobs that

required them to climb in and out of aircraft and up and down control towers.

Neither the A uniform nor the fatigue

WAAC, 23 Feb 43, and Inds; (4) Ltr, WAAC Hq to

Des Moines, 3 Apr 43; (5) Ltr, WAAC Hq to Reqmts

Div ASF, 10 Jun 43, with Inds; (6) Memo, Col Hobby

for Gen Somervell, 9 Jul 43; (7) Change to T/E 21,

Sep 43; (8) Ltrs, Field Stas to Dir WAAC, various

dates, atchd to above. All in SPWA 421.3 Shoes (9-

4-42) 1943.

30

 Risch, Wardrobe for Women of the Army, p. 73. 31

 Memo, Asst Exec WAC for Dir WAC, 14 Mar

44, sub: Uniform Issue of Marines, WAVES, and

SPARS. WDWAC 421.
162 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

dress was appropriate. The A uniform was

easily ruined by grease or medicines, and

its tight skirt made tower-climbing either

impossible or immodest; the exercise dress

was even skimpier, being well above the

knee and unsuitable for appearance outside the WAAC area.

One of the most important reported

work needs was for some form of trousers

or culottes, requests for which poured in

from the field. The Military District of

Washington, after a study of the needs of

Waacs in its motor pool, requested a culotte

skirt for drivers. The regular skirt had

proven

slightly embarrassing at times to the wearer, particularly in climbing over tail-gates into

trucks, or standing on a rack about 31⁄2 feet

high and leaning over washing the tops of

passenger cars. . . . The coverall currently

provided has been found unsuitable and unsightly for wear when driving staff cars and

the regulation skirt too short and tight.

WAAC Headquarters concurred in this

request and asked the development of a

divided skirt for drivers.

However, Requirements Division, Army

Service Forces, refused the request on the

grounds that the Director herself had rejected culottes at the time the uniform was

decided upon. The Director thereupon

acknowledged her mistake but renewed

the request, saying, "In March 1942 there

were no Waacs on duty in the field and

therefore no recommendations or decision

could be based on actual experience."

This question went as far as the Acting

Chief of Staff, Army Service Forces, who

supported Requirements Division's view

and refused the request.32

The demand for a work garment continued too strong to stem, and later in the

spring of 1943 Director Hobby again appealed to the Army Service Forces: "It has

become increasingly evident as larger

numbers of WAAC units are assigned to

the field . . . that a trousered garment

for exercise, fatigue, and other heavy work

is vitally necessary."

 33

 Since Requirements Division would not concur in the design and procurement of slacks or culottes

for Waacs, Director Hobby requested,

as the only other alternative, that the herringbone twill coveralls be issued to all

Waacs, instead of only to drivers.

This action was agreeable to Requirements Division, but, since men had only

one type of fatigue clothes, the seersucker

exercise dress was deleted from the authorized issue except for use in the training

center. Instead of two exercise dresses,

each Waac assigned to the field was now

issued one coverall. WAAC Headquarters

requested two coveralls, but Requirements

Division decided that one would be adequate and that Waacs in active work could

later get two by turning in one skirt and

one shirt. The Des Moines Motor Transport School attempted to get three or four

coveralls for student drivers, so that coveralls could be sent to the ten-day Quartermaster laundries. The Quartermaster

General's Office concurred in this, but

Requirements Division disapproved it "in

view of the requirements of the using arms

and services and the production facilities

of industry."

 34

 The later training centers

for a time had difficulty in getting even

the allotted number, and drivers at Daytona Beach wore men's Class B blue

denim.35

32

 Ltr, MDW Motor Gen to CG MDW, 30 Jun 43,

with Inds. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-43)(1) sec 4 (1942). 33

 Memo, WAAC Hq for Reqmts Div ASF, 21 May

43, sub: Trousers, HBT. Same file. Also Ltr, Camp

Campbell, Ky., to 5th SvC, 20 Mar 43, and 16 Inds.

Same file, sec 3. 34

 Ltr, Ft Des Moines MT Sch to CO 1st WAAC

Tng Cen, 22 Sep 42. Same file, sec 1. 35

 Ltr, 2d WAAC Tng Cen to Dir WAAC, 18 Jun

43. Same file, sec 4.
SUPPLY AND THE WAAC UNIFORM 163

PHYSICAL TRAINING at an Army Air Forces Training Command base in 1943.

The adoption of the coveralls did not

solve the need for cold-weather work garments, for which requests continued to

come in from both Army and Air Forces

stations. Whereas a man might comfortably wear cotton coveralls over his long

winter underwear and wool trousers, a

Waac had nothing underneath but her

winter panties, only one fourth as heavy as

men's winter underwear. In March, what

OQMG believed to be women's wool

shirts and trousers were issued to drivers

only, but these proved greatly oversized

and unsuitable.

In late April of 1943, after the Waacs

had somehow survived the first winter,

The Quartermaster General sent a committee to investigate the situation at Fort

Des Moines and make recommendations

on winter clothing. The committee recommended that all Waacs in cold climates,

regardless of job, get warmer panties and

vests (50 percent wool instead of the current 25 percent) and also wool shirts and

knee-length wool stockings. All outdoor

workers should also get long wool drawers

and long-sleeved undershirts, trousers with

an inner wool liner and outer windproof

cover, field jackets with liners and covers,

leggings, and wool caps. Director Hobby
164 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

concurred, pointing out that much training time had been lost at Fort Des Moines

and Fort Devens for lack of warm clothing. However, Requirements Division did

not favorably consider the field jacket,

leggings, and 50 percent wool underwear

for women, or the wool waist, trousers, and

liner for any except drivers.36

Warm-weather clothing was equally

deficient, according to reports from hospitals and stations in semitropical climates.

These, finding the heavy A uniform totally

unsuited to a hot climate or to hospital

ward work, had fallen into the admittedly

undesirable practice of allowing Waacs to

wear the short seersucker exercise dress for

many types of jobs, even desk jobs in headquarters where they were fully visible to

employees and visitors. The dress was also

worn for kitchen police and barracks duties where the long-sleeved coverall was

too hot. Just as the decision was rendered

to substitute coveralls for exercise dresses,

many southern stations were writing to

plead for four or more of the exercise

dresses instead of two.

The Army Air Forces' large Training

Command, which at one time utilized

almost one sixth of the entire WAAC personnel, was particularly hard-hit, since the

majority of its airfields were along the

southern border in Florida, Louisiana,

Texas, and the southwestern desert. A

study prepared by this command pointed

out that at many fields the temperature

never went below 90° or 100° for months

at a time and often rose as high as 135° F.

Enlisted women were obliged to wear two

shirts a day and wash them at night, since

there were no laundries on the fields. The

Air Forces study concluded that Waacs

must be immediately issued at least five

short-sleeved shirts in addition to their

regular ones, three exercise suits instead of

the two then issued, and four pairs of cotton anklets instead of the three wool ones

then issued. In reply, the AAF received

what it considered an inexplicable decision that no additional clothing would be

issued and that even the two exercise suits

would be taken away and replaced by a

heavy coverall.37

In May of 1943, three months before

the refusal of the Air Forces' request, the

Director had made a similar recommendation: that the Quartermaster Corps

redesign the exercise dress into a seersucker summer uniform like that of the

WAVES and Women Marines. The Quartermaster General concurred and visualized the development of one standard

short-sleeved work dress, longer and better fitted than the exercise dress, which

could be worn by cooks, hospital workers,

women in tropical climates, and any

others who needed such a dress. The

Quartermaster Corps began to study this

problem in 1943 but no summer dress for

universal on-duty wear was produced during World War II.

The lack of such a dress was felt most

strongly by hospitals, where WAAC workers had no uniform comparable to the

nurses' white or seersucker uniforms. Some

Waacs wore seersucker fatigue dresses if

they had received any before issue was discontinued. This practice was pronounced

unsanitary, since the same dress was worn

for physical training, recreation, kitchen

police, and barracks fatigue duties, and

with only two dresses a Waac could not

36

 Ltr, Comdt to OQMG, 22 Apr 43. Same file, sec

3a.

37

 Ltr, AAF CFTC, Randolph Field, Tex., with

Ind, Hq AAF Tng Comd, Ft Worth, Tex., to Dir

WAC, 20 Aug 43. Same file, sec 4.
SUPPLY AND THE WAAC UNIFORM 165

use the hospital laundry but either wore

her dress a week unwashed or washed one

herself every night. Even so, the two exercise dresses were more suitable than the

one coverall that replaced them.38

The Quartermaster Corps, on being

informed of the problem, was agreeable to

issuing hospital Waacs the WAAC cookbaker dress, a neat cool wrap-around

white garment which could be dyed any

desired pastel shade to distinguish Waacs

from nurses. However, The Surgeon General's Office objected: "Fatigue clothes are

worn by enlisted men of the medical department and there should be no exception for members of the WAAC stationed

at hospitals." Waacs, this office said, could

wear either their coveralls or surgical

gowns. Requirements Division, ASF, concurred with The Surgeon General's Office

and overruled the Quartermaster Corps.

They held firm in this ruling all summer

even after stations in the field pointed out

that enlisted men on duty in clinics and

laboratories often did get four pairs of

cook's white trousers and six white coats.

The surgical gown shortly proved most

unsatisfactory for women working in

men's wards: it was too long, frequently

dragging on the floor. Worse, it was open

all the way down the back and a uniform

was not customarily worn underneath in

warm weather.39

With hundreds of similar field requests

on file, the Army Service Forces held unswervingly to its policy that no additions

or changes would be made to the originally authorized uniform either in type or

amount. Fort Bragg, North Carolina,

asked increased issue of dresses and aprons

for cooks and bakers because of the intense summer heat, the coal ranges used,

and the ten-day laundry service. This was

refused by The Quartermaster General's

Office on the grounds that the material

was needed instead for grain bags and

civilian clothing. Recruiting offices in Virginia asked that all stockings issued them

be rayon instead of half the issue in cotton,

which produced a bad public reaction.

The Director approved this request and

asked that all Waacs assigned outside

Army posts be issued rayon stockings only,

but was refused by The Quartermaster

General on the grounds that rayon did not

wear as long as cotton stockings.

Director Hobby asked that, if Waacs

could not have a garrison cap, they be

issued two summer hats, since the current

issue of one made cleaning and blocking

impossible. No immediate action was

taken on this request; OQMG had on

hand only 262,000 extra summer caps and

feared that a sudden influx of recruits

might cause a shortage. In only one minor

case did the Army Service Forces grant a

request for change: late in August of 1943

it authorized WAAC recruiters to receive

an extra summer jacket, skirt, and cap,

after it was demonstrated by a year in the

field that recruiters had to wear the full

uniform daily and could not wear fatigue

clothing while their one jacket and cap

were being cleaned.40

The trend of/Requirements Division's

policy was in fact in the opposite direction—the systematic deletion of all items

of the original authorization that men did

38

 Ltr, CO Hosp Unit, Ft Oglethorpe to Dir

WAAC, 10 Apr 43. Same file, sec 3. 39

 (1) Memo, SGO for QMG, 6 May 43, with Inds;

(2) Ltr, Randolph Field, Tex., to Dir WAC, 20 Aug

43. Same file, sec 4. 40

 (1) Ltr, Ft Bragg to 4th SvC, 28 May 43; (2) Ltr,

Richmond R&I Dist to Dist R&I Off, 23 Aug 43, and

Inds; (3) Memo, ASF for Reqmts Div ASF, 30 Aug

43; (4) Memo, Reqmts Div ASF for OQMG. Same

file, sec 4.
166 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

not wear. These included summer and

winter pajamas, galoshes, handkerchiefs,

dress shields, athletic shoes, and summer

and winter bathrobes.41

Next, a Quartermaster committee

"made personal investigations at Fort Des

Moines" and found that only 25 percent

of the women were wearing the issue girdles, others preferring to wear none or to

purchase a favorite brand commercially.42

The Quartermaster Corps felt that Waacs

should be given, in lieu of the issue, money

to purchase the brassieres and girdles of

their choice, and WAAC Headquarters

concurred. However, this plan would have

required amendatory legislation and, after

various unsuccessful attempts to draw up

the legislation in general terms, the Army's

Legislative and Liaison Division retreated

in disorder. One colonel in this division

recommended that the proper physical

appearance of Waacs be attained by exercise and good posture, and not by the use

of "surgical contraptions." If the government was to issue brassieres and girdles to

women, he wrote, then "such devices

could well be considered for the officers

and enlisted men."

 43

 The issue of girdles

and brassieres was therefore stopped. Several months later, when such items became

very scarce on the commercial market, the

Director requested that the issue be resumed, but this request was refused by

The Quartermaster General.

Public Reaction to Unsuitable Uniforms

By this time it was unfortunately impossible to conceal from the American public

the fact that the WAAC uniform and supply program had become a tragicomedy

of errors. Gallup polls showed that eligible

prospects for enlistment rated the WAAC

uniform last in attractiveness, after the

Marines', Waves', and Spars' uniforms.

The citizenry at large was inspired with a

desire to be helpful, and letters poured in

from housewives, designers, Congressmen,

soldiers, and other interested bystanders.

All writers were firmly convinced that

adoption of their ideas would immediately

end the WAAC's recruiting difficulties.44

Many ideas, particularly those from

Army stations and Waacs in the field, were

practical and sound, but required major

revisions, which could not have been made

during the expansion period without

greatly delaying contracts, and which

could not be made afterward in view of

the necessity of wearing out huge stocks of

already-procured items. The same public

that condemned the Waacs' appearance

was not ready to support expensive measures such as discarding thousands of dollars worth of unsightly and ill-fitting

garments. When recruiting advertisements

pointed out that Waacs received certain

fine-quality items worth a total of $250

(although actually costing the government

half that) irate readers wrote to ask why

the taxpayers' money was spent in this

fashion. Later, Congressional committees

were to investigate the alleged expenses.45

41

 (1) Memo, Distrib Div SOS for Reqmts Div SOS,

and Ind. SPDDQ421 Shoes, in same file, sec 1. (2)

Memo, WAAC Hq for CofAdm Serv, 23 Nov 42.

SPWA 400.34. 42

 Rpt cited n. 25(1). 43

 (1) Memo, Col E. J. Walsh, L&LD, for G-1, 28

Oct 42. SPWA 422.2 (9-16-42) Foundation Garments. (2) Memo, QMG for USW, 16 Sep 42, sub:

Proposed Amendment to PL 554. Folder, WAC Recruiting, ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 44

 See entire SPWA 400 files, as well as: (1) Memo,

Dir WAC for OQMG, 20 Aug 43. SPWA 400.34 (3-

21-42). (2) Ltr, Miss Erma Reece, Kansas City, Mo.,

to Mrs. Hobby, 10 Jul 43. SPWA 421. (3) Ltr, Mr. A.

J. Drugan to the President of the U.S., 9 Oct 42.

SPWA 421. (4) Comments in Min, Rctg Conf, Chicago, 7-8 May 43, SPWA 337. (5) For Gallup polls, see

Ch. XV, below. 45

 Ibid.
SUPPLY AND THE WAAC UNIFORM 167

The final solution of the WAAC uniform problems was impossible at this time.

It waited upon the day when the Director's Office was removed from the Army

Service Forces and when The Quartermaster General had organized a specialist

group for the development of Wacs' and

nurses' clothing. Meanwhile, the extent to

which the state of the uniform had damaged recruiting in the intervening months

was always to remain a matter for speculation. WAAC authorities actually attributed less importance to this factor than did

the general public. Although many women

informed recruiters that this was their

reason for not enlisting, and although

many men used this argument to discourage women from enlisting, later events

were to indicate that this excuse was nothing more than a red herring offered by

Individuals who would have disapproved

of enlistment in any case.

Director Hobby offered scant sympathy

to those who wrote her that their patriotic

desire to enlist was impeded only by the

uniform. To one such person she personally dictated and signed a reply: "Since

the uniform is of so much importance to

you in making your decision to join one of

the women's services, I suggest that you

select the service which, in your opinion,

has the most attractive uniform."

 46

 Significantly, the complainers did not do so.

The WAVES, with their smart Mainbocher-designed uniforms, never recruited

the numbers of women that the WAAC

and WAC did, and the weekly intake of

the WAVES, SPARS, and Women Marines fluctuated constantly in close proportion to that of the WAAC.47

 The cause of

recruiting difficulty, for any women's service, was to be proved more complex than

any mere reaction to the appearance of a

uniform.

46

 Ltr, Miss Elizabeth Williams to Mrs. Hobby, 4

May 44, and atchd reply. WDWAC 095. 47

 See following chapters.
CHAPTER X

Stresses of Rapid Build-up:

Recruiting

The Army Recruiting Service, to which

had been delegated the recruitment of

women, inherited a discouraging tradition: from Revolutionary days onward the

Army had never been able to recruit the

number of men needed to fill its ranks in

a major war. The Continental Congress

had been unable to persuade each colony

to contribute its fair share of men, and

General George Washington had lamented, "We should not have found ourselves this spring so weak as to be insulted

by 5,000 men . . .; we should not have been

for the greatest part of the war inferior to

the enemy . . . for want of force which the

country was completely able to afford."

 l

In the War of 1812 and during the Indian

wars, even the meager forces authorized

by Congress could not be obtained by re-,

cruiting. Both the North and the South,

during the Civil War, had to resort to conscription before the war ended.

With the first World War, it became an

established tradition that the nation

would draft soldiers if they were needed.

Both the public and the Army accepted

the fact that a volunteer system would

never persuade the needed number of men

to enlist in a national emergency. In the

interval of peace between the two World

Wars, Congress whittled the enlisted

strength of the Regular Army down to

118,750 men—less than the total number

of women who were eventually to be recruited for the WAC.2

 The Army Recruiting Service therefore was geared to bring

in only a modest number of men, and this

during the depression years when surplus

manpower was abundant. Even before the

nation entered World War II Congress

again provided for conscription, so that

the Army had never been obliged to perfect a high-grade sales organization. After

enactment of Selective Service legislation,

only limited personnel and facilities remained available to the Recruiting Service, which was devoted chiefly to Aviation

Cadet recruiting and other special projects.

It was thus a severely handicapped organization that undertook WAAC recruiting upon the Corps' formation. In the

opinion of the Army officers later assigned

to salvage the program, the Army Recruiting Service was placed at a great disadvantage in being forced to attempt a feat

entirely outside its experience: to bring in

larger numbers of women than it had ever

1

 Military Policy of the United States (U. S. Military

Academy, West Point, 1944), with foreword by Col.

Herman Beukema, Prof., USMA, p. 8. 2

 Ibid. The top WAC strength at any one time was

just below 100,000; total number recruited was 143,-

435. See Tables 1 and 2, Appendix A. See also Ch.

XXXIV, below.
RECRUITING 169

obtained of men, and this in a nation that

indorsed the idea that "women's place is

in the home." The 1943 chief of the

WAAC Recruiting Section, Captain Edlund, said, "The Army had never had a

real recruiting setup. . . . It was never

a sales office in any sense of the word, for

in peacetime they were always able to get

the quota they were after, without actually

recruiting them."

 3

The Navy, in recruiting Waves, recognized the difficulty by giving direct commissions in high ranks to well-known advertising experts and authorities on sales

methods. The enlistment of Waves was

taken entirely out of the hands of the

agencies that enlisted men and given to

the Office of Naval Officer Procurement,

in consideration of the fact that the recruitment of women was more selective

than the drafting of men. In the Army,

the Army Service Forces chose to use the

personnel already assigned to its Recruiting Service, and The Adjutant General,

General Ulio, stated that no intensive recruiting effort for women was deemed

"necessary or advisable."

 4

The Army Recruiting Service responded well enough as long as no strain

was put upon it. WAAC Headquarters

furnished it with assorted instructions and

pamphlets, and the numbers of applicants

at first so far exceeded training space that

the selection of well-qualified women offered no great problem. It was directed

that recruits be thoroughly screened by

mental and physical tests and by inquiries

to their references and to police courts and

schools. Women were also required to

prove their occupational claims, and to be

interviewed finally by a WAAC officer

who had the power of administrative rejection. Even so, recruiting efficiency was

far from 100 percent, for early reports

showed that recruiters were losing sales in

more than two thirds of all cases in which

women were interested enough to approach them.

Staff directors also noted that recruiters

frequently gave out untrue information, or

took other action not in the best interests

of the Corps.5 About mid-November of

1942 Colonel Catron reported to General

Grunert that there were some signs of

what was called "careless enrollment."

 6

Each applicant was at this time the subject of a Provost Marshal General check,

although her enlistment could be completed pending its receipt, and an increasing number of derogatory reports began

to be received which necessitated the discharge of women after enrollment. Particularly embarrassing was one case in

which a recruit's unsuitability had not

been detected in time, and, although discharged, she was thereafter able to bill

herself as "The Original WAAC StripTeaser." A study was initiated to check

such cases, and the office also took up with

The Surgeon General the number of

physically unfit individuals being accepted. Colonel Catron urged The Adjutant General's Office, which conducted

WAAC recruiting, to increase its efforts

both in numbers and quality.

3

 Memo, Conf of Offs to Supervise OC Bds, 9-10

Jun 43. SPWA 334.8 Conf 1943. 4

 Memo, TAG for CG ASF, 5 Apr 43. AG 341

(4-5-43) PR-I, in SPWA 341. 5

 (1) Ltr, TAG to all Corps Areas, 4 Jul 42; Additions: TWXs, TAG to all Corps Areas, 24 Jul and 12

Aug 42; also Ltr, WAAC Hq to Corps Areas, 16 Jul

42. SPX 291.9, in SPWA 341. (2) Weekly Rpt, WAAC

Hq to CofAdm Serv, 7-12 Dec 42. SPWA 319.12. (3)

Ltr, Stf Dir 2d SvC to Betty Bandel. Folder, WAAC

Stf Mtg, SPWA 319.2 (12-2-42), WAAC Planning

files. Also Rpts in Folder, Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-

17 Jun 43, SPWA 337 (6-1-43). 6

 Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq to CofAdm Serv, 8-16

Nov and 28 Nov 42. SPWA 319.12 (11-9-42) sec 1.
170 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

RECRUITING OFFICERS OF SIXTH SERVICE COMMAND at a meeting to

help promote enrollment in the WAAC, December 1942.

Danger Signals

When the expansion program required

a tenfold increase in quotas, The Adjutant General's Office began to put more

pressure on its Recruiting Service. A booklet was circulated entitled A Plan for Increasing the Rate of Enrollment in the WAAC.

In order not to disturb Army command

prerogatives, the actual conduct of recruiting was left to the service commands,

of which Captain Edlund observed, "In

the Service Commands we had nine separate recruiting campaigns."

 7 In January

of 1943 all service commands received a

visit from a liaison party consisting of

representatives of The Adjutant General

and WAAC Headquarters, accompanied

by advertising experts from N. W. Ayer &

Son, the advertising agency that held the

contract for WAAC recruiting. Advertising matter was placed in seven magazines

and in many newspapers; several WAAC

posters were printed and distributed by

The Adjutant General's Recruiting Publicity Bureau in New York City; information pamphlets of several types were also

provided. Through the Office of War Information, a radio campaign was obtained.8

In spite of these efforts, certain danger

signals began to be apparent. One was the

adverse attitude of the men of the armed

forces. In early January of 1943 the unfavorable nature of soldier opinion had become so unmistakable that Director Hobby

7

 Memo cited n. 3. 8

 (1) Memo cited n. 4. (2) Memo, Col Charles A.

Easterbrook for Dir WAAC, 1 Feb 43. SPWA 334.8

Rctg (12-28-42) 1942.
RECRUITING 171

requested the Services of Supply to make a

formal survey.9 This was done at once by

Special Services Division, and the results,

available in March, were more unfavorable than even the worst expectations.

When asked, "If you had a sister 21 years

old or older, would you like to see her join

the WAAC or not?" the reply was:

No.............................. . 4 0 percent

Yes.............................. . 2 5 percent

Undecided....................... . 35 percent

The percentages were almost identical

when men were asked whether they would

advise a girl friend to join—only one

fourth would. Those who said no gave as

their reasons: "Women are more help in

industry, defense work, farm"; "better off

at home"; "Army no place for a woman";

"too close contact with soldiers"; "too

hard a life"; "don't like Army life and

wouldn't want her to be in anything

similar."

When asked, "How do you think a

young woman without family responsibilities can serve her country best?" over half

designated war industry; others preferred

farm or "government work." Only from

10 to 20 percent of different groups named

the WAAC; only from 1 to 2 percent the

WAVES. These opinions were offered

although most had never seen a Waac.

Almost none had any idea what the Waacs

were to do; about 25 percent said "work

for the government," and as much as 13

percent in some groups said "combat

duty."

General Somervell expressed considerable alarm at the report and wrote, "This

not only creates a severe drag on WAAC

recruiting, but also creates an unnecessarily lengthy adjustment period when

WAAC personnel reports for duty in the

field." He directed that a high-priority

film be made for the purpose of influencing soldier opinion, also a handbook to

provide soldier information, and that any

other media available to the Army concentrate on the problem. General Somervell also, upon the request of General Ulio,

sent a letter to the commanding generals

of service commands, stating, "Intimations

have come to me that our men in the

Army have not been too sympathetic to

the idea of a women's auxiliary . . . ,"

and urging them to take steps to change

the minds of their subordinates.

By early spring, however, the unfavorable attitude was still growing. General

Madison Pearson commented on "the

wave of letters coming from service men

urging their wives, sisters, or girl friends

not to join the WAAC." Director Hobby

added that the WAAC had received fairly

good publicity from press and radio, and

only adverse comments on enlistment from

men of the armed forces; she added,

"WAAC Headquarters had been aware

for some time of the attitude of the Army

to the WAAC."

 10

Also ominous was the attitude of the

newly created War Manpower Commission, which in December of 1942 had been

given jurisdiction over the Selective Service system. Since one of the Commission's

primary missions was to secure 4,000,000

women for civilian industry, its policies toward the womanpower needs of the armed

forces from the beginning caused them

some concern. The War Manpower Commission had immediately ended ArmyNavy recruiting for men within draft age,

9

 Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq to CofAdm Serv, 4-9

Jan 43. SPWA 319.12. 10

 (1) Memo, CG SOS for Dir Sp Serv Div SOS, 19

Mar 43. SPAP 320.2 WAAC. (2) Memo, TAG for CG

ASF, 25 Mar 43. Vol. I, Gen Policy, WAAC Hist files.

(3) Memo, DCofAdm Serv for CofS ASF, 5 Apr 43.

SPWA 341 (4-5-43). (4) Memo, Dir WAAC for CG

ASF. 7 Apr 43. SPWA 341.
172 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

limiting the armed forces to such manpower supply as could be obtained through

authorized draft quotas. It was the Army's

opinion that the Commission did not possess powers so to limit female recruiting,

since in this case the armed forces' needs

were not supplied by a draft. Nevertheless, in preliminary negotiations with the

Commission over the extent of its influence,

the suggestion was made that the WAAC

restrict its recruiting to Group IV areas—

the most limited and unpromising part of

the nation's manpower area. It was also

hinted that the WAAC should not recruit

in occupational fields in short supply in industry—namely, the clerical, stenographic, and other fields most needed by

the Army. This action followed the standard world-wide pattern: in almost every

nation in which womanpower had become

important, there had existed a stage in

which military needs were considered secondary to those of industry. In at least one

country the pressure of industry upon the

national control group had been such that

an army had been ordered to release to

factories the women it had already recruited and trained.11

For its first months the WAAC had had

no restrictions upon the sources from

which it might accept recruits, although

almost every civilian concern expressed

the opinion that its womanpower needs

were more important than those of the

Army. A typical protest was one forwarded to a United States senator by a

state manufacturers association, which

said:

A great deal of training is needed to produce a cotton mill operator. . . . Don't you

think these women are more needed in the

cotton mills than in the WAACs? Can you advise us of any steps this mill can take to

prevent these girls from leaving their posi- tions to join the WAAC?

 12

Early objections also came from government agencies, such as the General Accounting Office and the Federal Bureau of

Investigation, which asked that the

WAAC refuse to accept their female employees.

At this time Director Hobby still clung

to what she felt to be the "only tenable

position":

So long as enrollment in this Corps is voluntary, and [women] citizens of this country

are free to choose whether or not they shall

make a war effort and if so in what manner,

the Corps cannot refuse to enroll those who

desire to join its ranks if they are otherwise

eligible.13

On 6 February 1943, when the General

Staff conference met to decide the

WAAC's future recruiting quotas, the imminence of the Army's defeat in this encounter was perhaps not fully realized.

However, within three months tremendous pressure from government and industry was to compel the armed forces to

agree to sweeping limitations on women's

enlistment: no women federal employees

to be accepted without a release from their

agencies; no women from "war industries"

to be accepted without a written release

from their employers or a statement of

compelling reasons; no agricultural

workers to be accepted at all.14

The Director informed the General

Staff that recruiting prospects, excellent in

1942, had by this date deteriorated badly.

For its first six months the Army had en11

 New Zealand. Memos, Alice R. Randolph (Civilian Consultant) to Dir WAAC, 1 Jan 43, and 4 Jan

43. WAAC Planning files. 12

 Ltr, 5 Jan 43, and atchd corresp. SPWA 201.6. 13

 Ltr, Atty Gen to SW, 15 Sep 42, and atchd replies. WA 044.2 FBI. Also Ltr, GAO to 1st Lt Henry

Lee Munson, 5 Oct 42. SPWA 324.72 (1943). 14

 Ltr, TAG to all SvCs, 26 Feb 43. AG 341 WAAC

(2-25-43) PR-I-A, in SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43).
RECRUITING 173

countered little competition from the

other armed services. However, in 1943

the WAVES, SPARS, and Women Marines began to offer numerous advantages

to the better-qualified women: military

status, direct commissions for college

women, smart uniforms individually purchased, schools in attractive locations,

and, in the case of the WAVES, technical

assignments and a policy of permitting

social association with officers. Also set up

about this time was the government-financed U.S. Cadet Nurse Corps for civilian trainees, which gave attractive uniforms, free professional training, and a

student's salary greater than that of a

Waac private.

Disputes Over Lowering Standards

To overcome these obstacles, The Adjutant General took a step which, for the remainder of the Corps' existence, was to

remain a most controversial issue. He

lowered acceptance standards and simplified recruiting procedure in order to meet

the increased quotas. Recruiters were

permitted to enroll applicants before results of the serological test were obtained

and to discharge them from the Reserve if

the test proved positive. Presentation of a

preliminary health certificate from a civilian doctor was no longer required, since

this put the applicant to some expense and

was supposedly duplicated by the Army

examination. Letters of recommendation

were no longer required, except in doubtful cases, and the WAAC questionnaire

was eliminated, as well as the statements

on occupational training. An aptitude test

score of only 50 was made acceptable, and

no educational requirement was included.

Instead of the previous Provost Marshal

General investigation there was substituted a check by the local office of the Retail Credit Company, Inc., optional with

the recruiter.15

The place of WAAC Headquarters in

this recruiting picture was not clear. Captain Edlund said later:

Back in November we had a recruiting

section here in Headquarters which consisted

of two people. We were called into The Adjutant General's Office and the only thing we

had to say about it was not in regard to the

way the job should be done. . . . As early as

January we were convinced that the recruiting campaign would not be successful . . .

we fought for all the things we felt were missing. The quality slipped badly.16

On the other hand, General Ulio said,

"Close liaison has been maintained at all

times with WAAC Headquarters"; and

also, "All important changes in recruiting

activities affecting the WAAC receive the

comment or concurrence of WAAC Headquarters before issue."

 17

In spite of these drastic measures, the recruiting campaign gradually began to disappoint its sponsors. In January of 1943

the picture was still rosy—the higher quota

of 10,000 was actually exceeded. In February the quota was raised to 18,000; most of

those on the waiting list were called to active duty and all others who presented

themselves were accepted immediately.

Nevertheless, at the end of the month it

was discovered that the quota had not

been met in spite of the lowered standards:

15

 (1) Ltr, TAG to all SvCs, 14 Jan 43. SPX 341

WAAC (1-14-43) PR-I, in SPWA 341 (7-4-42)

1942. (2) Ltr, TAG to all SvCs, 26 Feb 43, AG 341

WAAC (2-25-43) PR-I-A, in SPAP 341 WAAC

(2-26-43). (3) Historical Monograph, The Loyalty

Investigations Programs, prepared by the Office of the

Provost Marshal General, p. 17 and Tab 38A.

OCMH. 16

 Memo cited n. 3. 17

 Memo, TAG for CG ASF, 25 Mar 43. Vol. Gen

Policy, WAAC Hist files, 1943.
174 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

only 12,270 had been enlisted. This figure,

had recruiters only known it, was to be tops

for all time. The bubble had burst. The

quota was raised to 27,000 for March—

the number needed to fill the new training

centers—and recruiters were urged to

make new efforts. This quota was not met

and the take for March fell below that of

February—11,464.18

There was mounting evidence that the

campaign was not recruiting from wider

and more promising areas, but instead was

merely scooping up the undesirables who

had been previously rejected. One veteran

WAAC recruiter described the situation:

In 1942 we had crowds of applicants and

could pick and choose. By early 1943 these

were well picked over, but the quota went up

while the applications went down. Many of

those whom we now called to duty were those

who were acceptable but not quite the best.

By March these were almost gone, and we

were faced with a choice of accepting women

we had previously rejected or of leaving our

quotas unfilled.19

AGCT Standards

Within a few weeks, the results of lowering standards were so serious as to cause

Director Hobby to appeal to General

Somervell to overrule The Adjutant General. In the matter of AGCT standards,

records preserved at Fort Des Moines illustrated the situation. In September and

October of 1942 Army General Classification Tests given recruits at this training

center showed that less than 10 percent

fell into the lowest two grades, IV and V,

30 percent in Grade III, or average, while

60 percent were in Grades I and II, the

two highest grades, in which Army officer

candidates were required to score.20 Even

in December, only 12 percent were in the

two lowest groups, as against the Army expectancy of 32 percent. However, during

the first months of 1943 standards plummeted, and over 40 percent of all recruits

received at Des Moines were in Grades IV

and V. Similar records from other training

centers were not preserved, but it was the

opinion of authorities at Daytona Beach

and Fort Oglethorpe, which drew from

the Fourth and Eighth Service Commands, that they had an even higher percentage of Grades IV and V recruits.

Almost half of all WAAC recruits were

now falling in a group so low that their

usefulness for any sort of skilled noncombat task seemed doubtful.21

Records at Fort Des Moines also

showed a similar drop in the degree of

education attained—in April a large number of recruits were found to have had

only grade school education or less. Likewise, the degree of skill attained in civilian

experience declined; of a typical group of

women at Des Moines, about 70 percent

were classified as semiskilled, unskilled,

domestic service, or laborer. Not all of

these records were available to Director

Hobby when she began to make protests

in March, but the trend was unmistakable.22

By the end of March about 1,000 of

these women, about half of whom were

white and half Negro, were waiting idly in

the training centers, where they constituted a problem of morale and sometimes

of discipline. It became clear now, if it had

18

 See Table 2, Appendix A. 19

 Intervs with Maj Jean Melin, then of New Jersey

Rctg Dist. 2 0

 Grade I............................ . 130 or above

Grade II................................ . 110-129

Grade III.............. . 90-109 average; 100 median

Grade IV................................. . 70-89

Grade V ............................. . 69 or below 21

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, Ch. II, Table III and

footnote. OCMH. 22

 Ibid., Tables IV, V.
RECRUITING 175

not been before, that the Army literally

had no military assignment for unskilled

and unintelligent women. These could not

be assigned to replace enlisted men of like

category because such men were ordinarily

assigned to heavy work which women

could not perform. They could not be

trained for more than a few types of military duties.

Colonel Branch, head of the WAAC

Planning Service, suggested that they be

formed into motor transport, mess, and

laundry companies, but the idea proved

unsuccessful. Laundry training was not

attempted because no military jobs could

have been filled. Cooks and Bakers School

received many and failed to graduate

most, pointing out that such women

almost never made good cooks and could

pass neither the cooks nor the bakers

course; they were not even cleanly and

reliable in lesser duties. The Motor Transport School was directed to take large

numbers. When the women could not pass

the driver aptitude test, they were assigned

to the course without it; when they could

not pass the course, the course was

changed to eliminate all technical subjects. Even with these concessions the

school was able to convert few into qualified drivers.

Next, attempts were made to train the

women as ward orderlies in hospitals but

were abandoned when it was found that

the women could not replace men of like

category because of the heavy lifting involved. The women obviously were useless

for all except the most simple and repetitious duties in factories or the home. To

enlist them was not only to deprive industry of needed factory workers but also to

burden the Army's military manpower

allotments with women who could not

carry their share of the work.

Later, opportunity schools and special

training units were to be attempted, but

inasmuch as the women's deficiency was

ordinarily mental and not educational,

training authorities pronounced the time

spent on them to be more than their subsequent usefulness warranted. Medical

authorities also discovered that the rate of

disability discharge among these women

was about four times as high as among

skilled workers. Psychiatrists noted that

the continued failure to succeed on Army

jobs provoked neurotic conditions and disciplinary infractions among the subjects.23

In addition to the low-grade personnel

retained at training centers, thousands of

others were placed in companies on various pretexts and shipped to the field. Their

impact on field stations was unfortunate

and threatened to destroy the Corps' early

reputation of one-for-one replacement of

men. An alarmed staff director reported

that, at a certain Arizona airfield, 152

women had arrived, of which 53 were in

Grades IV and V; 86 had scores below 99.

At a neighboring field in California, 34 of

154 were in Grades IV and V, and 78 were

below 99 in score. While such percentages

were still within the Army average, they

were not good enough for a headquarters

company such as the WAAC provided.

The staff director commented:

It would seem that no company going into

the field should be burdened with such a

large number of auxiliaries in the two lowest

brackets. It makes an unfortunate impression

of the Corps when the station contains so

many women of low-grade mentality, which

so often means low-grade behavior.24

She reported that all had been assigned to

"grease monkey" work where it appeared 23

 For full discussion see Chs. XXXI and

XXXII, below. 24

 Ltr, 1st O Helen Woods, WAAC Stf Dir AAF

WFTC, to Col Catron, 3 Jun 43. SPWA 319.1.
176 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

doubtful that they could ever replace men,

one for one. The Second WAAC Training

Center was called upon for an explanation, since it had shipped the offending

companies. Daytona Beach replied: "The

only thing significant about the fact that

these companies came from Daytona is

that we have had the misfortune of having

these people sent to us to train. There have

been sent to us 3,576 Grade IV and V

people."

 25

At Director Hobby's direction, training

centers compiled detailed reports of all

women in Grade V, giving the station of

their enlistment. These she forwarded to

General Ulio with the request that stations

be reprimanded and individual recruiters

penalized for all such women accepted,

since they obviously could not have passed

the WAAC intelligence tests which stations were supposedly giving. Since, in one

week, three fourths of the number came

from two stations in the Eighth Service

Command, such corrective action appeared warranted. However, The Adjutant General did not reprimand the stations, but instead asked them to forward

the test scores of the individuals concerned;

these, somewhat naturally, were reported

as passable, and no further action was

taken.26

Medical Standards

As soon as the requirement for a civilian

doctor's examination was dropped it

quickly became clear that physical and

psychiatric standards were falling alarmingly. Director Hobby gathered from

training centers a list of the worst cases,

including 30 women who were pregnant when accepted, 52 cases of psychoneurosis, 39 of menopausal syndrome, and

miscellaneous other disorders such as

fibroid uterus, rheumatic heart disease,

chronic cystitis, duodenal ulcer, severe

bronchial asthma, hyperthyroidism, arthritis, epilepsy, atrophy of left leg and

thigh, and dementia praecox. Also, two

babies had been born to new enrollees before they could be discharged—one only

six weeks after the date of the mother's enrollment examination.27

Director Hobby forwarded these lists to

The Surgeon General with names of the

stations from which each had been recruited, with a request for corrective action

in the case of the medical examiners concerned. The Surgeon General, however,

refused to take any such action on the

grounds that an Army medical examiner

could not have been expected to detect

any of these cases, except that of the advanced pregnancy, under the induction

examination used. This examination included serological tests, chest X rays,

urinalysis, palpation of abdomen, and

tests of blood pressure, vision, and hearing.

A pelvic examination had not been required and neither had a complete social

history, since these were not required for

men's induction examinations. Without

them, The Surgeon General pointed out,

many illnesses could not always be diagnosed.28

Fort Oglethorpe authorities complained

that Army medical examiners seemed to

think that the training center was an induction center like the Army's and that a

thorough physical examination would be

given there. WAAC Headquarters welcomed this, saying, "This confirms the

25

 Ibid., 3d Ind. 26

 Memo, WAAC Hq for TAG, 16 Mar 43. SPWA

210.11 (2-17-43). 27

 Memo, WAAC Hq for CofAdm Serv, 11 May 43.

SPWA 702. 28

 Ibid., 2d Ind. SPMCS 322.5-1, SGO.
RECRUITING 177

Division's contention that publication of a

circular is necessary to clarify standards."

 29

Returns from the field indicated that

the chief difficulty was not willful negligence, but either the absence of an adequate authorized induction examination

for women or medical examiners' ignorance of proper standards of such an examination. Thus, early in 1943, rejection

rates for mental diseases ranged from a

low of 0.6 per thousand in the First Service

Command to a high of 30.6 per thousand

in the Sixth Service Command; either far

more women in Chicago were deranged

than in Boston, or the medical standards

differed widely in the two service commands.30

 Evidence indicated that more

stations were too lax than too strict: of all

disability discharges granted until June,

1943, one half of the women discharged

had been in service less than four months

and three fourths less than five and a half

months, which strongly suggested that the

disabilities had existed before enlistment.

Furthermore, analysis showed that 73.7

percent of all disability discharges were for

two reasons only—gynecological and

neuropsychiatric. This appeared to some

to be rather strong evidence that medical

examiners were more or less efficiently

screening out the disabilities common to

men and women, but were baffled by

those peculiar to women.31

There were a few WAAC staff directors

who felt that some examining psychiatrists, in the absence of guidance from The

Surgeon General, were methodically

screening out the more stable applicants.

In one extreme case, a director noted

that the local psychiatrist "maintained

that the only way to determine a woman's stability was to require her to walk

into his office naked, and to sit down and

answer his questions in this condition."

He then, in order to test her emotional

balance, asked her, "How often during

the past month have you had intercourse

with a soldier or sailor?" The staff director added, "We lost a number of nice

young prospects who never came back

after he interviewed them. I could just

imagine what they told their parents

about the purpose of the Women's Army

Corps."32 There also continued to be a

disconcerting number of unwise acceptances, such as the woman who reported to

Fort Oglethorpe and nine days later informed authorities: "I am the Duchess of

Windsor."

 33

A company officer at Daytona Beach

found that the parents of one of her recruits had removed her from an insane

asylum to enlist her; when the officer

called the girl and her parents to the

orderly room and presented them with her

discharge, the parents wept, while the girl,

it was related, "leaped over and bit her

mother."

 34

To remedy such matters, Director

Hobby urged The Surgeon General's

Office to set up a specialist group to determine and publish detailed guides to the

medical examinations required for women

29

 (1) Extracts from a large file of Tng Cen Rpts on

WDAGO Form 40 (C.D.D.). SPWA 220.8 (9-30-43),

1943. (2) Ltr, 3d Tng Cen to Dir WAAC, 14 Apr 43;

also atchd Memo, WAAC Pers Div to Dir WAAC.

SPWA 314.7 (1-7-43)(1) sec 1. 30

 (1) Quarterly Rpt, Exam of Candidates for

WAAC, Nov 42-Jan 43, SGO, Jan 43. WDWAC 702.

(2) Memo cited n. 27. (3) Memo, SG for Dir WAC, 15

Sep43. WDWAC 370.01. 31

 Memo, Med Stat Div SGO for Dir WAAC, 18

Jun 43. SPWA 220.8 (6-18-43). 32

 Interv with Lt Col Katherine Goodwin, ASF

WAC Off (then Stf Dir 1st SvC), 8 Oct 45. 33

 Rpt of 3d WAC Tng Cen, Min, Stf Dirs Conf,

New York, 1-3 Dec 43. SPWA 337 (11-10-43). 34

 Interv with Lt Col Mary Weems Fullbright (former CO of Tng Co.), Apr 51.
178 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

and to their later medical care. In May,

she brought the matter to the personal

attention of Generals Marshall and Somervell. In return she received from both

the assurance that they would "personally

OK procedure and it [would] soon

straighten out."

The action of these authorities was

unrecorded, but The Surgeon General

shortly went on record that "there are

problems of health peculiar to women."

He therefore yielded in the matter of specialization and, a year after the WAAC's

establishment, appointed the office's first

Consultant for Women's Health and Welfare—Maj. Margaret D. Craighill, formerly dean of the Women's Medical

College of Pennsylvania. Major Craighill

became responsible for recommendations

concerning the health of 60,000 Waacs

and 30,000 nurses, and for visits to them

at stations both in the United States and

overseas. Director Hobby stated, "This is

our first ray of hope. Now we have real

co-operation from The Surgeon General.

Major Craighill has been given the whole

problem." Major Craighill at once set herself to secure published standards for

proper gynecological and psychiatric

screening of applicants and for other

medical problems.35

Moral Standards

Even more distressing was the lowering

of moral standards, although the relative

number of women concerned was not

great. Some lowering of behavior standards was inherent in the acceptance of

women of low ability or of neurotics and

other unstable persons. In addition,

women were now accepted whose character and past record were questionable.

Early in November 1942 the Office of

the Director had pointed out to The Adjutant General the dangers of attempting to

apply to women the moral standards used

for men. The Director's Office protested

that the check on male inductees was handled so as to admit all but vicious criminals, chronic offenders, and habitual

drunkards. The Director believed higher

standards necessary for a volunteer noncombat corps of women and, in all cases

referred to her, refused to accept women

who had been convicted of any criminal

offense.36

Until January, when references and

other time-consuming checks were discontinued except for doubtful cases, a woman

might possibly be screened out by reports

received in this way, unless she applied in

a state where she had no record, but after

January this safeguard was absent. Recruiters were further handicapped in

smaller towns by the fact that a traveling

recruiting team, spending only a day or

two in the town, might unknowingly accept a presentable-looking woman whose

unsavory record was known to everyone in

town except the recruiters. For men, such

incidents were prevented by the fact that

Selective Service boards gathered case histories, but the Director of Selective Service

refused to extend this work to WAAC

recruits.

One WAAC officer enlisted a woman,

about whom she was a little doubtful, only

after the local police chief assured her that

the woman had no police record. The

35

 (1) Memo, Exec SGO for Dir WAC, 15 Aug 44,

SPMC/DD 322.5, in WDWAC 720. Appointment of

women doctors in the Medical Corps had been authorized by PL 38, April 1943; those already in the

WAAC were transferred to the Medical Department.

(2) Speech by Dir WAAC. Min, Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun 43, SPWA 337 (6-1-43). 36

 Memo, WAAC Hq for Apmt & Ind Br AGO, 11

Nov 42. AG 000.51 WAAC PR-W, in SPWA 000.
RECRUITING 179

woman was subsequently discovered to be

a well-known prostitute and drunkard

with a long police record. When the police

chief was asked for an explanation, he

replied frankly, "Well, I thought it would

get her off our hands and probably do her

good too."

 37

To prevent such occurrences, the Director and The Adjutant General joined in a

petition to General Grunert that no

woman be accepted without investigation

and clearance by the Provost Marshal

General's local investigators. The Director

stated, "In the present stage of development, with the quality of material under

close [public] scrutiny, . . . this office is

of the strong opinion that all recruits

should be checked . . . for the next 60

days." However, the Chief of Administrative Services and the Provost Marshal

General opposed the idea, since such a

check was not made for men. Instead,

General Grunert informed the Director

that, as a concession to the publicity problem, a spot check would be made of one in

every ten recruits.38

Inexpert Sales Methods

The appearance of recruiting stations

and the manners of recruiters also, in the

Director's opinion, frightened off some

applicants. To check on this suspicion, she

secured authorization for a civilian agency

to make an impartial survey.39 This agency

sent women employees to recruiting stations in all parts of the United States.

Some sat for as much as forty minutes

without attention; others were told that

they were not needed and were given no

informational pamphlets.40 Still others

were unable to find the Army recruiting

stations, which were usually in inaccessible locations, although in searching for the

station one agent found a Navy station

where she was most politely treated and

showered with literature and enthusiastic

accounts of life in the WAVES. One who

did find an Army station reported, "We

had to go through about 100 selectees,

whistling and making friendly remarks."

 41

Another gave an account of her experience

as follows:

Q: As you entered the recruiting station, what was the general reaction you got?

A: Rather unfavorable, unattractively fur- nished, and clouded with cigar smoke. Man

in uniform looking out the window.

Q: What sort of reception did this person

give you?

A: Turned around, gave a brief look at me, hollered "Sergeant!," and started looking out

the window again.

Q: Was the recruiter a man or a woman?

A: A man . . . I felt that he thoug

campaign was of little importance. Here is a

verbatim report of our conversation.

Applicant: I just want to ask some ques- tions about the WAAC.

Sergeant: Are you over 21 and have a birth

certificate some place at home?

Applicant: Yes. Sergeant: OK. There isn't anything you

could ask me that isn't in there. (Hands over

a pamphlet.) Take it home and when you

make up your mind, come back.42

It was the agency's verdict that any

business concern selling products to

women would shortly go bankrupt if it hid

its shops in places where women would not

or did not go, or if it employed untrained

salespeople who had no knowledge of the

37

 Co Comdrs Forum on Discipline. Files of Sch of

WAC Pers Adm, OCMH. 38

 Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq to CofAdm Serv, 14-21

Feb 43. SPWA 319.12 (11-9-42) sec 1 (1942). 39

 Young & Rubicam. 40

 Statement by Maj Rice, Min cited n. 33. 41

 Rpt, Young & Rubicam. Min, 6th SvC Rctg

Conf, Chicago, 7-8 May 43, SPWA 337. 42

 Ibid.
180 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

product or any desire to sell it. It was discovered that, as a result of these sales

methods, only one out of every ten women

interested enough to find their own way

to a recruiting station ever filed an application.43

The Director pointed out that surroundings which were acceptable to male

draftees were not always acceptable to

women volunteers. For example, male inductees who must spend the night near a

station were ordinarily housed in the

cheapest hotel available. Some WAAC

applicants reported that they had to spend

the night in questionable establishments.

This point was not one on which The Adjutant General cared to make a stand for

identical treatment, and a directive went

out:

In contracting for lodgings for WAAC applicants for enrollment, the regulation . . .

which requires the lowest available rate per

man per day will be interpreted to mean the

lowest obtainable rate per woman per day

consistent with the proper standards of cleanliness and decency and the personal safe- guards to which women are entitled.44

Although WAAC officers and enlisted

women had at this time been assigned to

the Army Recruiting Service for several

months, protests had come in from almost

every service command, saying that they

had little voice in the selection of applicants. Not every station was criticized in

this respect, but the condition was reportedly widespread. The Second Service

Command's report on this matter was the

most complete. It asserted that WAAC

officers had been coldly received by the

recruiting stations; they received orders

from enlisted men; civilian women were

used to interview applicants while Waacs

sat idle. Army officers determined the disposition of WAAC mail without consulting the Waacs; they determined rejections;

they made requests for waivers after the

Waacs had declared the applicant not

qualified. The Staff Director, Second

Service Command, noted: "It is felt that

the special knowledge, skill, and training

of WAAC officers assigned to recruiting in

the Second Service Command are not

being fully utilized." She recommended

that their position be defined or that they

be transferred from the Recruiting Service

to other jobs.45

Reports from other service commands

corroborated this report. In the opinion of

the WAAC Staff Director, First Service

Command, the difficulty was due to lack

of orientation of the Army Recruiting

Service in the field. "They had no idea

what a WAAC Recruiter was supposed to

do," she said. "When the first two officers

arrived at a certain station, the officer in

charge asked, 'Can you type?' and when

they said no, he instructed them to attend

night school and learn so that they could

be assigned as office typists. Apparently it

had never occurred to these officers that

women could be expected to plan and

conduct a recruiting campaign or to determine the merits of enlistees."

 46

 The

first WAAC recruiters in the Fifth Service

Command noted, "All the station commanders forced us to take in women with

scores of 40; they just changed the s

On the other hand, some WAAC recruiters

alleged that they never permitted the enrollment of unsuitable applicants, al43

 Memo, Dir WAAC for CG ASF, 5 Apr 43. SPWA

341 (4-5-43)C. 44

 Ltr, TAG to all SvCs, 22 Jan 43. SPX WAAC

(12-17-42) PR-I, in WA 513 (11-26-42), 1942. 45

 Rpt, WAAC Stf Dir to Dir Pers 2d SvC; copy in

Ltr, 1st O Cora Webb Bass to Col Catron, 11 Feb 43.

SPWA 319.1. 46

 Interv cited n. 32. 47

 Interv with Maj Marion Lichty, National Sel

Serv Hq (former Rctg Off), 5th SvC, 4 Mar 46.
RECRUITING 181

though they had to defy senior officers

when quotas were not met.48

Transfer of Responsibility to WAAC

Headquarters

By the end of March, less than two

months after the expansion program was

put into effect and before the worst of the

results were felt, Director Hobby became

convinced that the Army Recruiting

Service's methods and failure to uphold

standards were wrecking the Corps' mission. At a staff meeting on 25 March she

directed her Planning Service to "present

factual and irrefutable evidence to higher

authority that will accomplish the immediate transfer of responsibility for the

WAAC Recruiting Program from the

Office of The Adjutant General to Headquarters WAAC."

 49

 On 5 April the Director submitted to General Somervell a detailed WAAC recruiting plan to raise

standards and a request for control of

acceptances.50

The Adjutant General countered by

offering a radical concession. He stated

that a separate specialist group was needed

to recruit women and proposed entirely to

separate the Army Recruiting Service and

the WAAC Recruiting Service, having a

"Service Command WAAC Recruiting

Officer" directly responsible to the commanding general, and WAAC recruiters

responsible only to her and with full control of the acceptance of Waacs.51

 He listed

what he considered the chief causes of the

difficulties, as concurred in by the Director:

1. The uncertainty of the proposed legislation. [The public had apparently, until the

WAC Bill received publicity, never before

realized that the WAAC, unlike other wornen's services, had not been admitted to full

military rights and benefits.]

2. The unsatisfactory setup at some of our

service command headquarters and subordinate recruiting installations. 3. The disappointment and dissatisfaction

of enrollees writing home and describing conditions.

4. The lack of proper outfitting at the time

of enrollment.

5. Inadequate housing facilities to take

care of more enrollees.

6. Lack of appreciation of the importance

of the WAAC objective to the Army. 7. Competition with industry.

8. The fact that the recruiting service has

been staffed largely with men who are not

suited for and do not understand the psy- chology of recruiting women.52

To remedy these conditions, General

Ulio proposed extensive reforms: better

locations for recruiting stations; only

Waacs allowed to process applicants; solicitation of help from women's clubs; followup inspection by his office. He planned to

increase recruiting personnel, make a

Hollywood film, conduct a Special Services campaign to change Army men's

opinions, and call on all Army chaplains

to assist. He proposed also to relocate some

recruiting stations, increase the advertising campaign, and ask all Waacs to urge

at least two friends to join.

More important, he proposed to lower

the age limit to 19, lower the physical

standards, and eliminate the aptitude test

for high school graduates.53

48

 Maj Jean Melin, WAAC Stf Dir, AGF Repl and

Sch Comd, formerly Rctg Off in New Jersey. 49

 Cited as authority in Memo, CofPlng Serv for

Dir WAAC, 5 Apr 43, Tab A to Progress Rpt, 16

Mar-15 Apr 43. SPWA 600.14 (4-15-43). 50

 Memo cited n. 43 Also, for Director's list of deterrents, see Memo, Dir WAAC for CG ASF through

CofAdm Serv, 31 Mar 43. SPWA 291.9 PS, under

Planning Serv Notes, 1943 WAAC files. 51

 Rough Draft by buck slip, Col Vance L. Sailor,

R&I Sec AGO, to Capt Edlund, WAAC Hq, 13 Mar

43. SPWA 341. 52

 Memo, TAG to CG SOS, 25 Mar 43. Vol. Gen

Policy, WAAC Hist files. 53

 Memo cited n. 4.
182 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

General Ulio's plan was endorsed for

the Chief of Administrative Services by

his deputy, General Madison Pearson.

General Pearson suggested that the age

limit be lowered to 18, the physical standards be made less rigid, and an additional

mental test or two be made available for

those who failed the present one.54

The Adjutant General's proposals

reached General Somervell on the same

day that Director Hobby sent her request

for transfer of control, 5 April 1943.55

Called upon to comment, the Director

gave the opinion that further lowering of

standards would be a dangerous matter.

She noted that what she had proposed was

a major matter of policy concerning higher

standards, whereas The Adjutant General's program of administrative detail

would be highly appropriate for whatever

policy was adopted.56

There was no reasonable compromise

between the two points of view, since

British experience had already strongly

indicated that a women's corps dependent

upon recruiting could not contain both

types of workers: if low-grade personnel

constituted the majority, office workers of

good character and acceptable skill would

not volunteer. Only selective service for

women had eventually made it possible

for the British forces to obtain adequate

numbers of both types of workers in the

same corps. The choice posed was thus

whether the WAAC should continue its

original mission of supplying the Army

with those skills that were scarce among

men—chiefly clerical and communications—or should relinquish this to invade

the fields of heavy physical labor in which

women were inefficient replacements for

men, requiring possibly two-for-one replacement, but in which large numbers of

low-grade women could easily be recruited.

General Grunert, after a flying trip to

Daytona Beach, changed his office's previous stand and supported the Director's

view, stating: "Enlistment of too many low

grade factory, store, and restaurant workers . . . is a problem. WAAC 

assignments predominate and this calls for

class. We had better slow down and get

quality than . . . speed up for quantity."57

 He therefore withdrew previous

objections to better screening methods,

and advocated that Provost Marshal

checks be restored for all recruits.58

On the other hand, there was a considerable body of opinion within the Army

Service Forces which held that the Chief

of Staffs original policy should be reversed

and low-grade women sought. This view

was stated a little later in the summer by

one of General Somervell's consultants in

recommending that steps be taken to replace Director Hobby:

The techniques appropriate to the original

conception of the WAAC as a small highly- qualified group of women enrolled for more

or less morale and propaganda purposes are

completely inappropriate for a Corps of

385,000 to take over all of the dirty work in

the Zone of the Interior. . . .

This means drastic revision of the present

policy insisting on the high standard of intel54

 Memo, DCofAdm Serv for CofS ASF, 5 Apr 43.

SPWA 341 (4-5-43). 55

 The Director had discussed her plan on 3 April

with both The Adjutant General's Office and the

Chief of Administrative Services; she had held it for

two days for their comments and incorporated in it

the only suggestion, a minor one, received from them.

The Adjutant General had not co-ordinated his paper

with hers; neither had the Chief of Administrative

Services. Memo, Gen Somervell for Dir WAAC, 6 Apr

43. SPEX, in SPWA 341 (4-5-43). 56

 Memo, Dir WAAC for CG ASF, 7 Apr 43. SPWA

341 (4-5-43). 57

 Folder, Daytona Beach, Dir Adm Serv ASF Sp

Coll DRB AGO. 58

 Instead, a Retail Credit Company check was extended to all recruits, for which $2.25 per name was

paid. For later types of checks, see Monograph cited

n. 15(3).
RECRUITING 183

ligence, dignity, and educational and social

background. . . . Public Relations and Recruiting policies of WAAC Headquarters . . .

[place] an overemphasis on high standards

and dignity, which . . . are principally and

directly responsible for decreasing WAAC

enrollments.

The root of the whole matter is that Mrs. Hobby feels that deterioration of standards

would result from any mass recruiting technique, yet, whether she admits it or not, she

has to have 385,000 Waacs by 1 July 44. . . . Consideration [should] be given to the appointment of a new WAAC Director capable

of mass organization. . . .59

One day after its receipt the Director's

request for control of recruiting was approved. Some explanation of the decision

was made in a note by the WAAC Planning Service: "We understand that the

Director secured the concurrence of General Marshall to raise the enlistment requirements to insure better quality."60

Thus, as in the crisis of the previous September when he had intervened to provide

for more cautious administration, the

Chief of Staffs personal decision now for a

second time determined the Corps' future

path and mission. For the next months the

goal was to be quality, if necessary at the

price of quantity—recruits with clerical,

communications, and technical skills or

the ability to learn them, rather than

unskilled laborers.

The Adjutant General was directed to

give the WAAC full co-operation and

every practical assistance in its new responsibility. He shortly published a memorandum asking that all communications

on recruiting be sent to the Director, and

withdrew from any further part in operating details. The Chief of Administrative

Services, as directed by General Somervell, notified the field of the new plan,

inclosing copies of Captain Edlund's somewhat frank interoffice memorandum on

the deficiencies of the Recruiting Service.

This rendered Captain Edlund persona non

grata with so many Army recruiters that

within a few months he was replaced by a

WAAC officer. At the moment he continued as Chief, Recruiting Section, and

guided the campaign which was to follow.61

The Restoration of Standards

Director Hobby's first act upon taking

control of recruiting was, on 7 April, to

restore the enrollment standards. A minimum of two years in high school and a

score of 60 on the aptitude test were now

required. While high, these standards were

still below those of the WAVES, which

required high school graduation. At once

the number of recruits fell from 11,464 in

March to 6,472 in April, and in May,

when the new standards were in force all

month, to only 4,064. In June the requirements were raised again, to a score of 70

plus two years of high school, or 80 without high school; in this month only 3,304

recruits were enlisted. By July classification officers at headquarters and training

centers were able to report that "problems

in making assignments have disappeared

due to the present higher enrollment requirements." Records from Fort Des

Moines showed that the number of recruits

in Grades IV and V fell at once from 40

percent in April to 12 percent in July and

6 percent in October. In November 1943,

59

 Memo, "K. J." for Gen Somervell and Brig Gen

Clinton F. Robinson, 12 Jul 43. Folder, WAAC Rctg,

ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 60

 Memo cited n. 49. 61

 (1) 1st Ind, ACofS ASF to Dir WAAC, 8 Apr

43, to Memo cited n. 54. (2) ASF Memo S635-4-43,

14 May 43, signed by Gen Ulio. (3) Buck slip, Capt

Edlund to Col Catron, May 43. SPWA 341 (4-5-43).

(4) Ltr, CofAdm Serv to all SvCs, 10 Apr 43. SPAAS

341, incl Memo, 31 Mar 43, cited n. 50, in SPAP 341

WAAC (2-26-43).
184 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

after the WAAC was placed in the Army

and The Adjutant General resumed operation, the figure jumped from 6 percent to

20 percent, which was to remain its average for the rest of the WAC's existence.

The number of women with less than high

school education fell from 36 percent in

April to 20 percent in July.62

The expansion program had not so

much collapsed as never begun. Numbers

obtained monthly were now approximately the same as before the campaign

began. The influx of the unqualified had

lasted only a brief two months and had

been checked before it lowered the Corps'

average standards too far, but it was clear

that the expansion program could not continue unless a real recruiting campaign

could be devised that would increase

numbers without lowering standards.63

The Advertising Contract

General Ulio was also overruled in the

matter of the advertising contract, for

which he favored the current contractor,

N. W. Ayer & Son. This agency had

adopted the campaign slogan, "Release A

Man For Combat," and had given it wide

publicity. The slogan had proved unfortunate in several ways. In view of the

prevalence of punsters in the population,

it was discovered that it would be wiser to

use the expression "Replace A Man" instead of "Release" or "Relieve." Worse, as

the "phony war" vanished and combat

became more real to the American public,

the slogan appealed to no one: Army men

in clerical jobs did not particularly appreciate being replaced for combat; mothers

did not wish a daughter to enlist if this

would send a son to his death; and a

woman whose husband or sweetheart was

killed overseas did not like to think that

but for her or some other woman he would

have been safe in a desk job.

Also, the advertising agency, in handling the WAAC account as part of the

Army account, had not given particular

consideration to women's psychology in

the matter of advertising appeal, location

of recruiting stations, training of recruiters, or other matters.

General Somervell's Control Division,

after investigation, therefore recommended that the account be canceled because of a decision to revise the entire

campaign and not for any particular fault.

Accordingly, eleven of the nation's leading

advertising agencies were invited to a

meeting and asked to suggest campaign

plans. On the basis of results, Control

Division, ASF, and Control Division,

Adjutant General's Office, awarded the

contract to Young & Rubicam, called "the

largest advertising agency in the country,"

and one which handled campaigns for

many women's products and also had an

unusually large number of women writers

on its staff.64 Young & Rubicam immediately began to make surveys, for which

they employed Dr. George Gallup and a

staff of female investigators, to determine

the correct psychological approach. Every

effort was made to suppress the theme of

"Release A Man For Combat," but it was

found that the slogan had sunk deep into

the public mind and was by this time so

widespread that for months every new re62

 (1) Memo, Capt Edlund for TAG, 7 Apr 43; (2)

Memo, Dir Hobby for DCofS for SvCs, 6 Jun 43; (3)

Memo, Lies, Special Consultant, for Dir WAC, 8 Jul

43. SPWA 341. (4) Tables III, IV, V, ASF Hist of

WAC Tng, Des Moines figures only. (5) See Table 2,

Appendix A. 63

 For a description of the average Waac, see Ch.

XI, pp. 192-93, below. 64

 Rpt, Lt Col Paul V. Betters and Maj McGovern,

Contl Div ASF; see Weekly Rpt, WAAC Hq to

CofAdmServ, 7-13 Mar 43 SPWA 319.12.
RECRUITING POSTER used to induce women to enroll in the Corps. This recruiting theme 

was later discarded. 
186 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

cruiter, unless forewarned, enthusiastically

launched forth with it.65

The Revised Campaign

Under the leadership of Maj. Harold A.

Edlund, WAAC Headquarters with the

assistance of Young & Rubicam at once

launched a recruiting campaign which for

desperate thoroughness had not been surpassed in Army history. The success of the

expansion plan and the Corps' whole

future hung upon the question of whether

well-qualified American women could be

induced to volunteer in the numbers

scheduled.

Major Edlund, in civilian life a sales

expert, believed that they could, but he

did not underestimate the problem, which,

he said, was believed by sales experts to be

"one of the toughest selling jobs in the

country today." He stated that recruiters

who approached the problem casually had

no idea of "the difficulties of persuading

women of the sort we need in the WAAC

to give up their homes and security and to

voluntarily take on a way of life completely foreign to them." The WAAC recruiters, he said, were intuitively aware of

the factors involved, but lacked sales training and the necessary authority. Nevertheless, Major Edlund's confidence in the

infallibility of scientific sales technique was

such that he predicted that 100,000

women could be recruited in the three

months remaining before 1 July 1943, to

bring the Corps' strength to the required

150,000 by that date.66

The first step of the giant campaign was

the collection of accurate data, and a

quick Gallup poll was made of a scientifically selected nationwide cross section of

eligibles and the parents of eligibles. The

results were admittedly shocking even to

those closest to the WAAC program. Until

this time it had been believed that if the

women of the nation knew the Army's

need for their services they would respond

at once. Publicity had therefore been centered around statements by President

Roosevelt, General Marshall, and others

of the nation's leaders, pointing out the

Army's need for personnel. Now it was

discovered that the public was perfectly

well aware of the Army's need; an overwhelming majority (86 percent) replied

"Yes, we know the need; we know the

Army is calling for more." But women did

not respond, according to the Gallup survey, for five reasons:

1. Apathy: "Sure, it's important, but let

someone else do it."

2. Fear of Army life: Many women feared

they would not be equal to the reputed rigors

of training and regimentation.

3. Misunderstanding as to the jobs Waacs did:

The majority were most familiar with the

least attractive types of work—cooking, laundry, scrubbing. Thirty-one percent said the

Waacs' main job was kitchen police. 4. Attitude of relatives and friends: Those considering joining were almost unanimously

discouraged by parents and male advisers.

5. Army attitude: Almost all eligible women

had heard, or had been told by soldier

friends, that the Army was opposed to the

WAAC.67

Other interesting facts were uncovered.

It was found that more eligibles feared

overseas service than desired it. Some

would join only if they could be near

home; others, only if they could travel.

65

 (1) Ltr. SW to Pres., N. W. Ayer & Son, Inc., 7

May 43. WDGAP 095. (2) Speech of Maj Edlund at

the mtg. (3) TAG's opinion in Memos cited ns. 4, 17.

(4) Memo, WAC Hq to RPB, New York, 16 Oct 43.

SPWA 000.7. (1943). (5) Ltr, Dir WAC to CSigO, 2

Jul 43. SPWA 411.36 (4-10-43). 66

 Incl to Memo cited n. 43. 67

 Ltr, Young & Rubicam, Inc., to Maj Jess Rice,

WAC Hq, 1 Oct 43. SPWA 000.7. (2) See also statement cited n. 40.
RECRUITING 187

Half the women believed that a Waac

could not marry an Army man; many

others believed that a Waac was not allowed to marry at all, or to have dates, or

to use cosmetics.

The new campaign was shaped by these

discoveries. If apathy was the trouble, the

war must be made real to women. If

women feared a strange new life, every detail of the life must be publicized so that

it was familiar and not frightening. If they

had mistaken ideas about the Corps, these

must be corrected: they must be told that

Waacs did interesting work as well as

menial, that Waacs dated, married, and

used cosmetics. If families and Army men

disapproved, some approach must be

found to change their attitude. The keynote of the campaign, in short, would be

to make familiar to everyone the life and

work of a Waac, and especially the good

side of that life.

Accordingly, Young & Rubicam hastily

prepared advertisements that pictured the

interesting jobs Waacs did; they devised

quizzes with many small pictures and

questions; and, believing that women were

inveterate coupon clippers, they inserted

small coupons that could be mailed to recruiting stations for free literature. At the

same time there was assembled an array

of supporting talent that dwarfed previous

efforts. Among others, the Writers' War

Board pledged co-operation—Rex Stout,

Clifton Fadiman, Paul Gallico, Margaret

Lee Runbeck, Sarah Elizabeth Rodgers,

Katherine Brush, Laura Z. Hobson—

each to write articles to reach a different

type of national magazine and audience.

Ten writers of this board were flown to

Fort Oglethorpe and other stations to

gather material.

Famous photographers were asked to

take pictures for picture magazines. In

addition to stories, many magazines

agreed to use a WAAC cover girl—the

July American, the August Cosmopolitan and

others. The May Reader's Digest had a

story; Life used pictures sent from North

Africa; the August Harper's Bazaar showed

WAAC physical training in its least terrifying aspects; a June Saturday Evening Post

began a five-part serial. Through the

co-operation of the Office of War Information, radio time was obtained, including plugs on shows by Bob Hope, Kate

Smith, and others. Daily papers got news

stories and pictures, and Sunday papers

carried paid advertisements. Motion pictures also were contributed, by both Hollywood and the Signal Corps. All of these

various media were co-ordinated through

WAAC Headquarters in order to maintain the same theme throughout.68

To co-ordinate recruiters' efforts with

the advertising campaign, there set out

from Washington a flying task force which,

traveling by plane, train, and subway,

achieved the apparently impossible feat of

a two-day conference with each of the nine

Service Commands in sixteen days.69

These included representatives of Young

& Rubicam to describe the campaign, of

General Motors to initiate expert sales

training methods, and of The Adjutant

General's Recruiting Publicity Bureau to

display their newest wares of posters and

booklets.

The conferences were generally well received, although, said Major Edlund, "The

Army Personnel connected with recruiting didn't quite understand what this was

all about and perhaps resented it a little

68

 (1) Ltr, Hq 2d SvC to Dir WAAC, 15 May 43.

SPWA 334 with Min of mtg. Also, Min cited n. 41. 69

 The First, Second, and Third Service Commands

met together in New York. Exhibit A to Memo,

WAAC Hq for CofAdm Serv, 24 Apr 43. SPWA 341

(4-5-43).
188 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

bit. We had to make sure that they realized

we were perfectly friendly and honest

about the whole thing and that the main

purpose was to help them do the job they

had been asked to do with insufficient

help."

 70

 Instead of scolding about unfilled

quotas, Edlund congratulated them on the

60,000 women already recruited. "In

Canada they have been going much

longer and have less. In England they had

to come to conscription." Even the Waves,

he said, were having difficulty in getting

the relatively small number they were

then aiming for.

Major Edlund had made the decision

not to separate the Army Recruiting Service and the WAAC Recruiting Section,

although events were to prove that it

would have been wiser to adopt at once

General Ulio's plan of removing all

authority from the regular Recruiting

Service, since such action eventually

proved necessary.

Major Edlund's keynote, later deplored

by veteran WAC recruiters, was, "Let's

turn the bright side of the apple toward

the general public." He proposed that pictures and releases all feature the most interesting jobs and the best-looking Waacs,

and that Waacs not be pictured driving

heavy vehicles, or in fatigue uniforms, or

doing strenuous calisthenics, or even

marching, since this frightened away

many desirable prospects. This approach

was supplemented by Young & Rubicam's

advertisements with captions such as,

"We're the luckiest girls in the world and

we know it."

"I joined to serve my country and am having the time of my life."

"I felt pretty important when that tailor

fitted that swank new uniform to me."

Such advertisements, while calculated

to counteract previous misunderstandings,

were also sufficient to bring on howls of

derision from veteran Waacs, and to call

forth complaints from later recruits who

enlisted while under their spell.

The Cleveland Plan

Time was now working against the

salesmen. The various surveys, the preparation of advertisements, and the flying

tour had been accomplished in the unprecedented space of little over a month.

Nevertheless, only six weeks remained to

get the scheduled 100,000 women by 1

July. Major Edlund therefore determined

upon a saturation technique of salesmanship that would literally hunt out and

carry off potential recruits in a house-by -

house canvass in major cities. He immediately began a demonstration campaign

in a typical city. Cleveland, Ohio, was

selected for the trial, and WAAC recruiters from every service command

gathered to assist and observe.71 The basic

idea was that WAAC sales could be

achieved only by personal interview, and

not by rallies, bonfires, and previous tactics, of which Edlund said, "Everything

that we could see being done [before] was

a big rally or parade—a lot of talk mostly

along patriotic lines and 80 percent of the

people listening were not eligible to

join."

 72

The Fifth Service Command ran the

Cleveland Campaign, although Major

Edlund had desired to do it. Theoretically

such a campaign should have been preceded by a softening-up barrage of newspaper and radio publicity, but Cleveland's

70

 Speech by Maj. Edlund. Min cited n. 35(2). 71

 Cleveland was chosen because it was a representative large city, 52 percent of homes had telephones,

and the Cleveland Advertising Club offered to help. 72

 Speech cited n. 70.
RECRUITING 189

publicity media were busy "trying to buy

a ship or something," and WAAC recruiters were obliged to land without protection. Since there were not enough

WAAC recruiters in the nation to conduct

a door-to-door survey in a city of this size,

the Cleveland Plan called for the use of

any civilian agency that had many women

members in a city-wide organization. The

American Red Cross was deemed the

oldest and best organized, but when asked

to assist, its officials replied that the Red

Cross was "interested only in essential war

work"; later they added that their charter

did not permit help. The Office of Civilian

Defense (OCD) therefore volunteered to

assist, although its Block Plan was newly

organized and its leaders inexperienced.73

The WAAC recruiters held meetings

with the OCD sector leaders and supplied

them with literature and questionnaires,

which were passed on to block leaders.

These leaders were not to attempt to enroll

women, but only to locate eligibles. The

final report stated that "block workers

were most co-operative. Reports were that

many women at home seemed to be waiting for someone to ask them to do something in the war effort. . . . The majority

attitude represented complacency." These

block leaders were soon able to furnish recruiters with the name and location of

each eligible woman in the district.

WAAC enlisted women next went to

work at a battery of telephones, trying to

persuade each eligible to grant an interview to recruiting officers. These Waacs

were especially trained by the Ohio Bell

Telephone Company. They were instructed not to try to recruit, but merely

to get an interview; when and if an interview was obtained, WAAC recruiters

called on the prospect. The Realsilk

Hosiery Company donated expert training in the technique of polite interviewing.

All who still appeared eligible were urged

to enlist, and those who seemed undecided

were placed on a follow-up list.

The Cleveland Plan, supported by the

nationwide publicity campaign, seemed

the most intensive recruiting effort that it

was possible for any organization to make.

When the drive was finished and the score

counted, it stood revealed as a miserable—

almost an incredible—failure. The score

was:

 74

Families contacted...................... . 73,589

Questionnaires completed. ............... . 36,151

Considered eligible from questionnaire ..... . 12,886

Found eligible on contact................ . 8,253

Signed applications..................... . 427

Enrolled .............................. . 168

To achieve even the mere 100,000 female

recruits that the Army needed immediately, recruiters would, if this rate held

true, have to contact 43,800,000 families,

although the nation was estimated to have

only about 37,000,000 families. Interviews

and sales talks would have to be held with

almost 8,000,000 eligibles before 100,000

could be recruited. There were probably

not that many qualified women in the

United States.75

The Cleveland method, refined and

improved by experience, was caught up

and used all over the nation. Improvement in recruiting machinery continued.

All summer the great radio and press campaign played upon the public. More and

better-trained recruiters were thrown into

73

 This and the following are from a mimeographed

booklet, WAAC Recruiting Plan, Cleveland, Ohio,

June 1-10, 1943. SPWA 341. 74

 Memo, Asst Chief, WAC Rctg Serv, for Exec

WAC, sub: Resume of Rpt from 5th SvC, 4 Aug 43.

SPWA 341 (1942). 75

 The Bureau of the Census in a Statistical Abstract estimated 37,100,000 families in 1944, in a civilian population of 126,606,000.
190 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the battle. And still, amazingly, the number of qualified applicants fell. Finally, in

August, the exhausted recruiters suspended their efforts to await completion of

the conversion to Army status—the final

hope. In this month only 839 recruits were

enrolled—not enough to make up for

normal attrition.

At last the full extent of public opposition stood revealed to the WAAC recruiters—an impenetrable wall against which

the methods of supersalesmanship and expert recruiting techniques broke and fell

ineffectually. It was not as yet fully understood why this wall had sprung up and

solidified after the initial favorable public

reaction, but it was all too clear that it had

now done so.
CHAPTER XI

The "Slander Campaign"

British experience in two world wars had

indicated that any women's service soon

after organization would become the target of slanderous charges, which would

lower morale, alarm parents, and make it

impossible to secure a large corps except

by drafting women. However, the WAAC

had appeared to be relatively free of such

charges during its first few months. It was

therefore prematurely hoped that the

American public had, since the early attacks on the Army Nurse Corps, outgrown

the use of moral charges as a means of opposition to women in public life.

Record of the WAAC's First Year

This hope was sustained by the fact that

the Corps' record, as it reached the milestone of its first birthday in May of 1943,

remained good beyond even the highest

expectations. Recruiting, training, and

supply difficulties had had little if any effect upon the efficiency of WAAC units in

the field. The War Department, which

had supported military status in advance

of proof of WAAC efficiency, now found

its action justified by all field reports.

From North Africa, Gen. Dwight D.

Eisenhower's headquarters expressed enthusiasm for the performance of the first

WAAC company and forwarded requests

for hundreds more enlisted women, without whom, it was declared, it was "literally

impossible to conduct effective administration." The theater requested that these

units "be given earliest priority . . . and

shipped at expense of ground force replacements."

 l Equally important for public opinion, both health and discipline in

North Africa had been good, and there

had been only one pregnancy, that of a

married woman.

From the secret antiaircraft artillery experiment, which was concluded about this

time, came an official report that Waacs

could fill more than half of the jobs in

AAA units, and were "superior to men" in

many operations requiring dexterity.2 War

Department files abounded in reports of

sudden conversion, such as that of the post

commander who informed Col. Frank U.

McCoskrie that Waacs would be sent to

his post only "over my dead body," but

who, a few months after their arrival, was

discovered to be not only alive but writing

to Des Moines for two more companies.3

From other station commanders came

similar indorsement.4 The commanding

general of a port of embarkation wrote, "I

am greatly impressed with their discipline,

intelligence, efficiency, and devotion to 1

 (1) ETO WAC Hist, p. 7. (2) Cbl W3105, 20 Jun

43. WAAC 320.2 sec 5. 2

 Memo, G-3 for CofS. 7 Jul 43. WDGCT 291.9

in CofS file and in MDW. 3

 Related by Col. McCoskrie of a post commander

in the Sixth Service Command. 4

 (1) Project 24, WAAC Planning files (1943). (2)

Army Fact Sheet, Women in Uniform, 10 May 43,

WDBPR. WAAC Hist files. (3) Dorothy D. Bromley,

New York Herald Tribune, July 11, 1943.
192 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

duty. They have raised the standard of

discipline of the command." Similar comment was received from the Signal Corps,

Air Forces, Adjutant General's Department, and service commands, respectively:

"Proved its value in hundreds of departments"; "Their work is splendid"; "looking forward to receiving more Waacs";

"highest type of intelligence and aptitude"; and so on.5

An Army Service Forces inspector in

May of 1943 reported, after a visit to

Waacs in the field:

My impression in general of WAAC personnel is:

1. They are doing a fine job in the training

center. . . .

2. They are performing the jobs to which

assigned . . . in an excellent manner.

3. The officers and enlisted personnel with

whom the Waacs work are more than satisfied with the efficiency and manner in which

the women perform their tasks, as well as

their attention to military courtesy.

4. The WAAC personnel is happy and do- ing a fine job.

5. The conduct of the WAAC personnel

both on the job and after working hours is

satisfactory. . . . The using people heartily

endorse the use of Waacs and want to know

when they are going to get more.6

Remarks of service commanders at a conference in July of 1943 likewise indicated

that they were unanimously satisfied with

their WAAC personnel and had experienced no noteworthy difficulties except in

recruiting.7

A newspaper commented in July, near

the first anniversary of the Des Moines

school:

The life history of the Waacs reads like the

proverbial American success story. At their

inception they were offered a chance to make

good at only a handful of noncombatant jobs

then considered suitable for women. Within

little more than a year they had proved so effective that the Army now urgently asks that

their ranks be increased to 600,000.8

In the summer of 1942 only four jobs

had been authorized for Waacs; in the

summer of 1943 Waacs were already filling 155 different Army jobs, and the number was increasing daily. In 1942 it had

not been supposed that the WAAC's range

of usefulness would require assignment

other than to the Army Service Forces; in

mid-1943 Waacs were already assigned to

every major Army command in the

United States and to two active overseas

theaters; they were stationed in forty-four

of the forty-eight states. In 1942 the admission of women even to auxiliary status appeared risky; in 1943 the War Department

entertained no further doubts about the

wisdom of full integration of women into

the Army.9

General Somervell noted, in commending General Faith, "The excellent discipline, military courtesy, and appearance

of the Women's Army Corps . . . are

equalled by few and surpassed by no other

group in the Armed Services."

 10

Statistical records in May of 1943

showed that, in spite of the brief lapse in

recruiting standards, Waacs still surpassed

in qualifications both the civilian average

and that of Army men. The "average"

Waac at this time was a mature woman,

25 to 27 years old, healthy, single, and

without dependents. She was a high school

graduate with some clerical experience.

According to information derived from

5

 Quotations in Ltr, Dir WAAC to Edith Nourse

Rogers, 26 May 43. SPWA 000.7. 6

 Rpt, Lt Col Hal P. Crane, GSC, to MPD ASF, 12

May 43. SPWA 3 19.1. 7

 Min of Conf, CGs of SvCs, Chicago, 22-24 Jul 43. 8

 Washington Post, July 10, 1943. 9

 Mimeo Sheets, 10 Jul 43, 142 Spec Jobs and 406

Suitable Jobs, and 9 Jul 43, 155 WAAC Jobs and

Over 400 Others Suitable. 10

 Memo, Somervell to WD Decorations Bd, 15 Jan

44, sub: Award of DSM to Brig Gen Don C. Faith.

Personnel Abstracts, WAC files, OCMH.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 193

psychiatrists' interviews, she was inspired

to enter the WAAC chiefly by a desire to

do war work of a more active and responsible nature than was generally possible to

a woman in civilian life. Of the small

number of her eligible American sisters

who were similarly inspired to the extent

of getting an application blank, she was

the one in three who completed it, after

which she had survived tests and interviews that eliminated half of her fellow applicants. Before shipment to her job in the

field, she had cost the Army only four

weeks of basic training but no specialist

training, which had not, for the average

woman, proved necessary to successful assignment. On the men's AGCT test, she

made an average score of 109. At her field

station, she accepted assignment to routine

clerical work although she would have

liked to drive a truck. She had not yet

been promoted, and her rank remained

that of auxiliary (private), at $50 a

month.11 She constituted a permanent and

reliable type of employee, not being subject to transfer to combat duty, nor to the

usual causes of turnover in civilian personnel.

From the public viewpoint the Corps'

moral record was even more important

than its job efficiency. Statistical records

indicated that, even with the brief lapse in

standards during February and March,

enlisted women's morality exceeded the

civilian average. The WAAC rate of

venereal disease was almost zero; many

WAAC units had not experienced a single

case, while training centers generally encountered only cases that had been undetected by faulty enlistment examinations.

Even including cases existing before enlistment, the incidence in the WAAC was

far below that of either the Army or of

women in civilian life. As for pregnancy

among unmarried women, the rate in the

WAAC was about one fifth that among

women in civilian life. This record was

even better than that reported in 1942 by

the British women's services, which was itself better than that of British civilian

women.12

However, by May of 1943 it was

already known within the War Department that the American corps, in spite of

its actual record, was not to escape the

traditional fate of slanderous attack, which

became familiarly known to the Department's investigators as the "Slander Campaign," sometimes also called the "Whispering Campaign" or "Rumor Campaign." The slander campaign was, as its

name implied, an onslaught of gossip,

jokes, slander, and obscenity about the

WAAC, which swept along the Eastern

seaboard in the spring of 1943, penetrated

to many other sections of the country, and

finally broke into the open and was recognized in June, after which the WAAC and

the Army engaged it in a battle that lasted

all summer and well into the next year

before it was even partially subdued.

Publicity Machinery

It was WAAC Headquarters' belief at

the time that full and early publicity on

the record of the WAAC's first year might

have prevented what followed. However,

during the period when the slander campaign took shape and gained momentum,

it was the policy of the War Department

11

 Unless otherwise stated, all statistics in this and

the following section are from two manila-bound

typed booklets: (1) Info on WAAC, the Director's

personal book of statistics, in the 1943 WAAC files,

and (2) WAAC Pers Statistics, 6 Sep 43, 1943 WAAC

files. See Table 3, Appendix A, for a breakdown of

WAAC statistics. 12

 Conditions in the Three Women's Services, pp. 49-52.
194 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Bureau of Public Relations to permit no

specialized attention to the WAAC. There

was no central agency charged with securing and releasing the true record and

statistics of the Corps' first year; news

stories on WAAC life were generally limited to those which news media secured

and presented for clearance. The Bureau's

Radio, Press, Pictorial, and Publications

Branches all handled WAAC news releases separately and without co-ordination of policy.

General Marshall and others evidently

supposed that there existed some central

publicity group for the support of recruiting; as late as January of 1944 General

Marshall addressed a memorandum to the

"WAC Recruiting Section, Bureau of

Public Relations,"although there was actually no such agency.13

To make up for the lack of a publicity

campaign from the Bureau of Public Relations, the Director attempted to bring

enough WAAC public relations personnel

into her own office to supply good material

to news media and guide them toward desired policies. For this purpose, she was

allowed a small Office of Technical Information (OTI), such as other administrative services had, chiefly designed to check

releases for technical inaccuracies but not

to promote publicity. In the WAAC's first

months the Director requested a larger allotment for this office, on the grounds

that the WAAC must recruit personnel

and was the object of more "extraordinary

public interest" than other administrative

services. The Services of Supply refused

this request on the grounds that men's organizations, such as the Chemical Warfare Service, did not have a larger allotment.

Even had more personnel been allotted

it, the WAAC OTI was not allowed by the

Bureau of Public Relations to handle publicity. In April of 1943, the OTI appealed

to the bureau for permission to contact editors directly to get more accurate and

positive articles in magazines and journals,

since the "personnel shortage" in the bureau had apparently made it impossible

for that agency to achieve the desired results. In reply, the Bureau of Public Relations published a directive that all inquiries concerning the WAAC received by

WAAC Headquarters would be referred

to the Bureau of Public Relations, and

that inquiries received by the bureau

would be handled by it without reference

to the WAAC except by telephone.

The extent to which the WAAC OTI

was allowed to influence the bureau's decisions was limited; in June, General

Surles reminded the Director by personal

letter that when his Review Branch asked

any OTI for comment, it desired only

views on security and accuracy, and not

opinions on method of presentation or

tone.14 Projects originated by the WAAC

were frowned upon; thus, when the Director desired to use the WAAC Band on a

radio program, the bureau vetoed the idea

on the grounds that "publicity is moving

along very well and the orderly procedure

of it should not be disturbed too often by

special appearances."

 15

Under this system, press comment on

the WAAC varied. Many newspapers

faithfully and favorably reported all that

was furnished them, although this was not

plentiful enough to build public knowl13

 Memo, CofS for WAC Rctg Sec WDBPR, 26 Jan

44. CofS 3 24.5 WAC. 14

 (1) Memo, Dir Pers SOS for CofAdm Serv, 20

Nov 42. SPGAO 322.5 WAAC, in SPWA 020. (2)

Memo, WAAC OTI for WDBPR, 21 Apr 43. Vol.

Policy, WAAC Hist file, SPWA 314.7. 15

 Memo, "TS" for Dir WAAC, 15 Aug 42. SPWA

311.23.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 195

edge and acceptance to a degree that

would insulate the WAAC against the

later rumors. Certain anti-Administration

newspapers from the beginning made the

WAAC the subject of caustic comment,

evidently regarding the Corps as a New

Deal creation. Even in the most favorable

press, there was a natural tendency for

"news" to consist of those items amusing

or spectacular enough to reach reporters

directly, such as stories headlined, STORK

PAYS VISIT TO WAAC NINE DAYS AFTER ENLISTMENT, 1 6

 Or, ARE WOMEN PERSONS? DEBATED BY HOUSE VETERANS COMMITTEE.17

There was also a tendency for headlines to

include the word WAAC in reporting all

accidents, murders, suicides, and family

troubles involving a member of the Corps;

a headline that might more properly have

read ARMY OFFICER TRIED FOR BIGAMY became, instead, WAC BRIDAL BRINGS TRIAL.

 18

Even when friendly newspapers arranged

for visits of their own reporters and photographers or foreign correspondents, the

results frequently tended toward the coy

or frivolous rather than a serious emphasis

on actual WAAC jobs.19

Also, from the first, cartoonists had

found the WAAC amusing and had contributed caricatures which ranged from

light humor to emphasis on anatomical

detail. Of these, a training center commandant protested to WAAC Headquarters: "There seems to be no restraint on

funny papers and cartoons with the

WAAC as subject matter." He was informed that "legally there is nothing that

can be done to restrain cartoonists from

caricaturing the WAAC."

 20

The more extreme actually were seldom

commercial cartoons, but were more often

soldier products from camp newspapers,

which held with rather monotonous lack

of originality to the idea that the best way

of ridiculing a woman was to exaggerate

those portions of her figure that differed

from the masculine version. Although peculiarly masculine garments were not considered funny, the mere depiction of a

brassiere, empty or otherwise, was alone

enough to seem comic to cartoonists.21

Certain clergymen had also published

their protest against the Corps as an improper place for young Christian women.

Of these, the Catholic chaplain at Fort

Des Moines wrote:

It is unfortunate that the few clergymen

who have sounded off against the Corps get

so much publicity, while the thousands I

know who are in favor of it get little or no

publicity. . . . I have had to hav

masses every Sunday—about 1,400 Waacs

each Sunday.22

Attacks by Private Letter and Gossip

These relatively minor cases of poor

published and broadcast publicity or illchosen humor bore little resemblance in

degree of virulence to the slander campaign which followed, and which had an

entirely different character. The first manifestations of a deeper change in public

opinion came early in 1943, when there

began to be evidences of more vicious attacks on the Corps spread by word-ofmouth gossip and by private letter. Some

of these were merely the "nut" letters that

any organization might expect; quite often

these included miscellaneous charges of

16

 Washington Times-Herald, May 1, 1943. 17

 Washington Evening Star, February 3, 1943. 18

 Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, August 8, 1945. 19

 For WAAC clippings, see Vol. IV, WAAC Hist

file, SPWA 314.7 (1942-43). 20

 Ltr, Comdt 5th WAAC Tng Gen to Dir WAAC,

3 May 43, with atchd comment. SPWA 319.1. 21

 Malvina Lindsay, in Washington Post, July 17,

1948. 22

 Ltr, Chaplain Urban J. Baer, Ft Des Moines, to

Dir WAAC, 9 Dec 42. SPWA 319.12.

THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 197

vice in the armed forces, or attacks on "the

people in the White House" for permitting

card playing and drinking by soldiers.23

Some letters were more dangerous than

their character warranted. A typical example was a letter from an Army nurse to

an Arkansas radio evangelist, which began, "I am a Christian and a member of

the . . . Church and hate sin as bad as

anyone." She then alleged that Waacs at

training centers were lined up naked for

men medical officers to inspect, that no

sheets were used on examining tables, and

that medical officers showed Waacs pictures of naked men and of men sitting on

toilets. She concluded, "Christ loves these

girls and I know he does not like for them

to have to line up naked and it is embarrassing for our girls every month. Please

send me your book The Truth About the

Mark of the Beast, also Satan's Children."

The radio evangelist naturally became

indignant and wrote his senator, saying

that he intended to warn Arkansas parents

and, "I am not going to permit Arkansas

to become a Socialist State under the New

Deal." He also sent copies of the letter to

the governor, the Secretary of War, and

three editors.24 Upon the senator's request,

an Army inspector general flew to Arkansas, launched a full-scale investigation,

and discovered that none of the allegations

was true and that the nurse in question

was currently hospitalized with a diagnosis of mild psychoneurosis; she had also

written similar letters about the Army

Nurse Corps.

This, of course, was merely one of hundreds of such letters; the WAAC seemed

to be a favorite target of mentally unbalanced persons. Unfortunately, although

disproof for such allegations was readily

available, it did not always reach all who

had heard the charges.

Other scattered reports indicated that

the WAAC was also encountering gossip

and animosity from more responsible elements of the population. This was particularly true around all training centers,

where numbers of Waacs were so great as

seriously to inconvenience civilian users of

streetcars, shops, and beauty parlors. An

Army Service Forces inspector noted that,

while Des Moines merchants and civic

leaders had offered much co-operation,

certain citizens were displeased, and

added:

It seems that any dislike of WAAC personnel is not caused by disorderly or promiscuous conduct, but rather by the fact that the

WAAC personnel, in the strength superimposed upon a city the size of Des Moines,

makes it appear that they take over the town at such times as they are free, particularly

Saturday and Sunday, which causes some amount of inconvenience. . . .25

Investigation at Des Moines by the

Army's Military Intelligence Service was

unable to discover any basis for such dislike except "resentment on the part of

local citizens . . . to the pre

strangers who they feel are usurping the

old settlers in restaurants, stores, theaters,

and hotels."

 26

 The Director of Intelligence, Seventh Service Command, after

investigating Fort Des Moines, said "It

was conclusively determined during the

course of the investigation that the morals

of the members of the Corps are exceptionally and surprisingly good."27

 He

23

 Photostat of anonymous Ltr to SW, 9 Jun 43.

MID 322.12 WAAC (6-9-43) (6-11-43) 24

 (1) Ltr, Lt S., ANC, to Rev. James MacKrell,

Little Rock, Ark., 18 Jan 44, and atchd. Hobby files.

(2) Memo, CG ASF for TIG, 2 Feb 44, with 3d Ind

SGO to TIG, 9 Mar 44. SGO Hist Div Cl file

322.5-1. 25

 Rpt cited n. 6. 26

 Memo. Chief CIC. MIS, for Maj Gen George V.

Strong (G-2), 19 Jul 43. G-2 MID 322.12 WAAC. 27

 Ibid., Des Moines Sec.
198 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

pointed out, however, that one example of

WAAC misconduct in a bar would create

much more gossip than identical conduct

by scores of local civilian women.

As WAAC companies spread to the

field, similar local animosity was sometimes noted near these units. For example,

USO facilities and Stage Door Canteens

at times discouraged or prohibited attendance by Waacs, defending this action by

saying that Waacs broke rules by going

outdoors with men between dances, which

hostesses could not do. Waacs felt that they

were not welcomed simply because USO

hostesses were not interested in raising the

morale of military personnel except of the

marriageable variety.28

The Civilian Uniforms

Another variety of gossip began to

plague the WAAC perhaps more than any

other in the spring of 1943. It arose from

the fact that the public began to attribute

to the WAAC certain misconduct which,

upon investigation, proved to be that of

civilian women in near-military uniforms.

For example, an Army recruiting officer in

Louisiana reported that Waacs, probably

on leave from the Fifth Training Center,

were drinking heavily in Shreveport bars

and taking men to their hotel rooms. Investigation by the provost marshal revealed that the women in question were

indeed conducting themselves as stated;

they were not Waacs but "a group of

women ordnance workers wearing a uniform identical with that of the WAAC

except for insignia."

 29

 The Women Ordnance Workers, better known as WOWS,

were civilian employees of Army Ordnance; although the majority of such employees did not wear uniforms or misconduct themselves publicly, a certain number

caused rumors in all parts of the country.

For instance, Ninth Service Command

and AAF authorities in California both

protested to the Director that some of the

Wows were drinking to excess and engaging in barroom brawls, and being mistaken

for Waacs. Investigation disclosed that the

Wows at Stockton Ordnance Depot were

wearing khaki shirts and skirts, garrison

caps, and enlisted men's or officers' insignia.

The ordnance depot, after the investigation, ordered removal of Army insignia,

but allowed retention of the uniform,

which was optional with such workers all

over the nation. Their winter uniform was

of olive-drab elastique, like a WAAC officer's except for patch pockets and garrison

caps; they also wore depot sleeve patches

and miniature shields and ordnance insignia. Being civilian workers, they were

under no restrictions as to conduct, hours,

or neatness.

The same ordnance depot, like hundreds of other Army installations, also

employed civilian women drivers who

were allowed to wear khaki shirts, slacks,

and garrison caps, with sleeve patch and

shield insignia. The same region in California also had a civilian volunteer group,

the Women's Ambulance and Defense

Corps of America, which had a khaki uniform with Army insignia of rank and the

letters WADC on a sleeve patch; these

women, however, were forbidden by their

bylaws to drink in uniform.

28

 (1) Rpt, Stf Dir 4th AF, 2d SvC, and others, Min,

Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun 43. SPWA 337

(6-1-43). (2) Ltr, Dir WAC to all Stf Dirs, 13 Mar 43,

incl Ltr from Mrs. Eliot Cross. SPWA 250.1 (3-12-

43).

29

 Ltr, 8th SvC to Dir WAAC, 3 Apr 43, incl comment of Maj Warner Bishop, Ft Humbug, Shreveport,

La. SPWA 250.1, WAAC Headquarters, suspicious

of this address, investigated and found Fort Humbug

a legitimate Army district.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 199

The Ninth Service Command investigators, after study of uniforms of the WOWS,

women drivers, and WADC, concluded

that the public was undoubtedly taking all

of them for Waacs, unless they investigated

insignia and button design closely.30

This was only the beginning of what

seemed to be an attempt by every woman

in America to get herself into a military

uniform without the inconvenience of subjecting herself to WAAC discipline. Civilian clerical workers in many Army offices

bought officers' "pink" skirts and olivedrab jackets with gold buttons. The Civil

Air Patrol women were authorized by the

AAF, without clearance from WAAC

Headquarters, to wear WAAC uniforms

with red braid and silver buttons. Even

the WAAC "Hobby Hat" was not sacred;

secretaries at Valley Forge Military Academy wore a close copy, with a uniform

almost indistinguishable from a WAAC

officer's. When WAAC authorities protested this to the academy, they were

informed by the professor of military

science and tactics that the uniform was

not at all similar since the skirt had a pleat

and the buttons had the academy crest

and not the WAAC eagle. At Fort Devens

a soldier's wife was found wearing a

WAAC uniform with gold U.S. Army

buttons and her husband's insignia; she

said the uniform was one that "they sold

in Philadelphia" to girls whose husbands

were in the service.31

Eastern stores advertised a "junior

WAAC uniform" in sizes up through 14.

guaranteed to be "an exact copy of the

real WAAC uniform." The Quartermaster General informed the Director that its

sale was not illegal, although its wearing

by an adult might be, depending on circumstances.32

 A New York manufacturer

supplied dress shops all over the country

with a uniform quite similar to the Waacs',

advising them:

STAKE YOUR CLAIM. There is a vast new

field open for you in selling to the army of

Women Volunteer Workers—Air Raid Wardens— Minute Men—Canteen Workers—

USO and scores of others. ALL DOING THEIR PART AND ALL WANTING TO DRESS THE PART.33

It was doubly annoying to WAAC Headquarters that these concerns were able to

get olive-drab and khaki cloth in the early

months when The Quartermaster General

was still unable to get it for WAAC uniforms.

These department store uniforms were

bought and worn not only by volunteer

workers but by scores of organized prostitutes in Eastern cities. Staff Director Jess

Rice of the Third Service Command,

working with the provost marshal, gathered and forwarded to WAAC Headquarters irrefutable evidence of this practice.

The streetwalkers, known as Victory

Girls, were discovered in Harrisburg,

Newport News, Baltimore, and other

cities, wearing uniforms of material and

cut very similar to the WAAC's. One was

apprehended by military police while trying to buy a furlough-rate railroad ticket.

Another was discovered when authorities

checked a report that a WAAC officer was

drunk in a disreputable Harrisburg hotel.

The proprietress of a Baltimore clothing

30

 Ltr, Dir WAAC to 9th SvC, 4 Jun 43, sub: Unauthorized Wearing of Uniform, and Ind. SPWA

250.1. 31

 (1) Ltr, TAG to CG AAF, 10 Aug 43, sub:

Authorization of WAAC Uniform for CAP Pers.

SPWA 421. (2) Ltr, 4th SvC to 3d SvC, 26 May 43,

sub: Valley Forge Mil Academy, Wayne, Pa., and Ind.

SPWA 250.1 (4-3-43). (3) 1st Ind, WAAC Stf Dir to

Dir WAAC, 11 Aug 43, to Memo, Chief of PM Br 3d

SvC for Capt Rice, 11 Aug 43. SPWA 250.1 (4-3-43). 32

 Ltr, WAAC Hq to Legal Div OQMG, 14 May

43, and Ind. SPWA 421. 33

 Photo adv, Evelyn Alden Fashions, 134 W. 37th

St., New York, incl with Ind cited n. 31(3).
200 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

store claimed that she was doing a good

business in sale of these uniforms and "desired to know if she was doing wrong in

selling them."

 34

At the Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation, the camp followers, dressed in

khaki skirts and shirts, were so bold as to

wait outside the gate, claiming that they

were Waacs and picking up soldiers as

they left the port. Here, the commanding

general ordered the enrolled women to pin

their insignia on the collars of their cotton

shirts, at that time contrary to uniform

regulations, so that they could be distinguished from prostitutes in khaki shirts

and skirts.35

Gathering together all these examples,

Director Hobby requested the Army Service Forces to amend Army regulations so

as to forbid the civilian use of WAAC uniforms and insignia, or that of any insignia,

buttons, and clothing which very closely

resembled the WAAC items. She also

asked that the Quartermaster Corps and

Army Exchange Service co-operate in discouraging manufacturers of these uniforms. Since the Army controlled the

manufacture and sale of all material used

in commercial manufacture of Army officers' uniforms, it could, by withholding

material, force most manufacturers to

cease wasting it in the production of nonmilitary uniforms.

However, the Army Service Forces

rejected the Director's idea, saying that it

would be too difficult to enforce and that

the Quartermaster Corps and the Exchange Service already co-operated with

manufacturers of male officers' uniforms,

so that no new instructions to them were

necessary. The ASF added "Due to the

fact that the WAAC is a comparatively

new corps, the casual and uninformed observer is apt to believe that every woman

in o. d. uniform is a Waac. It is believed

that this situation will be overcome in due

course."

 36

The Quartermaster General soon afterward authorized the lend-leasing of 5,000

WAAC winter uniforms, left surplus by

the collapse of recruiting, to the French

"WAAC" in North Africa—at that time a

part-native corps without military organization. The Director shortly received a

flood of derogatory letters from soldiers, in

parts of North Africa where there were no

Waacs, who nevertheless alleged that

Waacs were disreputable in both appearance and conduct, wore earrings and

bobby sox with uniforms, also long hair

down their backs, and obeyed no military

commands.37

The Organized Rumors

By late spring, even before the Cleveland Plan was launched, rumors were

more widespread, more consistent, more

vicious, and the tempo of their occurrence

had quickened. Director Hobby and War

Department officials now began to suspect

that Axis agents had taken over the sporadic stories and were systematically

spreading certain definite rumors in an

attempt to discredit and wreck the WAAC

and thus impede the Army's mobilization.

This theory was supported by the fact that

the onset of the more vicious rumors followed immediately after the Congressional

hearings in March of 1943, in which Army

34

 Memo cited n. 31(3). 35

 Rpt, Stf Dir HRPOE. Min, Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun 43. SPWA 337 (6-1-43). 36

 (1) 2d Ind, 19 Aug 43, to Memo cited n. 31(3).

(2) D/F, MPD ASF for Dir WAAC, 1 Sep 43, atchd

to same. 37

 2d Ind, OQMG for Reqmts Div ASF, to Memo,

Dir WAAC for Reqmts Div ASF, 16 Nov 43, sub:

Redesigning of WAC Cap. SPWA 421.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 201

leaders had asked Army status for the

WAAC and had emphasized that thousands more women were sought to allow

more men to be sent to strengthen the

fighting front. The Waacs already obtained, it was said, would release for combat a number of men equal to that which

had just defeated the Germans in North

Africa.

As early as 18 May 1943, Director

Hobby wrote to General Grunert that

"there have been many indications of an

organized whispering campaign directed

against the WAAC" and asked investigation. The Army Service Forces sent the

request for an investigation to G-2 Division, General Staff, which in turn sent it to

the Federal Bureau of Investigation, claiming that it was out of the Army's jurisdiction.38

By early June, the situation was so far

out of control that G-2 Division reversed

its stand and requested the FBI to allow it

to act. In a letter to the FBI, G-2 Division

said:

Consequent to the formation of such a

women's auxiliary to any of the military serv- ices, a certain amount of indecent humor was

to be expected. However, the inevitable so- called humor first has been supplemented

and subsequently has been replaced by a

circulation of plainly vicious rumors . . . what appears to be a concerted campaign

has assumed such proportions as seriously to

affect morale and recruiting.39

Supporting evidence for this view was

plentiful. An identical rumor appeared

almost simultaneously in New York,

Washington, Kansas City, Minneapolis,

and other cities, to the effect that large

numbers of pregnant Waacs were being

returned from overseas. Camp Lee, Virginia, was swept suddenly by the report

that any soldier seen dating a Waac would

be seized by Army authorities and given

medical treatment. A widely repeated

rumor circulated at Hampton Roads to

the effect that 90 percent of Waacs had

been found to be prostitutes, 40 percent of

them pregnant. In the Sixth Service Command an apparently organized rumor appeared in many localities to the effect that

Army physicians examining WAAC applicants rejected all virgins. In Philadelphia

a "War Department Circular" with obscene anatomical "specifications" was

reproduced and widely circulated, finally

being found even in the foxholes of New

Guinea. From Florida there came numerous identical stories that Waacs openly

solicited men and engaged in sex acts in

public places.40

One favorite theme for these organized

rumors was that Waacs were issued prophylactics or were required to take such

items with them when they left the barracks, so that they could fulfill the "morale

purposes" for which the Army had really

recruited them. It was this story that

finally brought the whole slander campaign into the open. Until this time, Army

and WAAC authorities had felt it wiser to

ignore all rumors, since to deny any publicly would merely have given them greater

circulation. However, on 8 June 1943, the

charge that Waacs were issued prophylactics was made in a nationally syndicated

column, "Capitol Stuff," in the McCormick chain of newspapers, by a columnist

38

 (1) Memo, Dir WAAC for Dir of Adm ASF, 18

May 43, with incl evidence; (2) 1st Ind, ASF for G-2,

22 May 43; (3) 3d Ind, G-2 for ASF. G-2 MID 322.12

WAC (5-18-43). 39

 Ltr, G-2 to FBI, 9 Jun 43. G-2 MID 322.12

WAAC (6-11-43). 40

 (1) Weekly Intelligence Bull, MID, 11 Jun 43.

G-2 MID 322.12 WAAC. (2) Memo, AAF Hq for Dir

WAC, 5 Apr 45. WDWAC 330.14. (3) Exhibit D, Rpt,

CIC to MIS, 19 Jul 43, sub: Origin of Rumors Concerning WAAC. G-2 MID 322.12 WAAC (6-11-43).
THE PRESIDENT AND MRS. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT visit the Waacs in

the spring of 1943. Above, Mr. Roosevelt reviews the troops at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia. Below,

Mrs. Roosevelt with Director Hobby and Col. John A. Hoag, commandant of First WAAC

Training Center at Fort Des Moines.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 203

who had continuously opposed Administration measures. It was noted that in the

weeks preceding the appearance of the

column Mrs. Roosevelt had visited the

Waacs at Des Moines and the President

himself had reviewed those at Fort Oglethorpe, after which he had informed the

press that "those of us who have seen the

work they are doing . . . have only admiration and respect for the spirit, the

dignity, and the courage they have

shown."

 41

On 8 June the column stated:

Contraceptives and prophylactic equip- ment will be furnished to members of the

WAAC, according to a supersecret agree- ment reached by high-ranking officers of the

War Department and the WAAC Chieftain, Mrs. William Pettus Hobby. ... It was a

victory for the New Deal ladies. . . . Mrs. Roosevelt wants all the young ladies to have

the same overseas rights as their brothers and

fathers.42

There was actually no truth in the

statement. The Army did provide free

prophylactic equipment for men, and it

appeared theoretically possible that some

station in the field might have attempted

to apply the same rule to women. However, the most thorough investigation by

Army operatives from G-2 Division failed

to produce any such evidence. These

operatives reported:

There is apparently no factual basis for the . . . charge that contraceptives and prophylactics are issued to WAAC personnel. It is

indicated that these articles are not even gen- erally purchased in Post Exchanges and drug

stores by individuals in the WAAC; in all

cases of recorded sales the purchasers have

been married women.43

It was G-2's opinion that the "supersecret" document referred to was a War

Department printed pamphlet for the

WAAC, Sex Hygiene, which prescribed six

lectures to be given WAAC officers and

officer candidates, to equip them to give

their women a suitably modest version of

the Army's required hygiene course for

men.44 This was, however, an unsensational document, part of the routine training course, which prescribed standard

subjects no more radical than those given

in high schools and colleges—feminine

anatomy and physiology, the nature and

dangers of venereal disease, and the facts

about menstruation and menopause—and

which said nothing whatever about the

issue of contraceptives. Its wording had in

fact been carefully reviewed by the Director, and its presentation limited to trained

WAAC officers, because of the British experience:

Exaggerated rumors appear to have gath- ered about hygiene lectures in the forces. . . .

The mental reaction of a girl unaccustomed

to attributing precise meanings to words, and

bewildered by the impact of new and unfa- miliar terms, must be kept in mind.45

G-2 described the pamphlet as "an excellent, frank, and wholesome manual . . .

[which] counsels continence."

 46

 It definitely did not authorize any issue of contraceptives, and did not even tell the

women what they were or how to use

41

 (1) Des Moines Register, February 15, 1943, and

AP release, February 17, 1943. (2) Press Release, 15

May 43, signed Stephen Early. Envelope, Roosevelt,

F. D., Statements by, WDBPR file of WAC Gp. (3)

Text on new application form for enlistment, 31 May

43. SPWA 062.1. 42

 Washington Times-Herald, June 8, 1943. 43

 Memo, G-2 for Dir WAAC, 21 Aug 43, sub:

Origin of Rumors Concerning Waacs. G-2 MID

322.12 WAAC (6-11-43). 44

 WD Pamphlet 35-1, 27 May 43, Sex Hygiene

Course, Officers and Officer Candidates, WAAC. 45

 Conditions in the Three Women's Services. 46

 Memo, Chief CIC for Gen Strong (G-2), 23 Jun

43, sub: Prelim Rpt on WAAC. MID 322.12 WAAC

(6-11-43).
204 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

them. This, just published on 27 May

1943, could have been the "agreement"

mentioned in the 8 June column, although

it was not "supersecret" or even secret or

confidential but merely restricted to military personnel. Save for this, G-2 found

that no directives on the subject had ever

been issued by WAAC Headquarters except one letter in May, in answer to an

inquiry, which said definitely that Waacs

would not be given even so much as instruction in the use of prophylactics, much

less the prophylactics themselves.47

War Department Denial

The War Department thus was in an

excellent position to force the columnist to

retract his statement. The question was

whether it would be wise to lend the affair

the dignity of a formal War Department

denial. Many of the Director's advisers

counseled against it, pointing out that persons would read the denial who had never

read the attack, and that the present distress, anger, and humiliation experienced

by the Director and all other Waacs would

in time be forgotten. On the other hand,

the shock which the column had caused

the Waacs and their families was so great

that an immediate denial seemed necessary to preserve the faith and self-respect

of the Corps. An Army officer described a

typical reaction in the WAAC company

on his post:

It raised hell with that company. Long distance calls from parents began to come in,

telling the girls to come home. The younger girls all came in crying, asking if this disgrace

was what they had been asked to join the

Army for. The older ones were just bitter

that such lies could be printed. It took all the

pride and enthusiasm for the Army right out

of them.48

An enlisted" woman described the same

reaction; she said:

I went home on leave to tell my family it

wasn't true. When I went through the streets,

I held up my head because I imagined everybody was talking about me, but when I was

at last safe inside our front door, I couldn't

say a word to them, I was so humiliated—I

just burst out crying, and my people ran and

put their arms around me and cried with me.

I couldn't understand how my eagerness to

serve our country could have brought such

shame on us all.49

Director Hobby herself, when she gathered her staff to tell them what had happened, broke down and was unable to

continue speaking. The severity of the

reaction of all Waacs, in whatever ranks,

could be explained only by the fact that

all, at this date, were the early pioneers

whose enlistment had been motivated by

a perhaps impractical idealism, intense

enough to sustain them through the supply

and training problems of the first winter,

but too intense to receive such a gross

attack with the indifference its inaccuracy

merited.

Director Hobby therefore made the decision to reassure the women and their

parents by public denials, whatever the

effect on newspaper readers. Such denials

were thereupon immediately made by the

President and Mrs. Roosevelt, by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, by General

Somervell of the Army Service Forces, by

members of Congress, and by Director

Hobby and other WAAC officers. The

President told his press conference that it

was a "deliberate newspaper job" and that

the reporter had merely taken orders

47

 Ibid., with incl Ltr, WAAC Hq to CG 2d SvC, 14

May 43. SPWA 726 (5-6-43). 48

 Interv with Joseph A. Bourdow, 9 Aug 48, then

of Ft Washington AGO Sch. 49

 Sgt Amelia Madrak, Hist Div SSUSA, secy of

author, 1947.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 205

"from the top."

 50

 Mrs. Roosevelt in her

press conference on 8 June stated that

rumors about misconduct among Waacs

in North Africa were Nazi propaganda,

and that "Americans fall for Axis-inspired

propaganda like children."

 51

 Naturally,

she said, the Germans were interested in

discrediting an organization that released

so many men for the fighting front.

 52

Secretary Stimson's denial was the most

publicized, and did in fact reach many

people, especially on the west coast, who

had never heard of the columnist or the

rumors:

Sinister rumors aimed at destroying the

reputation of the Waacs are absolutely and

completely false. Anything which would interfere with their recruiting or destroy the

reputation of the Corps, and by so doing

interfere with increase in the combat strength

of our Army, would be of value to the enemy.

The repetition of any unfounded rumor . . .

is actually an aid to the enemy.

He pointed out that reflection on the

WAAC was reflection on the whole of

American womanhood, and that to malign

the nation's women could easily destroy

the morale of men at the front.

 53

In addition, General Somervell told a

Congressional committee that the rumors

were spread by a person sympathetic to

the Axis and that the Waacs were "your

and my daughters and sisters" and entitled

to respect.

 54

 Representative Edith Rogers

told Congress that "nothing would please

Hitler more" than to discredit Waacs and

American women. Representative Mary

Norton said, "Loose talk concerning our

women in the Armed Services cannot be

less than Nazi-inspired."

 55

 Director

Hobby told reporters that there was "absolutely no foundation of truth in the

statement."

Under the barrage, the columnist was

forced to retract his statement, which he

did, although protesting that his information came from an "intelligent and trustworthy" official who swore that "his eyes

had passed over" the alleged secret paper.

 56

 Nevertheless, three years later, religious publications were still to be found

reprinting the story, and actually attributing the columnist's lines to Director

Hobby. Director Hobby's picture was

labeled "Astounding Degeneracy," and

one article continued, "Mrs. William Pettus Hobby, chieftain of the WAC, says,

'Contraceptives and prophylactics will be

furnished to members of the WAC according to a super-secret agreement reached

by high-ranking officers of the War Department. . . .' " 57

Investigation by Intelligence Service

In June, a full-scale investigation of possible Axis influence in the rumors was

launched by the Army's Military Intelli- 50

 Washington Post, June 30, 1943. 51

 Washington Daily News, June 9, 1943. 52

 PM (New York), June 10, 1943. 53

 Washington Post, June 11, 1943. 54

 Ibid., June 16, 1943. 55

 Both in the Washington Evening Star, June 10,

1943. 56

 "Capitol Stuff," June 10, 1943. The columnist

later insisted he was vindicated when, in 1945, Time

alleged the Army had declared surplus the remains

of a stock of contraceptive jelly. He did not check far

enough to discover that such jelly, if it existed, would

have been sold in any Army PX, where Waacs formed

an almost microscopic fraction of female customers,

who included soldiers' wives and other authorized

purchasers. In fact, upon investigation, Army officers

were unable to locate any such stock of contraceptive

jelly as reported by Time. Transcript of Tp Conv, Maj

Chance and Mr. Marples, WDBPR. WDWAC 331.1

(1945-46). 57

 (1) The Evangelical Beacon, Vol. XIV, No. 22, February 27, 1945, incl to Ltr, AAF PDC to Air WAC

Div, 20 Sep 45. WDWAC 330.14. (2) Ltr, Mrs. F. D.

Roosevelt to Dir WAC, 25 Oct 44, incl Ltr from voter

re religious magazine of alleged 1,500,000 weekly

circulation, The Missionary Worker. WDWAC 330.4.
206 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

gence Service. The Federal Bureau of

Investigation gave the Army full permission, in this one instance, to investigate

persons who might otherwise fall under

the investigative jurisdiction of the FBI.

 58

A more exhaustive investigation could

scarcely have been made than that which

Military Intelligence now undertook.

First, Army agents covered sections of the

nation near large WAAC installations,

such as training centers. At Des Moines,

for example, more than 250 interviews

were held with a cross section of the local

citizens, in an effort to expose the source of

the rumors. Next, specific stories all over

the nation were tracked down to their beginnings, each involving a large file of

notes and records.

 59

The report reached a conclusion far less

pleasant than the theory of Nazi activity:

There is no positive evidence that rumors

concerning the morality of WAAC personnel

are Axis-inspired. There is some evidence

that the Axis-controlled radio has followed a

line of rumors already widely circulated

by . . . Army personnel, Navy personnel, Coast

Guard personnel, business men, women, factory

workers and others. Most . . . have completely

American backgrounds.

 60

Evidence indicated that in most cases

the obscene stories had been originated by

men of the armed forces at about the time

of the change from the "phony war" to

real combat in North Africa, and of Congressional publicity on the thousands of

women sought to release men for combat.

From Army and Navy men, the stories

had spread rapidly, first to their wives

and women friends, and thence to the

whole population. Eventually the rumor

spreaders included, according to G-2

secret files:

(1) Army personnel: "Army officers and men

who resent members of the WAAC . . . who

have obtained equal or higher rank than

themselves." "Men who fear they will be replaced by Waacs." "Male military personnel

who are sometimes inclined to resent usurpation of their long-established monopoly."

"Soldiers who had never dated Waacs . . .

[or] had trouble getting dates."

(2) Soldiers' Wives: "Officers' wives over

bridge tables." "Women whose husbands are

shipped overseas."

(3) Jealous Civilian Women: "Local girls and

women who resent having the Waacs

around." "Younger to middle-aged women

who deplore the extra competition." "Women

who ordinarily participate in community

enterprise and who are losing publicity as a

result of women in uniform."

(4) Gossips: "Thoughtless gossiping men

and women." "Men [who] like to tell offcolor stories." (5) Fanatics: "Those who cannot get used

to women being any place except the home."

"Those whose rabid political convictions

cause them erroneously to see in the WAAC

another New Deal creation."

(6) Waacs: "Disgruntled and discharged

Waacs."

 61

A typical example of an unfounded

rumor that spread in the standard pattern

was the case involving a Midwestern city

and the surrounding area. In this city,

agents reported, enlisted men and officers

in bars had begun the rumors with statements of which the more printable included, "Waacs are a bunch of tramps";

"All Waacs have round heels"; and

"Waacs are nothing but prostitutes." In

small towns nearby, officers' wives soon

58

 Memo cited n. 43. Also, Ltr, J. Edgar Hoover to

Col Leslie R. Forney, MIS, 30 Jun 43. G-2 MID

322.12 WAAC (6-11-43). 59

 Specific references will be given in each case in

following paragraphs. The entire file of the summer's

investigation is found in G-2 files, MID 322.12

WAAC. 60

 Memo cited n. 43. Author's italics. 61

 (1) Memo, Chief CIC, MIS, for Gen Strong, 13

Aug 43, sub: Closing Rpt on Investigation of Rumors

Concerning WAAC. MID 322.12 WAAC. (2) Memo

cited n. 26. (3) Memo cited n. 46.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 207

afterward stated to friends that Waacs

were really taken into the service to take

care of the sex problems of soldiers. An

Army chaplain then advised Waacs not to

re-enlist in the WAC. The rumors spread

to Protestant and Catholic ministers in the

vicinity, who then urged Waacs to get out

of the service. These were investigated by

the FBI for sedition in urging desertion.

Agents were not able to verify even one

case of pregnancy of an unmarried Waac

in that area, or any other notorious misconduct.

 62

In New England, especially in the Fort

Devens area, agents found that a number

of stories about mass pregnancy, venereal

disease, and immorality had originated

with military personnel. The G-2 report

added:

Military personnel, commissioned and enlisted, were found to be a prolific fountainhead of WAAC rumors. Soldiers who had

never dated Waacs, and consequently didn't

know whether the stories were true, accepted

the tales as gospel. Army nurses are allegedly

jealous of the Waacs because the latter are

promoted more rapidly, receive more public- ity, and encroach on the nurses' dating territory. The wives of men replaced by Waacs

are said to be angry because their husbands

are sent overseas as a result of the Waacs sup- planting them. No subversive intent is

apparent in either case.

Soldiers in the Fort Devens area were

credited by investigators with originating

the rumor that "fantastic" numbers of

pregnant Waacs had been sent back to

Lovell General Hospital from North

Africa. Agents descended on that hospital's records "without prearrangement"

and reported, "No record of a pregnant

Waac was found." In fact, no Waacs pregnant or otherwise had ever been returned

from North Africa to Lovell General Hospital. Another Fort Devens' rumor among

military personnel was that the WAAC

venereal disease rate was skyrocketing.

When 6,000 women were examined, only

11 cases were discovered, 8 of them having

existed before enlistment and having been

undetected by entrance examinations.

This, agents said, was a rate which was

"less than any civilian community." A

third rumor in New England was that

Waacs were officially advised to utilize

contraceptives. Agents interviewed hundreds of Waacs and were unable to find

even one who had ever been so advised;

the Catholic chaplain also asserted that no

Waacs in the area had ever to his knowledge been given such advice.

 63

In the Fort Des Moines area, where

Waacs had been longest, rumors were not

so vicious; the attitude of male military

personnel, originally quite hostile, had reportedly upon closer acquaintance taken

a marked change for the better. The Director of Intelligence, Seventh Service

Command, concluded, "It is obvious that

the Corps members, by force of their own

composite opinion, do much to enforce

proper conduct and freedom from even

the appearance of evil on the part of other

members."

 64

Agents at Fort Des Moines reported

that no soldier could be found who had

ever had sexual intercourse with a Waac;

in fact, most had trouble getting a date.

Sales of contraceptives at local drug stores

had not gone up. Waacs drank less in public than civilian women, and it was found

that "merchants agree Waacs are more

courteous and patient, meet obligations

more readily." All interviewed who knew

Waacs placed the sexual morality of the

62

 Memo cited n, 61(1). 63

 Ibid., Ft Devens area sec. 64

 Memo cited n. 26, Ft Devens area sec.
208 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

average member as higher than that of the

average civilian girl. Nevertheless, a relatively few instances of drunkenness and

misconduct had made a proportionately

greater impression on local citizens. Since

Waacs originally did not have to wear uniforms off duty, local citizens also showed a

tendency to consider any drunken woman

a disguised Waac, until training center

authorities forbade wearing of civilian

dress in the Des Moines area.

 65

Near the Fifth Training Center, a Capt.

Charles S. wrote a Waac friend that he

had heard there were 165 "pregnated"

Waacs in one month at Camp Polk, and

that before members went out on passes

they were required to show that they had

contraceptives with them. When asked for

proof by Military Intelligence, Captain S.

was, agents said, "much chagrined and

embarrassed."

 66

In the area around Fort Oglethorpe,

Georgia, agents reported evidence that

rumors had been spread by men who resented WAAC rank or who thought they

would be shipped overseas as soon as

enough Waacs could be recruited to replace them. Local girls and women had

picked up the rumors; one admitted to

agents that she had spread stories which

were not true but that, "I just get tired of

seeing them around." A rumor about 100

pregnancies was traced to the local

WCTU. Again, statistics failed to support

the charges. Of 14,000 women trained or

processed since the training center opened,

three had been hospitalized for drunkenness, and eight had venereal disease, which

agents described as a "negligible" percentage of cases compared to civilian rates.

Hotel owners and the director of the

Chamber of Commerce said Waacs conducted themselves better than civilian

girls.

 67

Investigation at Daytona Beach

The most extensive training center investigation was conducted at Daytona

Beach, where the Second WAAC Training

Center and General Faith's headquarters

had operated in the midst of a resort city.

In January Director Hobby had renewed

her attempts to get the women out of the

city area, and in March the Services of

Supply approved construction of classrooms and one theater but again refused

to approve construction of recreational

buildings.

 68

As a result, large numbers of recreationseeking Waacs descended on the city

nightly, provoking much civilian resentment and some of the most serious allegations encountered by investigators. At

first these objections concerned only the

crowding and food consumption by

Waacs: one winter resident, who described

himself as "a lover of the locality and its

facilities as an adorable resort," wrote his

senator to denounce WAAC service as "a

grand vacation at Government expense

. . . the Army group monopolizes our few

sizeable restaurants to the detriment of

civilians." Investigators found that most

such complaints came from about 15 percent of the local residents described as

"well-to-do property owners . . . the

65

 Memo cited n. 26, Also (1) M/R, 10 Jul 43, Summary of Investigation, sub: Origin of Rumors Concerning WAAC. G-2 MID 322.12 (6-11-43). (2) Ltr,

Col Hoag to Dir WAAC, 11 Jan 43, sub: Wearing of

Uniform. SPWA 300.3 (12-7-43) sec 1 (Cont). (3)

WAAC Cir 2, 28 Jan 43. (4) Ltr, WAAC Hq to Tng

Cens, 24 Feb 43, sub: Wearing of Uniform. SPWA

300.3. 66

 Memo cited n. 61(1), 8th SvC sec. 67

 (1) Memo cited n. 26, Ft Oglethorpe Sec. (2)

Ltr, MID 4th SvC to MID (Washington, D. C.), 5 Jul

43, sub: Origin of Rumors Concerning WAAC. G-2

MID 322.12 WAAC (6-11-43). 68

 Ltr, 2d Tng Cen to Dir WAAC, 8 Jan 43, and

Inds. WA 600.1 (7-2-42)(l) sec 2 (1942).
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 209

elderly conservative type."

 69

 Another

civilian criticism alleged that WAAC

messes wasted food so that their garbage

cans were filled to overflowing while

Florida civilians went hungry under the

administration's food rationing system.

Instead, investigators found that the disposable garbage rate in WAAC messes was

only half that of the Army rate; the local

garbage collector, when interviewed,

stated that what he found in WAAC garbage cans was far less than that from

"civilian sources."

 70

Rumors nevertheless grew more vicious.

It was said that WAAC trainees drank too

much; that they picked up men in streets

and bars; that they were registered with

men in every hotel and auto court, or had

sexual relations under trees and bushes in

public parks; that there was a nearby military hospital filled to overflowing with

maternity and venereal disease cases.

Finally, it was seriously stated that Waacs

were touring in groups seizing and raping

sailors and Coast Guardsmen.71

No evidence to support such statements

could be found by military intelligence

operatives, or by independent investigations by the Fourth Service Command, or

by Colonel Clark of WAAC Headquarters.

 72

 The alleged government maternity

home was nonexistent; only 18 pregnancies had been discovered, 16 of them

among married women; inspectors could

get locally only hearsay and gossip but

"no single piece of correspondence which

would indicate any tangible item."

 73

Although the center had almost 10,000

trainees, the military police report for a

typical Saturday night revealed a total of

only 11 delinquencies:

2 kissing and embracing in public

1 no hat on

2 injured in auto accident

1 without identification card

1 walking with officer on street

2 found intoxicated

1 AWOL returned

1 "retrieved from Halifax River in an intoxicated condition"

11 Total

This was accounted a remarkable record

in view of the fact that, among the thousands of women at the Second Training

Center in this first week of May, 1943,

many were the mental, moral, physical,

and psychological problems that had been

accepted in such large numbers before the

restoration of recruiting standards. However, it was admitted that rumors would

naturally spread through the local civilians if even one Waac out of 10,000 had to

be retrieved from the Halifax River every

Saturday night.

 74

The inspectors and the local authorities

69

 (1) Ltr, Mr. Fred Huntress to Senator Claude

Pepper, 3 Mar 43; (2) Memo, Gen Grunert for Dir

WAAC, 23 Mar 43. Folder, Daytona Beach, Dir Adm

Serv ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 70

 For civilian complaints: (1) Memos cited n. 61.

(2) File of Dir Adm Serv, with investigations, cited

n. 72. 71

 Memos cited n. 61. 72

 (1) For MID investigation, see Memos cited n.

61. (2) For Col Clark's, see Memo, Col Clark, Chief

Opns Div WAAC Hq, for Dir WAAC, 27 May 43.

SPWA 319.1. For others, see (3) Ltr, Mr. Harry Hopkins to Brig Gen Frederick H. Osborn, 1 Mar 43: (4)

Memo, Dir WAAC for TIG, 13 Mar 43, incl Ltrs

from Senator Pepper and Gen White, SPWA 330.14

(3-8-43)E; (5) Memo, Exec 2d WAAC Tng Cen for

Comdt, 13 Mar 43; (6) Memo, Gen Faith for Dir

WAAC, 18 Mar 43, SPWA 250.1; (7) TWX, Gen

Grunert to DCofAdm Serv ASF, 19 Mar 43, WA-212-

119-Govt Z; (8) Memo, DCofAdm Serv for Dir

Reqmts Div ASF, 20 Mar 43, with approval by

Reqmts Div, 23 Mar 43, SPAAS 353.8; (9) Memo,

Cof Adm Serv ASF for Dir WAAC, 23 Mar 43; (10)

Various Ltrs from White House, Congress, citizens,

et al., atchd to above. Folder, Daytona Beach, Dir

Adm Serv ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 73

 Rpt, CIC 4th SvC to MIS, 19 Jul 43, sub: Origin

of Rumors. G-2 MID 322.12 WAAC. 74

 Ibid.
210 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

unanimously blamed the location and the

lack of recreational facilities. The area was

described as the week-end mecca of soldiers and sailors from surrounding military and naval stations. An Army investigator observed, "From Saturday noon

until midnight Sunday, Daytona Beach

takes on an atmosphere of a large coeducational institution at which the home

team has just won an important football

game."

 75

 One officer reported, "It was a

crazy idea to try to set up a Military

Training Center in a place like this where

the girls live in hotels and are surrounded

by a carnival atmosphere."

 76

The Fourth Service Command inspector

general recommended more recreation

facilities so that trainees would not need

to roam the city at night. The military intelligence operative agreed: "It is the

opinion of this officer that recreational

facilities are inadequate."

 77

 Ninety percent of the women had, he said, stayed in

their quarters and suffered low morale,

while only about 10 percent were seen in

the city, but this 10 percent totaled a thousand women. General Grunert, who investigated in person, immediately telegraphed his office:

RECREATION FACILITIES AVAILABLE TO WAAC

TRAINING CENTER HERE AT DAYTONA BEACH

ARE SO GROSSLY INADEQUATE AS TO MAKE IT

NECESSARY TO RECONSIDER THE QUESTION OF

PROVIDING TWO SERVICE CLUBS. . . . PRESENT

USE OF INADEQUATE CIVILIAN FACILITIES HAS

RESULTED AND WILL CONTINUE TO RESULT IN

COMPLAINTS AND RUMORS AS TO DRINKING AND

IMMORALITY AND DEPLETION OF CIVILIAN FOOD

SUPPLY. . . . TAKE UP THIS MATTER WITH

COMMANDING GENERAL ARMY SERVICE FORCES

AT ONCE FOR EARLY ACTION.

 78

Now, belatedly, Requirements Division,

ASF, reversed its earlier disapprovals and

approved Director Hobby's four-monthold recommendation for two service clubs,

but the time required to bring them into

operation was considerable, and in any

event the damage was irretrievable.79

In addition, inspectors blamed some

rumors at Daytona Beach on the conduct

of female dischargees who remained about

town "conducting a campaign against the

WAAC."

 80

 General Faith noted that, in

the weeks before recruiting standards were

restored, about one half of 1 percent of the

women sent him had previous records

which warranted their immediate discharge, and that in addition another 4

percent were guilty of "unseemly conduct

. . . specifically, drinking, boisterousness,

and petting in public parks and on

benches." The remaining 95 percent he

believed to be of exemplary conduct and

discipline, a good statistical average for

any civilian community. General Faith

stated, "I am convinced that faulty recruiting is the primary cause of the conditions described."

 81

No matter how promptly such women

were discharged, civilian gossip had opportunity to multiply their numbers and

to confuse the conduct of dischargees with

that of trainees. WAAC military police attempted to take uniforms from dischargees

who were wearing them for a purpose

other than the official one of return to the

place of enlistment, but in one such case a

woman discharged for neurosis promptly

ran screaming into the street disrobed,

causing even worse public comment.

75

 Memo, Asst IG 4th SvC for CG 4th SvC, 9 May

43, atchd as Exhibit B to Rpt cited n. 73. 76

 Post Engr, in Rpt cited n. 73. 77

 Rpt cited n. 73. 78

 TWX cited n. 72(7). 79

 Memos cited n. 72(8) and 72(9). 80

 WAAC Cir 11, 1 Oct 42, and correspondence in

SPWA 420 (8-25-42), 1942. Army Regulations

shortly superseded this circular. 81

 Memo cited n. 72(6).
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 211

Colonel Clark, who investigated for

WAAC Headquarters, said:

Being considerably alarmed by rumors

... I took the trouble to ascertain from the

hospital records the true facts with regard to

pregnancies and venereal diseases. These figures are statistical and incontrovertible. . . .

It will be seen at a glance that the experience

of this center in this respect has been unusually fortunate. ... It is extremely unfortunate that we have no recourse against these

scurrilous and slanderous charges.82

The Army did have one recourse, and that

was to abandon all city property—a move

also dictated by the shrinking enrollment.

At this, a local newspaper columnist cried:

It may be that the present scare that the

War Department would forego Daytona

Beach . . . will close the traps of some of

the scandal mongers. . . . Had it not been

for the coming of the Waacs, Daytona Beach

would by now have been a ghost town.83

In July, the Waacs gave up the leased city

buildings and withdrew within the cantonment area, and the local radio station

broadcast, "Cool Daytona Beach can once

again accommodate thousands of summer

visitors."

 84

Other Investigations

It was from overseas, where most soldiers had not as yet seen a Waac, that the

worst opposition came. The Office of Censorship ran a sample tabulation and

reported that, of intercepts of soldier mail

which mentioned the WAAC, 84 percent

expressed disfavor and most advised a

woman not to join; some threatened to jilt

or divorce her, as the case might be, if she

did join.85

The only Waacs then overseas were

some 200 in North Africa and about 600

bound for England, but, according to the

soldiers' reports, each must have been

shipped home pregnant several times. A

counter-intelligence operative, sitting in a

restaurant next to an Army major, heard

him say loudly that the Army had sent "a

whole boat-load" home and that it was

"difficult to keep Waacs at any station

over there for any length of time without

fully two-thirds of them becoming pregnant."

 86

 A civilian just returned from

North Africa cautioned his women friends

against joining the WAAC because of the

low moral character of nurses and Waacs,

but when pressed for facts was unable to

furnish the names of any specific persons

or places, and admitted he had no direct

knowledge of the matter.87

One favorite rumor was that General

Eisenhower had said that he didn't want

Waacs "dumped on his command area."

Foreign correspondents interviewed General Eisenhower and found that he had

not only requested Waacs but said he

would get British servicewomen if American ones were not sent. One reporter discovered that Waacs in North Africa lived

in a convent under strict discipline, rose

early to catch a 6:00 A.M. military bus to

town, worked hard all day, securing enthusiastic recommendations from supervisors, and retired to the convent for an

8:00 P.M. curfew. He therefore failed to

see how their night life could be very

exciting.88

82

 Memo cited n. 72(2). 83

 Daytona Beach Observer, May 22, 1943. 84

 July broadcast over Daytona Beach stations. Exhibit N, Rpt cited n. 73. 85

 Memo cited n. 46. 86

 Memo, CID agent for Chief CIC, 16 Jul 43, sub:

Dissemination of Rumors. MID 322.12 WAAC (6-

11-43). 87

 Memo cited n. 61(1). 88

 John Lardner's syndicated column, June 10,

1943.
212 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Among all the comments reported in

later samplings by the censors, who of

course had no power to delete them, there

were many praising the Corps and its

work, but not one reported instance in

which a man advised a woman to enlist.89

Typical soldier comments, from many units

and from widely separated parts of the

world, were:

Wife of one of the men in my company

joined the Wacs. She simply wrote and told

him that, tired of living off the fat of the land,

she had enlisted. With no further ado, the

man wrote his father's attorney to institute

divorce action . . . and is at present engaged in cutting off her allotments, changing

insurance beneficiaries. . . .

You join the WAVES or WAC and you are

automatically a prostitute in my opinion.

I think they are great organizations, but I

don't want any wife, or future wife, of mine

joining them.

Are you going in the Wacs, Mother? If you

did or do, I will disown you.

Velva, please don't join the Wacs. I have

good reasons for not wanting you to. I persuaded my sister not to. Some day I'll tell you

why.

You ask me to tell you what I think of the

Wacs and Waves with the idea of you joining

in mind. Darling, that sort of puts me on the

spot. If the idea of you joining were not involved, I would say that they have proven a

proud, worthwhile part of our armed forces.

... But from the standpoint of you joining

is something else again . . . very emphatically I do not want you to join.

I think it is best that he and Edith are separating, because after she gets out of the service she won't be worth a dime. ... I would

not have a girl or wife if she was in the service

even if she was made of gold.

Any service woman—Wac, Wave, Spar,

Nurse, Red Cross—isn't respected.

I told my Sis if she ever joined I would put

her out of the house and I really meant it. So

if you ever join I will be finished with you too

and I mean it.

I think it is enough to say that I am not

raising my daughters up to be Wacs.

It's no damn good, Sis, and I for one would

be very unhappy if you joined them. . . .

Why can't these Gals just stay home and be

their own sweet little self, instead of being

patriotic?

I just spoke to a couple of officers one of

whose wife was so smart she joined and then

told him. To give you an idea of what officers

think ... he told his wife to get a divorce.

The other officer had to really tell off his

daughter before she got such ideas out of her

head.

Darling for my sake don't join them. I

can't write my reasons because the censors

won't let it through.

Honey don't ever worry your poor head

about joining the Wacs for we went over all

that once before, Ha! (Remember, over my

dead body. Ha! Ha!) You are going to stay

at home.

I would rather we never seen each other

for 20 years than to have you join the Wacs.

For gosh sakes stay a good girl (civilian) and

I'm not just kidding either.

Ruth asked about the Wacs. The idea is

noble but the widespread attitude of the public is narrow and bad. So I definitely don't

recommend it.

I don't want you to have a thing to do with

them. Because they are the biggest houres (I

hope this gets through the censor.) Lousey, boy, they are lousey, and maybe you think

my blood don't boil and bubble. . . . God, I'd disown anybody who would join.

The practice of women in the Army, still

in my mind, is a glorified form of cheap

bolshevism.

Lets not say no more about the auxiliaries

for the idea makes me mad in the first place

89

 Exception: one comment was found in which,

toward the end of the war, a man stated that it would

provide a woman friend with GI benefits for a few

weeks' service before the Corps was demobilized. All

soldier comments are from (1) NATO AG file 319.1

Morale, Vols. II-V; (2) Morale Evaluation Survey in

Women's Services, GHQ AFPAC, 16 Jun 45, in possession of former Staff Director, AFPAC.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 213

and I don't want you galavanting around

over the country for another thing. You will

be better off chopping cotton. . . .

Your letter shocked me so and it was not

appreciated by no means. If you join the

Wacs, you and I are through for good, and

I'll stop all allotments and everything.

I remember distinctly telling you before

that your joining the WAC was one thing I

would not tolerate. I told you distinctly that

I didn't want to discuss it. Why do you

persist? . . .

The service is no place for a woman. A

woman's place is in the home.

About joining the Wacs the answer is still

NO. If they really need service women let

them draft some of the pigs that are running around loose in every town.

When you asked me the first time whether

you could join the Wacs I refused and I

meant that for all time. I want to come home

to the girl I remember.

I cannot put this on paper how I feel and I

am ashamed to tell my fellow officers. She

cannot even consider herself as my wife from

now on. I am stopping all allotments to her

and am breaking off all contacts with her.

Why she did such a thing to me I cannot

understand. My heart is broken.

Get that damn divorce. I don't want no

damn WAC for a wife.

In the last year of the war a censor summarized the situation:

Comments on the WAC continue to reflect

much credit on their ability. Their military

bearing and adaptability to military life

bring praise . . . [but] there is no indication of a lessening of U.S. troops' opposition to

friends and relatives joining. WAC individ- uals indicate their disillusionment.90

In the spreading of rumors, the Waacs

themselves were far from guiltless. Letters

written home by disgruntled individuals

frequently contained remarks about food,

living conditions, and forced association

with low and unsympathetic characters.

For example, a young woman just arrived

at a new station wrote her father:

Dear Pop:

Please don't show this letter to Morn. This

place is like a concentration camp and the

C. O. and the First Sergeant have driven one

girl to suicide and three to going AWOL. The

girl who went AWOL last night was a fine,

clean girl, and when she refused to submit to

her Boss he threatened to court-martial her

on a trumped-up charge. A boy in Co. W.

killed himself last night, I saw the note he left

with my own eyes. Two Chaplains have gone

AWOL this week and can't be found. Please

don't worry. I'll stick it out as best I can, but

it is leaving its mark.

Somewhat naturally, her father sent this

letter hastily to his congressman, who sent

it to the Secretary of War, saying, "I have

known her all of her life and have always

found her to be honest, reliable, and trustworthy." A formal investigation was immediately held, at which it was discovered

that none of the allegations was true:

"Complainant stated that she addressed

the letter to her father while in a mood of

depression following her arrival at Camp

D———. She acknowledged that the statements in her letter were based upon hearsay."

 91

The faulty recruiting techniques of the

past months also resulted in receipt by

civilians of long, incoherent letters from

mentally disturbed individuals concerning persecution by officers, general misconduct among all officers and noncoms,

or at least those who got promotions, and

unwarranted punishments for the writer.

Most alleged that they were sending copies

to newspapers and friends. Investigation

90

 File cited n. 89(1). 91

 Ltr, Adm Asst to SW to Hon Michael Kirwan,

25 Sep 45; Ltr, Hon Michael Kirwan to SW, 6 Jul 45;

Ltr, [WAC, Camp Davis], 6 Jul 45. CofS 324.5 WAC.
214 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

of such cases ordinarily disclosed only that

the writer "had great difficulty in adjusting to the military service,"

 92

 or had just

been discharged.

With the approach of the conversion to

the Women's Army Corps, many women

deemed undesirable members of the company were refused re-enlistment by their

commanding officers; these included neurotics, behavior problems, and other

troublemakers. Recruiters came to dread

the return of one of these rejects to her

community, knowing that she would probably spread ridicule and falsehoods about

the Corps.93

The Question of Axis Influence

Army intelligence agents at this point

began to concentrate upon tracking down

individual stories with, originally, the

hope that Axis agents would be found at

the source. In only one case was there any

such Axis connection: this was the rumor

about the return of thousands of pregnant

Waacs from North Africa. When this was

painfully traced to its beginning, it was

found to be based on an actual incident in

which the first three Waacs were shipped

home, two sick, one pregnant, the latter

having been for some years the lawful wife

of an Army officer who had spent a leave

with her a few months before.

The Axis radio station DEBUNK then

broadcast in English to North Africa the

modest amplification that 20 Waacs had

been returned for pregnancy. This broadcast, however, was less effective than that

of a Coast Guard lieutenant who told

friends at the Capitol in Washington that

he was a member of an armed guard

which was required on a ship bringing

back 150 pregnant Waacs "to keep some of

the women from jumping overboard." On

a train from Washington to New York, a

Navy commander gave the number as

300. By the time the figure was given in

Minneapolis by a Navy enlisted man, it

had reached 250,000. When questioned by

the Office of Naval Intelligence, the Coast

Guard lieutenant said, "It was spoken in

jest." He was, the Navy said, then "admonished." The Navy commander had

the misfortune to relate his story on the

train to a man whose daughter was a

Waac; this man took his name and wrote

the Secretary of War. The Secretary of

War asked the Secretary of the Navy for

action. The commander then wrote the

Waac's father, "The private conversation

in which we engaged informally seems to

have been seized on by you as the basis of

some far-extending investigation, in which

I do not intend to become involved." The

War Department was not informed

whether any action had been taken

against the commander.94

No other cases showed even a trace of

Axis influence. A typical case was that of

an insurance salesman in Philadelphia

who wrote an Army officer that WAAC

conduct was deplorable. When military

agents appeared in his office and pressed

for details, he alleged that Waacs had at

various times accosted him and his friends,

entered his hotel room, and showed him

contraceptives in their purses. He refused

to give names of the men friends who he

92

 Ltr, Pvt Ruth F. Bolger to Dir WAC, 23 Jun 44,

incl, with investigation, in Memo, Air WAC Off for

Dep Dir WAC, 18 Oct 44. WDWAC 330.14. 93

 Office Memo, 1st O Virginia Martin, Rctg Sec

WAAC Hq, for Exec WAAC, 24 Jul 43. SPWA 319.1. 94

 (1) Memo, G-2 for Dir WAAC [WAC], 12 Aug

43, sub: Origin of Rumors Concerning WAAC. G-2

MID 322.12 WAAC. (2) Memo cited n. 61(1), sec re

Lt Dix W. P., Coast Guard, and Comdr Neil B. W,

USN. Also, same file, Ltr, John W.Jersey City, N. J.,

to SW, 30 Jul 43, with atchd Ltr, Comdr W. to Mr. W.

(3) Ltr, SW to SN, 28 Jul 43. CofS files.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 215

said were present when the alleged offenses

occurred. His neighbors were asked for

opinions as to his reliability and described

him as "not reliable," "know-it-all," "a

blowhard." He was not an Axis agent.95

Miss Helen A., a businesswoman in

New York City, wrote Army authorities

concerning the disgraceful situation at the

———— Hospital of Jersey City, where, she

alleged, there were 50 pregnant Waacs.

When questioned by intelligence officers,

she admitted that she had heard that story

from a friend, Miss W. Miss W. said she

had the information from another friend

who was having a baby at the hospital and

heard two nurses in conversation outside

her door. However, Miss W. finally admitted that the real source was a conversation she had overheard between two unidentified women sitting at the next table

in a restaurant. The hospital submitted

four affidavits to show that no Waac, pregnant or otherwise, had ever been there.

Confronted with this evidence, Miss A. reportedly said that she "regretted writing

the letter." None of the individuals concerned were Axis agents.96

In South Dakota, a civilian woman who

had been assisting recruiters told them

that she could no longer help recruit

women unless they took steps to see that

no more Waacs were sent overseas "to be

tempted." She had heard that 5,000 had

just been sent home from England for

pregnancy. Recruiters told her that she

must be wrong, since there were not that

many Waacs in England, but she replied

that she had the facts from her son, Capt.

Harvey H., a medical officer in England.

Recruiters reported this to the Director,

who promptly wrote to the European

theater requesting that they call to

Captain H.'s attention "the implications of

such statements on American womanhood." Scarcely was Captain H. threatened with court-martial in England than

his father telephoned from South Dakota

to tell the Director that the whole thing

had been a misunderstanding. None of the

family were Axis agents.97

One of the lengthiest investigations concerned a suspected Nazi in New Jersey,

Hugo S., recipient of the Iron Cross

and former Bund member. This individual, working at his bench in a war plant,

observed to fellow employees that 500

pregnant Waacs had just arrived in New

York from overseas. A fellow worker,

whose daughter was a Waac stationed

overseas, promptly knocked him down and

reported him. Intelligence agents made

every effort to prove that Mr. S. was acting as a Nazi agent in repeating this

rumor, but were unable to do so. Several

weeks before. Representative Daniel S.

had risen in the Massachusetts legislature

to make the same charge. He alleged that

the story was told him by an Army medical officer whom he refused to name, and

the representative was not a Nazi agent.98

Even when a rumor could be traced to

its originator, there was no legal means of

punishing loyal American citizens for

gossip. An Axis agent, if proven such,

could have been jailed had he spread

identical stories with intent to hinder

mobilization. Members of the armed

forces could be punished only if it could

be proved that they used their position to

95

 Memo, MIS for Dir M1, 3d SvC, 16 Jun 43. MID

322.12 WAAC (6-16-43) (6-11-43). 96

 Ltr, 2d SvC Hq to G-2, 22 Jul 43, sub: Origin

of Rumors Concerning WAAC. MID 322.12 WAAC

(6-11-43). Sec re Miss Helen A. and Miss W., New

York. 97

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for CG AAF, 6 Dec 44, sub:

Rumors. WDWAC 330.11. (2) Ltr, ETO Hq to ETO,

17 Mar 45, sub: Rpt of Investigation. AG 333.5

MPMGA, in WDWAC 330.14. 98

 Memo cited n. 61(1).
216 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

spread false official information detrimental to the war effort. Director Hobby

reluctantly recommended such action to

Waacs who reported, for example, that an

instructor in an Army school had told his

class that Waacs were "a prostitute

Army," that an officer's wife had told

everyone in a beauty shop that large

numbers of Waacs were pregnant, and

other such cases. Observing, "It is a bitter

thing that this had to happen in the Army

family," Director Hobby advised that in

every such case the offender's name be obtained and a report made for investigation

of the charges.99

The conclusion that Axis agents were

not primarily involved was supported,

after the end of the war, by captured German intelligence files. These indicated

that German agents had collected newspaper clippings and other public announcements, and were well aware of the

Corps' strength and the plans to recruit

more womanpower, as well as of the plans

to place the WAAC in the Army. However, there was no indication that the Germans had placed secret agents on this

project, as they had on others; apparently

they were content with information

gleaned from news and radio sources. If

any orders had been given to spread

rumors, they were not recorded.100

Ineffectiveness of Denials

It proved all but impossible for a Waac

to defend herself or the Corps against the

various rumors. For example, a young

recruiter, in her speeches to civic groups,

attempted to spike the rumors by telling

the absolute truth: not that all Waacs were

angels, but that only one Waac in the area

had ever been picked up by military

police; only one out of many drank

heavily; the local police chief reported

"very little trouble"; only nineteen women of thousands trained had ever been

discharged for pregnancy and she "understood" that all nineteen were married.

Spectators reported that "it appeared to

give them more to talk about."

 101

At least one constructive countermeasure was put into effect by WAAC Headquarters. A planeload of the most prominent leaders of the Catholic, Jewish, and

Protestant faiths had been carried to Fort

Oglethorpe and Fort Des Moines for a visit

shortly before the newspaper columnist's

attack. They were given opportunity to inspect chapels, hospitals, clubs, and barracks, to talk to the staff and trainees, and

to hold religious services. As a result, immediately after the attack, these clergymen issued a signed statement to the

newspapers, saying, "We feel that parents

concerned about the moral and spiritual

welfare of their daughters can be reassured. A hopeful harbinger of the new

world is evidenced by the sacrificial contribution which American women are

making through the WAAC. [It] will

strengthen their character." Monsignor

Michael J. Ready told the Waacs, "We're

proud of you." Dr. Carroll C. Roberts

wrote the Director, "We were all deeply

conscious of the earnestness of the young

women and the quiet dignity with which

they carried out their work."

 102

 These

statements were reinforced by articles and

99

 Min cited n. 28(1). 100

 Sec F 22 d, "Frauen," Pol. 5, 2. Bd., Frankreich,

FRA; file of German Intelligence, Army High Command, G-2 Sec, Foreign Armies West, H 2/2. 101

 Memo, 2d O D. L. Meyer for PRO, 3d WAAC

Tng Cen, 7 Jun 43, sub: Rpt of Speech on Rumors by

Rctg Off. SPWA 319.1. 102

 (1) Office of the Chief of Chaplains, Military

History of the Second World War: The Corps of

Chaplains, p. 95, on ministrations to WAC. OCMH.
THE "SLANDER CAMPAIGN" 217

CLERGYMEN VISITING FORT DES MOINES. They are accompanied by (left}

Maj. Margaret D. Craighill, Col. Frank U. McCoskrie, and the Director of the WAAC.

pictures in religious magazines by a

group of religious writers and editors who

received a similar plane trip.103

There was also some evidence that the

newspaper blasts concerning Axis sympathizers, even though mistaken in where

they placed their blame, had some effect

in convincing rumormongers that they

might be aiding the enemy.

Congressional committees were so

alarmed by the rumors that, two days

after the 8 June "Capitol Stuff" column

appeared, they summoned Director

Hobby to appear and bring statistics on

the actual cases of pregnancy and venereal

disease. After seeing these, they expressed

a desire to be of assistance, and suggested

that the Director publish the figures and

some of the actual cases of rumor spreading, to prove to the public that WAAC

morality was superior to that of civilian

women.104 One Congressional committee

stated:

(2) Releases in numerous papers; for example, Washington Post, June 11, 1943. The group included Dr.

Barnett R. Bricker, National Jewish Welfare Board;

Bishop W. W. Peels, Council of Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church; Rt. Rev. Msgr. Michael J.

Ready, National Catholic Welfare Conference; Dr.

Almon R. Pepper, National Council of the Protestant

Episcopal Church; Dr. S. Arthur Devan, General

Commission of Army-Navy Chaplains; Dr. Joseph C.

Hazen, Northern Baptist Conference; Dr. J. Quinter

Miller, Federal Council of Churches of Christ; Dr

William Barrow Pugh, Presbyterian Church; Dr. Carroll C. Roberts, International Convention of Disciples

of Christ.

103

 M/R, 29 Apr 43, sub: Religion. SPWA 000.3. 104

 WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, 10 Jun 43.
218 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

The committee wishes to express its unqualified endorsement of this organization

. . . [and] feels constrained to voice its condemnation in no uncertain terms of those

who malign this splendid group of patriotic women. Certainly no self-respecting patriotic

American would indulge in such a cowardly, contemptible, despicable course.105

Army commanders at many stations

also immediately made their stand known

to the troops; one stated to the men:

We have gained aid and help from the

women of America. If we do anything to

make their lot uncomfortable or unhappy, if

we fail to give them a maximum amount of

respect, if we fail to behave always as gentle- men, we have not only lost a contribution

towards winning this war, but we have also

lost some of the finer qualities of manhood.106

Others in Congress and elsewhere took

the attitude that the stories were merely

good clean fun and that the Waacs were

spoilsports to object to them. According to

a member from Alabama, WAAC stories

were "like traveling salesman jokes" and

he looked upon them as "the way this

country keeps its sense of humor."

 107

 General Marshall was later to suggest that

responsible Army officers might be able to

distinguish between clean fun and a dirty

joke by asking themselves if the stories

would appear equally funny if circulated

about Army wives and daughters instead

of about Waacs. To Director Hobby for

the WAAC, General Marshall wrote:

To me, one of the most stimulating aspects

of our war effort has been the amazing development of the WAAC organization in quality, discipline, capacity for performing a

wide variety of jobs, and the fine attitude of

the women themselves. Commanders to

whom the Waacs have been assigned have

spoken in the highest terms of their efficiency

and value. The best evidence in the matter are the demands now being made on the

War Department for increased allotments of

WAAC organizations. . . .

I wish you would reassure your subordinates of the confidence and high respect in

which they are held by the Army.108

WAC leaders were later to conclude

that the whole slander campaign had

been to some degree unavoidable. In this,

the British precedent of identical slander

in two world wars lent strong support.

One WAC leader commented, "Men

have for centuries used slander against

morals as a weapon to keep women out of

public life." Mrs. Hobby, after a lapse of

some five years, remarked, "I believe

now that it was inevitable; in the history

of civilization, no new agency requiring

social change has escaped a similar baptism. I feel now that nothing we might

have done could have avoided it."

 109

105

 HR Rpt 566, 78th Cong, 1st sess, Rpt of Com on

Appropriations to Accompany HR 2996, Mil Establishment Appropriation Bill FY 1944. Hobby files, 18

Jun 43. 106

 Ltr, Base Surg to Mil Pers of Base Hosp, Tinker

Field, Okla.; reprinted in Ltr, Base Comdr to All Mil

Orgns ... at Tinker Field, 23 Jun 43; copy in

Folder, Slander Campaign, OCMH. 107

 Washington Post, June 16, 1943. 108

 Personal ltr, CofS to Oveta Culp Hobby, 15 Jan

43. Gen Marshall's personal files; read by author by

courtesy of his secretary, December 1945. The Chief

of Staff was in Africa at the time of the columnist's

charges, and had just learned of the attack. 109

 Comments to author. British published reports

reached the same conclusion. See Appendix B.
CHAPTER XII

July-September 1943:

The Conversion to Army Status

By the middle of June 1943, after delay

caused by the slander campaign, the WAC

bill was at last nearing approval by Congress.1

 The Auxiliary Corps faced its final

and most severe test, for every member

must choose honorable discharge or immediate enlistment in the new Women's

Army Corps, Army of the United States.

Neither the modern Army nor any other

women's service had ever faced such a

trial, and no precedent existed as to how

many of the enlisted personnel would

depart when given such an opportunity.2

It had been known for some time that

certain clauses in the pending WAC legislation would probably give every member

of the WAAC the right to elect immediate

honorable discharge rather than to enlist

in the new WAC when it should be established. The Army's Judge Advocate General ruled that it did not lie within the

Army's power to transfer women from the

WAAC to the WAC without their consent,

since only a selective service law could

place a citizen under court-martial jurisdiction without his consent.3

 At first, few

departures had been anticipated, but in

June, following the newspaper attack,

Colonel Catron was obliged to inform the

War Department: "It looks as though

more members of the old WAAC than we

had anticipated have it in mind not to join

the WAC."

 4

Reporters and editors, sensing a spectacular story in the offing—possibly the

end of the Corps itself—demanded confirmation of the fact that "the Army is

very much worried about the WAAC situation." When estimates of probable losses

were refused them, some intimated that

they would publish estimates of their own.5

Director Hobby stated, just before the

bill passed, "My feeling is that we don't

want them if they don't want to stay in. I

would hate to lose a great many but I

would rather have a smaller Corps of

women who are dedicated to this service.

This is something that a woman must

want to do if she stays in."

 6 She therefore

refused to take steps to persuade women

1

 Min, Gen Council, 3 1 May 43. 2

 The Army Nurse Corps a year later secured similar legislation placing it in the Army of the United

States, but it was not necessary to discharge those

members who refused AUS status, since there was

an authorized peacetime component of the ANC

which continued to exist and in which members

could be required to continue service. 3

 M/R, 8 May 43. SPWA 300.3 sec 1. 4

 Memo, Exec WAAC for G-1, 20 Jul 43. SPWA

314.7 sec 3. 5

 File of Tp Convs, esp Jul-Aug 43. 6

 Min, Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun 43.

SPWA 337 (6-1-43).
220 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

to stay by emotional appeals or any other

means.

The WAC bill itself, as it neared passage, offered women the mixed blessing of

Army status, but few other inducements.

Little was left of the simple version proposed by the War Department, which

would have placed few limitations on the

Secretary of War's power to decide administrative matters. The Congressional situation had continued unfavorable all

spring. In April the War Department became so alarmed at the rejection of the

Navy bill to send Waves to foreign countries that it withdrew the WAC bill entirely

and submitted it again in May.

 7

Even so, a number of amendments had

to be accepted: the Corps was to last only

for the duration plus six months; it was

limited to women aged 20-50 years; its

commanding officer could never be promoted above the rank of colonel and its

other officers above the rank of lieutenant

colonel; its officers could never command

any men unless specifically ordered to do

so by Army superiors; physicians and

nurses could not be accepted because of

the Medical Department's insistence on

autonomy.8 Many even more hampering

amendments had been narrowly averted—

the Senate's proviso that the Corps expire

on 1 January 1945, and the House's attempts to limit the Corps to 150,000, to

set the top age at 45, to forbid WAC officers to be assigned to Army jobs, and to

deny all dependency benefits to women—

but all these were eventually eliminated

in conference. Director Hobby stated that

she was willing to accept any amendments

if only the bill might pass.9

Just as they had been a year previously,

the efforts of the Army's highest authorities were required to secure Congressional

approval. General Marshall urged passage of the bill in a letter to Chairman

Andrew J. May of the House Military

Affairs Committee, and also intervened to

secure the new age limit of 20-50, which

would admit more recruits than the previous 21-45 limit. General Somervell was

also summoned to testify when the Military Affairs Committee seemed about to

disapprove the bill because of the erroneous idea that Wacs would be used to displace Civil Service workers in Washington.

This had actually been done on a large

scale by the WAVES without Congressional disfavor, but never by the Army.

"They've got the Waacs and the Waves

confused," noted the Office of the Secretary of War.10

The First Wac

The bill to establish a Women's Army

Corps in the Army of the United States

was passed by the Senate on 28 June and

7

 Min, Gen Council, 28 Apr 43. 8

 Whether to commission women doctors in the

WAC or in the Medical Department was for a time a

controversial problem. The WAAC had consented to

commission women doctors recommended by The

Surgeon General, and did commission several—the

only exception to its rule that all WAAC officers must

attend OCS. (WD Cir 23, Sec II, 18 Jan 43.) The

Secretary of War had personally directed Director

Hobby to include a clause in the WAC bill permitting commissioning of women doctors in the WAC.

(WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, Feb 43.) However,

Congress refused this and passed a separate law permitting direct commissions in the Medical Corps. 9

 (1) HR Rpt 595, 78th Cong, 1st sess, 24 Jun 43,

sub: Establishing a WAC for Serv in Army of U.S.,

Conf Rpt to accompany S 495. SPWA 314.7 (1-7-

43)(1) sec 1. (2) Speech, Min, Tng Cen Comdts Conf,

Washington, 31 Mar 43, SPWA 334.8 (3-20-43). 10

 (1) Ltr, CofS to Hon A. J. May, 1 Mar 43. CofS

291.9. (2) Memo, Dir WAAC for Leg&LnDiv, WDSS,

24 Apr 43. CofS 291.9; also in SPWA 341 (4-7-43).

with note re Gen Marshall's desire for this plan. (3)

Quotation from M/R, Tp Conv, Mr. Mitchell and Dir

Hobby, 11 Jun 43. SPWA 314.7 (l-7-43)(l) sec 1.

See also pp. 557-59, below.
JULY-SEPTEMBER 1943: THE CONVERSION TO ARMY STATUS 221

signed by the President on 1 July 1943.11

On 5 July, in the presence of General

Marshall and other dignitaries, Director

Hobby took the oath of office as a colonel,

Army of the United States, thus becoming

the first woman to be admitted to the new

component of the Army.12

The passage of the bill was the cause of

general pride and pleasure to Waacs

throughout the world. The commanding

general of the Hampton Roads Port of

Embarkation wrote to Colonel Hobby:

You would have been amused and, I think,

pleased at the reaction of our personnel here

to the news that the legislation had gone

through. The Port Band at mess time, accom- panied by a large part of our Headquarters

Detachment of enlisted men, proceeded to

the WAC barracks and serenaded the girls

with "You're in the Army Now." and "This

is the Army, Mr. Jones." and a general jollification ensued.13

Actually, "You're in the Army Now"

was somewhat premature, for the WAAC

did not automatically become the WAC.

The law gave the Army ninety days to

arrange for the dissolution of the Women's

Army Auxiliary Corps. By the thirtieth

day of September, all Waacs must be enlisted or commissioned in the WAC, or

discharged, for the WAAC would cease to

exist.

The Conversion

The following ninety days of the summer of 1943, informally called The Conversion, were perhaps the busiest in the

history of the Corps. WAAC Headquarters' fourteen-hour day now approached a

twenty-four-hour one as WAAC officers

worked throughout the night to type, sort,

and fold informational material and stuff

envelopes. Director Hobby canceled all

travel plans for July and August, and the

headquarters braced itself for three

months of the most intense activity the

Corps had yet experienced.14

WAAC Headquarters was immediately

hit by "a flood of requests for information

regarding the changeover."

 15

 Stations in

the field had had no instructions or advice

as to the nature of the conversion, and

knew only what they read in the newspapers. Some stations immediately began

to let women go home if they wished,

without proper authority;

 16

 others began

to swear them into the Army, also without authority—in fact, some enlisted

women were sworn in by WAAC officers

and served for months without ever knowing that they were not in the Army.17

Director Hobby had foreseen this confusion and had asked the War Department to permit her to send the complete

conversion plan to the field far in advance

of the event. This conversion plan had

actually been carefully prepared over the

past six months by WAAC Headquarters

and The Adjutant General's Office, and

included a detailed timetable based on T

Day or Transfer Day. Women who desired

to transfer to the WAC must complete a 11

 PL 110. Approved by WD in Ltr, SW to Bur of

Budget, 1 Jul 43. SPGAL 291.9 Gen (6-30-43)-5, in

WDCSA 291.9. 12

 (1) WDBPR Press Release, 5 Jul 43. (2) GO 1,

Hq WAC, sub: Assumption of Comd. SPWA 300.4

(7-5-43)E (1943). She was not the first woman admitted to the AUS; this honor went to Major Craighill, the first woman doctor to be admitted under

Medical Corps legislation of the previous month. 13

 Ltr, Brig Gen John R. Kilpatrick, CG HRPOE,

to Col Hobby, 3 Jul 43. SPWA 314.7 (6-29-43). 14

 (1) Memo Routing Slip, Dir's secy to OTI, 25

Jun 43. Vol. I Gen Policy, WAAC Hist File, 1943. (2)

Intraoffice Memo to Asst Exec WAAC, 28 Jul 43.

SPWA 314.7 (l-7-43)(l) sec 3. 15

 WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, 1 Jul 43. 16

 Rectified by Change 2, 14 Jul 43, to AGO Memo

W635-10-43, 7 Jul 43. 17

 Rectified by AG Ltr, 21 Aug 43. AG 320.2

WAAC PR-W, in SPWA 3 14.7 sec 4. Women later

demanded release but were refused on grounds that

they had been "constructively enlisted."
222 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

certain application form, must pass a

stricter Army medical examination, and

must also be recommended by their commanders. It was intended that this

processing be completed by 1 September

1943, on which date Waacs all over the

world would be sworn in with mass ceremonies.18

G-1 Division of the General Staff had

refused the request to communicate this

plan to the field in advance of the passage

of legislation, stating that such action

might be illegal or might adversely influence Congress, and had told the Director,

"There will be plenty of time."

 19

 The Director persisted and finally, only a week

before the passage of the bill, succeeded in

getting a confidential letter sent to all

commands, giving an enlistment plan that

could be put into effect under any probable wording of the legislation.20

On 1 July 1943, a few moments after

the bill was signed, Director Hobby

telegraphed all Army commands telling

them to begin the processes of this letter,

and to abide by WAAC Regulations until

new ones could be published. Unfortunately, the letter itself had not yet had

time to filter down to most Army stations,

since it had to be relayed through several

command echelons, and those women

who wished to leave, and their parents,

became immediately frantic for reassurance. When the Director saw how little information had reached the field, she chose

six of the Corps' best officers and sent

them on tour to carry correct procedures

to every WAAC company; she herself

visited as many as possible.21

Even after stations received instruction,

the apparently simple process soon proved

unbelievably complicated: all of the administrative problems of the Auxiliary

here converged and demanded a final

definitive solution as to the exact status of

its members in all legal matters before

WAAC records could be closed out. Some

of these questions, but not many, could be

answered by WAAC Headquarters. A

number of red-bordered immediate-action

letters were published by The Adjutant

General, at WAAC Headquarters' request, to get answers to the field before 1

September, while others were answered

by telephone and telegraph.22

In addition, there were about twenty

major issues which neither the Army nor

WAAC Headquarters had the power to

decide; these were submitted to the

Comptroller General, but decision was not

received on some cases until the following

October and November. Most stations desired especially to know whether WAAC

service might be counted as Army service

for purposes of longevity pay. Most Waacs

and Army stations felt strongly that it

should, since in actual conditions of daily

living there was virtually no difference in

WAAC and WAC life, which continued

without a break in its routine. The Army

Service Forces blamed the Director's 18

 (1) M/R, sub: Chronology, Conversion of

WAAC to WAC. SPWA 314.7 (l-7-43)(l) sec 3. (2)

Memo, Capt Bandel for Maj George G. Wolfe, AGO,

26 Apr 43. SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43) sec 1. (3) Memo,

Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 30 Jun 43. SPWA 291.9.

(4) AGO Memo cited n. 16. (5) WD Cir 146, 26 Jun

43, sec III, Physical Standards. 19

 Memo, WAAC Hq for TAG, and Ind, 12 Jun 43.

SPWA 314.7 sec 1. 20

 AGO Ltr, 24 Jun 43. AG 210.1 WAAC (6-23-

43), in SPWA 314.7 sec 1. 21

 A week later, more specific instructions were

published by TAG. The Director also telegraphed all

WAAC training centers to issue simultaneous press

releases. (1) TWX, Dir to all SvCs, Tng Cens, Ports,

and Def Comds, 1 Jul 43, and Ltrs to AAF, AGF, and

MDW; (2) TWX to all Tng Cens, 1 Jul 43. SPWA

314.7 sec 3. (3) Speech, Dir. WAC, Min, Stf Dirs Conf,

New York, 1-3 Dec 43. SPWA 337 (11-10-43). 22

 W635 series, copies in Vol. AGO Memoranda,

WAAC Hist File. Also Change 1, 13 Jul 43, and

Change 2, 14 Jul 43, to AGO Memo cited n. 16.
JULY-SEPTEMBER 1943: THE CONVERSION TO ARMY STATUS 223

Office for the delay in answering such

questions, and one of General Somervell's

consultants pronounced its organization

"inadequate," saying, "Simple questions

such as 'Does my service in the WAAC

count so far as longevity benefits are concerned?' are unanswered. It is possible

that five minutes would be required to

settle a question of this type; the only possible answer is yes."

 23

 As a matter of fact,

the only possible legal answer was no, and

after some years of controversy and attempted corrective legislation, the answer

was still no.

 24

Some Comptroller General decisions

decided such issues as the fact that Waacs

were not entitled to re-employment rights

even if they enlisted in the WAC, since

they had not gone directly from their

civilian jobs to the Army; this issue was

not finally settled until 1946 when corrective legislation was secured. It was also

found that Waacs who enlisted in the

WAC forfeited their eventual travel pay

home upon discharge, and were entitled

only to pay to the place where they joined

the Army, their present station; correction

of this matter luckily did not require legislation and was made by the Comptroller

General in time to prevent wholesale failure to enlist.25

Still worse field confusion resulted when

the physical requirements were changed

in mid-August. For two months before

passage of the bill, Director Hobby had

argued with The Surgeon General over

the physical standards, which she wished

to adjust so as to admit every Waac who

had been qualified upon her enrollment

and who had since given satisfactory service, even though her physical condition

might have declined since her enrollment.

She felt strongly that these women should

be admitted to the WAC and given remedial treatment if necessary. This The Surgeon General refused, stating that routine

granting of administrative waivers would

negate the desired screening by virtually

blanketing the WAAC into the WAC.

Director Hobby especially objected to the

high visual standards, seldom needed by

enlisted women, and directed that her office "go to bat with the Surgeon General."

Toward the end of June, G-1 Division decided in favor of The Surgeon General,

and directives for physical examinations

were published accordingly.

By August the numbers of Waacs rejected for physical reasons became so excessive that the decision was reversed,

Colonel Hobby's plan accepted, and all

discharges for physical reasons were

stopped until the requirements were corrected. This action could not authorize

recall of women who had already been

discharged under the old standards, and

considerable inequality of treatment to individuals resulted.26

23

 Memo, "WCM" for Dir Pers ASF, 10 Aug 43.

SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43), ASF files. 24

 Comptr Gen to SW, Decision B-35441, 4 Aug 43.

SPWA 242.2 (6-10-43). Service did count for Yeomanettes, Marinettes, Army field clerks, WAVES,

SPARS, Women Marines. Army or Navy Nurse

Corps service could be counted by enlisted women

but not officers. 25

 (1) Memo, JAG for WAAC Hq, 19 Aug 43, sub:

Eligibility for Re-employment Benefits, etc. SPJGA

1943/11282 in WAAC file. (2) Comptr Gen to SW,

Decision B-36362, 26 Aug 43. SPWA 245.6 (7-1-43).

(3) For a summary of controversy on legal status of

WAAC, see Appendix C. 26

 All except (2) and (7) in SPWA 314.7 (1-7-43),

sees 1 and 4 (1943): (1) Memo, Dir WAAC for Dir

Pers ASF, 3 Jun 43. (2) Memo, Dir Hobby for SG, 26

Apr 43. SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43) sec 1. Director Hobby

felt that nurses' standards on weight and eyesight

were too high for enlisted Wacs, since Wacs often did

more sedentary jobs. (3) Office Memo, WAAC Contl

Div for Exec WAAC, 14 Jun 43; (4) M/R, 23 Jun 43;

(5) WD Cir 146, sec III, 26 Jun 43; (6) Memo, CofS

ASF for Dir WAAC, 21 Aug 43, and Ind, with AG

Ltr 220.8 WAAC PR-W, 23 Aug 43. (7) Memo, Gen

Styer for TAG, 23 Aug 43. SPEX.
224 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

First Companies in the WAC

Meanwhile, station commanders were

alarmed to note that, during the twomonth period of indecision and confusion,

many women who had at first intended to

enlist were changing their minds. The delay between passage of the bill on 1 July

and the scheduled date for mass swearingin on 1 September gave parents, friends,

and former employers time to urge a return home. Moreover, Army supervisors

were found to be offering certain women

high civilian salaries to leave the Corps

and continue in the same jobs as civilians—the advantage being, from the

officers' viewpoint, that the women could

then date officers and live where their

quarters and hours were not supervised.

This practice became so widespread that

Colonel Hobby was able to collect evidence of it sufficient to secure an Army

Service Forces directive forbidding such

offers. Meanwhile, at stations where such

transfers had already occurred, remaining Waacs were found less disposed to continue under military restrictions and

enlisted wages.27

In late July, as the evidence of suasion

by relatives and employers mounted, it

was directed that each station swear in its

company as soon as it was ready, instead

of waiting for the scheduled 1 September

date for mass enlistment. Only WAAC

officers were required to wait until 1 September. Where 95 percent or more of a

company intended to enlist, it was suggested that a mass ceremony be held with

appropriate publicity.28

This move proved successful and field

companies raced to be the first to enlist.

One Army Service Forces and two Army

Air Forces companies tied for first place,

each with 100 percent enlistment.29

Others had only a few losses, chiefly for

physical disability, and throughout August these were sworn in as fast as possible.

As the WAC waited to discover what

the total loss would be, it became evident

that there was considerable variation from

station to station—some losing none, some

losing 5 or 10 percent, many about 20 percent, and others as much as 50 percent.

When the loss figures from their several

stations were compared, higher commanders were presented with what

amounted to a chart of relative efficiency

in personnel management. Air and service

command headquarters at once sent inspectors and WAAC staff directors to the

stations showing high losses, in the hope

that conditions might be corrected while

there was still time for the women to

change their minds before discharge.

Commanding generals of major commands became generally aware of the

matter; some actually went in person to

speak to the women.30

Why Some Went Home

The combined discoveries of these inspectors gave WAAC Headquarters a

reasonably clear picture of the reasons for

which women were leaving. The most revealing discovery was that the majority

was not quitting because of the hardships

of Army life. On the contrary, at many

27

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 23 Aug

43, and Memo, Dir Pers ASF for TAG, 27 Aug 43.

SPWA 314.7 sec 4. (2) WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I.

28 Jul 43. Also M/R, 13 Aug 43. SPWA 230.14 (7-

22-43). 28

 AGO Memo W635-14-43, 30 Jul 43. 29

 On 2 August 1943: Moody Field, Valdosta, Ga.;

Mitchel Field, N. Y.; Edgewood Arsenal. Md.

WDBPR Press Release, 3 Aug 43. 30

 Folder, Congratulatory Letters, SPWA 314.7

(6-29-43) 1943.
MASS ENLISTMENT CEREMONIES. Camp Atterbury, Indiana, 10 August 1943,

above, and Fort Oglethorpe, 11 August 1943, below.
226 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

isolated and uncomfortable stations in

deserts and swamps fewer left than at

large comfortable installations. In one

case, Waacs were stationed at two airfields

near the same Texas city—one the handsome permanent headquarters of a commanding general, the other a hastily expanded training field; yet thirty-seven

women left the first, none the second. Inspectors noted that the more isolated or

less comfortable stations could not get

civilians and therefore needed and appreciated the Waacs.31

One staff director reported, "The happiest girls are the ones doing the hardest

work."

 32

 Inspectors' conclusions could be

summarized in one statement: Waacs remained at stations where they were wanted and

needed in their jobs. Even before the conversion started, Director Hobby had informed commands employing Waacs that

only two things would be needed to make

a woman wish to remain: "These are, first,

that her job shall keep her busy and utilize

her abilities to the best advantage, and

second, that she shall feel that she is making a real contribution and that the Army

is interested in her work."

 33

A frequently identifiable cause of loss

was hostility toward Waacs on the part of

a post commander, which set the tone for

the entire post and was usually associated

with poor job assignments for women.

When Las Vegas Army Air Base lost 54 of

its 151 members, inspectors reported:

The Unit Commander stated that she had

met the post commander only on two occasions. Neither the Inspecting Officers nor the

Staff Director was able to see him. . . .

Women were assigned in the Officers' Mess

and the Post Exchange. The Unit Commander has been allowed little part in the

assignment of WAAC personnel.34

At Camp Lee, Virginia, 40 of 146 were

leaving. Inspectors reported:

All records were satisfactory . . . [but]

morale and company spirit were found to be

very low. . . . Women stated that they did

not have the proper respect of the enlisted

men. They said they had discussed this with

the post c.o., but he told inspectors he was

unaware of it.35

At many other stations the fault did not

lie with the post commander, except in

failing to recommend removal of the

WAAC commander, for inspection reports

clearly placed the blame on unsuitable

WAAC company commanders. At Richmond, Virginia, inspectors found records,

buildings, mess, supply, recreation, and

church facilities all adequate, but through

the fault of the company commander

many Waacs were malassigned, and

"punishments have been given that are

out of proportion for offenses committed."

 36

 At Fort Monmouth, New Jersey,

inspectors noted: "The c.o. does not appear to have a sympathetic understanding

of her troops as individuals, and many

complaints were received that the EW

could not readily contact her for confer31

 WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, 28 Jul 43, re Randolph Field and Brooks Field, San Antonio, Texas. 32

 Min cited n. 6. 33

 Personal ltr, Oveta Culp Hobby to each CG, by

name, Air Comds, SvCs, AGF Comds, Def Comds,

Ports, Chiefs of Servs, and Comdts of Schs, 29 Jun 43.

SPWA 314.7 sec 1. 34

 Rpt of Insp, Las Vegas AAB, 31 Aug 43. SPWA

333.1 (8-20-43). 35

 Memo, 1st O Dora F. Petmecky and 2d O Lucia

T. Hudgens for Dir Fld Insp Div, WAAC, 28 Jul 43,

sub: Insp of Hq Go (WAAC) formerly designated as

the 96th. SPWA 314.7 sec 3. 36

 Memo, Petmecky and Hudgens for Dir Fld Insp

Serv, WAAC, 28 Jul 43, sub: Insp of 709th Post Hq

Co. SP WA 314.7 sec 3.
JULY-SEPTEMBER 1943: THE CONVERSION TO ARMY STATUS 227

ences."37 Another station lost 35 percent

of its women because the women believed

their WAAC commander to be misconducting herself with the station commander, although inspectors could find no

proof of this.38 On the other hand, it was

found that when companies had good

WAAC commanders many enlisted in a

body, even though every other outward

circumstance was unfavorable.39

Many unsuitable WAC commanders

were now relieved and replaced with

women of understanding and integrity.

Later, unsuitable WAC commanders

could not be removed because the new

Office of the Director WAC no longer had

command power.40

When questioned, women gave various

reasons for departure. Some of the more

frequent excuses tabulated were:

Changed family and home conditions: "Husband now stationed in U.S. and I wish to

be with him." "Mother is ill." "Enrolled

expecting husband to be drafted, but he

was rejected." Almost half of the excuses

given fell into this category. Some women

sought leave to try to pacify relatives and

men friends before giving up all hope of

enlisting.

Dissatisfaction with job assignment: "Feel

I can do more good in war industry." "I

can do more good teaching." "My qualifications are not of as much value to the

Army as they are in civilian life." "Do not

feel I am doing what I came in to do."

"Resent working under civilians."

Emotional or physical difficulties: "Feel

physically unfit." "Cannot accustom myself to military life." "Unable to concentrate since my husband reported missing."

"My two sons killed in action. It has made

me very restless."

 41

Impatience with Army errors: Two women,

removed from motor transport school and

sent to cooks and bakers school, said, "We

expected the Army to be a well-regulated

organization that didn't make mistakes."

Others took basic training several times,

were put in the wrong specialist school, sat

six weeks in staging area, and said, "We

see by the papers that requests are on file

for 600,000 Wacs and here we sit. What's

the payoff?"

 42

Other miscellaneous undesirable conditions:

These were analyzed by Colonel Catron

as

Overstatements and unfulfillable promises

by recruiting officers; inadequate physical

examinations and consequent inclusion of

too many physically and psycho-neurotically

unfit; faulty classification and assignment;

. . . some instances of assigning Waacs to

jobs of less importance or dignity while civilians are used in the better positions; some

cases of delay in having Waacs replace and

take over the duties of soldiers and of appointing them to the grades presumably vacated by the men; . . . the public attitude

that the war is all but won; the trait of women which, once they have decided to join a

cause, demands that they be kept busy and

that their abilities be used to the fullest; . . .

recent unfavorable publicity and the indica37

 Memo, 1st O Frances M. Holbrook and 2d O

Kathryn D. Neely for Dir Fld Insp Serv, 15 Jul 43,

sub: Insp of WAAC Det, ESCTC, Ft Monmouth,

N.J. SPWA 314.7 sec 3. 38

 Memo, Capt Frances M. Holbrook for Dir Fld

Surv Br, 23 Oct 43, sub: Rpt of Investigation at Bergstrom Field, Tex. SPWA 331.1. 39

 See Ch. XXXIII, below. 40

 WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, 28 Jul 43. 41

 Reasons in three categories above are from tabulation at Fort Des Moines, copy in Folder, Classification Officers, 1943 WAAC Planning file. See also

Memo, Exec WAAC for G-1, 20 Jul 43. SPWA 314.7,

(l-7-43)(l) sec 3. 42

 Examples from Daytona Beach and Fort Des

Moines, "Survey on Problems Most Frequently

brought to Chaplains and Resident Counsellors," 9

Sep 43. SPWA 231.28.
228 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tions that officers, enlisted men, and their

families have not accepted the Waacs whole- heartedly, to say the least.43

Relatively fewer WAAC officers applied

for discharge, although some were eliminated by a final screening board, called

the AUS-WAAC Board, set up in Washington.44

 The board was unable to eliminate many of the unsuitable young officers

just commissioned, since they were still in

the officers' pool and could hardly be rejected until they had been given a chance

at one assignment. The board was also

hampered by the inconsistent recommendations of some field commands, which

asked that certain WAAC officers not be

admitted to the WAC, but at the same

time gave them excellent and superior

ratings.

Why the Majority Staved

By this time the full extent of losses was

fairly well tabulated. WAAC leaders had

never ceased to predict that the majority

of Waacs would not quit in spite of ample

provocation. This prediction was now upheld to a surprising degree. Field stations'

records of discharges were so uneven that

it was not possible to determine how many

of the losses were due to failure to pass the

physical examination, how many represented women whose commanders had

not recommended them, and how many

had actually not applied; nevertheless, the

total of all such losses combined was less

than 25 percent. More than 75 percent of

the WAAC had chosen to enlist and had

been found physically and morally acceptable.45

Among the three major commands, the

lowest average loss—about 20 percent—

was found in the Army Air Forces. General Arnold, during the conversion period,

directed all air inspectors to make WAC

job assignment a special subject, in order

that "the job assigned each individual will

keep her busy and employ her abilities to

best advantage and that she is given an

opportunity to make a real contribution."

General Arnold also took personal action

by appearing in a camp newsreel sequence

in which he delivered a message to Air

Forces Wacs, emphasizing the AAF's need

of them; this was shown to all Waacs at

air bases before the final dissolution of the

WAAC.46

The highest losses among the three

major commands—about 34 percent—

were suffered by the Army Ground Forces.

Here, General McNair had refused to accept an AGF WAAC officer or any staff

directors or WAAC specialists; he had repeatedly made known his opposition to

employment of Waacs by the AGF and to

the admittance of the WAAC to the Army.

AGF assignment techniques had also been

notably poor. In July, as manpower shortages became more serious, the AGF reconsidered its refusal to accept a WAAC

staff director, and on 1 July Maj. Emily E.

Davis, one of the first WAAC graduates

of the Army's Command and General

Staff School, reported to fill the position

of AGF WAAC Officer, comparable to

43

 See tabulation and memo cited n. 41; also, Office

Memo, Maj Gordon C. Jones for Exec WAC, 4 Aug

43, with Col Catron's comment in pencil note. SPWA

342 (7-30-43). 44

 Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 7 Jul 43; also

Memo, MPD ASF for TAG, 20 Jul 43. SPWA 314.7

sec 2. 45

 Losses totaled 343 officers and 14,607 auxiliaries.

There is no available indication of the portion lost for

medical reasons, rejection by commanding officer, or

at own request. WDBPR Press Release, 1 Oct 43. 46

 (1) AAF Memo 121-1, 3 Aug 43. (2) AAF WAC

Hist, p. 47; see Ch. XVI, below.
JULY-SEPTEMBER 1943: THE CONVERSION TO ARMY STATUS 229

that of Major Bandel in the AAF. Major

Davis at once made a hurried series of

staff visits to AGF WAAC units.

The worst situation was at Fort Knox,

where she found women of the Armored

Replacement Training Center, declared

unassignable for lack of typing skill some

three months before, still sitting in the barracks without employment. She immediately secured their reassignment to other

stations to duties commensurate with their

Specification Serial Numbers. Major

Davis made efforts to correct varied undesirable conditions in other WAAC units,

but she had come too late to prevent extensive departures. Major Davis later

noted:

The negative attitude of the command

toward the utilization of women in the Army,

which could not help but be transmitted to

the field commanders, and through them to

their staffs and to the enlisted women, had a

part in this loss of personnel.47

WAAC observers had no difficulty in

identifying the motivating force that had

kept 80 percent of Waacs in the Army in

the most friendly commands, and 66 percent even where employers were hostile.

Most women felt that to leave would be

moral desertion under the fire of the slanderers, and a betrayal of the ideals that

had caused them to enlist. Enlistment was,

like the original enrollment, ordinarily a

matter of idealism rather than of logic.

Observers at a training center reported

that women who had asked discharge for

good cause suddenly dropped their packed

suitcases and ran weeping across a drill

field to join their old platoons and take the

oath of enlistment. Some who left soon

asked to return.48 Others who did not enlist later regretted it; one wrote two years

later: "If I could only have that chance

again. I haven't felt fine every time I think

of it."

 49

Director Hobby said:

We lost a great many fine women because

they could not pass the Army physical, but

we also lost a great many women who would

never have been soldiers. It makes me very

happy to know that those who stayed, stayed

because they know what true obligation is,

and I for one feel that what we now have is a

firmer core to build around.50

As bulwark against its inherited problems, the new Women's Army Corps had

but one asset, but that an invaluable

one—some 50,000 loyal members who

now, in spite of full knowledge of its problems, followed the Corps into the Army of

the United States.

The End of the WAAC

On the first of September, 1943, eligible

WAAC officers were sworn into the WAC,

in grades equivalent to their WAAC grade

and with date of rank the same as in the

WAAC. On the same date all WAAC

units were officially redesignated as WAC.

By this time enlistment of enrolled women

was almost complete. Instructions were

issued in September for the disposition of

remaining WAAC members. Throughout

the month, there was considerable scurrying both in headquarters and the field as

stray Waacs were rounded up.51

On 30 September, the Women's Army

47

 AGF WAC Hist, particularly Vol. I, pp. 12-13

and 22. 48

 TWX, Hobby to 7th SvC, 10 Sep 43, SPWA

314.7 sec 4. AGO Memo W635-23-43, 28 Sep 43. 49

 Ltr, "Ex-WAAC" to CofS, 11 Oct 45. WDWAC

220.8. 50

 WAAC Daily Journal, Vol. I, 12 Jul 43. 51

 By WDGO 42, sec 1, 26 Jul 43, effective 1 Sep

43. AG Ltr 320.2 WAC PR-W, 2 Sep 43. SPWA

3 14.7 sec 4.
230 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Auxiliary Corps ceased to exist. For the

women who chose to remain with the

Women's Army Corps, Colonel Hobby

suggested, and got, a green and gold service ribbon to show their WAAC service.

She said:

It is probable that this period will prove to

have been the most difficult in the life of the

Corps and the one which, because of its

pioneering aspect with all that this implies,

will be the source of the greatest pride to, and

the reason of the strongest ties among, the

members of the WAC.52

52

 Memo, Dir WAAC for G-1, 25 Jun 43. SPWA

200.6. Director Hobby intended the ribbon only for

those whose service was continuous, but by an error

in wording it also could be awarded to those who left

the Corps and later returned. She was not able to get

the wording changed to prevent this, as some such

awards had already been made, and G-1 Division

held it illegal to withdraw them. See Memo, Dir

WAC for G-1, 19 Feb 44. SPWA 200.6 (1943).
CHAPTER XIII

Attempts To Revive Recruiting

The new Women's Army Corps began

in spirit early in the summer, when groups

of worried recruiting experts gathered in

the Director's office to plan the first campaign. The whole future of the Corps quite

evidently hung on the success of this effort.

WAAC recruiting closed on 8 August

1943, and WAC recruiting opened without delay on the following day, yet in the

entire month only 839 recruits were reported.1

At the same time, the Army's need for

personnel had never been more urgent.

The Adjutant General estimated that

2,000,000 more men must be drafted

within the next year, of which 446,000

would be fathers of families. The Adjutant

General stated that more than 600,000 of

the jobs could more efficiently be done by

Wacs, thus preventing the necessity of

drafting any fathers whatever. General

Marshall, after the ceremonies in which

Colonel Hobby was sworn into the WAC,

asked her if she could get the Army the

600,000 women it needed. The Director

avoided a public reply.2

In fact, the real question was whether

the WAC could survive at all, after the

twin blows of the slander campaign and

the conversion. In its first year, the Corps

had recruited almost 65,000 members, but

at the July recruiting rate it would take

almost three years to get another 65,000;

at the August rate, five years. At this point

normal attrition overtook recruiting.

As the Corps waited for War Department solution to the recruiting problem,

excess training centers were closed, surplus

instructors were assigned to officers' pools,

and recruiters were told to suspend their

efforts pending new instructions.

The Search for a Recruiting Theme

In view of the gravity of the situation,

both General White of G-1 Division and

Brig. Gen. Joseph N. Dalton of ASF's

Military Personnel Division personally

participated in recruiting conferences during the summer. The ASF donated the

full-time services of Maj. Robert S. Brown

rated as one of its best publicity experts,

who was to give the problem concentrated

attention until his death the following

year. The advertising agency of Young &

Rubicam sent numerous experts, including its adviser, Dr. George Gallup.

These planners fell into anxious debate

over the theme of the next campaign,

1

 Figures as available to the War Department at

the time. Table 2, Appendix A, gives accessions figures as revised by The Adjutant General's Office, 1

February 1948. (1) Memo, Dir WAC for TAG, 26 Jul

43; (2) ASF Memo S635-6-43, 30 Jul 43; (3) TWX,

TAG to SvCs, 5 Aug 43, AG 341 WAAC PR-I; (4)

Ltr, 6th SvC to Dir WAC, 13 Aug 43, sub: WD

Memo S635-6-43. SPKOG 341-1 WAAC; (5) AGO

Form 721, 1 Jul 43, Enlmt Rec, WAC, AUS. All in

SPWA 341 (1943). 2

 (1) Min, Conf with Chief, Classif and Repl Br

AGO. SPWA 337.2, incl Tables A, B. (2) WDBPR

Press Release, 5 Jul 43.
232 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

which if not successful might well be the

last. Dr. Gallup advocated an appeal to a

woman's self-interest, with emphasis on

the advantages of military status, the

value of WAC training, and free clothes,

food, and medical care. Colonel Hobby

disliked such an approach, and held out

for the straight patriotic appeal. Her favorite advertisement was a "shocker"

which showed a wounded soldier dying on

the battlefield while women played bridge,

with the caption, MEN ARE DYING ON THE

BATTLELINE——CAN YOU LIVE WITH YOURSELF ON THE SIDELINE?

This approach was vetoed by Generals

White and Dalton, who were obliged to

inform Colonel Hobby that the censors

forbade showing dead American soldiers

to the American public. Colonel Hobby

next produced an advertisement showing

soldiers' graves, with the caption, THEY

CAN'T DO ANY MORE——BUT YOU CAN. She

argued, "Something like this is needed to

drive home a sense of shame to women not

doing anything." Results would be better,

she said, "the more difficult this job was

painted to a woman, the more of a challenge it was to her . . . telling how hard,

how drab, how routine it is. ... Has she

the courage to do the commonplace as

against the courage of the spectacular?"

Dr. Gallup disagreed with her, saying:

When you take into account all groups, I

am afraid that would not be as good as some

other appeal. There is too much competition from other things; there are too many ways

by which people can rationalize their own

situation. Almost every person has, in his own

mind, become important, even though only

growing a couple of cabbage heads.

Representatives of Young & Rubicam

pointed out also that "what appeals to the

manufacturer seldom appeals to the consumer," and finally decided to run only

one advertisement of the shocker type to

see if it "made the women mad." Colonel

Hobby replied that, as far as she was concerned, they could be made as mad as

hatters if it only drove them to the recruiting station.3

As a matter of record, when the soldiers'-graves advertisement was used in

October, it was banned in Boston newspapers because it was "too gruesome" and

might have caused "sad week ends" to

sensitive citizens. Most later advertisements therefore emphasized the WAC's

attractive jobs and its material advantages.

It was decided that advertising emphasis would be put on, first, the hundreds

of types of Army work now open to Wacs,

and second, WAC benefits, which now

offered the greater advantage of full military status. It was noteworthy that the

same decision concerning "glamorization"

was also deemed essential, at different

times, by both British and WAVES recruiters, in both cases over the objections

of women directors.4

The Manpower Theme

Colonel Hobby took the occasion of her

oath of office to launch another theme

more congenial to the American public

than the ill-fated "Release a Man" slogan;

this was the WAC as the preserver of the

American home. Pointing out that every

3

 All comments from min of conf, WAAC Daily

Journal, Vol. I, 13 Jul 43. 4

 (1) Ltr, G. W. Rogers, Advt Dir, Boston Post, to

Mr. Jim Mullins, Kelly-Smith Co., New York, 29 Oct

43. SPWA 000.7. (2) Draft, 2 Jul 43, sub: Notes for

Publicity re WAAC Becoming Part of Army. Folder,

WAAC to WAC, WAAC Planning files. (3) WAVES

Hist; also Conditions in the Three Women's Services.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 233

woman in uniform enabled a father to stay

with his family, Colonel Hobby informed

the press, "Women as a group have always

been the exponents of family life. They

may now preserve and protect this family

life, the core of American civilization and

culture."

 5 Newspaper writers readily took

up this idea, stating, "In the absence of a

draft, it is just possible that the WAC will

be filled by young women who would

rather join the Army than see their married brothers taken from their children."

War Manpower Commissioner Paul V.

McNutt tentatively indorsed the theme,

saying, "The number of Wacs and Waves

has been increased. As a consequence the

month when it would be necessary to take

fathers has been pushed back. We do not

yet know what the yield will be."

 6

This potentially powerful approach

could not be pushed as far as was desired

because of the refusal of the nation's highest manpower agencies to lend it any practical support. Attempts were made to get

the national Selective Service system to

credit WAC enlistments against local draft

quotas instead of against national totals,

so that women might see the results of

their enlistment in their own towns, but

this was repeatedly refused by Maj. Gen.

Lewis B. Hershey because of the extra

effort and the administrative changes

involved.

The War Manpower Commission also,

in spite of Mr. McNutt's public statement,

continued to act on the assumption that

WAC recruiting was a threat to the industrial war effort.7

 During these summer

months, recruiters in the field forwarded

surprising information concerning WMC's

part in the recent failure of the Cleveland

Plan. Colonel Hobby telegraphed all service commands for confirmation, and discovered that, during the Cleveland Campaign, the War Manpower Commission

had effectively stopped all WAAC recruiting publicity in areas including about one

half of the population of the United States.

The news appeared the more inexplicable in that the Cleveland Campaign had

been cleared with national WMC headquarters before ever being launched. To

obtain clearance, considerable concessions

had been made by the armed forces in a

joint Army-Navy agreement in April, in

which they had renounced the right to

recruit women engaged in aircraft production, shipbuilding, ordnance or signal

work, war research and technical teaching, and wire or radio communication.

Nevertheless, service commands indicated

that, as soon as the Cleveland Campaign

had been launched, the War Manpower

Commission had directed its regional

agencies not to allow the services to recruit

any women, employed or unemployed, in

labor-short areas.

While the WMC could not prevent

recruiters from setting up offices in a city,

it could, through its control of the Office

of War Information, prevent them from

making their presence known by way of

radio, newspapers, or other news media.

The OWI disclosed that it had received

orders from the War Manpower Commission not to give any publicity to armed

forces recruitment of women, and stated,

"The War Manpower Commission is the

ultimate authority on recruitment. The

recruitment of women is limited to such

areas as are agreed upon with the Re5

 The New York Times, July 5, 1943. 6

 Both from The New York Herald Tribune, July 11,

1943. 7

 For discussion of Selective Service's role, see Chs.

XV and XXXIV, below.
234 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

gional War Manpower Commission Office."

 8

These areas were extensive, containing

perhaps one half the population of the

United States. It was also discovered that

almost all large cities had been included:

San Francisco, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Indianapolis, Baltimore, and many others—

a matter that was serious to understaffed

recruiting offices, since cities were the most

easily accessible areas. For example, in

New York state the OWI directed, "Recruitment of women WAVES, WACS,

SPARS, and Marines is not considered

advisable in Albany, Buffalo, Rochester,

Schenectady, Syracuse, Troy, Utica, and

[other cities.]" The stoppage was the more

inexplicable in that, while affected areas

were chiefly those labeled Class I or II—

"labor-tight" areas—others were in Class

III or IV, where there was supposedly no

labor shortage.9

The Army at once took issue with this

action, informing the War Manpower

Commission that it was highly questionable whether the WMC Enabling Act

gave the Commission the authority to

limit recruitment of women by the armed

forces. The executive order that gave

WMC control of the Selective Service system directed only that "no male person,"

18-38, should be inducted except through

Selective Service. The WAC was not mentioned except that its training programs,

with all others of the armed forces, should,

if using nonfederal educational institutions, be co-ordinated to ensure full use.

It did not appear to the Army that female

soldiers could be considered "workers" in

the passage which required "the hiring,

rehiring, solicitation, and recruitment of

workers ... in any plant, facility, occupation, or area" to be done through the

United States Employment Service.

In reply to the Army, the WMC retorted that WAC enlistments "shall be

subject to the conditions of employment

stabilization plans of the War Manpower

Commission." It claimed authority not

only over publicity media, but also to

direct the Army not to send WAC recruiting teams to any area, or to use drill

teams, bands, or local advertising, or to

set quotas or take any other means of encouraging women to join the WAC. It also

added thirty-five more exempted fields

from which the WAC could not accept

recruits, some of which were described in

such broad terms as "industries" and

"education services, public and private."

 10

The Army and Navy joined in protesting this action. They pointed out that it

was extremely shortsighted to draft skilled

male factory workers and teach them to

type, thus forcing industry to replace them

with women who had to learn the factory

trade; both armed forces and industry

would benefit by allowing a woman typist

to enlist so that a skilled factory worker

need not be drafted. Since competitive recruiting was admittedly to be deplored,

the armed forces suggested instead a giant

combined campaign, with resources of all

agencies directed toward drawing women

8

 (1) Memo, Pers Div ASF for Enl Sec, 29 May 43,

with incl copy of Memo, WMC for OWI, picked up

by Army officer when a New York radio station refused to broadcast the WAAC news release. SPWA

000.77 (1943). (2) Almost identical Ltr from Georgia,

SPWA 311.23. (3) Ltr, R&I Serv, 2d SvC to WAAC

Hq, 30 Jun 43, saying that the WMC in Newark

asked radio stations to hold off all WAAC publicity

"owing to the womanpower drive of the WMC."

SPWA 000.77 (1943). 9

 Ibid. Also Memo, WAAC Hq for WDBPR, 7 Jul

43, sub: WAAC Rctg, Class I and II Cities [incl telgs

and lists of cities]. SPWA 000.77 (1943). 10

 (1) Exec Order 9279. (2) Draft of Ltr, SW to the

President USA and to WMC. SPWA 000.77 (1943).

(3) Ltr, Dep Chmn WMC to USW, 9 Jul 43. SPWA

341 (1943).
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 235

MAJ. JESSIE P. RICE

into war work, with the choice of job left

to the individual. Otherwise, the Army

pointed out, many unemployed women in

labor-short areas would never be reached,

since they would not take factory jobs and

could not be offered Army jobs.11

As the War Manpower Commission refused action, the armed forces in August

appealed the issue to the nation's highest

manpower authority—Justice James F.

Byrnes, the Director of War Mobilization.

On 12 August 1943, the Director of War

Mobilization informed the contenders

that the WMC was forbidden to interfere

in national recruiting campaigns even in

labor-short areas. Its list of thirty-five essential industries was rejected in favor of

the Army's shorter one of eight. The Army

was in turn directed not to conduct any

"intensive local campaigns" in Class I and

II areas without clearance with the

WMC.12 It was only with this reassurance

that the Army approved funds for the advertisements already selected, and for a

new recruiting campaign to be co-ordinated with them. The campaign, unlike

the advertisements, was shaped about the

patriotic motif that the Director preferred.

The All-States Plan

Both the idea and the energy for the

new campaign were supplied by a newcomer to WAC Headquarters, Capt. Jessie

P. Rice of the Third Service Command,

who was reassigned to the Director's

Office in the summer. Captain Rice—a

major in late August—was a woman of 42,

described by reporters as "cheery, no-nonsense," and by all who knew her as

"dynamic." She brought to the problem

what proved an appropriate background—that of an industrial sales manager, history teacher, sports reporter, and

native of a small Georgia town; she had

also had a year's field experience as Staff

Director, Third Service Command. For

the next twenty months, first as head of

WAC Recruiting and then as Deputy Director, she was to be, next to Colonel

Hobby, the chief author of WAC policy.

She was later credited by Director Hobby

with, quite literally, saving the WAC from

public defeat on two different occasions, of

which the first was the present critical

period. In her approach to the current

problem, as to all later ones, staff members noted a rare combination of commonsense practicality with unabashed idealism

11

 Memo, JND for Gen Somervell, 12 Jul 43.

SPAP, In SPWA 341 (1943). 12

 (1) Memo, USW to Dir OWM, 21 Jul 43.

WDGAP 320.2, in SPWA 341 (1943). (2) Memo, SW

for CG ASF, 3 Aug 43. Same file. (3) Ltr, Dir OWM

to SW, SN, WMG, OWI, 12 Aug 43. SPWA 000.77

(6-4-43), 1943.
236 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

for the nation's goals and the Corps' contributions to them.13

Major Rice strongly believed that the

WAC would achieve lasting success and

overcome the slander campaign only

through the support of the American community, which was merely alienated by

dazzling supersalesmanship and could be

won only through giving community

members a personal stake in the outcome.

They must not be worked upon by outsiders but must do the work themselves,

and its outcome must be made a competitive matter of local pride.

She therefore christened her plan the

"All-States Plan" and credited the idea to

a local success achieved by Baltimore recruiters. It called, quite simply, for each

state to recruit a state company, which

would carry its flag and wear its armband

in training. The trick was in the mechanics, which involved participation of the

states' most reputable citizens: General

Marshall was to ask state governors to appoint local committees consisting of

mayors and other prominent citizens in

each town, who would be responsible for

aiding recruiters to meet the quota. Major

Rice said:

You will find in this plan nothing new—it

is based on the oldest and most fundamental

appeal any nation has ever used, and the device it uses is the oldest recruiting device in

America, stemming from Colonial days. The

appeal is the straight patriotic appeal. . . .

By making this appeal by States we hope to

reinforce it by the appeal of State pride. We

have a big country with many state and sectional traditions . . . and they can be made

to play their part only if the operations are

conducted by people who know the States

and the people in them.14

Another appeal was added by Colonel

Hobby concerning the setting of the

quota; each town would list the number of

its sons who had become battle casualties

and would recruit a woman to replace

each.15

The All-States Plan, Major Rice predicted, would not bring in astronomical

numbers of recruits, but it could if properly handled pull the WAC out of its recruiting slump, ensure its continued

existence, and help to squelch the slander

campaign.

The Recruiters

The WAC recruiting machinery could

scarcely have been in worse condition for

a new effort. Recruiters had borne the

brunt of a year of public hostility, and

were so fatigued and discouraged that

their relief would have been essential had

any trained replacements been available.

A typical example was one very junior

North Carolina recruiter, who reported

bitterly that she had made recruiting trips

to all the main towns in nine different

counties, secured seventy-three free articles and advertisements, got free radio

time, secured lists of prospects in every

town and sent them all letters, developed

a trailer film and display boards, sponsored a state-wide high school poster contest, and distributed 10,000 copies of the

winning poster. In return, she succeeded

in giving out only ninety application

blanks, received thirteen applications, and

enrolled two women. Meanwhile, her four

enlisted assistants became discouraged

13

 (1) WDBPR Press Release, 28 Oct 42. (2) "The

Nine Old Women," Time, 1944. (3) Intervs with Mrs.

Hobby, 29 Jun 48, and numerous others, 14

 Entire discussion from Min, WAC Rctg Conf, 7

Sep 43. WAC Daily Journal, Vol. II, SPWA 337 (9-

1-43). 15

 Approved by D/F, G-1 to ASF through CofS, 2

Sep 43. WDGAP 341 WAC, in WDCSA 291.9

WAAC.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 237

and applied for discharge from the

WAAC to get defense jobs in California.

For these tribulations, her only reward

was a letter of reprimand from WAAC

headquarters concerning the winning

poster, which had been in such poor taste

as to come to national attention.16

The burst of energy demanded by a

new recruiting drive therefore presented a

particular problem. Colonel Hobby wrote

to the discouraged recruiters:

I know the difficulties, the loneliness, the

heartbreaking apathy you have faced. I

know how hard it is, after weeks and months

of discouragement, to dip deep into inner resources and start again with fresh enthusiasm.

But I know, too, that you have such inner resources. . . . If you can give fully of your

own strength, your own conviction, your own

faith and heartfelt patriotism, we will not fail

now.17

For the success of the campaign, the WAC

leaders depended frankly, as always in the

Corps' history, upon these "inner resources," and upon motives which were

matters of ideals and spirit. Major Rice

took charge of the hundreds of conferences

and interviews required by the All-States

Campaign, quoting freely from Tom Paine

concerning "summer soldiers and sunshine patriots," and using a modern quotation also favored by Colonel Hobby as

typifying the Corps' present slim chances

of success:

God of the hidden purpose

Let our embarking be

The prayer of proud men asking

Not to be safe, but free.18

As the Corps poised upon the threshold of

this crucial effort to restore itself, Major

Rice informed a conference of service

command recruiters:

We know that there are millions of women who will join us now, if we can touch that

spring of inner compulsion that causes people

to forget self and fear of the unknown and

strike out along the path that leads to their

ideals.19

Sources of Assistance

The campaign's organization was

nevertheless highly practical, and was to

stand as a model for all future efforts. To

avoid misunderstandings, Army recruiting and induction officers from each service command and their WAC assistants

were thoroughly briefed in a Washington

conference on the entire plan. At the same

time, the Army's Recruiting Publicity

Bureau, in New York City, set its presses

rolling to produce, in an unprecedentedly

short time, portfolios of instructions for

recruiters, with brightly colored and attractive posters, window cards, stickers,

manuals, envelope stuffers, clip sheets,

mats, and advertisements of all sizes.20

Also, the War Advertising Council was

approached and agreed to arrange free

sponsored national advertising for the

WAC as it was doing for other agencies.

Recruiters were also instructed in how to

get free advertising on a local level; many

firms were found to be willing to aid the

war effort by contributing advertising

space, or by including a Wac in their

usual advertisements. Many posters and

other aids were also sponsored by various

business groups. For example, the Stand16

 Ltr, WAC Hq to Rctg Off. Ft Bragg. N. C.. 2

Aug 43, incl rpt of Lt Mary J. Norton, 22 Jun-20 Jul

43. SPWA 415. 17

 Ltr, Col Hobby to all WAC recruiters, 20 Sep 43.

SPWA 341 (8-6-43) sec 1b. 18

 Henry Morton Robinson, "Litany for a New

AEF," reprinted in WAC Newsletter, Vol. I, No. 8, 15

Jan 44. 19

 Speech. Min cited n. 14. 20

 Office Memo, "F" for "R" [Capt Ruth F. Fowler

for Maj Rice, both of WAC Rctg Sec], 21 Sep 43.

SPWA 341 (8-6-43) sec 1b.
238 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ard Oil Company of Indiana sent its

dealers 19,000 posters, "The Girl With the

Star-Spangled Heart," to replace the previous "Drain Old Oil Now."

 21

National civic and business organizations by the dozen were approached by

Colonel Hobby's staff, and agreed to mention the WAC in their trade publications

and bulletins: the American Retail Association, the National Dry Goods Association, the National Association of Theater

Owners, five press associations, most

magazine publishing firms, several film

companies, the Mayor's Conference, the

National Association of Broadcasters, the

U.S. Chamber of Commerce, and others

as varied.22

Organized clubwomen of thirty-six national organizations announced their support after visits of their representatives to

Des Moines.

The Executive Committee of the Governors' Conference also gave a preliminary indorsement which assured the Army

that state governors would respond when

officially called upon.23

Paid advertising was also authorized to

supplement all the free publicity that the

above agencies could contribute. Colonel

Hobby asked that the Army allot $10.00

per needed recruit for this purpose, chiefly

for systematic coverage of Sunday newspapers. General Dalton disapproved this

on the grounds that "no business which is

forced to operate at a profit would consider such an appropriation," but he was

overruled by General Somervell, who considered that the situation merited the

expenditure. As a matter of fact, the sum

was somewhat less than that later used in

postwar Army advertising to get comparable numbers of male recruits.24

As an added precaution Director

Hobby in two different meetings with high

War Manpower Commission officials

cleared the All-States Plan. She was informed that, from 27 September to 7 December, recruiting was authorized even

in Class I and II areas, provided that no

woman was taken from essential industry.

A representative of WMC likewise stated

this fact in a speech to the recruiters conference, and the Army published it to recruiters. In return the Army agreed to

urge rejected WAC applicants to accept

factory work.25

The Air-WAC Plan

Because the WAC's continued existence

was virtually staked on this one campaign,

the War Department decided to accept

assistance from a source that it had previously rejected—the Army Air Forces.

The AAF had for months begged to be

allowed to send out its own personnel to

assist regular recruiters, the only proviso

being that recruits so obtained could be

promised assignment to the Air Forces.

Such special-promise recruiting was not

unknown to the Army; the Air Forces' recruiting teams, in a recent campaign to

get 57,000 male aviation specialists, had 21

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 28 Aug

43. SPWA 000.7 E, in ASF SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-

43). (2) Ltr, WAC Rctg Off, Chicago, to Dir WAC,

27 Oct 43. SPWA 415. 22

 Memo. Capt Fowler for Maj Rice, 2 1 Sep 43.

SPWA 341 (8-6-43) sec 1b. 23

 (1) WDBPR Press Release, 20 Sep 43. (2) Min

cited n. 14. 24

 (1) Memo, WAC Hq for CG ASF, 2 Aug 43: (2)

Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Dalton, 25 Aug 43. SPWA

000.7 (8-25-43). (3) History: Office of the Director of

Personnel. Army Service Forces 20 Jul 42-1 Sep 45.

OCMH. Hereafter cited as ASF Pers Hist. (4) For

army postwar advertising contract, see Washington

Post, February 18. 1949. 25

 (1) Memos, Dir WAC for G-1, 16 Oct 43. 24 Aug

43, and 30 Sep 43. SPWA 000.77 (1-4-43). (2) Speech

of Mr. Stephen W. Wood. WMC. Min cited n. 14. (3)

Ltr. TAG to all SvCs. 12 Sep 43. AG 341 PR-I-E.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 239

recruited 128,000 almost before the campaign could be shut off. Nevertheless,

Colonel Hobby had consistently rejected

these offers, pointing out that special

promises to recruits—their choice of

branch or station—were undesirable and

that difficulty and hard feeling would

later result, particularly since earlier recruits had no such choice.26

Army Service Forces recruiting experts

now informed Colonel Hobby that the

WAC would have to abandon its stand

against special promises, saying, "The

persistent decline in WAAC recruiting results, along with the increasing need for

women in the Armed Forces, make it essential to open the door immediately for

special WAC recruiting plans."

 27

 It was

therefore decided to adopt the Air-WAC

Plan to supplement the All-States Plan;

the Air Forces would not compete, but

would bring in women who would be part

of the state companies until trained.

Branch recruiting thus became an accepted fact, although the other two Army

branches—AGF and ASF—did not at this

time decide to give any personnel to the

project. The AAF at once prepared to

throw hundreds of additional recruiters

into the struggle.28

The Quota

On the eve of the campaign, Major

Rice estimated that the take would be

10,000 in the approximately two months

between 27 September, when the campaign opened, and 7 December, when it

closed. Colonel Hobby optimistically

hoped for 35,000, and asked that Fort

Sheridan be made available in case the

three remaining WAC centers were inadequate. The Adjutant General insisted

that the higher goal of 70,000 be set, since

70,000 casualties had been sustained to

date. Colonel Hobby deplored this move,

saying, "It is negative psychology to have

an impossible quota"; she recommended

a quota of approximately 17,000 for the

entire period, which was disapproved by

the Army Service Forces. Major Rice attempted to use merely the number of those

killed in action instead of all casualties,

but the number 70,000 was chosen by the

Secretary of War and used in all publicity

releases. Actually, G-3 Division of the

War Department had hopefully included

200,000 Wacs in the Troop Basis for 1943,

but with the provision that more men

could be drafted if women failed to volunteer. The most impossible figure of all

came from The Adjutant General's Office,

which calculated that 631,000 Wacs were

needed at once to prevent the drafting of

fathers. The figure of 600,000 was used by

General Marshall in his public speeches,

to emphasize the extent of the Army's

need, but was never considered a real

quota.29

The Campaign

On the last day of August 1943, the AllStates Campaign went into action with

the precision and co-ordinated effort of a 26

 Memo, AAF for G-1, 29 Jun 43. Published 4 Sep

43, AGO Memo W635-21-43, Participation of AAF

in WAC Rctmt. SPWA 341 (8-6-43) sec 1b. 27

 Memo, Lt Col G. C. Curtis for Dir WAC, 11 Aug

43. SPWA 341 (8-6-43) sec 1b. 28

 Ltr, TAG to SvCs, 12 Oct 43. AG 341 WAC

PR-I. in SPWA 341 (8-6-43) sec la. 29

 (1) Rice estimate made to author and coworkers. (2) Hobby estimates in 1st Ind to Dir Pers

ASF. to Memo cited n. 27. (3) Hobby quote from Min

cited n. 3. Also Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 19

Aug 43. SPWA 341 (8-10-43) R, in SPAP 341

WAAC (2-26-43). (4) Ltr, SW to Bur of Budget, 15

Jul 43. WDGAP 320.2 WAAC, in CofS 291.9 WAAC.

(5) By Exec Order 9364, top limit to strength of WAC

was set at 200,000, as published in WD Bulletin 17,

4 Aug 43.
240 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ALL-STATES RECRUITING CAMPAIGN. Governor Leverett Saltonstall of Massachusetts cuts the ribbon opening a WAC recruiting booth. Standing next to the Governor is Mayor

Maurice J. Tobin of Boston.

military invasion. Exactly twenty-seven

days were allotted to softening up the

public before the recruiters landed. General Somervell opened the barrage on 31

August with a personal telegram to the

commanding generals of all service commands Stating, DIRECTOR HOBBY WILL CONTACT YOU ON WAC RECRUITING PLAN WHICH

HAS MY APPROVAL. URGE FULL SUPPORT.

On the same day and the next, Colonel

Hobby made personal long-distance telephone calls to these commanding generals,

explaining the plan. In the following

week, full details were placed in the hands

of recruiters assembled in Washington.30

On 10 September, General Marshall

sent a personal letter to each state governor, saying, "I am appealing to you for

assistance. . . ."

 31

 This was followed by

immediate visits to the governors by service command representatives. In the

30

 (1) TWX, CG ASF to SvCs, 3 1 Aug 43. SPWA

341 (8-6-43) sec 1b. (2) Min cited n. 14. 31

 The following discussion is based on: (1) Ltrs,

CofS to the 48 governors, 10 Sep 43. SPWA 341 (8-6-

43) sec la; also in CofS 291.9 with replies. (2) Ltrs,

WAC Stf Dir 7th SvC, 11 and 30 Sep 43. SPWA 341

sec 1b. (3) Ltrs, Maj Gen Kenyon A. Joyce, 9th SvC,

and others. SPWA 341 sec la (1943). (4) Proclamation, 18 Sep 43, with other proclamations. SPWA 341

(8-6-43) sec la. (5) Copy in Ltr, Young & Rubicam

to Maj Jess Rice, 19 Oct 43. SPWA 000.7.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 241

ALL-STATES RECRUITING CAMPAIGN. Texas state flag is held by a WAC officer

during a ceremony for recruits in front of the State Capitol, Austin, Texas.

Seventh Service Command, Maj. Gen.

Frederick E. Uhl took a plane and personally visited each state. The governors'

responses were in most cases immediate;

they appeared eager to be called upon for

a further part in the war effort. Many

issued proclamations such as

Whereas the successful prosecution of the

war requires the enrollment of adequate

manpower and [five other whereas's]. . . . Now therefore I, John W. Bricker, Governor

of the State of Ohio, do hereby call for volunteers for service in the WAC. ... I do further call upon mayors and other governmental authorities . . . upon all citizens,

newspapers, and radio stations ... to the

end that the State of Ohio may fully achieve

her goal in this great national objective.

The governors appointed committees in

every community, consisting ordinarily of

local officials and prominent citizens,

whose efforts were co-ordinated by WAC

recruiters. Many governors and mayors

allowed the use of their names in local advertisements, for example:

WOMEN OF FITCHBURG

A Message from your Governor:

Throughout the history of America, men

and women of the Commonwealth have

never failed to answer the call of service to

their country. ... I am confident that once

again the daughters as well as the sons of

Massachusetts will have proved their right to

our great heritage.

[Signed] Leverett P. Saltonstall
242 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

At the same time, the weight of General

Marshall's personal prestige was thrown

into the campaign in a national press release which, on 15 September, described

the plan to the public. This was supported

by paid advertisements on a co-ordinated

theme placed in Sunday papers by Young

& Rubicam.32

On 27 September, the doors were formally opened to All-States recruits. An

unprecedented concentration of recruiting

activity resulted: it appeared doubtful

that any inhabitant of the United States

failed to hear of the WAC if he could read,

listen to the radio, or be reached by a citizen's committee. The Office of War Information for the next three weeks devoted

to the WAC most of the free facilities

offered it by radio stations, ordinarily used

for such projects as bond sales and food

conservation; 17,000 messages were broadcast over 891 radio stations, plus 150 plugs

on network programs and special, national, and spot programs. The Army Air

Forces on 18 October threw teams totaling

358 officers and 1,136 enlisted personnel

into the campaign. The WAC Band

toured; governors continued to issue statements, which Young & Rubicam caught

up and published; governors whose states

led were congratulated, others were

chagrined, and some even went on personal speaking tours. In general, recruiters

seasoned by earlier campaigns seldom

fumbled, and publicity was uniformly

good.33

State companies were shipped to training centers as fast as enough for a company were recruited. The women were

ordinarily assembled at the state capitol

building or some other historic spot, where

they were sworn in with much ceremony,

martial music, parades, crowds, and publicity, and presented by the governor with

a state flag to carry at the training center.

Some states thus recruited several companies in succession. No one WAC training center had sufficient capacity to hold

forty-eight companies, but the spirit of the

idea was preserved, and each training

center parade had a display of from fifteen

to twenty state flags. Competition among

state companies was keen, and most recruits were kept in a state of high morale

by the favorable attention given them by

home-town newspapers and by their introduction to the governor and to other

prominent citizens.34

Altogether, WAC and Army authorities

were highly pleased with the prospects.

Colonel Hobby called the plan "the best

recruiting device we have ever had." The

campaign seemed well on the way to

achieving some of the more optimistic predictions. Well-nigh faultless in its organization, and highly effective in achieving

the desired effect upon the public, it appeared that it could have been stopped

only by one thing—an order from authority higher than the Army. And this was, in

effect, what stopped it in many areas.

Opposition of the War Manpower Commission

No sooner was the All-States Campaign

well launched than the Army discovered

32

 (1) WDBPR Press Release, 15 Sep 43. (2)

Speech. Mr. Lenz, Young & Rubicam. Min cited n.

14.

33

 (1) Speech. Mr. Ferbanks, OWI. Min Cited n. 14.

(2) AAF WAC Hist, p. 57; also AG Ltr cited n. 28. (3)

TWX, Comdt 1st WAC Tng Cen to Dir WAC, 4 Oct

43. SPWA 341 sec 1b. (4) Ltrs of thanks, Dir WAC to

CGs of SvCs, 11 Sep 43. SPWA 341, sec 1b; and Ltrs,

Governors to Gen Marshall. Nov-Dec 43. CofS 291.9.

(5) Memo, Dir WAC for Secy GS, 12 Nov 43. SPWA

341 (8-6-43) sec la. (6) Speech, Maj Rice. Min, WAC

Stf Dirs Conf. New York, 1-3 Dec 43, SPWA 337 (11-

10-43). 34

 Ltr, Atty Gen of Ohio to Dir WAC, 5 Oct 43,

and reply. SPWA 341 sec 1b.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 243

that the War Manpower Commission was

again ignoring not only its two agreements

with the Army but the August directive

from its superior, Director of War Mobilization Byrnes. In spite of WMC clearance

of the All-States Plan, regional WMC offices in five of the nine service commands

not only suppressed local WAC recruiting

publicity, but, speaking as "The United

States," released headlines such as one in

Connecticut: U.S FORBIDS WAC DRIVE IN

CITY AS THREAT TO WAR EFFORT. In Macon,

Georgia, bewildered recruiters were confronted with an ultimatum from the

WMC area director saying, "I have decided it would not be feasible to continue

with this [recruiting] program. This is a

result of Macon being an extreme labor

shortage area, and every woman who

would be acceptable to the WAC could be

used to advantage in war industries." The

Office of War Information withdrew radio

support in such localities as directed by

local WMC officials saying that it had no

other choice.35

The most charitable interpretation that

could be put upon this action was that the

War Manpower Commission had been

slow in informing its regional offices of the

Byrnes decision and of its own official

clearance of the All-States Plan. When

questioned by telephone, WMC officials

at first gave this explanation, saying,

"Frankly, they should have gone out quite

some time ago." However, a few days later

an executive staff meeting was held, of

which Major Rice was informed, "Fact is,

it was a complete nullification both in the

chairman's office and the executive staff of

the things we had discussed as exploratory." Major Rice at once pointed out that

the WMC's commitments had not been

exploratory, that WMC representatives

had stated them at official meetings, that

the Army had spent a million dollars and

staked the Chief of Staffs prestige upon

them, and that "we are in a pretty desperate condition, with time running out on

us."

 36

Director Hobby called to the War Department's attention "the fact that we had

begun the All-States Campaign believing

that we had clearance . . . the fact that

with the best recruiting device we have

ever had, we have been barred by the

WMC area directors from making any

effort to reach many thousands of women

in areas of essential industry who are not

themselves engaged in essential industry."

 37

High-level negotiations with the War

Manpower Commission began again. The

WMC now refused to inform its area directors of its previous clearance of the AllStates Campaign unless the Army agreed

to use the WMC list of thirty-five essential

industries, which Director Byrnes had

already disapproved, instead of the shorter

Army list which he had approved. Mr.

McNutt's office also demanded that its

area directors be given power to add industries to the list at their discretion, to

veto any objectionable activity, and to

supervise all WAC advertising copy.38

Rather than thus renounce the advantages that the Byrnes decision had decreed

for it, the Army chose to fight the matter

35

 (1) Sources cited n. 25. (2) Memo, Dir WAC for

G-1, 4 Oct 43. SPWA 000.77 (1943). (3) Ltr, Ralph

E. Haines, Area Dir WMC, Macon, Ga., to CO

Cochran Field, 8 Oct 43. SPWA 341 sec 1b. (4)

Memo, Maj Rice for Dir Hobby, with rpt of 5 Oct

conf with TAG, G-1, and OWI; (5) Bridgeport

(Conn.) Post, in Ltr, Maj Gen Sherman Miles, 1st

SvC, to WAC. SPWA 000.77 (1943). 36

 (1) Tp Convs, Maj Rice and Mr. Broughton, 5

Oct 43, and another, no date. G-1 WAC 312.9,

Drawer 6, DRB AGO. 37

 Memo cited n. 25(1). 38

 Tp Conv, Col Hobby and Mr. Broughton, 15 Oct

43. G-1 WAC 312.9, Drawer 6, DRB AGO.
244 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

through. The negotiations dragged on for

some time and were not to reach a workable conclusion until the following year.

Meanwhile, the brief All-States Campaign, which had depended for effect on

its impetus and concentration, was somewhat blunted in many areas, and reached

its final deadline on 7 December without

feeling any benefit from the negotiations.

There was no way of computing the

exact loss which had been occasioned by

the War Manpower Commission's action.

Major Rice believed that it was perhaps

not as serious as the initial setbacks had

indicated. In any case, it was clear that

while the Army had at last made plain to

the public its united support of the WAC,

the government as a whole had not done

so. Instead, the nation had approached a

grave emergency without any clear definition of the role of womanpower and its

apportionment among competing agencies.

Public Apathy

The lack of support by civilian manpower control groups of the United States

Government explained to some degree the

public conviction that the matter was not

important, and the resulting apathy,

which recruiters encountered as the AllStates Campaign drew to a close in early

December of 1943. One annoyed general

reported that in his service command there

appeared to be three types of women: (1)

patriotic, who had already taken essential

civilian work or enlisted in the WAC; (2)

patriotic but mercenary, who were interested only in the highest-paying war jobs;

and (3) "The leisure class, who like to go

down to the USO, dance with the boys on

Saturday night, and think they are making their contribution to the war effort

that way. They make all these talks, appear in theaters, put up placards, appear

before women's clubs, talk to everybody in

the world, but when it comes to getting

them to sign up, they say no soap."

 39

The Army's highest-ranking officers

now became personally aware of the factors affecting WAC recruiting as never

before in the Corps' career, since the AllStates Campaign put the responsibility

upon them as well as upon community

leaders. General Dalton personally telephoned the commanding generals of service commands to read them a long list of

ideas to get recruits. He told each

pointedly, "I wonder if you've gotten

word down to all ranks that General

Marshall and the rest of the top people

have an intense interest in this WAC

recruiting."

 40

The difficulty in getting a woman recruit at first amazed, then exasperated,

then spurred to action the commanding

generals concerned. Even the service commander who led the field was dissatisfied

and observed to General Dalton: "I don't

know what is wrong. It just doesn't seem to

take. . . . Well, we will put all we got in

it, Joe." Another visited WAC recruiters

at work and reported that "these people

are up against a hard proposition" and

needed all the co-operation that the Army

could give. Still another noted how highpaying industry had stripped the area of

qualified women, and stated, "If they're

not just children, overaged, or a little

moronic or something, they've quit,

they've gone away." The interest and indignation of these officers worked to the

WAC's advantage in that, recruiters reported, they were now able to get from

their headquarters better transportation,

39

 Tp Calls, Dir Pers ASF to CGs of SvCs, 1 Dec 43,

Reply of 2d SvC. ASF, SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43). 40

 Ibid.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 245

personnel, and station locations than had

previously been made available.41

The Army Air Forces recruiters received

a similar shock. Employing tactics that

had recruited 128,000 male mechanics in

a short time, they were able to get, in the

entire month of November, only about

1,500 Wacs. One AAF officer reported:

I never saw anything as tough. When our

team hit one Florida city, we closed the

place—actually got the mayor to close

schools and stores so everyone would come

to our parade and rally. We got important

speakers, generals, war heroes. Better than

50 planes flew overhead forming the letters

WAC. That night we had a big dance for

prospects, with good-looking pilots as dates.

Results? We didn't get one Wac in that town.

Some of the local girls put in applications to

please their escorts, but withdrew them the

next day.42

It soon was apparent to the Air Forces that

there was one important difference in the

mechanics' campaign and the WAC campaign—the men had been faced by eventual draft and so had been happy to have

a choice of branch, job, and station near

home, whereas the women were not faced

by any such compulsion. Nevertheless, the

Air Forces persisted, and by December

were getting more than half of the total

intake.43

The Success of the All-States Campaign

In spite of the opposition of the War

Manpower Commission and the public

apathy, the All-States Campaign proved

the most successful the Corps was ever to

undertake. The intake of 4,425 in its final

month was better than anything that had

ever been achieved with comparably

high enlistment requirements.44 The final

tally showed that the drive had netted

10,619 recruits, slightly over the 10,000

that Major Rice had predicted. No later

campaign, even the highly successful General Hospital Campaign in 1945, was ever

to achieve equal numbers in so short a

time.

Even better than its immediate results,

in Colonel Hobby's opinion, was its continuing effect in overcoming the slander

campaign. Major Rice praised the "wonderful civilian cooperation, that will reap

results for months to come."

 45

 A new

Gallup survey in the closing months of the

year showed that, the Director stated,

"Public attitude is now definitely favorable to the WAC—more so than at any

time since its organization."

 46

 Surveys

showed that, among eligibles, 83 percent

now knew that the WAC was part of the

Army, and 85 percent knew that the WAC

needed more women. When asked,

"Which service needs women the most?"

eligibles replied: WAC—58 percent;

WAVES—14 percent; Marines—14 percent; SPARS—4 percent; Don't know—5

percent. If drafted, women stated that in

making a choice they would give the WAC

a slight edge on other enlisted women's

service.47

General Dalton, while objecting to the

cost per recruit, stated that the campaign

had led to a better organized and successful recruiting service. Recruiting proved

to be permanently restored, even though

41

 Ibid., replies of CGs, 2d, 5th, and 9th SvCs. 42

 Related to author by Capt Dewey Couri, EFTC,

at WAC Rctg Conf, Chicago, Feb 44. 43

 Memo, Maj. Rice for G-1, 28 Dec 43. SPWA

341 (1-1-43)sec 2. 44

 Higher totals had been achieved only in the winter of 1942-43 when enlistment requirements were

drastically cut and unassignables admitted. 45

 Min cited n. 33(6). 46

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 27 Nov 43, sub:

Plan for WAC Rctmt, 7 Dec 43-15 Apr 43. SPWA

341 (11-27-43)8, in ASF, SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-

43). Also Min cited n. 33(6). 47

 Min cited n. 33(6).
246 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

to a modest level, and was to average

more than 3,000 a month until the last

days of the war. The campaign had thus

answered the question of whether the

WAC could survive: it could. On the

other hand, the days of expansive planning in terms of millions were obviously

ended, although it was always difficult for

planners completely to relinquish visions,

which had been held since the first World

War, of the effortless and inexpensive acquisition of thousands of female volunteers.48

Revival of Plans to Draft Women

The ruinous expense of recruiting competition was now so clear that the Army,

even before the end of the campaign, revived the question of drafting women,

which had been rejected by the General

Staff less than a year before as impossible.

The Chief of Staff in early autumn personally directed Colonel Hobby to prepare

a memorandum on the "selection of

women for military duty."

 49

 This she did,

noting, "A year's experience indicates the

improbability of attaining, through voluntary enlistments, an adequate supply of

womanpower to perform essential military services."

 50

 The Director was now

thoroughly convinced that the American

public looked on the draft as the proper

means of meeting military needs. To a

military conference, she stated, "I believe

that it is as fair to ask volunteers for service as to ask for volunteers to pay

taxes. . . . When people are asked, 'Why

aren't you in the Service?', they remark,

'Oh, come now, if the Government really

needs us they will draft us.' " 51

The plans now made were far more extensive than those that the Army had

attempted in its similar legislative study

during the manpower crisis of the year

before. It was noted that by this time the

British Government already had registered women in the 19-40 age group and

had power to direct some 17,000,000 of

them into the armed services or industry.

The British had found it advisable to give

local industrial jobs to women with domestic responsibilities, and to emphasize

mobility for the armed forces; younger

mobile women were withdrawn from retail trades, the clothing industry, and even

the government, and replaced by the nonmobile. By this means thousands of women

were being successfully called up each

week. Some 91 percent of single women

and 80 percent of married women of ages

18-40 were already reported to be working directly in the war effort in Britain.52

The prospects in the United States

looked even more favorable. Statistics

from the Bureau of the Census showed

that there were an estimated 18,000,000

American women in the 18-49 age group

without children under 18, of which over

5,000,000 could probably meet the WAC's

high requirements and pass all tests and

investigations. Of these, the Adjutant General estimated that the Army would need

to draft only 631,000.53

48

 ASF Pers Hist. 49

 (1) Memo, Miss B. E. Lies for Dir WAC 9 Sep

43. Folder, Plng Proj 27, WAAC Plng files. (2) Memo,

Dir WAC for TAG, 11 Sep 43. SPWA 327.07. 50

 Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 15 Sep 43. SPWA

327.02E. 51

 Remarks, Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun 43.

SPWA 337 (6-1-43). 52

 M/R, Summary of.Certain Aspects of British

Womanpower Policy, 19 Aug 43. SPWA 327.02 Great

Britain (1-19-43). 53

 (1) Memo cited n. 49(1) contains varying figures

from Bur of Census, Bur Labor Statistics, 1940 Census, and WMC. Some estimates, with deletions for

lack of education, etc., still left over 3,000,000 qualified. (2) Memo, TAG for Dir WAC, 15 Sep 43.

SPWA 337.02.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 247

The submitted version of legislation was

therefore extremely liberal, and would

have exempted all married women living

with their husbands, all women with children or other dependents, women in essential industry or agriculture, nurses,

physicians, public officials, and others in

like category. The proposed law stated,

"An obligation rests upon women as well

as men ... to render such personal service in aid of the war effort as they may be

deemed best fitted to perform."

 54

The Director's recommendation was

that selection be scientific—by Army requirements, not numerical—since 80 percent of the jobs required skill and experience, and the other 20 percent required

the ability to acquire skill with short

training. Unskilled and low-grade womanpower was not wanted.

The American public seemed to be

solidly behind the idea of drafting women.

Gallup polls showed that 73 percent in

October of 1943 and 78 percent in December believed that single women should be

drafted before any more fathers were

taken. Single women of draft age themselves endorsed their draft by a 75 percent

majority, although stating that they would

not voluntarily enlist so long as the Government did not believe the matter important enough to warrant a draft. Every

section of the nation had large majorities

favoring the drafting of women.55

Nevertheless, even its advocates soon

realized that the plan would never be

adopted unless serious military reverses

occurred. Director Hobby stated in conference, " I think that what happens on

the question of Selective Service depends

on how long the war lasts. I do not think

there is any thought of it in Congress at

this time."

 56

Her prediction proved correct. The

General Staffs G-1 Division, after some

consideration, decided that the only possible strategy was to wait until national

service legislation was sponsored elsewhere

and then to request that the Army be

included. Some sponsorship was immediately forthcoming in the Austin-Wadsworth bill.57

The Austin- Wadsworth Bill

Scarcely three weeks after the close of

the All-States Campaign, there ensued a

national manpower crisis which caused

an actual "universal service" bill to be

considered. In the winter of 1943-44, the

Army's major training effort ended and its

all-out offensive began. Overseas, the invasions of Normandy and of New Guinea

were in the making. In January, the War

Department announced that by the end

of the year some 6,000,000 men still on

training stations must be shipped overseas; station overhead was to be combed

for physically fit, well-trained troops.58

The nation's manpower economy was

in poor condition to support the offensive,

being at the moment in possibly the most

critical condition of the war. Secret and

pessimistic debates in the General Council

showed that Selective Service calls were

not being met and that there was small

prospect that more than 80 percent of

future calls would be met; planners con54

 Memo cited n. 50. 55

 Gallup Poll results in Washington Post, April 2,

1944. 56

 Remarks cited n. 51. 57

 (1) Memo, G-1 for CofS, 23 Sep 43. WDGAP

327 WAC. Handwritten note: "I agree. GCM." (2)

HR 1742 and S 666, 78th Cong, 1st sess, 8 Feb 43.

Congressional Record, Vol. 89, No. 21, A494. 58

 (1) WAC Newsletter, Vol. I, No. 8, 15 Jan 44. (2)

Washington Evening Star, January 27, 1944, "Army

Shakeup to Double Forces Abroad."
248 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

sidered calling up 400,000 men previously

deferred as farmers.59 The preliminary

successes in Italy in the early fall had

raised civilian hopes of immediate victory

to such an extent that a stampede from war

industries began. War Manpower Commission Chairman McNutt denounced the

workers who "seek out a safe berth in nonwar work of a permanent character."

Ship deliveries declined by 40 percent;

war industry noted a severe slump in production goals; and the recruiting of workers by the armed forces and defense

industry redoubled in difficulty.

Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson told

the Senate Military Affairs Committee

that "the home front is on the point of

going sour," and that the morale of fighting men would be seriously affected if

civilians were left free to snap up the best

postwar jobs. Therefore, Secretary of the

Navy Frank Knox recommended that

workers be frozen in their jobs in order to

prevent disastrous absenteeism and turnover of personnel. The Chief of Staff publicly warned the nation that it still failed to

grasp the magnitude of the effort needed

for victory.60

Heeding these pleas, Congress in January turned to active consideration of the

pending Austin-Wadsworth bill for "civilian selective service."

 61

 The heads of the

armed forces threw their support behind

the measure as a means of equalizing the

sacrifices of military and civilian personnel, warning that the war's great effort lay

ahead of the nation and not behind it.

From the viewpoint of the women's services, the measure appeared a sure means

of ending recruiting costs and ensuring

thousands of members. While the bill did

not provide for the induction of women

into the armed forces, it exempted enlistees

from being drafted into farms and factories. British reports alleged that, under

a similar act, some 40 percent of women

had attempted to choose military service.62

Unhappily for such hopes, the AustinWadsworth bill was opposed by the American Federation of Labor—whose President, William Green, called a labor draft

"servitude" and "unconstitutional"—and

by the Congress of Industrial Organizations. Finally, when the Senate's Truman

Committee announced its opposition, the

bill was dropped. Wide-open competition

for womanpower continued, under circumstances which made the manpower

shortages of 1942 and 1943 appear mere

preliminaries.63

No accurate estimate was ever possible

as to the cost to the nation of the absence

of some such law to direct women into industry or the armed forces. The Army's

best estimate of the recruiting cost per

Wac was $125, including advertising, recruiters' salaries, transportation, station

rent, and all other expenses. This sum did

not appear prohibitive when compared

with the cost to the Army—$107—of

recruiting a female civilian worker who

might resign at any time. While no average figure was announced by civilian industry for its recruiting, the amount spent

on rallies, bands, scouts, and other recruiting activities by the aircraft industry and

others was undoubtedly comparable. The

59

 Min, Gen Council, 24 Jan 44. 60

 Washington Post, January 10, February 2 and 4,

and March 3, 1944. 61

 HR 3944, 78th Cong, 2d sess, 11 Jan 44. 62

 National Service Act of 1941 (no. 2). Memo,

MPD SOS for G-1, 4 Nov 42. SPGAM 320.2 WAAC

(9-15-42). 63

 Washington Post, February 17 and 26, and March

5, 1944.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 249

Army, in return for its expenditure, had at

least the assurance that its Wacs must

stick to their jobs, whereas Mr. McNutt

reported that in industry eight women

were quitting for every ten who were

recruited.64

Army Manpower Crisis

As a result of the manpower situation,

an Army directive advised all stations that

they could not expect any additional military strength to replace, through the draft,

the men shipped overseas. Commanders

were told to replace their January losses

and keep posts going as best they could by

the use, in order of preference, of: (1) civilians, (2) Wacs, (3) men disqualified for

overseas service, returned from overseas,

over 35 years of age, or with less than

twelve months of service.65

Misunderstandings at once arose over

this order of listing, with Wacs and limited

service men complaining that civilians

were taunting them with being the lessdesired type of personnel. The War Department hastened to explain that the

situation was just the opposite: it had been

intended that the few remaining men be

saved for the jobs which only men could

do, the Wacs for other completely military

work, and civilians used for all else. When

asked by a staff officer, "Why did the War

Department, in their list of replacements,

list civilians first and Wacs second?" General Dalton replied, "For the simple reason that Wacs are included in the military

strength and we need the military for other

purposes. We are trying to use as many

civilians as possible to release the military,

male and female."

 66

 The War Department's G-1, General White, added, "We

never use military personnel on a job

that can be done by civilian employees if

civilians can be obtained. . . . There is a

serious shortage of WAC personnel. Military personnel must be used on assignments where we cannot use civilians."

 67

Sudden WAC Popularity

With unexpected suddenness WAC

stock soared to new heights at Army commands and stations. Greatly increased

requisitions for Wacs came from sources

new and old. The Medical Department,

which two years before had refused to employ Waacs, now stated, "With the expansion of hospitals and the withdrawal of

enlisted men, there will be an urgent need

for at least 50,000 additional Wacs to work

in medical installations." The Chief Signal Officer asked that Wacs be increased

from 9 percent to 16 percent of the military personnel under his jurisdiction, complained of the "special appeals" with

which Air Forces was securing recruits,

and called for "aggressive action" to get

more for the Signal Corps.

Other administrative and technical

services were in a similar predicament.

Director Hobby returned from a brief trip

to Europe in January of 1944 with further

requests from the European and Mediterranean theaters for more Wacs. At the

same time a request for 10,000 Wacs was

received from the Pacific theater, which

had refused to employ them up to this

64

 Memo, TAG for G-1, 28 Feb 44, sub: Estimated

Per Capita Cost of WAC Rctg. PR-E, WAAC classif

files, under "budget." 65

 WD Cir 293, 11 Nov 43; also ASF Cir 21, Sec II,

24 Jan 44, 66

 Min of Rctg Conf, Feb 44. SPWA 337. 67

 Ltr, G-1 to Hon Francis Case, 9 Mar 44.

WDGAP 322 WAC, WDWAC 330.14.
250 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

time. The War Department, which had

previously banned the use of Wacs in the

Washington area, shortly reversed the decision and gave itself first priority on the

most highly skilled recruits, to the considerable annoyance of field agencies. The

agency habitually the most cautious about

employing Wacs, the Army Ground

Forces, had only a few months earlier

asked that its Wac quota be cut from 5

percent to 3 percent of the intake; in a

quick reversal it now asked for a "more

equitable distribution" and that its quota

be raised from 3 percent to 8 percent.

 68

The situation prompting this sudden

popularity was graphically stated to the

Air Forces by General Arnold:

If there is a man left in your organization

who does not recognize that the bulk of the

men he now has working for him are going to

be shipped abroad, and that if he does not

train and use the available Wacs, civilians,

and soldiers physically unfit for combat, he

will have no one to do his job—if there is such

a man, he is a definite danger to your organization.69

In the Army Service Forces, General Somervell warned his service commanders that

"You must . . . give your personal attention to the eventual taking over by the

Wacs of many of the jobs in your command."

 70

The Chief of Staff himself went so far as

to authorize release to the general public

of the precedent-shattering statement that,

for American women, "aside from urgent

family obligations, enlistment in the military

takes precedence over any other responsibility."

He added, "It is important that the general public understand the Army's urgent

need for women to enable the military

effort to go forward according to the

schedule of operations in prospect."

 71

The Job-and-Station Promise

In response to the Chief of Staffs plea,

the WAC was forced into its final compromise for recruiting success: the adoption

of the plan labeled SJA or Station-Job

Assignment. At an earlier date, the Army

Air Forces had proposed that its recruiters

be allowed to promise recruits not only

assignment to the Air Forces, but assignment to a particular station for a specified

type of work—a system quite comparable

to the hiring of civilian employees. Such a

plan was generally admitted to be the best

possible means of securing parental approval to a woman's enlistment, or of

recruiting women with responsibilities that

made them unwilling to leave the area of

residence. The system also had the advantage of making it possible to fit the stations' needs exactly, and to recruit no

skills useless to the Army; it had in fact

been developed originally in the days of

expansion planning as a means of preventing overrecruiting in any one skill. The job

promise was also expected to attract the

68

 (1) Memo, SGO for Dir Pers ASF, 1 1 Feb 44,

with Inds, etc. SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43). (2)

Memo, SigC for CG ASF, 7 Jun 44. SPSMP 320.2

WAC. SigC 322 WAC 1944-45, DRB AGO. (3) Ltr,

SigC to CG ESCTC, Ft Monmouth, 15 Jun 44.

SPSMP 320.2 WAC. (4) Min, Gen Council, 7 Feb 44.

(5) D/F, G-1 for TAG through CofS, 31 May 44; Incl

and M/R. CSA 324.5 WAC. (6) Memo, ASF for

TAG, 11 Jul 44. SPGAC 341 Gen (7-11-44)-69. in

SPAP 341 WAAC. 69

 Ltr, CG AAF to Air Forces and Comds, 22 Feb

44 (Tab D to Memo. Dir WAC for CofS. 16 Mar 44).

WDWAC 341. 70

 (1) Min, ASF Conf of CGs of SvCs, Chicago, 22-

24 Jul 43, p. 3. (2) ASF Ltr to all SvCs, 22 Sep 43.

SPGAP 201.6 Gen (9-18-43). Folder, Plng Proj 26,

WAC Plng files. 71

 Memo, Secy WDGS for WDBPR, 2 1 Mar 44,

CofS Personal file, made available to author, December 1945, by courtesy of General Marshall's secretary.

Author's italics.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 251

skilled woman who had previously feared

assignment to kitchen duties. A civilian

survey revealed that 52 percent of the

women questioned, although not planning

to join the WAC, said that they might if

they could be assured the job of their

choice. Of this 52 percent, 50 percent

wanted medical, radio, weather, clerical

and other technical or mechanical work;

only 2 percent wanted to be cooks or

orderlies.72

At the time, the proposal had been rejected by Director Hobby, on the grounds

that such promises were exceedingly difficult to fulfill; the promised job and even

the station itself might have vanished before the recruit reported for duty. Also,

such promises would plainly cause ill will

among previous recruits who desired to

choose another job or station.

A reversal of this decision was shortly

proposed by the Army Service Forces. By

the end of the All-States Campaign it was

apparent that the Army Air Forces was,

by means of the branch-assignment promise, getting about two thirds of the monthly

take as AAF branch recruits. In addition

to these branch recruits, the AAF under

the War Department ruling got its original

40 percent of the general service recruits

who elected no branch. A somewhat

insignificant remainder was left to be

divided on the customary basis of 57 percent to the ASF and 3 percent to the

AGF.73

General Dalton, speaking for the ASF

and AGF, demanded of Colonel Hobby

why the AAF was getting more publicity.

He was reminded that neither the ASF or

the AGF had chosen to participate in

branch recruiting when the choice was

offered them the previous October, while

the AAF now had some 1,500 of its personnel in the struggle. If anything, the

War Department had hindered rather

than helped the AAF in its publicity making, for it had forbidden the practice of

saying, "Join the Air-WAC," which had

occasionally caused the public to believe

that a new and superior corps had been

set up. The AAF was thenceforth obliged

to say, "Join the WAC and Serve with the

AAF," although the name Air-Wac was to

stick as a title for the recruit herself.74

General Dalton therefore secured War

Department approval for the publication

of a circular giving the AGF and the

ASF—but not the AAF—the authority to

make the job-and-station promise to WAC

recruits. An applicant's choice was limited

to stations within the service command in

which she applied, since before making

the promise it was necessary to determine

that housing and a job of the desired type

existed at the chosen station. This bit of

strategy gave the ASF and the AGF only

a momentary advantage, since the AAF

within a month secured G-1 Division's

authority to make the same promise for

air stations within designated air command areas.75

Station commanders now had a new

and personal incentive to aid in WAC

recruiting, since it was largely through

their own efforts in the territory around

their stations that their personnel needs

might be filled. Many stations organized

72

 (1) Office Memo, "R. S." for Exec WAAC, 18

May 43. Proj 4, WAAC Plng files. (2) Folders 4, 19,

21, 23, 1943 WAAC/WAC Plng files. 73

 Weekly Rpt 22, O Dir WAC for ASF, 2-8 Feb 44. 74

 (1) Memo, Maj Rice for Dir Pers ASF, 15 Nov

43. SPWA 341 sec 1b, in SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43).

(2) Memo, Col Catron for TAG, 27 Sep 43. SPWA

341 sec la. 75

 (1) WD Cirs 286, 296, 298, and 340 (1943). (2)

AG Ltr 320.3 (12-28-43) PR-I, 28 Jan 44. SPWA 341

(8-6-43) sec 1a (1943).
252 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

part-time teams of station personnel to

comb the surrounding area for recruits.

General Arnold informed air bases, "The

sole opportunity for station commanders

to fill vacancies created by overseas shipments is to undertake active participation

in Air-WAC recruiting."

 76

Considerable commotion and some

confusion resulted as competing teams

took the field. Airfield teams were especially numerous, but ports, hospitals, Signal Corps stations, and many others also

participated in station-job recruiting.

Posters for Air-Wacs, Port Wacs, and other

varieties of Wacs offered a choice of advantages.

As expected, the administrative failure

to fulfill these promises was higher than in

the All-States Campaign: papers became

lost; women insisted that they had been

promised assignments which did not appear on their papers; Colonel Hobby's

office was besieged by letters from Congressmen and parents, and was obliged to

instigate endless investigations as to

whether certain claims had any foundation. Some failures to comply with promises were inevitable, as the changing military situation caused certain jobs or even

the stations themselves to be closed out

before recruits finished training and reported for duty, or as women proved

unqualified for the jobs which they had

been promised.

Another disadvantage was the schism

created in the previously close ranks of the

Corps. Women who were approaching

eighteen months' service, and especially

those who were vainly applying for transfer to a different type of work, station, or

climate, or to be nearer home, were likely

to look with less than sisterly affection

upon recruits who had not enlisted until

the job-and-station promise was made.

The newcomers themselves were often

ignorant of recruiting history and thus

bewildered at their chilly reception by

their barracksmates. Deputy Director Rice

wrote all staff directors to appeal to the

women's soldierliness: "I have the faith in

the Corps that makes me believe that the

vast majority of its personnel have learned

that there is more to being a good soldier

than just putting on a uniform and learning to drill and salute."

 77

 The veteran

Wacs were to have need of this soldierliness

often during the remaining months of the

war, as more and more attractive promises

came to be offered to meet the competition for womanpower.

Because of the women's reaction, Colonel Hobby consistently refused repeated

recommendations that the WAC make an

even more alluring promise: that of overseas assignment. Since it remained impossible to give overseas assignments to many

Wacs who had continuously sought them

during months of service, she believed it

unwarranted to grant these scarce plums

to attract latecomers.

Results of the Job-and-Station Plan

varied with the energy and the natural

advantages of the station. Some Air Forces

stations, particularly the more glamorous

ones of the Air Transport Command, doubled and tripled their WAC population,

to the limits of their available housing.

Others were not so fortunate. The commanding officer of the Infantry Replacement Training Center at Camp Roberts

sent a letter to each soldier saying, "If

each man at this center would assist in

recruiting just one woman for the WAC,

there would be a sufficient number for a

76

 Ltr, AAF Hq to Air Comds, 15 Feb 44. SPWA

341 sec la (1943). 77

 Personal ltr, Maj Rice to all SvC Stf Dirs, 10 Jan

44. SPWA 341 sec 16(1943).
STATION-JOB RECRUITING DEMONSTRATIONS used in Macon, Georgia, to

enlist women for duty at Cochran Field, Georgia.
254 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

complete Division." However, in the following months only two recruits were obtained and the proposed unit had to be

closed out. Still other stations recruited

well but not wisely; the Ground Forces

replacement depot at Fort Meade found

that it had selected women to do clerical

work who were unskilled and untrainable

for anything except car-washing. Furthermore, some stations found themselves with

a group of women who needed frequent

leave and holidays to manage outside responsibilities, or whose anxious parents

attempted to take over company administration by telephone or in person.78

On a national scale, the returns were in

direct proportion to the effort expended

and to the attractiveness to the public of

the various services. The Air Forces, which

employed 1,500 recruiters on regular assignments plus uncounted others on parttime teams, got 5,000 of the first 5,270

branch and station-job recruits; the Service Forces 250, and the Ground Forces

only 20. However, the Ground Forces had

assigned only one officer, a first lieutenant,

to recruiting duty, and had refused his

request that returned combat heroes be

added to his team; such, said the AGF,

would be wasteful of personnel. The Air

Forces never regretted the expenditure of

recruiting personnel, and stated at the end

of the war that the process "secured for the

AAF over 27,000 workers, many of them

highly skilled and many in the prized

clerical field; and it tapped a manpower

reservoir that could not otherwise have

been tapped, so long as women were not

directed into national service by some

; such system as selective service."

 79

Final judgments of the usefulness of the

station-job system as a recruiting tool

varied: on the one hand, it resulted in disappointments and administrative annoyances; and on the other, it continued to

secure recruits, in the face of increasingly

desperate competition, who could have

been obtained in no other manner. For

this reason, in spite of its obvious drawbacks, the system was to continue up to

the closing days of recruiting, and was to

be picked up in postwar Army recruiting

with even more sweeping promises to male

recruits, such as choice of overseas stations.

Women-in- War Campaign

In early January of 1944, the long negotiations with the War Manpower Commission yielded the united recruiting drive

that the Army had long been proposing.

Labeled "Women in War," its aim was to

urge women to accept some kind of fulltime war work, whether in industry or in

one of the military services. The OWI estimated that there were still five and onehalf million idle women eligible for such

work. However, questionnaires showed

that the basic restraining factor was no

longer a lack of knowledge of the need but

a lack of interest.

The OWI leveled all of its very considerable forces against this apathy. Newspapers, motion pictures, magazines, radio,

and all other civilian news media were

fully at its command, and for several

weeks all devoted their plugs to the theme

of Women in War—urging women impartially to join one of the armed services or

to take a job in industry. Fifty national

radio shows a week and countless local

shows used the OWI's Fact Sheet. Stars

and producers of the motion picture industry co-operated by making two-and78

 See basic AAF, AGF, ASF refs in Chs. XVI,

XVII, and XVIII. 79

 AAF WAC Hist, p. 72.
ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE RECRUITING 255

a-half-minute bulletins to be attached to

newsreels, and 16-millimeter films for

showing in churches, schools, and war

plants.

In the magazine field, 548 editors simultaneously used the womanpower theme.

Through its news bureau, the OWI placed

free stories with every type of newspaper:

news items were given to the wire services,

human-interest stories to the syndicates,

and special articles to the rural press, business press, labor, Negro, women's, and

foreign-language press. Cartoonists and

editorial artists at OWI's call featured an

attractive Wac, Wave, nurse, or factory

worker. As for posters, the nation's best

artists contributed designs, while the

OWFs Boy Scout Distribution Service

handed out 750,000 posters bi-monthly,

as well as 50,000 car cards a month. The

Outdoor Advertisement Association contributed twenty-four different billboard

spreads.80

All of this united activity had little perceptible effect on public apathy or on the

armed forces recruitment of women: the

WAC returns merely held steady at slightly

below the level set by the All-States Campaign. Recruiters were inclined to believe

that, had armed forces and industry earlier

achieved a united front in harmonious

publicity, greater results would have been

obtained.

Campaign Conclusions

The All-States Campaign, the StationJob Plan, and the Women-in-War drive

had to some extent counteracted the slander campaign and restored recruiting to a

level that permitted the Corps' continued

operation. Neither they, nor any plan ever

used by the naval women's services, could

do more. The final lesson for the armed

forces, after all the furor of effort and

speculation had died, appeared to be

merely the same that it had already

learned in previous wars: the American

public would not, without conscription,

furnish the required number of volunteers

for military success. In retrospect it became hard to understand why—in a nation that had been obliged to conscript

men since the Civil War and in which

women's service had never been popularly

accepted—it had ever been imagined that

women would make a better response to

recruiting appeals than had men.

80

 Memo, Asst Dir Rice for Dir WAC, 12 Jan 44.

ASF SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43).
CHAPTER XIV

Integration Into the Army

The business of changing the WAAC to

the WAC had been virtually suspended

while the All-States Plan was rushed into

the line to make sure that there would be

a WAC to continue. In October and November of 1943, as some measure of recruiting success seemed assured, planners

turned back to the business of converting

the obsolete WAAC organization, with its

own operating headquarters, into the new

WAC.

Upon the moment of conversion, an unidentified enthusiast in The Adjutant

General's Office issued to the field the

blanket directive that all Army Regulations would apply to the WAC until new

WAC Regulations could be published.

This superseded Director Hobby's plan to

use WAAC Regulations in the interval.

Outcry from the field soon made embarrassingly clear that the matter was more

complex than expected. The Adjutant

General hastily rescinded the directive

and replaced it with one reinstating

WAAC Regulations on clothing, housing,

training, medical care, and all other matters with the exception of enlistment, discharge, and military justice, where Army

rules would apply. The embarrassment

continued: even this limited application of

unqualified Army Regulations proved impracticable. In the matter of enlistment,

there was a different legally established

age and citizenship requirement and several practical differences concerning dependency and disqualifying defects; in the

matter of discharge, there were differences

in at least eight matters, including minority. As for pregnancy discharge, admission

of infants to Army status was narrowly

averted by resourceful field stations which

gave discharges for disability to expectant

mothers.1

Having thus perceived that some

amendments to men's rules would be necessary, various Army agencies began to

fight out the necessary differences. Disputes over the uniform regulations became

so heated that it was necessary to detach

them from the remainder of the regulations for later publication in the new year.

Other matters were gradually agreed

upon during the last months of 1943.2

Abolition of Separate Grades

In the months before complete agreement could be reached, a makeshift circular in late September took the first step

toward integration by abolishing separate

WAC grades, a step that appeared more

startling to Army personnel officers than

its nature merited. Civilian personnel allotments were of course not divided to

specify which positions must be filled by

1

 (1) AGO Memo W635-14-43; changes 1 (31 Aug

43) and 2(1 7 Sep 43). (2) Ltr, 2d SvC to O Dir WAC,

22 Sep 43, and reply. SPWA 314.7 (l-7-43)(l) sec 4. 2

 Memo, G-1 for G-1 Enl Br, 31 Oct 43. SPWA

300.3 (1-7-43) sec 2.
INTEGRATION INTO THE ARMY 257

males and which by females, but for military personnel the merger of allotments

aroused alarming visions of a merger of

unit command and housing.

The Air Forces took the lead in pointing out that this need not necessarily follow: that women might well be assigned

to the organizations for which they

worked, while residing in their own barracks with a WAC commander possessed

of full command powers. Major Bandel,

Air WAC Officer, stated:

It had become apparent that the [accounting] troubles which arose came from thinking

of WAC personnel as a special type of personnel which had to be assigned, counted,

and administered apart from all other types

of military personnel. Insofar as their housekeeping went, Wacs obviously had to be administered separately; insofar as their jobs

went, if they were to be utilized with maximum efficiency they had to be administered

as a part of the unit performing the job in

question. Abolition of WAC grades would

result in careful utilization, since Wacs would

clearly count against a command's overall

allotment of grades and personnel; maximum freedom of assignment, since Wacs

could be assigned without delay to any job

for which a military grade vacancy had been

established; and elimination of duplication

in manning tables and reports.3

Major Bandel therefore proposed to the

AAF that each station, instead of having

two types of Tables of Allotment, male and

female, have only one, and that either a

man or a woman be placed in any authorized job at the station's discretion, according to the qualifications and availability

of personnel.

Major Bandel was obliged to do considerable sales-work before her headquarters assimilated the plan, but the idea appealed to the Air Forces once it was

understood and was proposed to the War

Department in August. A few months

later the Air Forces also adopted a system

for its men under which grades were not

broken up among living units, but were

retained at station level and distributed

among various offices, while the squadron

commanders retained all command and

disciplinary powers. Major Bandel later

received the Legion of Merit for her numerous contributions to the Air Forces'

program, with particular reference to

originating this idea for Wacs.

In late September the War Department

approved the AAF proposal for both the

AAF and itself. Thereafter, all War Department grade allotments to the major

commands were without reference to the

sex of personnel. Any command might

place a Wac in any suitable job for which

it had an authorized military vacancy,

without further formality or bookkeeping.

The only limitation was upon the number

of Wacs that could be furnished any command; gradeless numerical WAC allotments continued to be made to Air,

Ground, and Service Forces based on their

usual shares.4

The Air Forces system of bookkeeping

now became so simple that scarcely any

extra load was incurred by the presence of

women. Also ended was the whole cumbersome system of WAC requisitions,

which had so frequently been outdated

before Wacs could be recruited, trained,

and shipped. Instead, each station merely

reported its current personnel shortages,

by specialty number, and its housing

capacity, by sex, and was likely to receive

either a man or a woman, according to

availability. In filling such shortages, Air

3

 AAF WAC Hist, p. 33ff. 4

 (1) WD Cir 226, 22 Sep 43. Directed by D/F, G-1

to TAG through CofS, 13 Sep 43. WDGAP 220.3, in

CofS 291.9 WAAC. Rescinds AG Memo W635-3-43,

3 1 Mar 43. (2) Memo, MPD ASF for TAG, 14 Oct

43. SPWA 320.2 sec 6.
258 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Forces headquarters was no longer obliged

to compute WAC requirements and place

a requisition. Instead, The Adjutant General merely reported each week the numbers and skills of WAC graduates to which

the AAF's percentage entitled it, and these

were ordered at once to the station having

the most immediate need and the necessary housing. There was almost no WAC

skill so unusual that the woman could not

be utilized somewhere among the thousands of military jobs thus opened to Wacs.

There was also no longer any tendency for

a station to think of Wacs as an additional

allotment, since it clearly had only one

military quota.

One major discrepancy in this integration system was the failure to allot grades

for WAC overhead. While the size of a

men's unit might be somewhat reduced by

the arrival of Wacs, it still required a first

sergeant, a supply sergeant, a company

clerk, and other key cadre members. Part

of the WAC cadre thus did not replace

men and constituted an extra administrative load on the station.

Major Bandel's plan had included a

provision for increasing each station's allotment by an allotment of WAC grades

for cadre only; instead, the War Department went further and abolished all WAC

grades. Stations were thus forced to make

up an allotment for the cadre of the new

unit by somehow withdrawing grades

from other allotted activities. This was

usually possible in the lower grades, but

there was seldom a spare first sergeant's

rating or a captaincy at any station, while

other cadre members were more or less at

the mercy of chance for their grades. Such

a system not only lowered morale, but

made it impossible to keep competent

women in cadre jobs or as company

officers.

Major Bandel repeatedly tried to secure

the recognition of WAC administration as

a duty that required an allotment, but

without success. The Air Forces was able

to solve a part of the difficulty by authorizing the promotion of WAC first sergeants

to the grade warranted by their job regardless of station strength allotments,

and their retention thereafter as authorized overstrength. No such solution for

company officers was ever achieved.5

There was only one other flaw in this

system: the fact that men's unit commanders were accustomed to command all

assigned personnel, and frequently attempted to usurp the normal powers of the

WAC company commander in such matters as discipline, uniform regulations, and

hours of bed check. Such usurpation,

where it occurred, invariably reduced unit

discipline to a farce, divided the WAC

company into quarreling factions under

different rules and regulations, and resulted in insubordination to the WAC

commander. The AAF solved this problem without difficulty by spelling out in

its regulations the fact that all normal

command powers were reserved to the

gradeless WAC unit. Actions in which

both office chief and company commander

were interested could be originated by

either and co-ordinated with the other.

Discipline was reserved to the WAC commander, either on her own initiative or

upon receipt of a report from the section

chief.

One other difficulty, a psychological

one, at times prevented full application of

the system. The intention of the directive

was that military personnel, like civilian,

receive the grade allotted to the job each

5

 AAF WAC Hist. Also D/F, G-1 for Dir WAC, 31

Aug 43. WDGAP 320.2 WAC, in SPWA 320.2

(7-23-43).
INTEGRATION INTO THE ARMY 259

was filling. Actually, at almost all Army

stations, there appeared to exist a deeprooted idea that there should be a "women's share," which should be equal to the

"men's share"; that women should in fairness have the same percent of each grade

that men held. In practice this caused

widespread inequities, since all women

sent to a station might be so unskilled that

they merited no ratings, or they might all

be so skilled that all merited ratings.

In checking on the application of the

directive, the Air Forces found male office

helpers promoted above the Wac who ran

the office, and WAC cooks refused the rating that male cooks received, all on the

grounds that the "women's share" was

held by stenographers in headquarters.

Another Air Forces directive promptly

made it clear that the grade went with the

job, regardless of the sex of the occupant.

Elsewhere the idea of a share appeared

too well fixed to suppress; even such a

WAC authority as General White, on a

visit to North Africa, directed that the

theater provide "the same ratio of grades

for WAC personnel as is provided for

male."

 6

The Army Service Forces and the Army

Ground Forces, for this reason, never

chose to follow the Air Forces' system, but

divided military grades into male and female, and maintained separate allotments

for the WAC unit. The motive was frankly

stated as a fear that women, if not limited,

would eventually collect more than their

"share" of grades, since they usually filled

skilled jobs and were more permanent employees. As a matter of fact, in application

the result was exactly the opposite: Wacs

were fairly latecomers in the Army, and

many commands were already so overstrength on rated men that promotions

were frozen; thus the Air Forces Wacs

fared no better than male latecomers,

while the Service and Ground Forces

Wacs had a reserved quota and were promoted even though men inducted at the

same time could not be. The well-integrated Air Wacs were shortly outstripped

in ratings by the segregated ASF and AGF

Wacs, and complained frequently at the

loss of "our grades."

 7

The Office of the Director WAC

Second of the integration problems to

be resolved was that of the reduction of

WAAC Headquarters to form the new and

smaller Office of the Director WAC,

which had advisory duties but no operating functions. Only about 25 officers and

20 civilians were allotted the new Office of

the Director; the remaining 75 officers

and 46 civilians were scattered among the

various Army Service Forces offices which

now handled all operations.8 With them

went the files of their sections. All individual 201 files were sent to The Adjutant

General, who was thereafter responsible

for cases concerning individuals: initial

assignment, transfers, promotions, filling

of requisitions, classification, discipline,

and discharge, as well as for answering inquiries from the public concerning the

status of individuals. With this responsibility The Adjutant General received Capt.

Clara G. Han and her assistants, who had

been managing classification and assignment in the WAAC.

As for policy decisions concerning any

6

 D/F, G-1 for TAG, 18 Oct 43. WDGAP 320.2

(9-10-43), in WDCSA 291.9. 7

 See details in chapters on services concerned. 8

 M/R, 15 Feb 44, Justification for Civilian Positions for FY 1945. WAC files.
260 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

of these personnel actions, the responsibility went to General Dalton's office, Military Personnel Division, ASF, with Maj.

Florence Jepson to assist. Full authority

over training policy as well as operation

went to Military Training Division, Army

Service Forces, accompanied by Maj.

Elizabeth Smith. General Faith's Training

Command was disbanded, and training

centers were given to the service commands for administration, becoming Class

I installations.9 Similarly, recruiting, housing, supply, overseas selection, and other

functions were all transferred.10

Such removal of operating functions

was in general enthusiastically received by

the WAC staff, since it was the same action

that they had recommended a year before

and that had then been impossible in an

auxiliary status. In the first burst of enthusiasm for decentralization, the staff

ruthlessly swept out of the office every discernible operating duty, and forwarded

public inquiries and field requests unanswered to other offices.

In only two cases did the Director attempt to retain some supervision. She first

asked that training centers be made Class

IV installations, not under the service

command for training doctrine and assignments, but this was refused by the

Army Service Forces.11 She also asked that

she retain the power of final approval over

the moral character of women officers selected by Army commanders for overseas

shipment; this was also objectionable to

the Director of Personnel, ASF, and was

rejected by the War Department.12

The vague relationship of the Office of

the Director WAC to the operating agencies was a source of confusion which Director Hobby in November requested the

Army Service Forces to remove by publishing a circular defining responsibility.

While she was permitted to recommend

policy on all WAC matters, the other offices had always been finally responsible

for policy, and there was no requirement

that any co-ordination take place. The

Director therefore asked that ASF divisions be charged with the responsibility of

keeping her office fully informed of WAC

matters and of WAC policy originated by

them. This request was rejected by Brig.

Gen. Clinton F. Robinson of the Army

Service Forces' Control Division, on the

9

 (1) Routing Slip, Asst Exec WAAC to Chief, Operating Div, 26 Jul 43. SPWA 311.23 (1943). (2)

Speech, Maj Jepson, Stf Dirs Conf, New York, 1-3

Dec 43. SPWA 337 (11-10-43). (3) AGO Ltr 320.2

WAC (10-7-43) PR-W-SPMOU, 31 Oct 43, incl

WAC Tng Comd, effective 31 Oct 43. (4) Memo, O

Dir WAC for MTD ASF, 19 Nov 43, SPWA 210.63

(11-19-43). (5) ASF Cir 110, 4 Nov 43. 10

 WAAC Supply, Housing, and Mobilization Sections to Mobilization Division, ASF; Control Division,

Historical Section to Control Division, ASF; WAAC

Office of Technical Information to Office of Technical Information ASF (later WD Bureau of Public

Relations); WAAC Special Services to Special Services

Division, ASF; WAAC Training Division to Military

Training Division, ASF; Policy Functions of WAAC

Personal Branch to Military Training Division, ASF;

Classification, Assignment, Testing, Reassignment to

AGO Classification and Assignment Branch; Recruiting to AGO Appointment and Induction Branch; Discharge, etc., of enlisted women to AGO Enlisted

Branch; Discharge, etc., of officers to AGO Officers

Branch. (1) ASF Adm Memo S-64, 14 Oct 43; (2)

Drafts of same, Aug 43; (3) Memo, TAG for Dir Pers

ASF, 5 Nov 43. SPWA 314.7 (l-7-43)(l) sec 4. 11

 (1) Memo, WAAC Hq for DCofS ASF, 17 May

43. SPWA 353 E; (2) Memo, Dir Tng ASF for DCofS

for SvCs ASF, 21 May 43, 1st Ind, 22 May, DCofS

ASF, 2d Ind, 27 May, MPD, 3d Ind, 1 Jun, Dir

WAAC. WAAC Training Centers were made Class II

installations by ASF Memo S210-14-43, 10 Jun 43,

under the control of CG ASF and the technical supervision of the Director WAAC. ASF file, SPAP WAC

(5-17-43). 1 2

 (1) AGO Memo W635-11-43, 8 Jul 43; (2)

Memo, WAC Hq for G-1, 17 Sep 43; (3) Memo,

TAG for Dir Pers ASF, 7 Sep 43. SPWA 320.2 (7-5-

43)sec 1.
INTEGRATION INTO THE ARMY 261

grounds that ASF divisions would ordinarily give the Director information about

WAC matters of special importance without being directed to do so.13

The success of the several shifts in responsibility was therefore variable depending upon the degree of voluntary co-ordination between the offices concerned.

The Adjutant General's Office was highly

successful in removing a tremendous load

of routine operations from the Director's

Office, such as the receiving of availability

reports and the issuing of assignment

orders.

On the other hand, Military Training

Division habitually took unilateral action

in training matters, publishing training

courses and circulars that had never been

seen by the Director. Training center commandants complained of a perpetual conflict between training directives and other

portions of the WAC program, such as recruiting. In a few cases the transfer

resulted in total obliteration of a phase of

the WAC program; work on the WAC

history was stopped by General Robinson

of ASF Control Division, who relegated

the previous excellent WAAC collection

to the files, disapproved collection of further material, and assigned the former

WAAC Historian, Lt. Virginia Smithson,

to a clerk's job.14

Several divisions, although assuming responsibility for part of the WAC program,

did not accept assignment of a WAC officer or other specialist to help perform it.

The Morale Services Division, for example, took the all-important responsibility for orienting soldier opinion, and its

director, Maj. Gen. Frederick H. Osborn,

after personal conference with Colonel

Hobby, agreed to accept assignment of a

WAC officer; but in spite of efforts of

Colonel Hobby's staff to remind him, no

such assignment was made during the six

months in which the WAC remained in

the ASF. Similarly Brig. Gen. Joseph W.

Byron of Special Services Division informed the Director that he intended to

accept assignment of a WAC officer, but

no assignment was accepted during this

period.

Such reluctance appeared generally to

be due to doubts concerning the propriety

of employing a specialist for such a small

group as the WAC, and to the belief that

the regular staff could care for the additional responsibilities. However, within a

few months it was apparent that little

action was being taken on WAC problems

in offices that did not have a WAC specialist. Her staff informed the Director,

"There are certain operating divisions,

ASF, which seem not to be fully aware

that responsibility has fallen to them for

matters concerning WAC personnel."

 15

The Director attempted to overcome

such omissions by including, in her new

office, a WAC liaison officer for each

major ASF division. This system also did

not work very well. Liaison officers noted

that, even when a division was extremely

co-operative in taking any action suggested by the Director's Office, it was inappropriate for their responsibilities to en13

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 5 Nov 43, sub:

ASF Cir, and 1st Ind, 13 Nov 43. SPWA 314.7 (1-7-

43)(1) sec 4. 14

 (1) Speech, Maj George Martin, Chief, Contl

Div WAAC. Min, Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun

43, SPWA 337 (6-1-43). (2) Memo, Maj Anne

Alinder for Exec WAC, 10 Sep 43. SPWA 314.7 (1-

7-43)(l) sec 4. (3) Interv with Capt Virginia Smithson, Hist Div, AAF Hq, Dec 45. (See Bibliographical

Note.) 15

 Memo, Well-Being Officer for Dir WAC, 20 Dec

43, with atchd drafts and buck slips. SPWA-W.
262 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

listed women to be constantly called to the

divisions' attention by the Office of the

Director, and also inefficient in view of the

"complexity of the organization. . . . and

the impracticability of one liaison officer

from this office being aware of all the functions or activities of the many branches

and sections of each division." The WAC

liaison officer noted that, in order to get

Wacs included in these divisions' activities,

she was forced to undertake "action more

in the nature of operations than advisory."

 16

In addition, such outside interference

was not always popular. The Navy noted,

concerning an identical situation, that so

long as the WAVES liaison officer's assignment, or even her desk, was in the Director's office, other divisions tended to

regard her as "a sort of polite espionage

service," and that the only workable system was the location of a specialist in the

division office itself.17

Especial deterioration was noted in the

handling of public relations, never well

co-ordinated. WAAC Headquarters' small

Office of Technical Information was transferred to the ASF Office of Technical Information, and subsequently to the War

Department Bureau of Public Relations,

where material concerning Wacs was handled, with even less co-ordination than

had prevailed before, by the respective assistant directors of the bureau for ASF,

AGF, and AAF. In the Army Service

Forces' opinion, the "overall WAC public

relations job" would now have to be

performed by the service commands.18

Although General Somervell took steps to

call this problem to their attention, there

resulted during this six months a series of

unfortunate releases which did little to

assist the current recruiting drive.19

Even at best, considerable confusion

prevailed during the period of transfer of

operating functions, and there were unavoidable lapses in continuity of operation. Files of the various transferred offices

were shipped off bodily to offices in which

they could not later be located, and other

documents were destroyed for lack of

space to house them. Continual office

moves, an old Pentagon custom, added to

the commotion. After two moves and one

consolidation in the preceding twelve

months, the office moved again in November of 1943 from the second floor of the

Pentagon to the third; two months after

this it was moved back to the second

floor.20

General Impression of Director's Status

There was general failure on the part

of Army and WAC personnel in the field

to understand the Director's new status,

and total failure on the part of the public.

Few could grasp the fact that she no longer

had any command power over individual

women; fewer still realized that she was no

longer consulted about every WAC directive nor informed of the policy in every

matter. As a result, the Office of the Director constantly received many inappropriate requests, inquiries, and demands for

corrective action. Service commands still

telephoned the Director's Office with complaints, such as the failure of Army depots

to distribute WAC Regulations on time.

Others wrote her about matters under

their own command, such as at what hour

Wacs should go to bed and whether dating

16

 Ibid. 17

 WAVES Hist. 18

 Memo, CG ASF for DCofS for SvCs ASF, 18

Dec 43. SPWA 014.13 E. 19

 See Ch. XXXIV, below. 20

 (1) Hq Memo, 23 Nov 43; (2) Memo, MDW to

CG ASF, 14 Jan 44. SPWA 310.2 (10-5-42).
INTEGRATION INTO THE ARMY 263

should be permitted in the women's unit

dayrooms.21

Following the conversion to Army

status, the Army Service Forces refused to

let the Director's Office have any further

reports on WAC clothing status, training,

station lists, or rank; it approved reports

only on WAC strength and recruiting returns. The Director's Office continued

negotiations in an attempt to get more.22

After this time, the Director had no

means of discovering the problems of field

units except by such visits as her staff was

able to make, or by Congressional or other

complaints; hence her later knowledge of

field conditions tended to be based on a

sampling rather than on a complete compilation. She succeeded in having written

into the forthcoming regulations a provision, resembling that of certain British

services, that any WAC commander might

write directly to the Director on matters

of women's well-being, provided that she

routed her letter through the post commander. This provision proved virtually

inoperative; the Director's Office noted at

the end of the war that it had almost never

been used, since a company commander

obviously jeopardized her own local advancement by using the privilege, and

therefore ordinarily did so only in the

gravest emergencies.23

First WAC Regulations

Among all integration problems, the

hottest debate concerned the matter of the

special Army Regulations, if any, to be

issued for the WAC. For almost a year,

since the introduction of the WAC legislation, General Somervell's office and Director Hobby's office had been at odds on

this matter.

The basic issue was the matter of minimum safeguards for women. Director

Hobby maintained that this would require

a directive stating that Army enlisted

women would be assigned only to units

commanded by a woman officer. The ASF

disagreed, pronouncing any special regulations favoritism for women. Maj. Gen.

Lorenzo D. Gasser, of the War Department Manpower Board, added that Army

personnel officers would be hampered in

exercising their prerogatives of transfer and

assignment if they could assign enlisted

women only to stations where a WAC

officer was located.24

An ASF committee, appointed before

the conversion to consider the matter, informed the Director that no changes in

Army Regulations would be made, since

"Experience has dictated that the effect of

a regulation is often resented, especially if

it seems to curtail power."

 25

 General Dalton, ASF's Chief of Military Personnel,

also informed the Director: "It is highly

undesirable that policies and regulations

governing the control of WAAC personnel

be more restrictive than those governing

officers and enlisted men."

 26

 Upon reconsideration, the Army Service Forces decided that one basic Army Regulation for

21

 (1) Speech, Maj Mary-Agnes Brown, Min, Stf

Dirs Conf, New York, 1-3 Dec 43. SPWA 337 (11-

10-43). (2) Ltr, 9th SvC to WAC Hq, 17 Nov 43.

SPWA 353.8. 22

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for Col Conrad G. Follansbee, MPD ASF, 26 Nov 43; 1st Ind, MPD to AGO,

29 Nov 43. SPWA 201.7. (2) Memo, Miss Lies to

Exec WAC, 15 Dec 43. Copy given author by Dr.

Jessie P. Rice. 23

 Remarks, Dir WAC, Conf of Overseas Theater

G-1's, 15 Oct 46. WDWAC 337 A-S. 24

 Memo, CofS ASF for Chiefs of Servs, 1 Mar 43,

and 3 Inds. SPWA 333.1, now in Dir Pers ASF files. 25

 Memo, 2d O Mary Vann Racey for Dir WAAC,

1 Mar 43. SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43) sec 1. 26

 Memo, MPD ASF for Dir WAAC, 26 Apr 43.

SPGAE 322.5 WAAC (4-26-43) G-1, in SPWA

300.3 (1-7-43) sec 1.
264 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the WAC would be required: that under

no circumstances would women command

men.27

Director Hobby replied that, if less than

a company with its own WAC commander

was used at any station, it was not economical to provide women's clothing

stocks, hospital equipment, post exchange

items, recreational programs, and other

needs that differed from those of men.

Where these were not provided, the

women did not receive care equal to that

normally provided by the Army for its

men. The Director also asked for a written

definition of her own new noncommand

duties in the WAC, which should, she

stated, be those of advising on women's

well-being, "defined to mean conditions

of employment suitable for women, which

shall remain the primary concern of the

Director WAC."

 28

The Director's view was several times

upheld by the Chief of Staff, General

Marshall. In the spring of 1943, over ASF

nonconcurrence, he authorized publication of the revised WAAC Regulations

(1943), which contained the desired safeguards.29

 These governed the WAAC and

WAC until late October 1943, when the

General Staff was able to reconcile conflicting viewpoints and produce a final

version of the WAC Regulations. The circular as published was drafted by G-1

Division, over the Army Service Forces'

objection, personally discussed with Colonel Hobby by General White, and revised

to incorporate her suggestions. On 9 November 1943 it was published as War Department Circular 289, the WAC's first

important publication, which was to last,

with amendments, for over a year, and to

serve as a model for all later regulations.

Covering only six pages, it pointed out

which Army Regulations were applicable

unchanged, and authorized certain exceptions and special provisions. The required

differences were:30

1. WAC units would contain only women

and be commanded by WAC officers, exactly

as men's units were composed of and com- manded by men. 2. Wacs would not be confined in the same

building with men, except a hospital. 3. WAC messes would not be combined

with men's messes except with War Depart- ment approval. [General Dalton almost im- mediately repealed this restriction without

informing the Director.]

4. Wacs would not be used in "restaurants

or cafeterias in service clubs, guest houses, of- ficers' clubs or messes." [Such assignments

were ordinarily not authorized for any mili- tary personnel.]

5. WAC officers would not be promoted to

the grade of colonel. [By act of Congress.]

6. Wacs would not command men unless

specifically ordered to do so. [By act of Con- gress.]

7. Wacs would not be employed as physicians or nurses. [By act of Congress, to avoid

infringing on existing organizations.]

8. WAC officers would be appointed only

from officer candidate school graduates, and

officer candidates would be selected only

from women already in the Corps. 9. Enlistment standards would differ from

men's in the age and citizenship require- ments set by Congress, and in a different

physical examination; venereal disease was

also disqualifying, and women with depend- ent children were ineligible. 10. Discharge was mandatory for minors

[by act of Congress]; authority was included

for discharge for pregnancy.

27

 Memo and Inds cited n. 24. 28

 Min cited n. 14(1). 29

 Ibid., incl Itrs, SvCs to Dir WAAC, May-Jun 43. 30

 (1) Contl Div Rpt. Min cited n. 14(1). (2) Memo,

Dir WAAC for Sp Serv Div, Chief of Chaplains, SG,

CofFin, JAG, and Contl Div ASF, 11 May 43, SPWA

300.3 (1-7-43) sec 1. (3) Memo, "MGW" (Maj Gen Miller G. White, G-1) for G-1 Enl Br, 3 1 Oct 43.

SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43) sec II. (4) Memo, G-1 for

TAG, 3 Nov 43. WDGAP 300.3 WAC, in CofS 291.9.

(Rescinds Cir 226.)
INTEGRATION INTO THE ARMY 265

In addition, Director Hobby succeeded

in getting spelled out certain other requirements which were identical with requirements for men, but which were still

frequently violated because of the Corps'

early ambiguous status: Wacs were to fill

only military jobs, could not replace civilians, would not be assigned as permanent

kitchen police, and were eligible for membership on courts and boards. It was required that courts and boards hearing

WAC enlisted women include at least one

WAC officer, in line with the general practice of including members of an enlisted

man's arm or service. It was also required

that commanders using WAC troops employ WAC staff directors, part of whose

duties was "continuous inspection."

Rights and Benefits of the WAC

None of the circulars published made

clear the differences between the rights

and benefits of enlisted women and those

of enlisted men. The Comptroller General

decisions, requested in July, began to arrive in late September and defined some

of these. On the question "May Wacs get

allowances for dependents?" the Comptroller General ruled that it was clearly

the intent of Congress to grant such allowances, since an amendment to forbid dependency allowances had been defeated.

This, however, resulted in "material discrimination" against Waves and nurses,

for whom the Comptroller had rendered

an opposite opinion. The Comptroller

decided that Wacs could not get allowances for husbands but could for parents

and children in certain cases.31

The Comptroller General also reversed

a decision of the Veterans' Administration

that husbands were not eligible to receive

the death gratuity, and made other related decisions. In addition, other decisions were made by the Army's Judge

Advocate General and the General Staff.

Many of these concerned the benefits

toward which WAAC service might be

counted, which were in constant question

by every Army station. Wherever possible

the General Staff attempted to give credit

for WAAC service: it was decided to count

it for time-in-grade for promotion purposes, for relative rank within grades,

toward accrued leave, and toward overseas theater ribbons. As for the Good Conduct Medal, The Adjutant General first

ruled that WAAC service did not count

toward the time required to earn it, but

was overruled by the General Staff. For

other questions the answer had legally to

be negative, since WAAC service had not

been actually military service, and could

not be counted for longevity pay or other

such financial benefits.32

Colonel Hobby requested that these decisions be compiled in a new circular entitled Rights and Benefits of the WAC, for

ready reference by puzzled field stations.

The War Department decided against

publishing such a compilation on the

grounds that this would be a special publication for women and that it would be

better to insert each reference in appropriate Army Regulations as they were revised from time to time. The Army Air

Forces nevertheless obtained a copy of the

rejected circular, mimeographed it, and

31

 Memo, Gen Styer (CofS, ASF) to Dir Fiscal Div,

2 1 Sep 43; Decision B-36497, Comptr Gen to SW,

24 Sep 43, SPEX, in SPWA 314.7 (l-7-43)(l) sec 2. 32

 See Ch. XII. Also (1) Decision B-35441, Comptr

Gen to SW, 4 Aug 43. SPWA 242.2 (6-10-43). (2)

Memo, JAG for Dir WAC, 3 Jan 44. SPJGA 1943/

19509. Published in WD Cir 24, 1944. SPWA 314.7

(l-7-43)(l) sec 2. (3) Ltr, 3589th SU, Richmond, Ky.,

to TAG, 4 Oct 43, and 1st Ind from TAG, SPWA

200.6. (4) Memo, Col Hobby for G-1, 29 Dec 43;

atchd to WD Cir 36, 28 Jan 44. SPWA 200.6.
266 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

sent it informally to AAF staff directors

for their assistance in locating answers

quickly. Many of these decisions never

reached other field authorities; as late as

1946 War Department separation centers

were discovered refusing to credit WAAC

service for various benefits toward which

it was creditable.33

Army Advisers Depart

The job of advising on Corps well-being

under its new regulations now fell to an

Office of the Director consisting of twenty

officers, all women. The preliminary reduction, in November, had left the office

with twenty-five officers, including Colonel Catron as executive and General

Faith as head of the Field Survey Branch,

but in December Colonel Hobby recommended that the office be still further

reduced.34 For service with the WAAC,

General Somervell secured for General

Faith the award of the Distinguished Service Medal, saying "To him, in large

measure, belonged the responsibility of

success in the whole program of women's

participation in service with the Armed

Forces."

 35

 To replace the departing officers Colonel Hobby gave key office positions to women brought in from staff

directorships in the field. Major Rice left

the recruiting office to become deputy director; Maj. Mary-Agnes Brown, formerly

of the Eighth Service Command, was

made executive officer. In civil life Major

Brown had been an attorney for the Veterans' Administration and past president

of the Women's Bar Association of the District of Columbia. Maj. Katherine R.

Goodwin of the First Service Command

became the personnel officer. Major Goodwin's civilian experience had been as head

of business administration in the Hartford,

Connecticut, public schools.

Field Needs After Integration

Army commanders simultaneously took

over the task of operating the Corps under

Army Regulations. One WAC authority

noted:

Generals, lieutenants, and sergeants who

had long been privately certain that this

business of utilizing women as soldiers would

be perfectly simple, if the War Department

would just let them handle it, now had a

chance to prove their point. They went into

action with all shades and degrees of con- cepts, from that which held that all women,

in or out of uniform, were ladies who should

be shielded from the rough ways of the world,

to that which held that all soldiers were soldiers and should be treated alike, whether or not they were women. . . . Even for the

many men who did not go to either of these

extremes . . . women as soldiers were some- thing new and different and required considerable getting used to.36

In spite of the inestimable advantages

of Army status, field commanders faced

certain disadvantages in attempting to

begin operations under men's regulations,

which were still largely unmodified. At

Camp Gordon, Georgia, inspectors found

that a WAC unit was getting all of men's

T/BA equipment, including fifteen water

tanks, spare gas tanks, a litter for carrying

the wounded from the battlefield, and

other property which it was unable to

store in the space provided. Elsewhere just

33

 Memo, Dir WAC for TAG, 7 Oct 43; Memo,

G-1 for GGASF, 4 Dec 43, WDGAP 243; SPWA

314.7 (1-7-43(1) sec 2. The informal AAF publication is in Policy Book, property of author. 34

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 29 Dec 43. SPWA

320.2 E. 35

 Memo, Gen Somervell for WD Decorations Bd,

15 Jan 44. Personnel Abstracts, WAC files, OCMH. 36

 AAF WAC Hist, pp. 17-20.
INTEGRATION INTO THE ARMY 267

the opposite idea prevailed, and because

WAC units were gradeless, stations refused

to issue them guidons, unit vehicles, or

other standard equipment.

Army records and reports were now

used for women and had to be modified in

many cases. Officer candidates already

processed and at the head of the waiting

list had to be reprocessed under Army

Regulations and take the test used for

men, as well as appear before Army

boards which sometimes differed considerably in judgment from the previous allWaac boards. Commands were embarrassed when they tried women by courtmartial and sentenced them to confinement without first providing a place of

confinement. Stations and training centers

that had previously weeded out prostitutes

and other undesirables found that Army

Regulations gave them no authority to

discharge military personnel for prostitution.37

A major, if temporary, complaint was

that no uniformity of personnel action was

thenceforth possible for the "Corps"—now

a corps in name only. Promotion was in

the Army channel, and therefore could

not be consistent from one command to

another; junior officers were promoted before senior, women in less important jobs

before those in more responsible, according to varying command and station policies and opportunities. Discipline was also

a command matter, and major offenders

went unpunished in some commands

while minor matters in others were dealt

with severely. Policies on dress, leaves, restrictions, and such matters varied. Training of various sorts, including physical

training, was required by some stations

and not by others.

Similarly, Corps-wide personnel programs were made impossible, including

rotation of training center officers to the

field, relief of recruiters, or systematic advancement of company officers. The difficulty was intensified in that, while most

Army commands had thousands of male

personnel and could effect normal rotation

among them, the average command had

only a handful of WAC units and perhaps

one staff job of field grade.

Another new difficulty was the lack of

information. At Fort Moultrie inspectors

noted, "Complaint was made that few

notices of any nature were reaching the

detachment from Headquarters Fourth

Service Command"; at Camp Gordon,

"The WAC Commanding Officer felt a

need for more information about her job."

It would obviously hereafter be more difficult to get WAC matters down to company level through the more complicated

Army echelons than through the shorter

WAAC channels.

To solve such new problems, there was

noted a general tendency for the field to

request directives from Washington to

solve field problems and set Corps-wide

policies. At a staff directors' meeting in

December 1943, representatives asked the

Director for a standard operating procedure to secure uniform punishments for

women in various commands, adequate

physical training, proper officers' quarters,

and other items. Violations of uniform

regulations by female personnel were in

particular looked upon as a matter that

some WAC authority should correct.

Many asked to be allowed to assign worthless personnel to some sort of central WAC

37

 (1) Memo, WAC Hq for MPD ASF, 15 Sep 43,

with atchd file. SPWA 315 (1943,) (2) WD Cir 240,

4 Oct 43, sec IV. (3) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 1 Jan

44. SPWA 424.2, 1942. (4) Folder Rpts of Stf Visits,

esp rpts 24-29 Nov 1943. WAC Plng Serv files. (5)

Ltr, WAC Stf Dir AAF WFTC to Exec WAC, 20 Nov

43. SPWA 320.2. (6) Min cited n. 21(1).
268 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

pool for disposition, as it proved extremely

difficult to get male personnel to discipline

and reclassify women. The difficulty of

lack of uniformity was especially acute at

places like Fort Riley, which had three

sets of regulations for the three WAC units

assigned respectively to the cavalry school,

the replacement training center, and the

post headquarters.38

Such difficulties, while very real, presented a peculiar problem in view of Colonel Hobby's determination to integrate

the WAC in the Army. She repeatedly

rejected any proposal which, she said,

"tends to give the impression that the

WAC is something apart from the

Army."

 39

 Thus, while she marked for correction certain legitimate needs for new

policies or amplified regulations, in general she replied to such requests that they

were matters of command. The lack of

uniformity of action among Army commands, although especially conspicuous

among the WAC minority, was not a

WAC problem but an Army one, concerning men as well as women, and inherent in the system of command responsibility.

Close of 1943

At the end of 1943, Wacs at a staff directors' conference pointed with pride to the

WAC's progress since the previous December. Then, ten staff directors had attended

the meeting; in 1943, fifty-three were present. Then the WAAC had boasted only

two post headquarters companies plus the

Aircraft Warning Service in the field; now

it had more than 260 companies. More

Wacs were presently in each of two foreign

theaters than had a year before been in

the whole field. Then the headquarters

and training centers had been run chiefly

by men; now, they were run chiefly by

women. Then, the training center had

been the WAC world; now, it had receded

to relative insignificance. Then, only service commands had employed Wacs; now

all commands did. Wacs had been taken

into the Army and had generally done

away with separate grades, T/O's, and

channels.40

The first of January 1944 found the

WAC with a reported membership of

62,859 as against 20,943 a year before.

Losses of the conversion period had almost

been regained, several months before this

had been believed possible. "We are very

much encouraged," Colonel Hobby said.

The Director added:

It is quite a consolation and encouragement to compare the difference in the questions and problems that arose at this Staff

Conference with the ones that arose about a

year ago and the ones that arose six months

ago—partially a tribute to your indoctrination and understanding, and partially a tri- bute to the Army for the very fine and splendid assistance it has given the WAC, now one

of its components.41

38

 Min cited n. 21(1). 39

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 27 Oct 44, sub:

Dr. Durfee's Tng MS on Leadership. WDWAC 353. 40

 Opening speech by Air WAC Off, Maj Bandel.

Min cited n. 21(1). 41

 (1) WDBPR Press Release, 6 Jan 44. WAC Planning files. Strength reported at time. (2) Rpt, Machine Recs Div, AGO, 4 Mar 44. WDWAC 320.2

sec 46. For adjusted total of 61,355 for WAC strength

in January 1944, see Table 1, Appendix A.
CHAPTER XV

Removal of Director's Office

to G-1 Division

There remained one step to be taken in

the evolution of the WAC organization.

This was the removal of the Office of the

Director from the Army Service Forces to

the General Staff level. During January

and February of 1944, a number of contributing causes led directly to this move,

the last in the series by which the Corps

was fully integrated into the normal command channels of the Army.

There had for some time been general

agreement within the War Department

that the past two years' method of handling Corps' problems was unsatisfactory,

and that some sort of remedial action was

called for, with more high-level attention

to its problems than the Corps had yet

received. A prominent civilian special assistant, who was called upon by the Army

Service Forces to diagnose the situation

during the conversion crisis, bluntly informed it that its headquarters had in fact

killed the WAAC with its left hand while

publicly sponsoring it with its right. He

wrote:

The situation with respect to the WAC is

such that I believe immediate action is necessary, and that such action must be of rather

far-reaching nature. Does the Army really

want the WAC to succeed? I am not at all

convinced that the answer to this question is

"yes." ... I have seen no real evidence of

'such a desire. . . . Are civilians really convinced that the WAC is an important organization? Civilians will be convinced of this

only when the Army is convinced of it. . . .

It should not be necessary to review argu- ments why the WAC must succeed. The

Army started this program, and it is obviously a good idea to be associated with successful programs.1

A similar view had been voiced by Colonel Catron, after ten months of assignment

to WAAC Headquarters. Later, "acting

on my own initiative, but with the knowledge of Director Hobby," he had bypassed

his former associates in the Army Service

Forces to inform the General Staff directly,

"In my opinion, the situation calls for . . .

the military authorities to recognize an

obligation to the WAAC, to the Army,

and to the women of the country, to help

make the WAC a go."2

G-3 Recommendation

At the time of the conversion, the

Deputy Chief of Staff, General McNarney,

therefore directed the General Staff to

recommend a new location for the Director's Office. After analysis, G-3 Division

1

 Memo, "W.C.M." (Wilbur C. Munnecke, Vice

Pres. of Univ. of Chicago, and wartime sp asst, ASF)

for Gen Dalton, Dir Mil Pers ASF, 10 Aug 43. SPAP

341 WAAC (2-26-43). 2

 Memo, Exec WAAC for G-1, 20 Jul 43. SPWA

314.7 sec 3.
270 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

reported that the location in the Army

Service Forces was not suitable. Although

the Director WAC was a special adviser to

the Chief of Staff, and was responsible for

advice concerning Air, Ground, and Service Forces, she was currently obliged to

submit all papers to or through the Army

Service Forces. The G-3 planners noted:

"This form of organization is not entirely

satisfactory, as the scope of WAC matters

is Army-wide and determination of all

basic policies should properly be made at

the War Department level."

 3

G-3 Division therefore recommended

that the office be placed under G-1 Division of the General Staff, comparable in

place to the Military Intelligence Division

under G-2, or else, and preferably, be

made an independent Special Staff division, like Civil Affairs Division. The Special Staff location, although it was never

to be adopted, was always the one recommended by organizational experts. G-3

Division pointed out that the Director's

responsibilities were not limited to G-1

matters and that the Special Staff location

"will expedite direct consultation with

appropriate divisions of the General

Staff."

 4

Director Hobby concurred in either

move, but General Somervell nonconcurred and presented a counterplan that

would keep the Office of the Director

under his jurisdiction. He proposed that it

be attached to his own office, and not be

placed under any subordinate office such

as that of General Grunert or of General

Dalton. He agreed also that the Director

would be allowed to consult directly with

Air and Ground Forces on matters that

did not concern the Service Forces.5

General Somervell's plan prevailed; at

the time of the conversion, General McNarney verbally advised Colonel Hobby

to try the plan for several months and see

if it would work. As a matter of fact, it was

to be exactly six months before all concerned were convinced that the plan would

not work.

Handicaps on ASF Level

During the early weeks of 1944, General

Marshall called to his office General

White and other officers to express his dissatisfaction with the situation, particularly

as it affected recruiting.

Among issues leading toward a move

from the ASF level, the major one was

that of supply. In the midst of debate over

the Austin-Wadsworth bill, members of

Congress began publicly to criticize the

WAC uniform. Criticism from Army stations, particularly air bases, was equally

severe. Very little honest defense against

the criticisms was possible. In spite of the

easing of the supply problem, which had

presumably resulted from the collapse of

expansion plans eight months before, the

situation remained approximately where

it had been at that time.

Severe shortages still existed on field

stations; recruits in training centers still

did not receive complete clothing issue,

and still suffered high sick rates; and the

appearance of the uniform had not been

improved in any respect. Since the Army

Service Forces had now been responsible

for the WAC uniform for almost two years,

it did not appear that either inexperience

or rapid build-up could any longer be

offered in explanation. However, eight

separate proposals for improving the situation—made by the Army Air Forces, by

3

 Memo, G-3 for DCofS, 17 Aug 43. WDGCT 322

WAC (8-17-43), in CofS 291.9. 4

 Ibid.

5

 See pencil notation, Ibid.
REMOVAL OF DIRECTOR'S OFFICE TO G-1 DIVISION 271

The Quartermaster General, and by the

Director—were all disapproved by Requirements Division, ASF, by the end of

February of 1944, without any workable

counterproposals. The last two proposals

were addressed to the General Staff by

authority of Circular 289, as a matter of

the well-being of women in all major

commands, but were disapproved by the

Army Service Forces and turned back

without reaching the General Staff.6

In the matter of public relations, a rapid

deterioration had been noted after the

Army Service Forces took over operating

duties at the conversion. None of the Director's suggestions made at the time of

the slander campaign were accepted, and

in the first weeks of 1944, a series of publicity releases were so poor as to come to

the attention of the Chief of Staff himself.

General Marshall in January sent a stiff

note to the Bureau of Public Relations: "It

seems to me that very poor use is made of

the best publicity possibilities in the WAC

organization. . . . Who is handling this

business?"

 7

As for soldier opinion, the Director had

been unable, as late as February 1944, to

secure the assignment of specialists to

either ASF Morale Services or Special

Services Divisions, to work on the improvement of soldier opinion or WAC

morale.

Similarly, in November of 1943 General

Marshall had directed that, in order to

improve the supply and health situation

at Fort Oglethorpe, a ranking WAC officer be made commandant. Although the

Director twice reminded General Somervell's office of this directive, no action had

been taken by late February.8

Also in November, General Marshall

directed that some WAC officers now be

made lieutenant colonels, to fill position

vacancies that had existed for eighteen

months. However, Air Forces proposals to

this effect were subsequently refused by

the Army Service Forces upon General

Somervell's personal written advice. In a

seperate study, General Somervell instead

recommended giving direct commissions

in this rank to socially prominent civilian

women. It was this action that led the Assistant Chief of Air Staff to appear personally in the War Department seeking

the removal of the Director's Office from

General Somervell's jurisdiction.9

A particular cause of interservice friction was the handling of papers on WAC

matters, which received Army Service

Forces comment in cases that, had they

involved men, would not have been handled by the ASF at all. For a time it had

been hoped that the objections of the Air

and Ground Forces, and of overseas theaters, could be met by the new status of

the Director's Office as a part of General

Somervell's own office, with authorization

for direct communication with the Air and

Ground Forces and the General Staff on

matters that did not concern the Service

Forces. Unfortunately, it soon developed

that in actual operating practice there was

little difference in the office's former position, since it became General Somervell's

custom to route all outgoing WAC papers

through the office's former superior, Gen6

 See Ch. XXVI, for details. 7

 Memo, "G.C.M." for WAC Recruiting Section,

WDBPR (nonexistent section), 26 Jan 44. OCS 324.5

WAC. 8

 Memo, Dir WAC for DCofS ASF for SvCs, 26 Feb

44, with pencil notations. SPWA 210.31 (2-2-44). 9

 Entire discussion from: (1) Memo, Dir WAC for

G-1, 27 Nov 43. SPWA 210.2, in SPAP 210.2 WAC.

(2) Memo cited n. 8. (3) Entire file on controversy is

also in CofS 324.5 WAC, and in SPWA 210.2 WAC

Promotions, 1943. (4) Ltr, TAG to AAF, 18 Nov 43.

210.2 WAC (11-16-43) PR-W-WDGAP, in SPWA

210.2.
272 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

eral Dalton, as well as through other ASF

divisions. Disapprovals of policy recommendations by General Dalton or by Requirements Division, ASF, excited increasingly unfavorable comment from other

commands in matters which concerned

them solely, or would not normally have

received Army Service Forces' comment.10

Move to General Staff Authorized

In February of 1944, as a result of these

complaints, Director Hobby went personally to General Somervell to ask clarification of her office's status. He asked her

to present the problem in writing, which

she did, attaching as corpus delicti some

three defunct policy papers which she had

addressed, supposedly directly, to the

General Staff, all of which had been disapproved upon General Dalton's recommendation. All three concerned policies

that were Army-wide, and one was solely

an Air Forces proposal.11

Upon receipt of the Director's protest,

General Somervell immediately recommended in writing to General Marshall

that the Office of the Director be moved

from his jurisdiction to that of the General

Staff. General Somervell stated, "The

office of the Director WAC is concerned

primarily with matters affecting policy for

the WAC which are applicable on an

Army-wide basis in three major commands."

 12

 When later acquainted with

his action, Colonel Hobby stated that, if

allowed to comment, she would have

expressed ready concurrence.13

As a result, General Marshall called

Director Hobby in for a conference and

directed that the Office of the Director be

moved to G-1 Division, War Department

General Staff, effective 1 March 1944.14

Because of the small size of G-1 Division,

the Director's Office again had to be reduced in size, this time to the Director and

four—later only two—other officers, including Major Rice as Deputy.

The Meek Report

The move was still in process, with office

furniture not yet installed, when General

Somervell's office received a lengthy written report, which it forwarded to General

Marshall. The report was in the nature of

a sweeping criticism of the conduct of the

WAC program to date, alleging that Director Hobby and her advertising advisers

had overlooked many obvious means of

improving recruitment, had failed to improve the WAC uniform, and had allowed

the WAC to fall far below the WAVES in

public esteem. This study came to be

called the Meek Report after its author,

Mr. Samuel W. Meek, a member of the

advertising agency of J. Walter Thompson,

a competitor of the firm that handled official WAC advertising, Young & Rubicam.15

The Meek Report alleged, among other

things, that the public was not aware of

the urgency of the Army's need for Wacs;

10

 Specific examples in following text. 11

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 5 Feb 44, sub: Functions of Dir WAC, with atchd papers. SPWA

314.7, Hobby files. 12

 (1) Memo, CG ASF for CofS, 9 Feb 44. Styer

Files, Drawer 2197, DRB AGO. (2) Incl to Memo,

Dir WAC for CofS, 21 Mar 44, sub: Comment on

Public Opinion Concerning WAC, Tabs A to J atchd.

WDGAP 341 (1944). (3) Min, Gen Council, 21 and

28 Feb 44. 13

 According to statement of Deputy Director to

author. 14

 Memo, G-1 for CofS, 14 Feb 44. Approved by

CofS, 19 Feb 44. WDGAP 320 WAC, in CofS 324.5. 15

 Manila Folder with 45 pages of surveys and statistics with atchd note, "HJK" to Gen Somervell, 21

Mar 44, and pencil notation: "Not to be use [sic]

without my personal OK. BS." Somervell Files, Hq

ASF, A46-257, DRB AGO.
REMOVAL OF DIRECTOR'S OFFICE TO G-1 DIVISION 273

that the WAC did not have the public

standing of the WAVES; that three out of

four women said they would choose the

WAVES in preference to the WAC; that

the public thought Waves got better treatment, more suitable jobs, more attractive

uniforms; and that the WAVES had commissioned more outstanding women educators, whereas the WAC had not offered

direct commissions to prominent women.

Mr. Meek recommended that publicity

tie-ins with high-ranking officers be used,

that more prominent women be directly

commissioned, and that society news pages

then publicize the backgrounds of these

new WAC leaders.

General Marshall called Director

Hobby to his office on 15 March 1944

and, over Mr. Meek's objections, handed

her the surveys and directed her to study

these charges and prepare recommendations. This she did, first in a preliminary

report and then in a confidential staff

study which, because of its outcome, was

to rank as perhaps the most important

WAC policy paper of the Corps' career.16

The charges in the Meek Report proved,

in themselves, unfounded and easy to

counter. The only new survey of "public"

opinion for which it contained documented

statistics proved to consist chiefly of interviews with 111 college girls, 94 of them

from Vassar, and with several prominent

women, including women's magazine editors.17

 By contrast, the Young & Rubicam

campaign had been based on a confidential Gallup survey of a scientifically chosen

national sample of 1431 eligible women

and 1415 parents of eligibles.

The two surveys often differed. Meek

stated that the public was unaware of the

urgency of the Army's need for Wacs;

Gallup found that a record 85 percent

said they were aware of it, and when

asked "Which women's service is in the

greatest need of more women?" 58 percent said the WAC, only 14 percent the

WAVES. The WAC advertising under

Young & Rubicam thus appeared to have

been more effective than was alleged.

Meek stated that the public liked the

WAVES better than the WAC, and that

66 percent of eligible women said they

would choose the WAVES as against 20

percent the WAC; Gallup's non-Vassar

eligibles answered: War work—51 percent, WAC —12 percent, WAVES—10

percent. The only statement which no one

disputed was that about the uniform, for

Gallup had always reported that only a

few women preferred the WAC uniform.

Director Hobby was also able to prove

that the WAC had, some months before,

taken every action recommended by Mr.

Meek except direct commissions and

short-term enlistments: it had used publicity from every prominent person named,

offered station assignment, used society

pages, publicized overseas assignment as

far as surveys showed desirable, obtained

two Gallup and two scientific Army opinion surveys, mailed literature to parents,

and so on. None of these steps had ended

the Corps' problems or come near its basic

difficulties.

16

 (1) Preliminary Rpt, Dir WAC for CofS, 16 Mar

44, sub: WAC Rctg. WDWAC 341, in CofS 324.5

WAC. (2) Memo cited n. 12(2). 17

 Following sources were listed in Meek Report:

(1) 20 interviews with prominent persons, including

ranking officers in the WAVES and Women Marines.

(2) Unidentified surveys made by American Institute

of Public Opinion and Fortune Magazine, Feb-Oct

43; statistics, dates, and scope not given. (3) Some

1,208 persons (473 young women, 377 young men,

358 parents) "interviewed in a national survey" in

November 1943; surveying agency or method of selection not given. (4) Questionnaire to 240 staff members

of McCalls, Time, and Reader's Digest and "advertising

personnel." (5) "College Survey" of 94 students of

Vassar and 17 from Sarah Lawrence.
274 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

In countering the various charges, it

proved easily possible to discuss those of

the Director's previous recommendations

that the Army Service Forces had disapproved. The Director, perceiving this

opening, at once drove straight through

with two memoranda and ten appendixes.18

 These consisted of important parts

of her own program, previously suppressed

by the Army Service Forces, for improving the WAC's situation. This was the first

opportunity to bring most of these proposals to the attention of the Chief of Staff.

When the Chief of Staffs final verdict

was rendered, more of the Director's proposals concerning major issues had been

approved in two weeks than had previously been done in the past two years in

the Army Service Forces. The proposals

were concerned chiefly with soldier attitude, public relations, and the uniform.

Corrective Action by the Chief of Staff

The first two issues, soldier opinion and

public attitude, Colonel Hobby unhesitatingly named as the basic difficulty of

the WAC program. Dismissing all lesser

theories, which attributed recruiting difficulties to ignorance, WAVES prestige, the

uniform, the failure to grant direct commissions, poor jobs, the desire for shorter

enlistments, and other petty causes, she

said flatly, "The two greatest deterrents to

WAC recruiting are the attitude of soldiers

toward women in the military service and

the apathy of unmarried non-working

women."

 19

General Marshall saw for the first time

some of the slander campaign material,

including literature which soldiers had

mimeographed and circulated to almost

every Army installation at home and

abroad.20 He saw a sample of the many

letters, with which the WAC files were

now bulging, from Wacs and eligible

women.21 He also saw cartoons from soldier publications all over the nation.22

 The

most unexpected exhibits were certain

anti-WAC statements made by highranking Army officers, all except one of

whom were combat officers without experience in WAC employment. These

Colonel Hobby revealed by name only

after being twice expressly commanded to

do so.23 One general remarked, in a

national magazine, "Fortunately I've no

experience with that particular species

[Wacs] and what's more I don't want any

of them around here."

 24

 The Director

commented, "The attitude of the officers

and enlisted men in the field will never

change to the degree desired as long as key

personnel, whose expressions can be assumed to reflect the War Department

attitude, make statements such as these."

 25

To remedy the Army attitude, Colonel

Hobby proposed a campaign of re-education similar to that which General Bowley

had proposed twenty years before. She

asked that the Army attempt to change

the soldiers' attitude by including material

on the Corps' usefulness in the Army

orientation course, by which other soldier

attitudes were successfully influenced. She

asked that available films on the WAC be

shown in this course, and a new film

18

 Memo cited n. 12(2). Each Tab was a separate

signed memorandum so that recommendations could

be acted upon separately. 19

 Rpt cited n. 16(1). 20

 Memo cited n. 12(2), Exhibit I: "Characteristics,

functioning, care, and preservation of the WAC, M-1

(model 1942-43)." 21

 Ibid., Tab D. 22

 Ibid.

23

 Ibid.,Tab C. 24

 Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton in Liberty, October

9, 1943. 25

 Ibid.
REMOVAL OF DIRECTOR'S OFFICE TO G-1 DIVISION 275

made, specifically designed to reach the

soldier. She asked that a Wac officer be

assigned to Morale Services, ASF, to direct the distribution and clearance of

WAC news and cartoons to camp newspapers; also, that an enlisted woman be

assigned to the staff of Yank magazine, previously unfavorable editorially. She asked

that courses on the organization of the

Army mention the WAC. And particularly, she asked that general officers clear

with the Bureau of Public Relations before making public statements concerning

the WAC.

General Marshall very soon approved

much of this program. General Somervell

now concurred in the orientation course

material, and in the assignment to Morale

Services and Special Services Divisions of

a WAC officer and an enlisted woman. He

protested that to require general officers to

clear their remarks on the WAC was too

drastic. He suggested instead that General

Marshall write a letter to general officers

discussing the problem, similar to the

Marine Corps Commandant's letter sent

out some seven months earlier concerning

the treatment of Women Marines.26 This

alternative was acceptable to General

Marshall, who immediately wrote not

only to all generals but to all Army commanding officers, pointing out that the

Army was about to launch another drive

for Wacs to meet "imperative" needs, and

that he expected to have the drive supported. He added:

The Women's Army Corps is now an integral part of the Army and a highly essential

part of our war effort. . . . However, reports indicate that there are local command- ers who have failed to provide the necessary

leadership and have in fact in some instance

made evident their disapproval of the

Women's Army Corps. The attitude of the

men has quickly reflected the leadership of

their commanders, as always.

All commanders in the military establishment are charged with the duty of seeing that

the dignity and importance of the work

which women are performing are recognized

and that the policy of the War Department

is supported by strong affirmative action.27

In the matter of the uniform, Colonel

Hobby presented General Marshall with

a list of her previous recommendations to

the Army Service Forces, from August of

1942 to date. It appeared that General

Somervell had not been aware until after

the Meek Report was forwarded to General Marshall that the condition of the

WAC uniform resulted from disapproval

of the Director's proposals by various

echelons of his own command. Colonel

Hobby informed General Marshall that

the Service Forces had already begun restudying some of her requests by direction

of its commanding general.28 General

Marshall within a few weeks approved

eight separate policy recommendations

made by the Director and The Quartermaster General, all previously rejected by

the Army Service Forces. These were

shortly to work a considerable change in

26

 (1) Memo, CG ASF for CofS. SPAP 324.5 (3-29-

44) ASF. (2) Ltr, Comdt USMC to all COs of posts

and stations, 14 Aug 43, sub: Responsibility for Behavior of Men Toward Women of MCWR. "Information reaching this Headquarters indicates that in

some posts and stations officers and men of the Marine Corps treat members of the Women's Reserve

with disrespect. ... In some cases, coarse or even

obscene remarks are being made without restraint by

male Marines in post exchanges, moving picture

houses, and other places in the hearing of members of

the Women's Reserve. . . . This conduct . . . indicates a laxity in discipline which will not be tolerated.

Commanding officers will be held responsible to this

Headquarters. . . ." [Signed] T. Holcomb. 27

 Printed Memo, CofS to all Hq divisions, overseas

commanders, AGF down to tactical units, AAF, ASF,

and Defense Commands down to posts, camps, and

stations, 6 Apr 44. WDCSA 324.5 WAC. 28

 Memo cited n. 12(2), Tab I.
276 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the appearance of the uniform, although

many were unfortunately too late to reach

the field in the one remaining year before

the end of the war in Europe.

In the matter of public relations, the

Director asked General Marshall to direct

the formation of a co-ordinating board,

which would not only initiate and direct

an Army-wide constructive informational

campaign, but would comment on the

possible public relations effect of decisions

concerning the WAC before the decisions

were released. General Somervell stated,

when asked to comment, that such a

board was not necessary.29 Colonel Hobby

replied that General Somervell's attitude

was "not in accord with fact or experience," and that "The present situation has

been unfortunate and it can reasonably be

expected that a continuation of uncontrolled and uncoordinated activity on the

part of literally hundreds of issuing agencies will continue to be unsatisfactory. . . ."

 30

General Marshall, who had supposed

that such a board already existed, overrode objections and directed General

Surles of the Bureau of Public Relations

to set up the co-ordinating group, saying,

"I have personally taken every opportunity to support the WAC. ... It is necessary that a central agency of the War

Department be charged with the problem

of keeping the public informed of matters

concerning the WAC and of controlling

the issuance of such information."

 31

Colonel Hobby also took this opportunity to secure the Chief of Staffs approval

of several lesser projects which had previously been rejected at lower levels. One

concerned equal provision for the WAC in

the Army's demobilization plans, which

were already being drawn up, and in

which planners had made no provision for

women. General Marshall approved the

greater part of what she asked, which was

to be of considerable importance at a later

period.32 Another proposal was for the centralization of recruiting control in the

hands of specialists in The Adjutant General's Office, similar to that just approved

in Public Relations. These and other

recommended reforms in the Recruiting

Service were all approved by General

Marshall, with far-reaching later effects.33

The Director also concurred in one of

the suggestions made in the Meek Report,

the establishment of a civilian advisory

committee composed of prominent women

in each service command, modeled on the

group that she had established in the

Women's Interests Section of the Bureau

of Public Relations, when she had organized that office in prewar days. This

recommendation, providing for both local

and national committees, was also approved. General Somervell concurred,

provided that he be allowed to choose the

prominent woman to head the national

committee.34

Within a few weeks, by General Marshall's action, there were six WAC lieutenant colonels. In April, a WAC officer was

also assigned as commandant of the Third

WAC Training Center.35

In a final comment on the Meek Report, General Somervell sent the Chief of

Staff another study recommending that

key WAC officers be replaced by promi29

 Memo cited n. 26(1). 30

 Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 4 Apr 44. WDGAP

341 (4_4_44); and in WAC Gp, WDBPR, under "Organization of the WAC Group." 31

 Memo, CofS for Gen Surles, 11 Apr 44. WAC

Gp, WDBPR, and in CofS 324.5 WAC. 32

 Memo cited n. 12(2), Tab J. 33

 Memo. Dir WAC to CofS, 10 Apr 44, with CofS

approval, 11 Apr 44. CofS 324.5 WAC. 34

 (1) Memo cited n. 12(2), Tab H. (2) Memo cited

n. 26(1). (3) Memo, CofS for CG ASF, 11 Apr 44.

CofS 324.5 WAC. 35

 Memo, ASF for TAG, 13 Mar 44. SPGAG 210.3

WAC (3-13-44)-129.
REMOVAL OF DIRECTOR'S OFFICE TO G-1 DIVISION 277

nent women to be selected by him and

directly commissioned. He also stated that

WAC leaders had too much control of

WAC affairs, and that Colonel Hobby's

current powers should be reduced by

eliminating those of direct dealing with

the major commands, of handling staff

co-ordination on WAC matters, of taking

any action, and of maintaining separate

records.36

None of these recommendations was

adopted. The Army's new policy toward

the WAC, as forcibly inaugurated here by

General Marshall, was keynoted by the

introduction of specialist groups or specialist officers in almost every major office that

handled WAC matters. The new location

also ensured that Army-wide recommendations from the Office of the Director

would not be rejected without consideration by the General Staff. From this time

throughout General Marshall's tenure of

office, specialist attention to women's welfare was to be the rule rather than the

exception—with, however, the specialists

concerned being fully integrated into their

respective Army sections.

With the completion of the move to G-1

Division, and the accomplishment of the

changes as approved by General Marshall, the Women's Army Corps completed

its stage of organization and development,

and entered a new phase of its career.

Freed of the burden now assumed by the

specialist groups, the small Office of the

Director was to devote most of its time

toward planning for the solution of the

more intangible social and welfare problems which, although pushed into the

background until now, had from the beginning attended the integration of

women into military service.

The two years just ended had seen the

discovery of the Corps' problems in public

relations, clothing supply, administration,

and many others. The next sixteen months

in G-1 Division, before the end of the war

and Director Hobby's resignation, were to

see workable solutions devised for all but

five of the problems now on the Director's

calendar.

The Corps was, by its second anniversary in May 1944, already world-wide

in distribution and approaching peak

strength in numbers. Corps strength in

June was almost 77,000, with the peak of

100,000 not too far distant. In the United

States, Wacs were present at 193 Air Forces

installations, and 176 Ground Forces and

Service Forces stations. Almost 10,000

women were already overseas in every

major theater of operations—North Africa, Italy, England, Australia, New

Guinea, India—as well as in Hawaii,

Alaska, and other smaller bases.37

In May of 1944, the authorized strength

was reallotted among the major commands:38

Army Service Forces............ .

 a 60,000

Army Air Forces............... . 60,000

Army Ground Forces. .......... . 7,500

War Department.............. . 1,050

Overseas theaters. ............. . 21,450

150,000 a

 Including training centers

In these widely scattered Army commands, with their varying needs and policies, lay the further history of WAC

employment, and success or failure on

Army jobs.

36

 Memo, CG ASF, for CofS. SPAP 324.5 (3-29-44)

in Dir Pers ASF files. 37

 (1) Memo, Dep Dir WAC for CofS, 21 Jul 44.

WDCSA 324.5 WAC. (2) WDBPR Press Release, 17

Jun 44. 38

 D/F, G-1 for ASF, 8 May 44, WDGAP 320.2

Misc, WAC Cl files, based on Memo, Dir WAC for

G-1, 17 Apr 44. For previous quotas, see: Ltr, TAG to

CG ASF, 22 Oct 43. AG 320.2 WAC (11-19-43)

PR-W-SPGAS.

PART TWO

WORLD-WIDE EMPLOYMENT

CHAPTER XVI

The Army Air Forces

Among the various Army commands,

the Army Air Forces had been the first to

employ Waacs and was now the first in

field strength of WAC units. The history

of the Air Forces Wacs was the story of

almost one half of the Women's Army

Corps—some 40,000 of the eventual

100,000 women.1

In spite of its enthusiasm for the use of

womanpower, the Air Forces faced greater

initial handicaps in employing Wacs than

did other domestic commands. Subordinate air commands did not cover definite

geographical areas as did service commands, but were strictly functional in

nature, each having control of air bases

scattered throughout the United States.

Staff directors thus found the problem of

supervision and supply more complex,

and were obliged to take to the air to

cover the distances between units assigned

to their commands. The AAF's great

Training Command had flying schools

and technical schools from Florida to

California; its Troop Carrier Command

stations were less numerous but as widely

separated; Air Service Command depots

were scattered from coast to coast. The

First, Second, Third, and Fourth Air

Forces together covered the United States

in their mission of forming men into combat groups for the numbered Air Forces

overseas. The AAF's Materiel Command

had one large WAC unit at Wright Field;

the School of Applied Tactics had an even

larger unit at Orlando, Florida; and the

Proving Ground Command had one isolated group at Eglin Field, Florida.

Although air bases were generally prepared to receive the women, they were

caught without advance warning when

the War Department ended the T/O system for the WAC some months before the

Air Forces did the same for its men—a

move that suited the Service Forces but

left the AAF without means of accounting

for the women. The new Air WAC Officer,

Major Bandel, upon her arrival in 1943,

found headquarters agencies shuttling the

War Department directive back and forth

from A-4 to A-1 and again to A-4. She

noted later:

1

 (1) First Wacs to the field were in AWS units.

While AAF WAC strength was greater in the field,

ASF was greater if training centers were included.

(2) The chief source of reference for this chapter is

the AAF WAC Hist, by Lt. Col. Betty Bandel. (See Bibliographical Note). On the basis of 1945 reports,

Colonel Bandel estimates 42,000 women as the AAF

WAC top, including those in pipeline from training

centers or to overseas theaters. Later AAF statistics

set the actual top at about 40,000. Statistics used here

do not always agree with later TAG re-evaluation of

reports, but were those available to the AAF in its

wartime planning. See Table 9: "WAC Asgd to AAF,"

and Table 13 (for 1946), in AAF Statistical Digest,

World War II, prepared by Office of Statistical Control, AAF Hq. Hereafter cited as AAF Stat Digest.

On file at U.S. Air Forces Historical Division, Air

University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama.

Hereafter referred to as USAF Hist Div. See also

Table 4, Appendix A.
282 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

To a headquarters wrestling with the problem of throwing thousands of fighting men and aircraft around the world, the entire

WAAC program must have seemed at that

moment a troublesome gnat buzzing around

the head of a giant.

Promptly snaring the gnat on its return

trip through A-4, the Air WAC Officer

worked out a series of directives and accounting procedures which allowed the

program to continue without interruption

and which eventually led to full integration.

Acceptance of Wacs on Airfields

Wacs arriving on air bases ordinarily

reported an enthusiastic reception. One

company commander noted:

The friendly atmosphere and co-operative

spirit prevalent throughout this post have

made the Wacs feel that they are a definite

part of the military life here. Everything is

being done to further the comfort of the

group.2

By mid-1944, Wacs became even more

popular when, the supply of infantry replacements having proved insufficient, the

War Department required the transfer of

thousands of combat-fit men from the Air

Forces to the Ground Forces. Airfields

thus lost many of the specialized medical

and technical personnel upon whom they

had depended for normal operations, and

Wacs became increasingly sought after as

replacements.

Receptivity was also greatly increased

by the official action of General Arnold

and his staff, whose policy from the beginning was to neglect no measure that might

impress upon the public the AAF's real

need for Wacs and its cordiality toward

them. When the Air-WAC recruiting

campaign was launched in October of

1943, General Arnold issued a public

statement that "members of the WAC

have made an enviable record through

their work at Air Force installations."

 3 In

November the Deputy Chief of Air Staff,

Brig. Gen. William E. Hall, journeyed to

Philadelphia to see the first all-Air-WAC

company sworn in. In December Maj.

Gen. Barney McK. Giles, the Deputy

Chief of Air Staff, wrote to all Air Wacs

that "it is the record you have made which

has convinced the AAF of the great value

of Wacs."

 4 In the same month the AAF

declared a national "Air WAC Week" in

which airfields everywhere honored their

Wacs at retreat parades and other ceremonies. Upon receipt of evidence that

military personnel were involved in the

slander campaign, General Arnold denounced such undercutting of his policy

in an angry letter to the field.5 With such

constant and public declaration of policy,

the Army Air Forces came to have the

reputation in the eyes of the public and of

the Wacs themselves of being friendly

toward the employment of Wacs, and appreciative of their services.

The Air WAC Division

This attitude showed itself in AAF

headquarters by a willingness to consider

favorably the recommendations of the Air

WAC Officer. A working WAC staff organization was set up which, in Lt. Col.

Betty Bandel's opinion, was near-perfect

under existing conditions. The Air WAC

Division was granted a strength of six officers plus clerical help, and was eventually placed in the office of the Assistant

2

 WAC CO, Mather Field, Calif. AAF WAC Hist,

p. 20. 3

 WDBPR Press Release, 20 Oct 43. 4

 AAF WAC Hist, pp. 62-64. 5

 Ltr, CG AAF to all Air Forces and Comds, 22 Feb

44. WDWAC 341 (3-16-44).
THE ARMY AIR FORCES 283

Chief of Air Staff for Personnel (A-1).

Although in Colonel Bandel's opinion a

location in the Special Staff would have

insured easier co-ordination with other

offices, in actual practice the policies and

personal assistance of Maj. Gen. James M.

Bevans and his staff in A-1 made for almost equal freedom and efficiency of

operation.6

The generally co-operative spirit emboldened the Air WAC Division to divest

itself at once of all operating powers, confining its activities to study of field conditions, formulation of policy recommendations, and co-ordination of the WAC

program. It was able to take this action

chiefly because each major operating division of AAF headquarters early accepted

the assignment of a WAC specialist to perform the operating duties, either full-time

or in addition to other duties. These offices

included AAF's Military Personnel Division, both Officer Branch and Enlisted

Branch; the Assistant Chief of Air Staff

for Training; headquarters and regional

offices of the Air Inspector; the Air Surgeon; and the Air Provost Marshal.

Together, representatives in these offices

formed a good example of what was

known to Wacs as the Tel-a-Wac system,

reputedly faster than telephone or telegraph. The Air WAC Division was seldom

left in ignorance of developments in the

larger AAF program, and in return the

various division chiefs, to whom the other

WAC officers concerned owed primary

allegiance, were seldom caught short by

higher authorities concerning knowledge

of WAC matters for which they were responsible. Policy papers were originated

either by the Air WAC Division or by the

division that discovered the need for them,

and were mutually co-ordinated before

publication. A headquarters regulation

required all publications mentioning the

WAC to be co-ordinated with the Air

WAC Division. Offices were also reminded

in writing that, in drafting all publications, they should remember that AAF

Regulations were equally applicable to

Wacs, unless specifically excepted, and

that if any explanatory passages were

needed they should be added.7

AAF "Firsts"

Under this system, a notable series of

AAF "firsts" resulted, to which that organization was not backward about calling attention. The Air Forces was first in

full integration and abolition of WAC

grades; first to attempt branch recruiting;

first to require WAC inspectors at all command levels employing Wacs. It was the

first to make a woman a lieutenant colonel,

and was stopped from going further only

by Congressional limitations; first to request the employment of WAC officers in

non-WAC or "operational" jobs; first and

only domestic command to propose extensive improvements in the WAC uniform,

and its recommendations in this field were

the ammunition with which Colonel

Hobby finally won many arguments. It

was the first major command to allow

its own insignia to be worn by Wacs and to

recommend that they be detailed in the

Air Corps or the appropriate arm or service, a move that did much to make the

women feel an accepted part of the Air

Forces.

The AAF was the first to admit enlisted

women to all men's noncombat schools, including some previously deemed unusual

for women; first to propose, even if unsuccessfully, that women officers be

6

 Before its assignment to A-1, the Air WAC Division had been briefly in A-4 (ACofAS for Materiel,

Maintenance, and Distribution). 7

 AAF Hq Office Instruction 5-13, 29 Nov 44.
284 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

allowed to go to men's noncombat officer

candidate schools if they were not intended as WAC administrators; the first

major command to support a school for

the advanced training of WAC troop

officers. It unsuccessfully recommended

that Wacs be sent to the Army's School of

Military Government as a preparation for

duty in occupied areas. It was the first to

bring to the War Department's attention

the need for interpretation of certain discharge regulations, and for establishment

of a system of maternity care for discharged women. It was the first major

command to supervise the overseas placement of its own women by studying the

needs of its components overseas and

guaranteeing to fill them at its own expense. As a result, the Eighth and Ninth

Air Forces in England, and to a lesser

degree the air forces in Italy, the Pacific,

and India, received well-selected, Air

Forces-trained Wacs in numbers greater

than the War Department had proposed

to supply them.8

The AAF did not share other commands' distaste for specialized explanatory

publications in any matter in which

Colonel Bandel reported widespread misunderstanding in the field. The Air Forces

was first to publish a circular defining the

WAC company commander's job, and

thus to end the friction and misunderstanding prevalent over that point in other

commands where section chiefs claimed

the commander's normal powers.9 Another

directive cautioned local commanders

against placing enlisted women on commutation of quarters and rations or ordering them to stations where no housing

existed. In six separate publications the

Air Forces discussed all phases of successful selection of women for overseas shipment.

After a series of poor selections of WAC

officer candidates, AAF headquarters

amplified the War Department regulation

and spelled out a precise procedure, including the often-neglected provision that

selection boards would contain one WAC

officer—the AAF made it two—and that

rating lists based on merit alone would be

maintained at Air Command level, not

lower. Likewise, the AAF published a

WAC inspection manual, listing standards

which should be expected in such matters

as women's medical care, uniform and appearance, leadership, and the commander's handling of marital and social

problems. Similarly, the AAF included in

its personnel officers' handbook a chapter

on WAC administration.10

AAF headquarters also permitted the

8

 In order: (1) Speech, Maj Bandel, Min, Stf Dirs

Conf, New York, 1-3 Dec 43. SPWA 337 (11-10-43).

(2) AAF WAC Hist, pp. 12, 49, n. 1, 67, 84; also AAF

Ltr 35-83, 29 Apr 44, and 21 Aug 44, pp. 65, 85,

86-87. (3) Memo, Exec WAC for CG AAF, 22 Feb

44, returned, 9 Mar 44, by CG AAF for further study.

(4) See overseas chapters below, particularly Ch.

XXI. 9

 AAF Reg 35-44, 10 Nov 43, revised and amended

14 Sep 44, 18 Oct 44, and 19 Jan 45: "WAC squadrons will be commanded by WAC Officers, who will

have administrative authority and duties analogous

and equivalent to those of a company commander.

. . . The WAC squadron commander is charged with

housing, messing, supply, discipline, training, recreation, morale, well-being, maintaining WAC squadron

records, and rendering necessary reports. . . . Recommendations for changes of status, including promotion, reduction, transfer, discharge, etc., may originate

with the Officer in whose section or unit the Wac is

working, or with the WAC squadron commander. In

all such cases the recommendations must bear the

indorsements both of the Officer in whose section or

unit the Wac is working, and of the WAC squadron commander." 10

 (1) AAF Reg 35-49, 13 Jan 44. (2) AAF Ltrs:

35-119, 3 Aug 44; 35-152, 6 Nov 44; 35-175, 27 Dec

44 and 14 Feb 45; 35-175a, 6 Mar 45; 35-47, 6 Apr

45; 35-65, 12 Sep 44; 35-89, 9 Apr and 28 May 45. (3) AAF Manual 120-2, WAC Insp Manual, Hq

AAF, 10 Apr 44. (4) AAF WAC Hist, pp. 45, 46, 67,

and 84; AAF Reg 120-12, 25 Dec 43.
THE ARMY AIR FORCES 285

Air WAC Division to send an informal

monthly mimeographed letter to its staff

directors, explaining the reasons behind

current actions by headquarters. The recipients of these letters were responsible

for passing on this information to their

WAC company commanders. This service was so popular with Wacs in the field

that non-Air Forces staff directors overseas

asked to be included on the mailing list,

stating that they otherwise did not see

even War Department regulations for

months, if ever; and non-AAF company

commanders set up regular correspondence with AAF WAC squadron commanders to learn what they could, stating

that War Department circulars were

seldom otherwise available to company

commanders.

Flying Jobs for Women

In the field, the Air Forces' progressive

attitude was demonstrated chiefly by an

equal lack of inhibitions in the assignment of women to new and unconventional jobs. No AAF schools were barred

to women except combat schools, and

no AAF jobs for which they could qualify,

however unusual for women. It was not

even the Air Forces' intention to exclude

women from the most extreme masculine

province: its flying schools and assignment

as pilot.

Women quite early had been hired as

ferry pilots, on a Civil Service status. Air

Forces headquarters had planned that this

group, first called the WAAF and later

the WASP (Women Air Service Pilots),

would be placed in the Army as part of the

WAC as soon as Congress had made the

WAAC a part of the Army. Such an addition was agreeable to WAC authorities, including both Colonel Hobby and the Air

WAC Officer, since the number of women

pilots was relatively tiny—some 800 as

against Colonel Bandel's 40,000 Air

Wacs—and could have been administered

without additional expense. However, the

proposed merger was blocked by the

Director WASP, Mrs. Jacqueline Cochran

Odium, who recommended that women

pilots not be grouped with other Air Corps

officers, but given a separate military

corps on equal status with the WAC, with

a director equal in rank to Colonel Hobby.

Legislation to this effect was attempted,

but failed, and Congressional sentiment

against the use of women as pilots was so

strongly stirred up that the Air Forces was

forced to disband the WASP without ever

giving its members military status and

benefits. Some WAC officers and enlisted

women were also found to be qualified

pilots, but it was deemed unwise ever to

assign them as such in view of the emphatic nature of the Congressional decision.11

Enlisted flying jobs for Wacs, other than

that of pilot, were never forbidden,

although no such jobs had been considered

by early planners because of the greater

need for women elsewhere. As soon as assignment was turned over to local authorities, it proved impossible to keep a few

women out of certain flying duties for

which they had peculiar qualifications.

Within two months Mitchel Field reported that it possessed the first two "flying Wacs," radio operators who were

participating in B-17 training flights. This

11

 (1) Memo, CofAS for G-1, with Ind, WAAC Hq,

17 Apr 43. SPWA 314.7 (1-7-43) sec 1. (2) Memo, Arnold for Marshall [Jun 43], with reply from G-1,

20 Jun 43. SPWA 324.5 CAP (3-25-43). (3) Hist Recs

Rpt 319, History of ATC: Women Pilots in ATC.

USAF Hist Div. (4) For further discussion, see Summary of WASP Controversy, Appendix D.
286 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

precipitated scores of requests from other

Wacs for flying duty. A few more WAC

radio operators, mechanics, and photographers were soon assigned to regular

runs. Several such Wacs actually received

Air Medals, including one in India for her

work in mapping the Hump, and one

posthumously after the crash of an aerial

broadcasting plane.

Both the women and the airfields concerned were ordinarily so pleased with

themselves for accomplishing flying duty

assignments that Air Forces headquarters,

when it discovered them, published a directive authorizing such duty provided

that the flights concerned were not for

purposes of combat training, and that

Wacs did not replace any man who might

be receiving combat training on these

flights.

The Air WAC Officer, while not discouraging such duty for women well

suited for it, did not encourage any extension of it, or widespread training of women

for it. Her opposition was due partly to the

difficulty of housing a female crew member when nonscheduled landings were

necessary, and partly to the danger of

public outcry if any Wac was assigned to a

position that even remotely involved combat training. Later in the war the Air

Transport Command repeatedly proposed

to use Wacs to replace male flight clerks on

scheduled passenger runs. This was at first

discouraged because of the irregular housing arrangements involved, but was eventually approved on a small scale and

proved successful in flights such as those

from Paris to London.12

Even including these flight clerks, the

number of Wacs on flying duty, wearing

wings and drawing flying pay, was never

great. Only twenty Wacs held the Specification Serial Number of Air Crew Memher, and flying radio operators and other

technicians were equally scarce.

This comparative absence of a relatively

exciting and popular type of Air Forces

duty was one factor with which commanders of female troops had to reckon in

maintaining morale. Many air-base commanders, recognizing the difficulty, directed that Wacs be allowed to go on local

flights as passengers where space permitted, or for at least one orientation flight

upon arrival at a station. Nevertheless,

most AAF Wacs seldom saw the inside of a

plane, and many were in the unfortunate

position of Air Transport Command Wacs

in Scotland and Wales, who were shipped

overseas by boat and complained that they

knew there was an outside world only by

remarks dropped by transient men. Because of the value of occasional flights to

women's morale, the Air WAC Officer secured a directive making clear that

women were to have the same privileges

as other military personnel in "hopping

rides" or flying on military orders.13

Specialist Training

AAF headquarters from the beginning

showed enthusiasm for training Waacs in

other technical and mechanical jobs

which were not ordinarily considered a

woman's field. An elaborate training system was originally planned, with 8,000

women a month to be fed into AAF

schools for training as everything from 12

 (1) AAF WAC Hist, pp. 19 and 41. (2) AAF Reg

35-45, 12 Nov 43. (3) WDBPR Press Release, 14 May

46. (4) Memo, AAF for Dir WAC, 30 Aug 45.

WD WAC 319.1 AAF. 13

 (1) For list of Specification Serial Numbers see

AAF Stat Contl Rpt SC-PS-123, sub: Strength of

AAF Pers in WAC Within Continental U.S. by Comd,

SSN, and Race. (2) Hist Recs Rpt 315c, Wacs in

European Division, ATC, June 1944-August 1945, by

European Division, ATC. USAF Hist Div.
TRAINING AT LOWRY FIELD, COLORADO, in February 1943. Waacs learning

camera operation, above, and making photographic mosaics, below.
288 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

armorers to weather forecasters, in addition to 5,000 a month to be received

already trained in WAAC schools as

clerks. This plan was very similar to the

system actually used on a smaller scale by

the Naval Air Service, which determined

in advance to employ set numbers of

Waves as Link trainer instructors, control

tower operators, and other specialists, and

trained them accordingly. The Army Air

Forces carried the plan so far as to set up

Wac classes at the AAF Photolaboratory

School at Lowry Field, which trained several all-WAC photolaboratory companies.

The AAF also earlier encouraged the

WAAC to set up its radio training school

at Kansas City, and contracted to employ

all graduates.14

However, as women began to arrive,

the AAF was surprised to discover that the

majority of women, unlike the 17- and

18-year-old boys who were being inducted, had a usable job skill before they

entered the Army. To employ the average

Wac successfully, it proved necessary only

to place her, fresh from basic training, on

almost any airfield, where, if not immediately snatched into too many pieces by

competing section chiefs, she ordinarily

soon found useful employment. The number of recruits arriving was never great

enough to make placement a problem.

The Air Forces therefore soon dropped

all but a few of its formal technical training plans for women, and adopted a system which was believed to be the most

natural, speedy, and economical under

the circumstances. Most AAF Wacs finishing basic training were shipped immediately to air bases having need of personnel in their civilian skills and were

assigned to immediate duty or to on-thejob training, which was believed less

wasteful of time than the average technical

course. If a station needed a specialist it

was unable to train, or if a Wac showed

such aptitude that higher specialized

training was clearly indicated, the station was authorized to send her to any

noncombat AAF school that could arrange to house her. In such cases the station ordinarily had to take the trainee

back upon graduation and employ her in

the new skill; training was thus seldom

employed merely to gratify individual

desires for unnecessary training or to get

rid of troublesome individuals.

Unfortunately for the compilation of

statistics, the attendance of Wacs at AAF

technical schools was so well integrated

and came to excite so little comment that

it was later impossible to determine exactly how many women had attended

each course and how their record compared with that of male students. It was

known only that approximately 2,000

women successfully completed courses in

AAF technical schools, including weather

observers, weather forecasters, electrical

specialists of several kinds, sheet metal

workers, Link trainer instructors, cryptographers, teletype operators, radio mechanics, control tower specialists, parachute riggers, bombsight maintenance

specialists, clerks, airplane mechanics,

photolaboratory technicians and photointerpreters, chaplains' assistants, and

physical and military training specialists.

Lt. Gen. Barton K. Yount, commanding

general of the AAF Training Command,

wrote, "Their record of accomplishment

reflects great credit upon the Women's

Army Corps and the Army. . . . Their

contribution to the Training Command's

mission has been invaluable."

 15

14

 AAF WAC Hist, pp. 41-42. 15

 Ltr, Gen Yount to Dir WAC, 5 May 45.

WDWAC 201.22.
THE ARMY AIR FORCES 289

Conventional Clerical Jobs

At the peak of enrollment, in January

of 1945, it was estimated that about 50

percent of AAF Wacs in the United States

held administrative or office jobs, being assigned as typists, stenographers, and various sorts of clerks.16

 This was a percentage

of women in conventional jobs considerably smaller than that in most other commands or overseas theaters, where the

numbers in "feminine" work ranged as

high as 90 percent in commands such as

the Eighth Air Force in England. The

work of such Air Wacs did not ordinarily

differ from clerical work in other commands, except that it required a knowledge of Air Forces nomenclature, organization, and administrative procedures.

The different air commands differed

slightly from each other in certain uses for

these clerical workers. The largest, the

AAF Training Command, with its hundreds of flying training schools and technical training schools, found Wacs particularly useful in keeping the complicated

records of trainees, training courses, and

flight hours. The domestic air forces—

First, Second, Third, and Fourth—likewise used Wacs to keep their personnel

and flight records, and also to staff the assembly lines by which crews and equipment were processed for overseas shipment. The Air Technical Service Command used WAC clerks at its large depots

to keep stock records of the thousands of

items of Air Forces technical equipment.

The Air Transport Command, running

the Army equivalent of a commercial airline system, used numbers of Wacs at its

information desks, in its dispatching

offices, and to process passengers and supplies through aerial ports of embarkation.

Toward the end of the war, the new AAF

Personnel Distribution Command used

Wacs to process personnel in replacement

depots, redistribution centers, and convalescent centers.

Army Air Forces headquarters itself

lagged behind its commands only because

of the War Department ban on bringing

Wacs into Washington. After repeated

efforts to circumvent this policy, an opening was found in December of 1943 by the

authorization to bring in twenty WAC

messengers to handle secret and confidential mail, which had been repeatedly

going astray under civilian operation.

These were soon followed by weather observers, statistical machine operators, and

others to a total of several hundred,

housed at Boiling Field and working in

the Pentagon.17

Technical Assignments

Technical jobs tended to increase in

number toward the end of the war, as it

became increasingly difficult for the AAF

to get enlisted men in the top AGCT

brackets necessary for some of the work.

An especial competition for women of

high ability developed between Air Forces

agencies, which were frequently hard put

to find men of suitable qualifications for

technical work who were not immediately

lost to officer candidate school or needed

for overseas stations.

Weather Observers

AAF's Weather Wing, which sought

Wacs long before it ever saw one, finally

obtained a quota of 500. A few were sent

16

 Rpt cited n. 13(1). Administrative jobs totaled

46 percent, plus undoubtedly some of the group

marked "Duty." 17

 AAF WAC Hist, p. 66.
290 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

to the regular Weather School, but most

were trained on the job, five or six Wacs

taking over the weather station at air

bases where they could be housed with a

WAC company. The majority of such

Wacs were weather observers; only a few

were ever trained for the more complicated job of weather forecaster, for which

there was no shortage of men. The quota

of 500 was never entirely filled in spite of

all efforts.18

Radio and Cryptographic Work

The Army Airways Communications

System (AACS), which had a quota of

1,450 and which competed for high-type

personnel, chiefly sought radio operators.

At the height of a shortage of this personnel, AACS discovered that several hundred WAAC radio operators and mechanics had been shipped under the old

T/O system to airfields that did not need

them. An individual search by name was

instituted to unearth them. Some women

were found suitably assigned to air-base

radio stations, or as code instructors in

schools such as the AAF Navigation

School at Hondo, Texas, but others who

were doing clerical work were carried off

by AACS. These were assigned in groups

of six or eight to operate AACS radio stations at airfields where a WAC unit was

located. Most female radio operators recruited by the AAF were also given to

AACS; when its needs still remained unfilled, AACS was also assigned Wacs without radio skills but of high intelligence and

promising background. At a special AACS

screening center, these women were tested

and those with any radio abilities were

sent to intensive training courses. Those

with college or research backgrounds were

trained as cryptographers, for which

women proved especially suitable because

of the exacting and monotonous nature

of the work.19

Control Tower Operators

Those with good diction and good

nerves, such as former teachers and telephone operators, were trained by AACS

as control tower operators, after a brief

dispute concerning whether females

should be given a position of such responsibility. Even the advanced British services

did not at this time use women in this

work.20 Some objectors feared that a

woman's voice would not be audible, that

women would become hysterical in emergencies and be unable to give the necessary landing directions, or that women's

training as control tower operators would

interfere with men's training. One AACS

region, in fact, put out a directive that

"under no circumstances will WAAC personnel be permitted to operate the microphone in an airways station or airdrome

control tower, or to operate on the net in

an airways station." AACS headquarters

quickly overruled the regional headquarters, stating that its need for personnel would require all qualified women

as well as men.

From the end of 1943 onward, Wacs

served successfully in these positions.

Pilots seemed to experience no difficulty in

following women's voices, and while no

major emergencies occurred to test WAC

operators' self-control, in several minor

18

 Ibid., pp. 12, 42, 66-67. Appendix shows 242

WAC weather specialists. 19

 Ibid., pp. 13, 31-32, 66. 20

 Memo, Sgt Goodwin for Col Hobby, 17 Apr 44,

re inquiry from Air Chief Marshal Frederick W. Bowhill. WDWAC 211 Control.
THE ARMY AIR FORCES 291

crashes they rerouted aircraft and directed rescue apparatus in a manner that

received praise. Colonel Bandel later reported, "Wacs love the work and have

been highly commended. There seems to

be no difference between men and women

in adaptability to this work."

 21

The only difficulty experienced by

AACS and Weather Wing in any of these

technical assignments was a purely administrative one: they considered their Wacs,

like their men, to be high-grade specialists

who should perform no kitchen police or

other duties for the unit with which they

lived, whereas the WAC units, being

smaller than men's units, seldom appreciated such exalted boarders, and demanded that these women share company

rules and company duties. When differences threatened to result in eviction, both

AACS and Weather Wing acquired WAC

staff directors, whose chief duties were to

travel continuously, persuading AACS

supervisors that specialists could without

damage be housekeepers, and convincing

WAC commanders that some shift workers

on exacting technical work might properly

be given a few concessions.22

Business Machine Operators

In 1944 another shortage developed,

that of skilled operators of business machines for AAF's statistical control units

throughout the United States. Available

trained men were required for mobile

overseas units, and the need eventually

became such that priority of assignment

was given for 1,000 Wacs for statistical

control work. Since few women skilled in

this work could be recruited, women with

suitable intelligence and aptitude were

chosen and sent to a six-week intensive

training course at the AAF School at

Orlando, Florida. Women proved especially apt at the work, although many

complaints were received concerning its

monotony and the refusal of statistical

control units to vary the duties or permit

transfer or rotation between stations.23

Link Trainer Instructors

Another popular technical job for Wacs

was that of Link trainer instructor. As

early as November of 1942, AAF headquarters had proposed the use of Waacs in

this work, since "Men suitable to act as

such instructors are rapidly disappearing

into officer candidate schools." Men

qualified to do the work often were pilots

or potential pilots themselves, and were

not content to remain as enlisted instructors, once trained. A number of Wacs

selected by local authorities were therefore

trained in the men's training school for

Link trainer instructors, and others

learned the work on the job; the duties

proved both successful and satisfying to

the women.24

Mechanics

Had hundreds of thousands of Wacs

been available, the AAF had planned to

train many women as mechanics, but

since all recruits obtainable were needed

for other jobs, and since the work was less

suitable because of women's lesser physical strength, no particular attempt was

made to train large numbers of them.

Nevertheless, several hundred women

21

 Memo, Air WAC Off for Asst Chief WAC Br

G-1, 19 Apr 44. WDWAC 211 Control. 22

 Ltr, forwarded to Hq AAF by 1st Ind, Hq

AACS, 4 Apr 45. AACS 220/1. 23

 AAF WAC Hist, p. 67. 24

 Ibid., p. 13.
292 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

with civilian skills, requiring no further

training, were assigned to the work. One

station, by way of experiment, successfully

set up an entire flight line staffed by some

sixty WAC mechanics.

Some WAC staff directors were extremely doubtful about such work because of what they termed the coarsening

effect on women of the average conversation encountered from men on most flight

lines. However, the assignment was the

only economical one for skilled women

from civilian employment in the aircraft

industry, and such women usually displayed a keen interest in assignment in

their specialty and in the advanced mechanical training open to them, regardless

of its effect on their vocabulary.

Medics

Some 6 percent of Air Wacs were medical specialists. Medical companies for

larger AAF hospitals were requested as

early as April and May of 1943, eighteen

months before the ASF adopted WAC

general hospital companies, but these had

to be refused at the time for lack of trained

WAAC personnel. As a result, no formally

organized WAC hospital companies were

ever employed by the AAF, which instead

used whatever workers were available—

clerks, receptionists, orderlies and medical

technicians—as part of regular squadrons.

These women were trained on the job instead of receiving special courses—a system that proved inferior to school instruction only in that it was necessary for

inspectors constantly to prod hospital

authorities to continue upgrading Wacs

instead of leaving them as untrained orderlies. Nevertheless, twelve different

medical Specification Serial Numbers

came to be held by AAF Wacs.25

Aircraft Warning Service

Another group of specialists, veterans in

length of service, were the approximately

1,000 women, remnants of the Aircraft

Warning Service, who continued to perform duties with Fighter Command stations along the eastern seaboard. Theoretically these duties were clerical; actually, until near the end of hostilities the

Wacs also continued to help in operations

and filter centers when civilian volunteers

defaulted. At the AAF School of Applied

Tactics at Orlando, Florida, 500 more

AWS veterans assisted in the aircraft

warning portion of the school's training

function. Women proved particularly

suitable for this work, which was both

monotonous and exacting, but as the danger of aerial invasion became more and

more remote, women began to complain

of fatigue after two or more years at this

work, and to request transfer to other

duties, which was seldom forthcoming.

Miscellaneous

In addition, some 5 percent of Air Wacs

were drivers; 4 percent, supply experts; 3

percent, photographic technicians; 2 percent, telephone and teletype operators.

Lesser numbers were radar operators,

armament specialists, carpenters, dietitians, and interpreters. College women

and others with responsible civilian experience were frequently assigned as

librarians, classification specialists, instructors, personnel clerks, vocational advisers, occupational therapists, reporters

and editors, and historians. The AAF's

flexible system of assigning Wacs made it

possible to fill special needs or to place un25

 Ibid., pp. 13, 36.
THE ARMY AIR FORCES 293

usual skills found in only a handful of

women: these included topographers,

cartographers, sanitary inspectors, geodetic computers, chemists, and many

others even more unusual.26 A former

watch repairwoman was trained in secret

bombsight maintenance; six photographic

airbrush artists illustrated technical manuals at Patterson Field; Russian interpreters found employment at ATC's Montana

terminal. In California, the WAC's only

dog trainer found that the AAF could also

provide dogs to train.27

Officers

WAC officers assigned to the Army Air

Forces were admitted to more than sixty

different types of jobs in addition to that of

company officer.28 These were all fullfledged officer jobs; as soon as WAC officers arrived in AAF headquarters, a written directive made it clear that they were

to replace commissioned officers only, and

specifically not warrant officers or civilians.

 29

The majority were given administrative

jobs in the fields of personnel, office management, mess, supply, and finance. Numbers were also found useful in jobs that involved dealing with people—special services, information and education, and

public relations. A few WAC officers by

the end of the war had worked up to positions of some responsibility; there was one

air-base judge advocate, one inspector

general, one base executive, and thirteen

who held the coveted Specification Serial

Number 2260, personnel staff officer.

Grades and Ratings

The wide scope of Air Forces jobs open

to Wacs, both officer and enlisted, could

be attributed chiefly to the AAF policy of

full integration and the resulting abolition

of all separate WAC grades, allotments,

and Tables of Organization. An AAF

Regulation stated, "Practices which tend

to apportion grades and promotions by

sex rather than by actual duty assignment

are undesirable, as they serve to impair

efficiency and morale."

 30

 Actually, when

the total was reckoned, men were found to

be far more highly rated than women, for

most AAF Wacs had come on the scene in

1943 and 1944 when most high grades had

already been distributed. Air Forces men

in the United States still had four times

the percentage of master sergeants' ratings that women did; twenty times the

percentage of technical sergeants; ten

times that of staff sergeants, and twice that

of sergeants. Among officers, men had five

times as great a percentage of field grade

officers as did women.31

It was Colonel Bandel's opinion that

there was no reason why late-arriving

Wacs should have had higher ratings than

the men who arrived in the same years,

and that Air Forces procedure "resulted

in greater freedom in utilizing Wacs and

men doing similar jobs," even though in

fewer guaranteed ratings for women.32

Toward the end of the war, officers of

AAF's Military Personnel Division became concerned about the fact that WAC

26

 Memo, Chief, Classif and Repl Br AGO, for Dir

WAC, 24 Apr 44. SPX 220.3 WAC (11-30-43)

OC-H, in WDWAC 201.6. 27

 See Table 5, Appendix A, for division by occupational groups of total enlisted AAF Wacs in zone

of the interior, 31 January 1945. The complete breakdown for both enlisted women and officers by SSN,

race, and air command is given in the report cited

n. 13(1). 28

 For a condensed summary of jobs held by AAF

WAC officers in the United States, 31 January 45, see

Table 6, Appendix A. 29

 AAF Hq Office Instr 35-25, 25 Sep 43. 30

 AAF Ltr 121-48, 29 Mar 45. 31

 AAF Stat Digest, Tables 9, 10, and 15. 32

 AAF WAC Hist, p. 34, n. 1.
294 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

officer grades included more first lieutenants and fewer second lieutenants than the

men, and wished to forbid promotion of

any more female second lieutenants. Air

WAC Division killed this idea by pointing

out that about 1,700 of the AAF's worldwide total of 1,900 WAC officers had come

to it in 1943. After this, the WAC officer

candidate school was virtually stopped,

and while the supply of newly commissioned male second lieutenants continued,

few more female second lieutenants were

received. The WAC officers had received

no more promotions than men who came

to the AAF in 1943. Air WAC Division

again pointed out that "separate" grades

for women would have led to injustice.

Overseas Assignment

In 1944 several air commands received

the hitherto unprecedented authority to

move Wacs to overseas stations without

reference either to the War Department or

to AAF headquarters.33 The AAF's Air

Transport Command was the first to win

permission to move its Wacs overseas as it

moved its men, without reference to usual

staging methods.34 Air Transport Command had soon picked up Wacs from domestic stations, staged them, and set them

down in Hawaii, Alaska, Bermuda, Labrador, England, Scotland, Wales, France,

Africa, and India. Army Airways Communications System and AAF Weather

Wing followed suit, attaching their Wacs

to any convenient ATC unit. The several

thousand women in these units, which remained under the command of the Army

Air Forces, were in addition to some seven

thousand Wacs furnished higher headquarters of combat air forces overseas.35

Such freedom of movement did not of

course apply to combat units; AAF headquarters was kept busy refusing the requests of fighter and bomber groups

trained in the United States who desired

to ship out complete with two or three

borrowed Wacs to whom they had become

accustomed. After the defeat of Germany

the U.S. Strategic Air Force was given

permission to ship out its Wacs as it

pleased, in its program to swing the bulk

of its air power to the Pacific. This was the

only combat organization to receive such

authority and only a few women were ever

shipped out in this manner.

Conclusion of Program

The high point of the AAF WAC program was reached in January of 1945,

with a peak strength of almost 40,000

women. In Colonel Bandel's opinion there

were few remaining difficulties in the employment of womanpower which the AAF

had not solved.

Her final report listed only four remaining problems. One of these was the housing situation. As a matter of economy,

initial mistakes in design could never be

corrected once barracks were built, although both AAF inspectors and surgeons

repeatedly objected. It was found that permanent employees like the Wacs suffered

greatly in health and efficiency from being

housed for two or three years in crowded 33

 Granted 10 Jun 44. AAF WAC Hist, pp. 74-81. 34

 Granted November 1943, ahead of blanket authority cited in preceding note. First ATC unit overseas was one to Hawaii, March 1944. 35

 WAC Pers with Air Forces Overseas, Jan 45,

Table 28, AAF Stat Digest, 1946:

European Theater.......................... . 2,835

Mediterranean............................. . 457

Pacific Ocean Areas......................... . 2

Far East Air Force .......................... . 694

China-Burma-India........................ . 287

Air Transport Comd ......................... . 2,755

Other (AACS, Etc).......................... . 285

Total. ................................ . 7,315
THE ARMY AIR FORCES 295

and flimsy temporary barracks with their

hand-fired coal stoves, designed primarily

for transient combat trainees. Another

unsolved problem was that of the selection

of WAC officers. The AAF felt that the

War Department system of sending all

candidates to a school for WAC troop officers was outdated, and that women should

have been selected and trained as men

were, in men's schools, except for those

who would actually administer Wacs.

Other unsolved problems were that of friction with civilian women workers, and

that of disputes over fraternization of officers and enlisted personnel of opposite

sexes; these could not be resolved within

the limits of Army organization in World

War II.36

None of these remaining problems was,

in Colonel Bandel's opinion, a serious

threat to the efficiency of the AAF WAC

program. She concluded:

There can be little doubt that women did

contribute many critically needed adminis- trative and clerical skills—not generally pos- sessed by men—to the AAF at a time when

there was a very great need for such skills... .

The WAC program in the Air Forces during

World War II was a part of the natural evolution toward the full employment of a nation's

manpower during a modern war.37

36

 See Chs. XXV and XXVII, below. 37

 AAF WAC Hist, pp. 94, 96, 97.
CHAPTER XVII

The Army Ground Forces

Although equal in echelon to the Army

Air Forces, the Army Ground Forces

offered a less favorable field for the employment of womanpower.1

 Ground

Forces units were chiefly tactical in nature,

depending upon the Army Service Forces

for supply and other services. Except for

its schools and replacement depots, the

AGF had few permanent installations under its jurisdiction in the United States.

There was some early debate within AGF

headquarters as to whether Waacs could

not be used to staff the rear echelons of

separate corps, thus giving "a continuity of

administration in the event a Corps is

ordered overseas," but this idea was not

approved. In general the WAAC was regarded as part of the Services of Supply,

even when a few units were attached for

duty at AGF installations.

It therefore came as an unexpected

problem when, on 1 May 1943, the War

Department formally assigned to AGF

and other commands the units previously

on loan from the ASF. The standard ASF

Table of Organization units were not particularly suitable for the needs of the AGF,

since most routine services were performed

for it by the ASF, and only highly skilled

typists and stenographers were wanted.

Upon her assignment as AGF WAC

Officer during the period of conversion to

Army status, Maj. Emily E. Davis visited

all AGF WAC units and found that the

only one with good morale was that at Fort

Riley, which had been sent out after the

end of the T/O system and thus fitted the

needs of the station. Others suffered from

malassignment and underutilization, and

also had not received full uniform issue or

been able to get salvage or repair of clothing. Some units were found to lack adequate housing and dayroom space, and

had no recreational or special services program. Two units were under the command

of WAC officers whom Major Davis pronounced "very weak" and immediately

replaced; in three months these commanders had not made the most elementary arrangements for the welfare of the

units.

For the remainder of the war the employment of Wacs in the AGF increased

slowly. Replacements for the 34 percent

losses of the conversion period were not

forthcoming until early 1944, and additional requisitions were at first few. AGF

headquarters voluntarily limited the number of Wacs by refusing all requests from

the District of Columbia or installations

"which are near large cities where they

can procure civilian personnel." Requests

from installations such as the Desert

Training Center were also disapproved as

unsuitable. Negro Wacs were rejected,

since it was believed that they could not

1

 This chapter draws heavily upon the AGF WAC

Hist, by the AGF WAC Officer, Colonel Davis. All

direct quotations in this chapter, unless otherwise indicated, are from this history.
THE ARMY GROUND FORCES 297

FIRST OFFICER EMILY E. DAVIS, right foreground, with Colonel Hobby and Colonel

McCoskrie on a tour of Fort Des Moines in June 1943.

be employed in sufficient numbers to

justify a detachment unless the War Department reconsidered their use to replace

civilians in the operation of kitchens,

dining halls, and cafeterias. For these

reasons, the total number of AGF Wacs

was never to be very great, at its peak

strength amounting to less than 2,000, one

twentieth of that employed by the Air

Forces or the Service Forces.2

Lt. Col. Emily E. Davis remained the

sole WAC representative in Headquarters,

AGF. Although her responsibility was parallel to that of the Air WAC Officer,

smaller numbers of women were assigned

to AGF, which never approved her request

for an assistant in its own headquarters. At

a later date a WAC staff director was

assigned to the AGF's largest field command, the Replacement and School Command, and another to the Antiaircraft

Command.

2

( 1 ) Ltr, Hq AGF to CofS, 1 Apr 43. GNGCT

320.2 WAAC. (2) For complete statistics on receipt of

personnel by station by month, see AGF WAC Hist,

Vol. II, App. XX. Peak strength in this chart appears

as 1,950 women. See also Table 4, Appendix A.
WOMEN ASSIGNED TO THE ARMY GROUND FORCES work alongside

soldiers at Camp Davis, North Carolina, above; WAAC ex-school teachers outline courses for the

enlisted personnel elementary school at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, below.
THE ARMY GROUND FORCES 299

AGF WAC Jobs

Wacs with the Army Ground Forces

worked gradually into positions more

diversified than the original assignments

had promised. AGF requisitions continued

to ask for women with a high degree of

skill in some administrative or technical

field, with the result that only 14 percent

of its total enlisted women were in the two

lowest AGCT classifications; the other 86

percent were in the top three groups, with

47 percent of enlisted women having the

scores required of officers. These considerably surpassed the scores of Wacs in any

other domestic command. A special arrangement was made whereby, if the AGF

was accidentally assigned a Wac lacking

in skill or aptitude, she was immediately

reassigned to another command.

These women gravitated naturally toward a station's more responsible positions, especially since they were relatively

more permanent employees than the enlisted men, not being subject to withdrawal for combat service. Wacs were

finally assigned to every major training

installation of the Army Ground Forces,

both schools and replacement training

centers: infantry, cavalry, field artillery,

coast artillery, antiaircraft, tank destroyer,

airborne, and armored force. They were

also assigned to two overseas-replacement

depots. Over 70 percent of the Wacs' jobs

in these installations were clerical and administrative; others were technical, professional, mess, supply, or automotive.3

Type of Duty Percent

Total ............................. . 100.0

Administrative and Clerical. .............. . 72.0

Automotive ............................ . 8. 9

Technical and Professional................ . 8.2

Mess .................................. . 5. 4

Supply ................................ . 4. 8

Radio and Communications ............... . 0.7

Replacement Depot

One of the largest AGF WAC units was

at the Ground Forces Replacement Depot,

Fort Meade, Maryland, where over 400

women were assigned. To handle the tremendous volume of overseas replacements,

a "belt line" process was established, by

which each man's records were passed

down a line where each checker took care

of a single item. This process resulted in

extreme accuracy but extreme monotony;

it was performed on a twenty-four-hour

basis, in shifts of from eight to twelve

hours, depending on the load. It was reported that "WAC personnel became

proficient in this type of operation, and as

general-service men were released for

overseas duty, they became the section

heads of many of these processing departments."

In addition, many Wacs were used in

training regiments in clerical capacities.

WAC tabulating machine operators were

in great demand by the Machine Records

Unit, so much so that some showing aptitude were especially trained in the work,

but the total number desired was never

obtainable. Instead, many of the women

recruited under the station-and-job plan

with a promise of assignment to Fort

Meade were so lacking in clerical aptitude

as to be untrainable for the processing of

papers, and 115 of them were used in the

motor pool as dispatchers, drivers, mechanics, and attendants.

Antiaircraft Artillery School

In the Antiaircraft Command Wacs

performed a variety of duties on the firing

ranges where trainees were taught the

3

 Complete list of installations is given in AGF

WAC Hist, Vol. I, pp. 47-48.
300 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

principles of antiaircraft defense. At some

antiaircraft firing points the entire training operation, with the exception of technical supervision by male officers, was

handled by enlisted women: WAC control

tower operators kept the tow-target plane

on the course, while other Wacs gave the

fire signal over the field telephone, and

WAC mathematicians computed the correct angle of fire and the accuracy of fire.

Other AGF Schools

At the Field Artillery School, a few

Wacs were used as control tower operators

to guide liaison planes. At the Armored,

Field Artillery, and Cavalry Schools, Wacs

were employed as radio mechanics, taking

care of records and requisitions involving

radio equipment, and repairing and installing radios in tanks, bantams, and

other vehicles, both in camps and in

bivouac areas. Other Wacs were radio operators and instructors in the Cavalry and

Armored Schools, and in the communications school of the Field Artillery School,

training men in code sending and

receiving.

At the Parachute School, Fort Benning,

Georgia, over one hundred women were

utilized in the parachute rigging and

maintenance sections. Women originally

recruited for this work, under the stationand-job plan, were former textile mill

workers and did not prove very apt, some

40 percent being unable to complete the

training, with the average female rigger

being able to rig only six chutes daily, as

compared to ten rigged by the average

man. Women were not allowed to jump

with the chutes they had packed, as men

were required to do, on the grounds that

this was not an essential part of the job for

a woman, but were allowed to fly with

paratrooper trainees and watch them jump

with chutes the women had packed. After

station-assignment recruiting was discontinued and the requirements raised,

women developed greater proficiency in

this work and ultimately were considered

"equally qualified with male personnel in

rigging and better qualified in maintenance."

Women served also at various stations

in such varied jobs as proofreaders on

technical manuals, as photographic technicians, as sewing machine operators in a

book stitching shop, as translators for the

preparation of language courses, and as

motion picture projectionists in training

classes. One woman, as chief clerk of a

department, was responsible for keeping

track of its officer and enlisted personnel

and 300 trainees, for checking the contents

of all incoming and outgoing papers, for

the computation of rations needed, and for

maintaining records of completion of

qualification courses. Another, a classification clerk, assigned all male cadre returned from overseas. One was personal

secretary to two generals and a colonel.

Another secretary prepared reports and

took all testimony concerning cases

brought before a board of officers.

Staff directors on field visits made a

point of checking such job assignments

against actual skills. While typists were

usually well assigned, stenographers were

frequently found to be dissatisfied, and

staff directors reported, "The failure of

staff officers to use stenographic ability

persisted through the entire period of the

war." Many complained of not being

busy, saying, "I feel that the Wacs could

handle much more work than is given

them," or, "It is said there are five persons

to each Army job and that statement

seems believable." With these and a few
THE ARMY GROUND FORCES 301

other exceptions, the classification of enlisted women was, by 1945, pronounced

"excellent" by the staff director.

Experiment With Mixed Tactical Units

The only official experiment with mixed

tactical units in the United States was the

early one made with antiaircraft artillery

units under the actual command of the

Military District of Washington. This experiment was made in spite of the objection of the Judge Advocate General that it

would involve "assignment to combat

units" and was thus probably illegal.

However, the British experience in such

mixed units had proved satisfactory, and

the Antiaircraft Artillery (AAA) desired

the action.4 Civilian volunteers would

otherwise have been required, and this involved difficulties of administration, discipline, control, and efficiency. Also, as

the Army Service Forces noted, "it takes

about ten volunteers to take the place of

one soldier."

 5

No publicity was permitted on this

project, partly because the unit was itself

highly secret in nature, equipped with

radar, height finders, fire directors, and

other such apparatus, and partly lest

WAAC recruiting should be harmed by

mistaken notions that women were to fire

guns or sleep in the men's barracks. The

experiment actually offered little grounds

for alarm, for the "tactical" unit in question appeared firmly rooted in the vicinity

of Washington, D.C., and was "mixed"

only during the working day, the Waacs

enjoying their customary separate housekeeping at night.

In accordance with General Marshall's

verbal instructions, two WAAC companies, totaling 10 officers and over 200

enrolled women, reported to the area in

December 1942. With these, the AAA was

directed to organize two composite batteries using women in at least 55 percent

of the jobs, and to work out Tables of Organization showing exactly which jobs in

AAA batteries, battalions, and regiments

could be held by women, and whether the

whole idea was workable.

The women concerned were carefully

selected for their high AGCT test scores,

although actually the AAA discovered

that women of less ability could have performed certain routine jobs as well and felt

less bored. They were never assigned a tactical mission, but did participate in the

Eastern Defense Command's tactical problem. The women were not assigned to fire

guns, nor were they given small-arms

training. They were not assigned to outlying searchlight positions because of the isolation and the fact that the public would

have observed the experiment. They were

assigned to operate various instruments

and machines, as well as to perform clerical

duties, and the entire range section was

completely manned by Waacs. The AAA

reported, "WAAC personnel exhibited an

outstanding devotion to duty, willingness

and ability to absorb and grasp technical

information concerning the problems of

maintenance and tactical disposition of all

types of equipment." Little administrative

difficulty was reported, although separate

housing was of course required, and there

were separate dayrooms for men and

women plus one for mixed groups.

4

 Cable 1101,12 Aug 42, Eisenhower for Marshall,

replies to Cable 2890, Marshall for Eisenhower, and

gives data on use of ATS in AAA mixed batteries.

Handwritten Ind, CofS, directs information be sent

to G-1, G-3, Mrs. Hobby, Brig Gen Thomas H.

Green, Maj Gen John T. Lewis, CG MDW. CofS

291.9. 5

 Memo, DGofAdm Serv for CG SOS, 18 Nov 42.

SPAAS 320, Sp Coll DRB AGO.
302 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

At the conclusion of the experiment

some months later, a full report was rendered to the War Department as to the

possibilities of using women in such duties.

The report concluded:

WAAC personnel can be used in performing many of the tasks of the Antiaircraft Artillery. They are superior to men in all functions

involving delicacy of manual dexterity, such

as operation at the director, height finder,

radar, and searchlight control systems. They

perform routine repetitious tasks in a manner

superior to men. . . . The morale of women used in the AAA was generally high due to

the fact that they felt that they were making

a direct contribution to the successful prosecution of the war.6

As a result, the AAA requested that it be

allowed to retain WAAC personnel and be

given ten times more, to the extent of 103

officers and 2,315 enrolled women.

Since the need for antiaircraft protection in the area had subsided, G-3 Division decided instead that the most

profitable immediate use for Waacs was in

overhead installations to replace combatfit men. With Colonel Hobby's concurrence, G-3 therefore directed that the

AAA units be dissolved, their personnel

reassigned, and records preserved to permit reactivation of such units should

future need arise. This action was taken,

over the protest of the AAA. Records were

filed for future use, and G-3 Division concluded that "The experiment which has

been conducted of employing WAAC personnel in antiaircraft artillery units has

demonstrated conclusively the practicability of using members of the Corps in that

role."

 7

Problems of Full Integration

Except in the one tactical unit, considerably more difficulty was encountered in

achieving full integration of women into

the Army Ground Forces than was the case

in the AAF. From the enlisted women's

viewpoint, the most visible distinction was

the matter of insignia, in which it was the

Ground Forces policy for women to

wear WAC insignia instead of that which

would have been worn by a man in the

same assignment.

A more important handicap to integration, in the AGF staff director's opinion,

was her inability to secure a merger of

personnel allotments. Although allotments

from the War Department no longer were

divided into male and female, AGF headquarters continued to divide them, setting

aside for each WAC detachment the exact

number of grades the old WAAC Table of

Organization had specified. These were

designed for an ordinary ASF unit with

many unskilled workers, and were somewhat modest for the average highly skilled

AGF unit, allowing only 5 or 6 in each

unit of 150 to hold one of the first three

grades, and requiring about 80 to remain

privates. These grades, however modest,

were the sole property of the Wacs and

were not interchangeable. Stations soon

protested this lack of flexibility. The

Armored Replacement Training Center

wrote:

When we first received this company it

was felt that our women were not qualified

for the ratings in competition with the men,

and our staff officers desired to give the ratings to men, which of course, we could not

do. Now, with our expansion, the reverse is

true . . . there are 41 privates in the WAC

detachment, and we feel that most of these

would be T/5's if all our ratings were pooled and they were in direct competition with the

6

 MDW Narrative Rpt, 10 Jul 43. 324.5 (151st

WAAC Tech Co). Cited in mimeographed history,

The Military District of Washington in the War Years

(1942-1945), by William H. Cartwright Jr. Copy in

OCMH. 7

 Memo, G-3 for CofS, 7 Jul 43. WDGCT 291.9

WAC.
THE ARMY GROUND FORCES 303

men. . . . Eventually our most competent administrative personnel will undoubtedly be

women; some thought should be given to this

and the War Department should initiate

some policy.

The AGF WAC Officer therefore

recommended that no separate grades be

allotted for women, except cadre, but that

grades be open to men and women alike.

AGF's G-3 did not concur, and its system

was continued throughout the war, with

the modification that a revision of the

WAC allotment could be obtained by any

station upon formal request to Headquarters, AGF. Concerning this, AGF's Replacement and School Command protested that "such a recommendation

requires extra paper work and loss of time.

Normally, changes will be made only

when a number of desired changes have

accumulated, and individuals deserving

of higher grades suffer from the lapse of

time." AGF Replacement Depot 1 sent a

similar protest. These protests from the

field convinced AGF's G-1 Division, but

not G-3, which maintained:

Since WAC personnel are in a more permanent status . . . and since they are used in

large proportions in administrative job as- signments where higher ratings tend to be

concentrated, the proposed directive will

tend to filter WAC personnel toward the

higher grades and will exclude opportunity

for male personnel returning from combat

who may be qualified for such jobs. Although

opportunity should be given all WAC per- sonnel to qualify for promotion, it is believed

that the present system should be continued

as a means of control.

The separate allotments were therefore

continued. This matter of ratings was a

common cause of complaint among

women. One wrote:

Many Wacs have taken over positions

vacated by enlisted men and are performing

the duties well, but due to current directives

cannot be promoted to the grade they are

occupying. ... I believe that a Wac should be

given the grade which belongs to the job.

The actual result of this policy was the

opposite of that expected. As large numbers of highly rated men were returned

from overseas, all male grade allotments

were soon exceeded and male promotions

were frozen, whereas Wacs, with a separate allotment and few WAC returnees,

still received promotions. AGF Wacs soon

came to have higher ratings than those in

any other domestic command. Even so,

the AGF WAC Officer continued to

recommend that allotments be merged,

saying that to promote AGF Wacs when

men working with them in identical jobs

could not be promoted "obviously had unfair implications from a practical point of

view in the field."

Well after the end of the war, in October of 1945, Colonel Davis finally obtained

publication of her 1943 recommendations:

"Grades for enlisted men and enlisted

women, other than detachment overhead,

will be interchangeable without reference

to this headquarters."

In the opinion of AGF staff directors,

the failure to integrate womanpower,

either in insignia or in grades, caused

some loss of esprit among AGF Wacs. One

enlisted woman wrote, "If the Army

Ground Forces wants us to like it, why not

give us an incentive?" Another said, "I am

sorry to say that the girls in the other

branches of the Service appear to have

more to do, more responsible work, and

are given more credit for the jobs they do."

Like men serving under the same conditions, many objected to the more severe

AGF discipline. One wrote, "I believe the

Wacs in the AGF are disciplined far more

than the Air Wacs and Service Force

Wacs," and another added, "I cannot

understand why we have less privileges

and more severe discipline than the Air
304 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

and Service Force Wacs. Restrictions concerning bedcheck, uniforms, dating officers, are more rigidly enforced, bordering

in some cases on downright pettiness and

hair-splitting."

One of the Ground Forces' characteristics that women found peculiarly objectionable was its policy of permitting very

little transfer or rotation for women, and

almost no overseas assignment. When the

War Department directed the release of

women for shipment overseas, the newest

arrivals on a station were usually sent,

partly because their low ratings fitted the

requisitions, and partly because they were

not as yet highly trained and indispensable.

One woman wrote, "Wacs do not rotate

every year as the enlisted men do; the

coveted overseas assignments go to the

lower-ranking women, so here we sit year

in and year out, same post, same job,

which might account for our sinking

morale." Dozens of women supported this

view; one added, "as a matter of fact, this

detachment has begun to be known as the

Lost Battalion." Many who had no desire

to go overseas believed that rotation of

some sort was desirable. One enlisted

woman summarized the general lack of

esprit by concluding that "the lack of

imagination on the part of some of the

Regular Army men and their failure to

understand that morale is based, among

other things, on recognition of ability and

the proper reward for such ability, has

undoubtedly played a big part in the

failure of the AGF WAC recruiting drive."

Effect of Manpower Shortages

Toward the end of the war, there began

to be evident in the AGF a noticeable improvement in the integration of female

military personnel. In part this change

originated with the commanders of AGF

installations in the United States at the

time of severe personnel shortages. The

manpower shortages of late 1943 and 1944

found the Ground Forces in the worst personnel situation of any major command,

eventually requiring the emergency transfer of thousands of men from the Air

Forces and Service Forces. At this time,

and especially when the War Department

required the shipment overseas of all general service men, many AGF stations

began to show increased interest in obtaining WAC units. There was by this date

little prospect of obtaining them, because

of recruiting difficulties and increased

competition from other commands.

The War Department's decision was

that incoming WAC recruits would be divided among the three major commands

according to the number of requisitions on

file from each; the AGF's requisitions

being less than 3 percent of the total, only

3 of every 100 women recruited were sent

to AGF. This trickle was reduced still further when the War Department authorized

branch recruiting, since the Army Ground

Forces did not at first elect to recruit. In

the first four months of 1944, the Ground

Forces got only 20 branch recruits, as

against the Air Forces 5,000; in addition,

some 3,000 women enlisted without

promise of a branch, and of these the AGF

got only 3 percent, or about 90 women.

The AGF considered the assignment of

recruiters as wasteful, and turned to efforts

to get more Wacs without expenditure.

First, the War Department was persuaded

to give the AGF some 100 Wacs left surplus when the Eastern Defense Command

was inactivated. Next, in April of 1944,

the AGF requested the War Department

to give it 8 percent instead of 3 percent of
THE ARMY GROUND FORCES 305

all recruits. This the War Department

refused to do, since the increase would

have meant a reduction in the shipments

to other commands which had earlier

demonstrated faith in Wacs and had made

their housing plans accordingly.8

In July, the Army Ground Forces appealed again to the General Staff for a

"more equitable distribution," asking that

it be given almost all of the general assignment recruits, which were then being divided among the three major commands.

This was opposed by other commands

and by The Adjutant General, who

pointed out that it would penalize the

AAF and ASF, which had sent out recruiting teams when the AGF had not. However, it was agreed to grant the AGF a

special favor, in recognition of its manpower shortages; it might recruit for job

and branch in all service commands,

whether it had a station there or not.9 AGF

now at last assigned small numbers of its

own personnel to obtain recruits, and sent

out station teams under the station-andjob recruiting system. The teams did not

prove particularly adept at selection, and

the desired type of recruit was not always

obtained until after the station-assignment

plan was ended.

As AGF personnel shortages continued,

the War Department was finally obliged

to increase its quota from 3,690 to 7,500,

thus giving it a larger share of incoming

recruits.10 In early 1945 it was necessary

to give AGF a further concession: that of

dropping the previous system of apportionment of recruits, and acceding to the

Ground Forces' request not only for top

priority on WAC recruits but for the first

choice on the scarce clerical skills. By this

means, stenographers, typists, and clerks

were diverted from other commands and

sent to fill the AGF quota.

At the time of the Ground Forces'

greatest crisis, the Battle of the Bulge,

AGF WAC units were ordered withdrawn

from its less active stations, such as those

of the Antiaircraft Command, and rushed

to stations where a heavy load was expected, particularly to combat infantry

replacement training installations.11

Wacs also were relied upon in the great

overseas replacement depot at Fort

Meade, where it was stated that the

women now "formed the backbone of the

administrative organization of the installation, particularly since enlisted men in the

headquarters were comparatively new

because of the enforced rotation policies

for men established by the War Department." Immediately after V-E Day, the

women at Fort Meade were hastily transferred across the country to Replacement

Depot 4 at Camp Adair, Oregon, to meet

the expected heavy shipments to the

Pacific. When V-J Day halted the expected rush of replacements westward

and the west coast depot was inactivated,

the Wacs were promptly shipped back to

Replacement Depot 1, now at Camp

Pickett, upon the insistence of the commanding officer of that installation.

At about this time the last major headquarters refusing to use Wacs—Army

Ground Forces headquarters in Wash8

 D/F, G-1 for TAG through CofS, 31 May 44. See

Incl and M/R. CofS 324.5 WAC. 9

 Memo, ASF for TAG, 11 Jul 44. SPGAC 341 Gen

(7-11-44)-69. History of proposal summarized here,

and disapproved by SW, in SPAP 341 WAAC (2-

26-43). 10

 AGF WAC Hist, Vol. I, pp. 42-46, gives history

of allotments. 11

 By May of 1945, 42 percent of AGF Wacs were in

Infantry installations, 21 percent at Overseas Replacement Depots, and 30 percent divided among

Armored, Field Artillery, Cavalry, and Tank Destroyer Training installations.
306 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ington, D. C.—also yielded to the problem

of the shortage of expert clerical help, and

brought enlisted women into Washington.

These women quickly became an integral

part of a number of offices, so that the

headquarters decided to retain them

permanently and move them with it to

Fort Monroe.

The close of the war was to see a complete reversal of original policy, with the

Army Ground Forces taking the lead in

urging a postwar WAC component, and

spearheading the demand for a Regular

Army WAC. "The services of these women

proved of direct assistance in winning the

war," observed one staff study, "A far

greater number could have been effectively employed." Another study alleged:

"Economical, efficient, and spirited results

are achieved in military installations

where both male and female personnel are

on duty."
CHAPTER XVIII

The Army Service Forces

The Army's third major command, the

Army Service Forces, had by mid-1944

been assigned some 40 percent of the

WAC's enlisted women, including training center cadre. Upon the departure of

Colonel Hobby's office for the General

Staff level, the position of ASF WAC Officer was established, parallel to that of

Colonel Bandel in the Army Air Forces

and Colonel Davis in the Army Ground

Forces. The first and only incumbent was

Lt. Col. Katherine R. Goodwin, formerly

staff director of the First Service Command and personnel officer in the Office

of the Director WAC. Her office was located in that of the ASF Director of Personnel, General Dalton, but she had advisory powers direct to General Somervell

on nonpersonnel matters. Because of its

late beginning and because the ASF did

not desire separate statistical studies for

women, Colonel Goodwin's office had

only one assistant.1

In the field, each of the nine service

commands and the Military District of

Washington continued to have its own

WAC staff director. For a time the staff director's office was under the service command's director of personnel, until later

raised by an ASF circular to the immediate office of the commanding general of

the service command. In those commands

which Colonel Goodwin considered the

most successful in recruiting and public

relations, notably the Third and Seventh,

the staff director also conducted periodic

conferences of WAC company officers and

recruiters in the area in order to improve

efficiency and spread the latest information on personnel practices.2

The numbers of Wacs assigned to each

service command varied greatly, from

scarcely more than 1,000 in the First to

2,000 in the Eighth and more than 4,000

in the Fourth, which operated a training

center. In general these were organized in

regular post headquarters companies

which, although no longer required to be

identical, contained similar clerical and

administrative personnel to help staff the

post.3

Enlisted

Service Command Officers Women

First ........................... . 110 1,150

Second ......................... . 120 1,371

Third .......................... . 180 1,287

Fourth ......................... . 600 a 4,600

Fifth ........................... . 65 1,500

Sixth........................... . 170 1,140

Seventh ......................... . 480

 a 2,800

Eighth.......................... . 240 2,190

Ninth .......................... . 300 1,500

Military District of Washington ..... . 50 1,050 a

 Including training center.

1

 Distribution, Versatility, and Excellence of Wacs

Serving with ASF, a 10-page summary prepared by

Colonel Goodwin a year before the end of the war.

Atchd to Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 23 Sep 44,

WDWAC 341, in SPAP 341 WAC (11-6-43). Unless

otherwise stated, references are to this, by brief title,

ASF WAC Summary. See Table 4, Appendix A. 2

 Interv with Lt Col Katherine Goodwin, 2 May 51. 3

 ASF WAC Summary.
308 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

LT. COL. KATHERINE R. GOODWIN (center) visits the Signal Corps photographic

laboratory at Camp Hood, Texas, August 1944.

Other Wacs were allotted directly to the

various ASF technical services such as the

Signal Corps, for duty on Class II installations under the jurisdiction of the technical service, although located within the

service command. Each of these services

ordinarily had a WAC staff director, and

sometimes several, as in the case of the

Transportation Corps and its various

ports. The ASF administrative services,

such as The Adjutant General's Department, seldom had staff directors or assigned WAC personnel, since they had few

if any Class II installations; personnel in

their specialty was ordinarily assigned as

part of post headquarters companies.

In this far-flung organization, existing

records gave little clue to the exact jobs

filled by Wacs and the exact numbers of

Wacs in each job. Wacs on Class II installations, such as those of the Signal Corps,

might accurately be assumed to be working for that service, but not all were necessarily in communications duties. Similarly,

Wacs in post headquarters companies

might be working for the post headquarters, but they might also be in suboffices of

the administrative services, such as the

post judge advocate, or in Quartermaster

Corps, Signal Corps, Medical Corps, or

other technical work not under the technical services allotment.
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 309

Even though exact statistics thus were

never gathered, it was known that the

Army Service Forces, as its name implied,

offered large numbers of noncombat jobs

intrinsically suitable for women, and that

Wacs at the height of the war had worked

their way into a wide variety of them.

Especially from the individual administrative and technical services, some conclusions could be obtained as to the relative success and suitability of the duties.

The Signal Corps

The first of the Army Service Forces'

agencies to request Wacs was, according

to its own undisputed claims, the Signal

Corps.4 Even in World War I the Chief

Signal Officer reported:

Our experience in Paris with the untrained

and undisciplined English-speaking French

women operators and experience elsewhere

with the willing but untrained men operators

was almost disastrous. The remarkable

change in the character of the service at General Headquarters and other points when the

American women operators took over was

one of the features of the Signal Corps work

of the times.5

In spite of this early enthusiasm, the

Signal Corps experienced numerous delays and difficulties in launching a successful program to employ Waacs in World

War II. In part this early delay resulted

from a strong distrust of the Auxiliary

status. In the earliest conferences the chief

exponent of this view was Col. Henry L. P.

King, Military Personnel Branch, Office

of the Chief Signal Officer, who feared loss

of trained personnel if the WAAC Director

had command powers. In addition to

seeking assignment and transfer control,

the Signal Corps asked that the women

wear Signal Corps insignia, that their

units be designated Signal Corps and not

WAAC, and that communications training be given by the Signal Corps and not

by WAAC training centers.

Such proposals for integration were

deemed by the War Department illegal

under the Auxiliary status, with the exception of the matter of technical training.

WAAC Headquarters proved agreeable to

abandoning its plans for a communications specialists school at WAAC training

centers in order that the Signal Corps

might send qualified personnel to whatever Signal Corps schools were indicated.

The Director also gave reassurance that—

as was later to be demonstrated—she

would never move any such unit, once assigned. At this, the Chief Signal Officer

expressed in writing his appreciation of

the concession and added:

It is felt that as a result of the co-operation

given ... by the Women's Army Auxiliary

Corps, the way has been opened for the release of needed enlisted men to field units

and for a more extensive use of WAAC personnel.6

4

 Unless otherwise specified, statements through

1943 are from (1) Narrative OCSigO, Activities in

Connection with WAAC or WAC Pers for Signal

Corps Duty, October 1943, DRB AGO. Hereafter

cited as SigC WAC Narrative. (See Bibliographical

Note.) (2) Bound folder, WAAC Pers on Signal Corps

Duty, Tab 1, Policy of CSigO Regarding WAAC Pers;

loaned historian by Capt Jane Reeves, SigC WAC

Stf Dir, 3 May 46, present location unknown. Hereafter cited as SigC Stf Dir file. (3) Interviews with:

Maj Walter F. McDonald, SigC, OCSigO; Col Donald

H. Nelson, OCSigO, Maj James L. Clark, OCSigO;

Mr. Bruce W. Quisenberry, PRO, OCSigO; Lt

Norma J. Fisher, OCSigO; Maj Charlotte E. Rhodes,

former CO 334 1st Sig Serv Co, Germany, and 17th

Sig Co, Ft Myer, Va.; all on 19 Sep 49; Capt Barbara

Rodes, WAC Stf Dir, G-2, 22 Mar 46. 5

 Rpt, CSigO to SW, 1919, extract in Memo, Chief

MPD SigC for Adm Div SigC, 29 Sep 42. SigC 320.2

WAC. 6

 Memo, Brig Gen Charles M. Milliken, OCSigO,

for Dir WAAC, 26 Oct 42. SPWA 320.2 (10-26-42),

unnumbered folder, Signal Corps, G-1 WD WAC

files.
310 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Proceeding with enthusiasm, the Signal

Corps not only requisitioned Waacs for its

Class II installations, but requested that

all service commands be directed to requisition Waacs in every one of certain listed

communications duties under their jurisdiction. Additional sweeping estimates

were submitted to the Army Service

Forces, as they had been periodically since

the WAAC was organized, proposing to

use women in literally every Signal Corps

activity, from mixed tactical units to

pigeon companies.7

The most important immediate proposal was that the WAAC aid in what

came to be called the WIRES plan (Women in Radio and Electrical Service). Currently enrolled in Signal Corps schools

were some 30,000 civilians, receiving free

training and allowances during three- to

six-month courses in radio and switchboard operation and related skills. Men in

such courses were in the enlisted reserve

and could be called to active duty upon

successful graduation, but women graduates were necessarily hired as civilians,

with the possibility that once trained they

would seek better-paid jobs elsewhere. Use

of the WAAC inactive reserve thus appeared a logical solution, and was generally agreeable to the women; a group at

one school organized themselves as the first

WIRES and appealed to Director Hobby

to admit them. Upon the request of the

Signal Corps, WAAC officers were dispatched to make necessary arrangements.8

Unsuitable Organizations and Locations

These extensive plans were shortly

checked by the discovery that, while most

Signal Corps jobs were perfectly suitable

in themselves, they could not be given to

Waacs without violation of numerous War

Department policies on assignments for

women. Since most Signal Corps jobs on

Army posts were performed by civilians,

the Signal Corps informed the Director

that it would be necessary to rescind the

ruling that Waacs would not replace civilians. There were also about 1,500 Signal

Corp enlisted men who might have been

replaced, but these were in small scattered

detachments, the majority at stations

where no WAAC unit existed. Therefore,

the Signal Corps also asked the War Department to rescind the ruling that enlisted women would not be sent to any station without a WAAC barracks and commander for their adequate housing,

supply, and protection.9

Both of these efforts were unsuccessful,

since neither of these policies was ever to

be relaxed by the War Department. Another point of dispute was the fact that

Waacs, as civilians, could be assigned only

to a WAAC unit and not to the Signal

Corps; thus, the assignment of Signaltrained Waacs was a prerogative of the

post commander and not the Signal

Corps, and the WAAC Director could not

guarantee their correct assignment.

On the other hand, the Signal Corps insisted that the WAAC must "guarantee

them assignment on a communications

basis and none other," and Colonel King

wrote, "Tell the WAAC that since Signal

7

 (1) Stf Study, Maj J. K. Cunningham for G-1, 4

Nov 42. SPGAM 320.2 WAAC (9-15-42), in WD

G-1 321 WAC. (2) Memo, CG ASF for CofS USA, 17

Jun 42. WD G-1 320.2 WAC (6-12-42), Tab A. 8

 (1) WDBPR Press Release, 9 Jan 43. (2) Ltr, Miss

Stella Gunning, Pres WIRES, Trinidad Junior

College, Colo., to Dir WAAC, 20 Nov 42, with Ind,

Dir WAC to SigC. SigC 320.2 WAAC. 9

 (1) Memo, Maj. W. K. St. Clair, MPD OCSigO,

for Chief MPB, 14 Oct 44. SPSMP 320.2 WAAC, in

unnumbered folder, Signal Corps, WAC files. (2)

Memo, Chief MPB OCSigO for Actg CSigO, 19 Oct

42, SigC 320.2 WAC. (3) R&W Slip, Action 1, SigC

Aux Br for MPD SigC, 9 Jul 42. SigC 320.2 WAAC.
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 311

Corps money is being used to train Wires

we mean to keep same either as civil service employees or Wacks."

 10

Colonel King therefore returned to

efforts to secure transfer of command from

the Director to the Signal Corps, in the

belief that the Signal Corps could then

assign Waacs to replace civilians and to

stations without WAAC companies. He

wrote memoranda and made personal

visits to most of the other technical and

administrative services, urging their concerted action against the War Department

policies involved. Securing the agreement

of some, and noncommittal replies from

others, he then attempted to call an ASF

conference to force the issue.11

The Army Service Forces did not comply with the request, since it was at the

time awaiting General Staff decisions as

to the Corps' future status and size, and

was unable to give the Signal Corps much

more satisfaction than had WAAC Headquarters. At this time the Signal Corps

noted, "The situation became so complicated that it was not known how requisitions were to be submitted, or how to procure Waacs for any type of installation

under the Chief Signal Officer."

 12

Such squabbles over maximum replacement proved doubly futile, in that the

numbers of WAAC recruits were never to

be such as to warrant extension of employment to questionable locations or to

replace civilians. The immediate result

was that the Signal Corps delayed in

opening its schools to Waacs, the WIRES

plan lagged for some six months without

action, and the Signal Corps established

only the schools already agreed upon—

three radio schools at civilian institutions,

to provide radio operators for the AAF.

Thus, the first WAAC communications

specialists to reach the field went in post

headquarters units and—other than radio

operators—without Army training in Signal skills, relying wholly upon their civilian background. Recruiters continued to

accept volunteers in Signal skills, and

training centers to send them out, without

much knowledge of actual needs.13

Signal Duties in the Field

Among the first communications specialists to reach the field were the bilingual

telephone operators in the first overseas

unit, which reached North Africa in January of 1943. Two WAAC officers also

went to the Eighth Air Force in England,

even before arrival of the European theater staff director, to plan for Signal Corps

Waacs in that command. A considerable

percentage of the first WAAC unit to

reach England consisted of telephone operators and other communications personnel, sent with the approval of the Chief

Signal Officer but without Army technical

training.

At about this time, the first units began

to reach the Signal Corps' own installations in the United States. First to arrive,

10

 (1) Comments to R&W Sheet, MPD OCSigO to

Chief, 17 Nov 42; (2) R&W Sheet, Entry 1, Capt

Kenneth E. BeLieu to Col King, 8 Dec 42. SigC 320.2

WAAC. 11

 Ltrs, Chief MPB OCSigO to Chiefs of Mil Br,

CE, Ord Dept, 10 Nov 42, with incl; replies by 1st

Inds. SigC 320.2 WAAC. 12

 SigC WAC Narrative; also R&W Slip, Capt

BeLieu, MPB OCSigO for Chief, 9 Dec 42. SigC 320.2

WAAC. 13

 (1) Story of further WIRES planning: Stf Study,

Capt BeLieu, MPB OCSigO, 15 Dec 42, with covering memos. SigC 322 WAC 1943. Memo, 2d O M.

McCull for Dir WAAC, 5 Jan 43. Unnumbered folder,

Signal Corps, WAC files. R&W Slip, Entry 1, Maj

John W. Ramsey, SigC, for Exec OCSigO, 6 Jan 43.

SigC 322 WAC 1943. Memo, 2d Os Brainerd and

McCull for Dir WAAC, 11 Feb 43, with Incl and Inds.

Unnumbered folder, Signal Corps, WAC files. (2) Two

WDBPR Press Releases, 10 Dec 42, and 14 Apr 43.
312 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

in March of 1943, were units assigned to

Camp Crowder, Missouri, which by the

end of the WAAC totaled some 489 enrolled women and 100 officers. Another

unit under Signal Corps control went to

Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, in June, and

still others were on requisition. However,

most women in these units were not technical specialists, but clerical and overhead

workers to aid in running the schools.14

From the first there was no doubt of

these units' success in the assigned duties.

In Allied Headquarters in North Africa,

the assistant chief signal officer stated:

The manner in which they picked up the

work was outstanding. . . . Had we had

enough of them, we could have used them to

operate all our fixed communications instal- lations—telephones and telegraph—through- out the rear areas. Every one . . . released

some man for Signal Corps duty up in the

combat zone.

The former chief signal officer of the AAF

in North Africa added:

Don't tell me a woman can't keep a secret.

Why, their own company commander

doesn't even know where the board is lo- cated—we've tested the girls again and

again.15

The Chief Signal Officer, Maj. Gen.

Dawson Olmstead, on a visit to the area,

was informed by the theater commander

that approximately 1,300 more Signal

Corps Waacs in ten different specialties

would be required if obtainable. The same

good reports were received from the European theater, where, after a one-week indoctrination course, 100 WAAC telephone

operators were assigned to operate multiple switchboards at five command headquarters. The officer in charge reported,

"Very soon I received praise of the improved service, as the good results were

noticed almost immediately."

 16

Another early success was the participation of twenty-nine WAC telephone operators in the Quebec Conference in

August of 1943. Rushed from train to

switchboard, the women were on continuous duty for eighteen hours and doubled

as secretaries and stenographers when a

shortage of these occurred. After seventeen days of secret duty, each member

received an individual commendation.

Wacs also served successfully on the

switchboards at the Cairo Conference and

the Potsdam Conference.17

Requests from Signal officers in the

United States continued to indicate an

urgent need for more Waacs, since current

directives required release of their general

service men. Civilian replacements were

scarce, and available limited service men

often were unsuitable.18 In general such

requests also indicated a desire for Signal

Corps technical training for the women. In

England the using agencies, desiring teletypists, had been obliged to train WAAC

typists in the theater, which they protested

was a task more properly assumed by the

Signal Corps in the United States. Studies

showed that women could, with training,

fill seventy-eight different Signal Corps

jobs. Therefore, in May of 1943, Brig. Gen.

Henry L. P. King's successor, Col. Duncan

Hodges, put the long-delayed WIRES plan

into effect. The women were to be trained

first in Signal Corps duties in an inactive

WAAC status, and then sent to basic

training. Objectives were set at some 2,000

14

 SigC Stf Dir file. 15

 The WAC in the SigC, Speech by Col Oveta

Culp Hobby. SigC file, OCMH. See Ch. XX, below,

for North African Theater of Operations details. 16

 Appendix to SigC WAC Narrative. 17

 (1) Ibid. (2) Speech cited n. 15. (3) Interv with

Capt Jane Reeves,SigC WAC Stf Dir, 3 May 46. 18

 Ltr, Post SigO, Ft Bliss, Texas, to Chief MPB

OCSigO. SigC 322 WAC 1943.
QUEBEC CONFERENCE, AUGUST 1943
314 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

women, the first of whom reported in late

May to a training course at the State

Teachers' College at Livingston, Alabama,

with eleven other schools scheduled for

later opening.19

Effect of Army Status

The Signal Corps was highly pleased by

the WAC's new Army status and the system of assignment, instead of attachment,

to the using command. Signal Corps Wacs

could now be assigned to the signal service

company and not to the post, while the

simultaneous multiplication of WAC units

in the field made it possible to attach these

women to existing companies in adequate

numbers without violating War Department housing policy. On the other hand,

Army status wrecked plans for WIRES

training, since the new WAC legislation

provided for no inactive reserve component. A mere 276 women were already in

schools; these were given a choice of discharge or enlistment, and all enlisted.

The Signal Corps immediately began to

seek some other system of earmarking acceptable recruits in order to retain Signal

Corps control of qualified women during

their basic training. For this purpose, the

newly devised plan for branch recruiting

appeared made to order, and it was with

some disappointment that the Signal

Corps received the Army Service Forces'

decision not to join the AAF in branch

recruiting at this time. The disappointment was alleviated within a few months

by the authorization for station-and-job

recruiting, which achieved virtually the

same result. Under this plan, women received basic training first and then reported to the Signal Corps for either

immediate assignment or specialist training.20

Some difficulty in obtaining recruits,

even with the station-and-job promise,

was caused by the high requirements of

the Signal Corps. Women for attendance

at the three radio operators schools were required to have near-officer qualifications:

AGCT scores of 100 for radio operators

and 110 for repairmen, as well as good

scores on the radio operator's aptitude or

mechanical aptitude tests.

By September of 1943 some 1,750

women had been trained, chiefly for the

Air Forces, and the schools were discontinued. Thereafter the Signal Corps generally accepted only women with high

AGCT scores as well as civilian skill "sufficient to qualify them for assignment with

only nominal on-the-job indoctrination in

Army procedure." Thus, women to be

trained as tabulating machine operators

were required to have clerical skill and

an AGCT score in Grade III or better;

women to be key punch operators required the same plus average typing

speed; cryptographic clerks needed officer

qualifications—an AGCT score in Grade

I or II plus good education and mathematics or language background. Full

civilian training in their fields was required of radio operators, radio and electrical repairmen, telephone operators,

teletypewriter operators, draftsmen, and

various photographic experts.

Such highly qualified personnel was not

only hard to find, but the subject of competition from other agencies, particularly

the WAVES, which offered officer status

19

 (1) Appendix cited n. 16. (2) Stf study cited n.

13(1). (3) Memo, Col James S. Willis, SigC for Brig

Gen Frank C. Meade, OCSigO, 17 May 43. SigC 322

WAC. (4) WDBPR Press Releases, 11 and 21 May 43. 20

 (1) Ltr, Hq AAF to AACS, 31 Jul 44, and incls.

WD G-1 220.3 WAC (8-7-44). (2) SigC WAC

Narrative. (3) Memo, Dir MPD ASF for Dir Pers ASF,

26 Oct 43. SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43).
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 315

to cryptographers and other specialists. By

June of 1944 the Office of the Chief Signal

Officer was still highly discontented with

the returns from station-and-job recruiting, which had produced Wacs only to the

extent of some 1,100, or about 9 percent of

the strength of the Signal Corps instead of

the 16 percent that it had been authorized.21

Signal Corps Training

With a few exceptions, the Signal Corps

did not find it necessary to give specialist

training to the women who reported to it.

It was stated that "substantial" Signal

Corps classes, chiefly for overseas shipment, were conducted at Fort Monmouth

and at Camp Crowder, but these were

chiefly refresher courses in Army procedure for already-qualified women. For

skills scarce or nonexistent in civilian life,

such as cryptographer, classes were

eventually held at Fort Monmouth. In

general it was reported that women could

master Signal training without alteration

in course content, and presented no problems except in the matter of housing.22

Only one training difficulty was reported, that concerning the first cryptographic school. In the early months of this

course, the officer in charge reported:

The WAC personnel we have received so

far are almost without exception woefully

uninformed about the personalities, the

geography, and the materiel of the war. It is

also evident that their intelligence, on the

average, is decidedly inferior to the men they are replacing.

He asked that personnel be better selected

according to prescribed standards: officer

AGCT score (110 or better), wide vocabularies, technical skill, and knowledge of

world events, and that they be chosen from

among teachers in higher grades, librarians, editors, authors, and similar occupations. "They are not likely to be found

among sales clerks, packers, restaurant

employees, machine tool operators, beauty

operators, and music teachers."

 23

With higher WAC enrollment standards, higher-grade personnel became more

readily available. With the virtual cessation of the WAC Officer Candidate

School at a time when the Signal Corps

Officer Candidate School still received

large quotas, it became still easier to get

women of officer qualifications but enlisted status. Final reports indicated good

results in training female cryptographers,

and the instructor at Fort Monmouth reported that the women "far exceeded

expectations" and could "hold their own

with the best students."24 Some WAC

supervisors were of the opinion that cryptography would prove the most important

future use for Signal Corps Wacs in occupied areas, since women did not fraternize

with enemy nationals to the extent that

men did, and were therefore less apt to

betray secrets inadvertently.

Signal Corps Jobs

One of the first and most important assignments of Signal Corps Wacs was that

in the War Department Signal Center in

Washington, called "the world's most im21

 (1) Speech cited n. 15. (2) Quotation from Ltr,

TAG for six SvCs, 25 Mar 44. SPX 341 WAC

(3-22-44) PR-I. (3) WD Cir 340, 29 Dec 43. (4)

Memo, Chief Pers and Tng Serv, OCSigO, for CG

ASF, 7 Jun 44. SPMSP 320.2 WAC, in SigC 322

WAC. 22

 (1) WDBPR Press Release, Enlistment. (2) R&W

Slip, Maj John W. Ramsey, SigC, for Exec OCSigO,

6 Jan 43. SigC 322 WAC. 23

 Memo, Lt Col Matthew G. Jones, SigC, OIC

Code Cen, for Capt Louis F. Fuchs, 20 Jan 44. Unnumbered files of Career Management Br, OCSigO. 24

 The SigC Message, Ft Monmouth, N. J., July 21,

1944, p. 2.
316 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

portant communications center,"

 25

 and

hub of the Army's entire wire, radio, and

cable system. With its outlying transmitting, receiving, and operating installations

in the vicinity, it made up station WAR,

in immediate contact by radio with all

theaters and by land-line circuits with

every major installation in the United

States. Wacs for this service met the highest of intelligence and aptitude tests, and

their loyalty records were minutely investigated. With the first assignment of a

few Wacs to this work, the Chief Signal

Officer, Maj. Gen. Harry C. Ingles, reported "an immediate improvement. . . .

The loyalty and application to duty of

these Waacs created an example which

resulted in a noticeable increase in production."

 26

 By the end of 1944, some 235

Wacs were employed, chiefly in teletype

operation, including radioteletype, and

transmission and relay of messages translated into perforated tape on highspeed

perforators. The chief of the Army Communications Service, Maj. Gen. Frank

Stoner, stated, "We have found the Wacs

conscientious, efficient, and dependable

. . . thoroughly capable of filling many

positions which formerly required trained

men."

 27

The 2d Signal Service Battalion, which

was under G-2 Division of the War Department for operations, employed some

1,000 Wacs at its stations at Arlington

Hall, Vint Hill, and Two Rock Ranch. In

general the secret work was routine, noisy,

but of a nature requiring perfection in detail. The WAC staff director reported:

It was proven over and over again that

women were far better equipped than men

for routine but detailed work. They were not

qualified for highly technical jobs in most

cases, but were qualified for routine research

and for specialists' jobs such as teletype and

radio operator.

About fifty women were also assigned to

the battalion's Miami detachment, which

distinguished itself chiefly by attempting

to operate with a male commander for the

WAC unit, in violation of War Department regulations, to be found out only

when improper administration resulted

and was investigated.28

Other Signal Corps stations also employed appreciable numbers of Wacs. The

Eastern Signal Corps Training Center at

Fort Monmouth employed an eventual

total of about 300, chiefly clerical and administrative personnel to run the center.29

The Holabird Signal Depot near Baltimore employed some 100 women for similar duties, and a quota of 75 was allotted

to the Army Pictorial Service and Signal

Corps Photographic Center on Long

Island, for work in film libraries and

laboratories.30

The average Army post in service or air

commands also employed a few Signal

Corps Wacs, although in lesser numbers

than enlisted men and civilians. For example, the staff of the Signal Corps office

at Fort McClellan, Alabama, included 3

officers, 8 enlisted men, 5 enlisted women,

and 55 civilians. All positions appeared to

25

 WDBPR Press Release, Wacs in the Signal Center; in Washington Post, November 12, 1944, and Army

Times, December 16, 1944. 26

 Ltr, Gen Ingles to Col Hobby, 12 July 43. WAAC

file and SigC 322 WAC. 27

 Release cited n. 25. 28

 (1) Interv with Capt Barbara Rodes, WAC Stf

Dir G-2 WD, 22 Mar 46. (2) WDBPR Press Release,

Enlistment. (3) Memo, Dir Pers ASF for CSigO, 6

Dec 44. SPAP 320.2 WAC. 29

 M/R, sub: Fld Trip to Ft Monmouth; also R&W

Slip, MPB OCSigO for Pers and Tng Serv, 15 Jul 43.

Folder, WAC Surveys, unnumbered files of SigC

Career Management Br. 30

 WDBPR Press Release, Enlistment. (2) Interv

with Capt Jane Reeves, SigC WAC Stf Dir, 3 May 46.

(3) Memo, MPB OCSigO for CG SigC Photographic

Cen, Long Island, 26 July 43. SigC 320.2 WAAC.
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 317

be essentially civilian in nature. The experience of WAC training centers, where

Wacs necessarily composed most of the

staff of the post signal office, indicated that

Wacs could if necessary perform most of

the Signal duties on an Army post. The

question as to whether all or any of such

jobs required military status was a technical one for higher authorities, but from

the WAC viewpoint either all-WAC or allcivilian offices were preferable to mixed

ones, which spotlighted differences in pay

and privileges.31

Officer Employment

Employment of officers was in general

seldom as efficient as that of enlisted

women. Both in the United States and

overseas the Signal Corps showed a propensity for assigning women officers to

secretarial and similar duties scarcely requiring an officer's training. Eventually

three WAC officers were allowed to attend

the G-2 school, with the promise that if all

graduated in the top 10 percent more

Wacs would be accepted; all did. Several

WAC officers also attended the threemonth Advanced Radio Communications

School at Arlington Hall and the Signal

Corps Supply School at Camp Holabird.32

Signal Corps Jobs Overseas

Extensive employment of Signal Corps

Wacs, both officer and enlisted, was made

in all overseas theaters, although not to

the extent that the Signal Corps desired,

Brig. Gen. Jerry V. Matejka, the new head

of Signal Corps personnel, complained:

Substantial requirements for Wacs on Signal Corps duty have existed in the various

theaters, yet the furnishing of WAC personnel has been either retarded or abandoned

because of apparent lack of the same co-ordination of interested agencies in the War

Department as is applied to furnishing enlisted men as fillers and replacements.33

Some measure of the difficulty appeared

due to the Signal Corps' own reluctance to

part with Wacs on its stations in the

United States. Thus, when requests from

the European theater for a WAC signal

service battalion of approximately 550

Wacs were approved by Operations Division, War Department General Staff, the

Army Service Forces protested that male

personnel should be sent in order to avoid

disrupting the work of field stations using

trained Wacs on key jobs. On Operations

Division's insistence the unit was authorized for activation in the theater, but with

the requirement that 200 of the Wacs be

supplied by the theater.34 Even when

trained radio operators were found malassigned as clerks on Signal Corps installations in the United States, the Chief Signal

Officer refused to release them for radio

work overseas.35 General Matejka further

remarked that "use in overhead installations has been disrupted by the withdrawal of WAC personnel for overseas."

 36

In spite of the alleged difficulty of getting Signal-trained women for overseas

duty, most overseas theaters by the end of

the war had acquired relatively large

31

 (1) The McClellan Cycle, April 13, 1945, "SigC

Job Big One on Post." (2) Press Release, 2d WAC Tng

Cen, 1 Jul 43. 32

 (1) See overseas chapters. (2) Intervs cited n. 4.

(3) Memo, Chief Pers and Tng Serv OCSigO for

CSigO, 23 Sep 44. SPMSP 320.2 WAC, in SigC 322

WAC. 33

 Memo cited n. 21(4). 34

 Memo, Exec, G-1 Div for G-1, 12 Oct 44;

Memo, "H.E.K." for Maj Gen Stephen C. Henry,

G-1, 18 Oct 44. WD G-1 322 WAC. 35

 Memo, CofT for CG ASF, 30 Sep 44, SPTPM

220.3 WAC; with 2d Ind from CSigO and 3d from

MPD ASF, SPGAC 210.3 WAC. 36

 Memo cited n. 21(4).
318 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

numbers, many trained in the theater.

Some one third of all Wacs in the Mediterranean theater, or about 700 women, were

estimated to be employed on communications duties—a percentage notably higher

than that achieved in the United States.37

In Europe, the 3341st Signal Service Battalion eventually reached a peak strength

of about 28 officers and 738 enlisted

women, and in Paris its women were employed in every department of what

claimed to be "the largest message center

in the world . . . with the exception of

Washington, D. C."

 38

 Other units also

contained some Signal Corps personnel,

which brought the number in Europe to an

estimated one fourth of the theater's WAC

strength, or some 1,700 women. The

Pacific theater reported that only about 3

percent of its Wacs, or 150 women, were

in communications work, including secret

duties with the Signal Intelligence Section.

Lesser numbers were also used in smaller

theaters.39

Peak of Employment

In September of 1944, some months before the WAC reached its peak strength,

the Chief Signal Officer estimated that

there were about 1,500 enlisted women at

six installations under his own jurisdiction,

or some 16 percent of the total enlisted

strength. This, he believed, exceeded all

other technical services in percentage of

replacement with the possible exception of

the Chemical Warfare Service. In addition, there were 236 enlisted women in the

War Department Signal Center, and more

than 700 performing Signal Corps duties

in the service commands. To this could be

added at least 1,700 in Europe, 700 in

Italy, and 150 in the Pacific. It thus appeared likely that Wacs on Signal Corps

duties totaled at least 5,000, some 5 percent of the WAC strength.40

The general job groupings for Wacs, at

least in the United States, were estimated

by the Chief Signal Officer to include:

Percent

Signal Corps Technical Specialists............. . 63

Administrative and Clerical.................. . 25

Mess and Motor Pool Personnel.............. . 9

Miscellaneous ............................ . 3

Special Problems of Signal Corps Wacs

In spite of such wide employment and

consistent success on Signal Corps duties,

it was evident by the end of the war that in

employing women the Signal Corps faced

several problems. The women described

most Signal Corps technical jobs as

"nerve-wracking"; after a few months

they tended to become a nightmare of

beeping earphones, clicking keys, or clattering machinery. A WAC inspector

reported:

Severe nervous strain was imposed by the

necessity for constant attention ... no thought

was required for much of it, yet the worker

did not dare to let the work become automatic, as one slip wrecked everything, and

the fear of costing men's lives was always

with them.41

37

 For details, see Ch. XX, below. 38

 (1) Press Release, Hq ComZ ETO, Receipt No.

92782, 10 Jul 45. (2) Interv with Capt Jane Reeves,

SigC WAC Stf Dir, 3 May 46. (3) M/R, 9 Oct 44, sub:

Summary of Radiograms on WAC Sig Serv Bn for

ETO. MTD OCSigO 322 WAC Sig Serv Bn. (4) Ltr,

CSigO to Dir WAC, 5 May 49. PRO file, OCSigO. 39

 See Chs. XXI, XXII, below. 40

 (1) Memo cited n. 21(4). (2) Memo cited n. 32(3). 41

 Discussions of WAC staff officers' opinions are

based on: (1) Interv with Capt Barbara Rodes, WAC

Stf Dir G-2 WD, 22 Mar 46. (2) Intervs with Lt. Col

Dorothea A. Coleman, WAC Stf Dir, NATO and

MTO, 21 Jan and 8 Feb 46. (3) SigC refs in Chs. XXXXIII, below. (4) Intervs cited n. 4(3).
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 319

Added to this was the ever-present strain

of keeping security, and sometimes the

knowledge that the operator, alone with a

few of the Army's top authorities, shared

secrets in which a slip of the tongue in

public could cost the lives of hundreds of

soldiers.

Most Signal duties also involved shiftwork, which constantly rotated so that

regular sleeping and eating habits were

impossible. British inspectors had pointed

out long before the WAC was formed:

A policy is present in the service of work- ing watches or shifts with irregular hours of

duty ... it should have been known by now

that the irregular rhythm of working hours

is injurious to health.42

WAC inspectors repeatedly recommended

that shift changes be less frequent than the

customary two weeks, but this was nowhere possible under established Signal

Corps policies. On ordinary posts the

handful of Signal Corps Wacs was obliged

to try to sleep at odd hours while barracksmates engaged in normal activities. On

all-Signal Corps stations, company commanders attempted to reserve one building for each shift, a move which seldom

proved practicable since women worked in

different offices on different schedules. At

only one station, Arlington Hall, was some

measure of relief achieved by the use of

cubicle housing, four women to a cubicle.

One WAC adviser noted:

One of our biggest problems was that of

shift workers ... we had to watch their health

carefully. There was always the danger of

emotional upsets caused by difficult sleeping

arrangements.

The company commander's usual efforts to provide feminine-type sports,

recreation, orientation, or even hot food

and sympathetic counsel were often

thwarted by the women's peculiar working hours and by the impossibility of keeping cadre on 24-hour duty.

In addition, at most stations the shortage of Signal Corps personnel was such

that no leaves, furloughs, or passes were

possible for months. WAC advisers recommended, without effect, that "it is most

important that officers and enlisted personnel, both men and women, be required

to take regular leaves twice a year."

 43

There was on many stations also a certain

reluctance to release women for any cause,

even for officer candidate school, and

Wacs were not eligible for the direct commissions that men of equal qualifications

received in certain duties, or for admission

to Signal Corps Officer Candidate School.

Even appropriate enlisted grades were

chronically scarce; remarkably consistent

complaints were received from stations all

over the world that enlisted Wacs had replaced men in top enlisted grades, or even

officers and warrant officers, without receiving any ratings at all.

On restricted installations, particularly

the several detachments of the 2d Signal

Service Battalion, the situation was especially difficult. Here a woman, once

assigned, was a virtual prisoner for the

duration; men might look for enforced rotation to overseas service, but even this

was not permitted for a woman until after

the end of the war. If a woman failed in or

was unequal to technical duties, she was

retained on the station in menial or service

duties on the grounds that she "knew too

much" to permit her to be released for

proper assignment elsewhere.

WAC inspectors reported that women

for such installations should have been

originally selected from volunteers who

had been clearly informed of their pros42

 Conditions in The Three Women's Services. 43

 Sources cited n. 41.
320 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

pects, a method that was successful in

other technical services. Instead, Signal

Corps personnel went to Forts Des Moines

and Oglethorpe and selected women who

afterwards alleged that they had received

promises of grades, overseas service, officer

training, or "the glamor of working for intelligence." Women recruited directly for

the station were not informed of its restricted nature. Neither had some of the

company officers been well chosen, in the

opinion of WAC inspectors. One observer

recommended that in the future all company officers be chosen from among operational officers who had themselves

worked shifts and were "aware of aching

feet and backs and being unable to sleep

in the daytime."

 44

Even if capable, the company officers

on secret installations were often not

"cleared" to visit the men or women on

the job, and thus understood neither the

working conditions nor the measures

needed to provide outside rest and quiet.

Inspection privileges were likewise denied

to Army classification survey teams, staff

visitors, and medical officers. Because of

the highly secret nature of the installations, neither the Signal Corps nor G-2

Division believed it possible to permit

interference by medical officers or inspectors on the grounds of health and wellbeing for either men or women. The Signal Corps employed a rapid succession of

WAC advisers and staff directors—among

them Capt. Susanna Turner and Capt.

Zelma Hanson—but did not clear these

individuals to visit secret work.45

Eventually the health and morale situation of the 2d Signal Service Battalion

became so bad that G-2 Division, in the

closing months of the war, was obliged to

accept a WAC staff director and to clear

her for visits to secret units for which the

Signal Corps staff director was not cleared.

This officer, Capt. Barbara Rodes, expressed her belief that many of the problems had been preventable, and that "If

they had had a WAC Staff Director in the

beginning to pick personnel after a study

of G-2's needs, they would never have had

low morale in the WAC unit." Captain

Rodes succeeded in getting a few women

released for overseas duty and officer candidate school, and in getting ratings for

others. She also gave considerable effort

to helping women "to visualize the importance of a job and to get the whole war

picture so that they could keep their perspective."

Independent reports from virtually

every overseas theater showed an almost

identical pattern of difficulty in Signal

Corps work, mitigated only to some extent

by the more stimulating nature of life

overseas. In the Mediterranean theater, by

the end of the war, some 8 percent of Signal Wacs, or an estimated fifty women,

had suffered mental breakdowns, and

others were believed to be on the verge of

physical or psychiatric illness. In the

Southeast Asia Command, the majority of

all illnesses occurred in the minority of

women who were assigned to Signal Corps

work.

Since the end of the war intervened

before women in most theaters and domestic stations had been on Signal jobs for

more than eighteen months, there was no

exact knowledge as to how long their efficiency could have been sustained under

existing conditions. There were some

grounds for belief that, under unchanged

Signal Corps personnel and housing

policies, two or two and a half years might

be the maximum serviceability of the 44

 Ibid. 45

 Memo cited n. 21(4).
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 321

average Wac, after which disability discharge would be required and attrition

might outweigh efficiency. Civilian experience indicated that the duties themselves were not at fault, since civilian

women made careers of such work, with

the aid of vacations, normal recreation,

and private housing. One WAC commander reported, "When demobilization

came, my women swore they would never

come back to the War Department or to

shift work, but about 25 percent eventually

did—as civilians."

 46

Evaluation of Success in Signal Jobs

Apart from the question of how long it

could be sustained, there was no doubt

that WAC performance on Signal Corps

jobs had been successful. A board convened in late 1948 at Fort Monmouth to

consider the employment of the WAC in

communications activities stated that it

was "an accepted conclusion" that women

were "more adaptable and dexterous than

men in the performance of certain technical specialties."

 47

 A survey made of Signal officers in Army areas and overseas

commands produced the opinion that

women could fill approximately 50 percent of all operations, communications,

and photographic positions within a communications zone. The consensus was that

many maintenance functions could also be

performed by women, with the exception

of those involving heavy physical labor,

and that "Wacs should be used as far

forward as Army Headquarters."

It was concluded that women should be

used in as many such activities as possible,

with immediate emphasis on training in

Army schools as teletype and telephone

operator, message center clerk, radio and

radio telephone operator, cryptographic

technician, and facsimile operator. Similar

studies within the office of the Chief Signal Officer indicated likewise that Wacs

could be used in communications centers,

on switchboards, in photographic detachments, in film libraries, and—provided

that a WAC detachment was already at

the installation—in Signal Corps administrative offices at Army posts, camps, and

stations. The proper division of employment between civilian and military women

was left for future resolution.48

Chemical Warfare Service

Second among the Army Service Forces

agencies to obtain a WAAC staff director

and the promise of WAAC personnel was

the Chemical Warfare Service (CWS).49

While the numbers involved were relatively small, never exceeding about 700

Wacs, the percentage of replacement

achieved was higher than that in most

larger agencies, eventually reaching, at

different times, from 13 to 22 percent of

the Chemical Warfare Service's domestic

46

 Intervs cited n. 4(3). 47

 SigC Bd Study 17, Employment of WAC in Communications Activities. FMSCB 324.5, 5 Oct 48, Hq

Ft Monmouth, in SigC 200.3 WAC No 1, 1948. 48

 D/F, SigC Career Management Br to Maj. James

L. Clark, 23 Mar 49, sub: WAC Problem, SIGMP-4

Comment 1, with reply, Maj Clark to Col Nelson, 24

Mar 49. Corresp folder, Career Management Br files,

OCSigO. 49

 Unless otherwise specified, all references are from

the following sources: (1) ASF WAC Summary, Sec

With Chemical Warfare Serv. (2) Memo, WAC Stf

Dir CWS for Asst ASF WAC Off, 10 Aug 44, copy

furnished author by Stf Dir. (3) Interv with Maj Helen

E. Hart, CWS WAC Stf Dir, 26 Mar 46. (4) CW

Bull, Mar-May 45, Vol. 31, No. 2, "Here Are the

WAC," pp. 4-11. (5) Comments, undated, by Lt Mary

B. Warner, OTI CWS, on first draft of this section

submitted to her for CWS comment. WAC files

OCMH.
322 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

INSTRUCTION IN RADIO THEORY for women attending the Midland Radio and

Television Schools, Inc., Kansas City, Missouri.

enlisted strength.50 In early April 1943 the

first CWS WAAC unit reached Pine Bluff

Arsenal in Arkansas. A second WAAC

unit reported in late April to Dugway

Proving Ground, Utah, and a third and

fourth in June to Camp Detrick, Maryland, and to the Chemical Warfare Center, Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland.51

Commanding officers of field installations did not entirely share the enthusiasm

of the chief of the Chemical Warfare Service for requisitioning Waacs, and admitted

later that "men busy on research projects

where the slightest error might ruin

months of experiments at first took a

dismal view of female assistants in laboratories and proving grounds."

 52

 However,

tentative inquiries a few weeks after the

units' arrival brought the reply that "the

Waacs at these installations are rendering

excellent service." An early thousandhour experiment with a detail of sixty at

50

 (1) Strength of the Army, STM 30, 5 Jul 45, p.

19. (2) Memo, Chief MPB OCSigO for Chief Pers and

Tng Serv OCSigO, 16 Jun 44. sub: WAC Enl Strof

Various Tech Servs. SigC Career Management Br files,

OCSigO. 51

 Memo, Col Harold E. Brooks, CWS, for Maj Gen

William N. Porter, 2 Jun 43. CWS 324.5 WAC (AprJun43). 52

 Bull cited n. 49(4).
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 323

WOMEN DECONTAMINATION EXPERTS in the Chemical Warfare Service at

Gowen Field, Idaho.

Edgewood Arsenal, to determine to what

extent Waacs might be used in the work of

impregnating protective clothing with

chemicals, met with "such surprisingly

good results that we are about to recommend that some all-WAAC chemical impregnating companies be organized."

 53

The WAAC staff director, Lt. Helen E.

Hart, later stated that her chief contribution to the CWS program at this time was

her success, after much pleading, in

persuading her commanding general to

change the name of this unit, which was

finally given the name of WAAC Processing Company, instead of that which the

general had first directed—WAAC Impregnation Company.54

Very shortly, CWS inspectors were surprised to find the entire WAAC detachment at Pine Bluff Arsenal plunged into

a serious state of low morale by what appeared to male inspectors to be a minor

circumstance—the fact that Waacs had

not replaced soldiers. As a matter of fact,

the shortage of civilian personnel had

made it possible to secure a bona fide military allotment for the installation, which

53

 Ltr, Col Brooks, CWS, to CO, Huntsville Arsenal,

Ala. CWS 324.5 WAC (Apr-Jun 43). 54

 Interv cited n. 49(3).
324 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

eventually would have required enlisted

men, but to the Waacs nothing was apparent except that they had filled former

civilian vacancies. CWS inspectors noted

in some surprise that the "insidious idea"

that a woman should replace a soldier

appeared to be "prevalent among all

WAAC companies in the field." The situation was somewhat alleviated upon conversion to Army status, when "malcontents" departed Pine Bluff Arsenal en

masse. Thereafter, the fact of Army status

reassured the women that military jobs

were being filled.55

While the diminishing supply of recruits

made it impossible to fill all further CWS

requisitions, three more detachments later

reported respectively to Rocky Mountain

Arsenal, Huntsville Arsenal, and the

Office of the Chief of Chemical Warfare

Service.56 The Chief of the CWS, Maj.

Gen. William N. Porter, noted that as the

Corps ended its second year, the quality

and efficiency of WAC personnel was

holding up well and that there was "a

high degree of enthusiasm in their respective tasks."

 57

CWS Jobs

The majority of these CWS Wacs were

employed in routine post headquarters

duties which differed from those of other

commands only in subject and terminology. For example, at Pine Bluff Arsenal

Wacs drove, serviced, and cleaned the

large Army buses that connected the

widely separated munitions buildings,

transporting civilian shift workers twentyfour hours a day. Other Wacs ran the

arsenal's military personnel section, handling records of both officers and enlisted

men. Wacs in the quartermaster branch

handled stock records, requisitions, inventories, shipping tickets, and reports. One

WAC sergeant ran the sales commissary;

a corporal computed field rations for the

post; others sorted the post's mail; the

publications section was composed entirely of Wacs. One WAC officer was in

charge of the motor pool; another was

arsenal librarian; another the assistant to

the chief of the payroll section. Two WAC

officers inspected the seven post cafeterias

and ran the officers' mess. Another WAC

lieutenant was chief of the chemical production control section, co-ordinating

manufacture and shipment schedules.

A minority of WAC jobs were the technical ones which concerned the real chemical warfare mission. "We got most of the

scientifically trained Wacs there were,"

claimed the CWS staff director. For

reasons which could not then be publicized, the CWS wanted not merely

chemists but also pharmacologists, neurologists, and toxicologists. Other technical

services frequently surrendered to the

CWS any WAC scientist whose qualifications were too high to be utilized appropriately elsewhere.

Before admittance to the installations, a

four-way loyalty check was required for

each woman, which often caused a wait in

staging areas of two months or more.

Upon reaching CWS installations, women

were surprised to find assembled many

prominent scientists engaged in closely

guarded research projects of great interest

and variety. "Many of the women already

had master's degrees," the staff director

stated, "and I would estimate that they got

about the same opportunities that a Ph.D.

55

 (1) Memo, Chief MPB CWS for CO WAAC Det,

Pine Bluff, Ark, 17 Aug 43; (2) Ltr, Gen Porter, Chief

CWS, to Dir WAC, 5 Jul 43. CWS 324.5 WAC QulSep43). 56

 Memo, WAC Stf Dir CWS for CG ASF, Att:

MTD, 29 Mar 44. CWS 324.5 WAC (Jan-Mar 44). 57

 Ltr, Chief CWS to Dir WAC, 6 May 44. CWS

324.5 WAC (Apr-Jul 44).
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 325

doing research would get." Many quickly

became devoted to their projects; one

woman, in rejecting a bid to officer

candidate school, explained that she had

previously shared the instructions of a

certain famous scientist with a college class

of seventy, but now had his exclusive

supervision.

A few such enlisted women were eventually given work of real responsibility. A

WAC pfc, with twelve years in public

health work and an M.A. in bacteriology,

sought new therapeutical methods of handling infections of gas wounds. Another

WAC pfc, the former director of the Neuropathology Laboratory at Yale Medical

School, investigated the effect of war gases

upon the blood. At Johns Hopkins University, Wacs were directed by the staff in

research concerning the use of penicillin

spray in control of pneumonia which

might be caused by chemical burns. At

Dugway Proving Ground, a WAC T/4's

research in heat radiation received a commendation from the U.S. Weather Bureau.

Some of the Wacs were lured away by the

Sanitary Corps, which was able to offer

direct commissions, but others refused to

leave their projects even for officer status.

The extent to which such WAC scientists

were employed was limited only by the

fact that recruiters were unable to furnish

them in the numbers desired by CWS.

Where college-trained scientists were

not available, CWS requested and made

good use of Wacs with lesser professional

skills. WAC laboratory technicians were

numerous at most installations, and WAC

draftsmen were employed to design protective equipment. Dugway Proving

Ground boasted the only WAC glass

blower extant, who devised special sampling apparatus for experiments. Edgewood Arsenal used WAC photographers

to photograph material for technical publications, and a former designer of fur

coats to design and make canvas cases and

protective coverings.

Women without skills could also be used

by CWS with only on-the-job training. "It

would be a mistake, in the future, to assume that CWS can use only scientists or

technical experts," said the WAC staff director later. "For certain work all that is

needed is a liking for outdoor work and for

messing around with chemicals, smoke

pots, and field instruments. We found that

former factory girls were quite good at

this, and interested in it." Perhaps the

most colorful CWS job at Edgewood

Arsenal was that of a WAC pfc who prepared colored-smoke grenades for signaling purposes and detonated them to test

for brilliancy and duration of color; when

the wind proved capricious this individual

was habitually either green, yellow, or red

from the—fortunately soluble—smoke

clouds. At Dugway Proving Ground, Wacs

were trained to participate in field observation during the mortar or rocket

shoots, noting wind direction, air temperature, air pressure and humidity, and

mastering the principle of the balloon run.

They set up and oriented an artillery

aiming circle and noted ballistic characteristics during rocket or artillery tests.

Most women enjoyed outdoor work of any

sort, and when shortage of personnel and

periods of twenty-four-hour duty brought

WAC office workers near the breaking

point, it was found possible to revive them

by brief rotation to field tests.

Problems Common Among CWS Wacs

The chief difficulties in CWS assignments for women were quite similar to

those noted on secret installations of the

Signal Corps. Because of the restrictions

surrounding the more technical work, in-
326 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

specters, staff directors, and company

commanders were forbidden to check on

any job assignments, even routine. As a

result, some installations took advantage

of this immunity from supervision to assign

women to unsuitable duties contrary to

War Department regulations. At various

stations the requirement for WAC company officers was ignored. At another, enlisted women were assigned to a post commander's home to cook and act as personal servants to his wife. In several cases,

civilian jobs in post exchanges and commissaries were staffed with Wacs. If detected, none of these violations could be

reported, since it was alleged that security

would have been endangered. The ASF

WAC Officer, upon repeatedly receiving

complaints from irate relatives, several

times attempted to visit such installations,

but was always informed that they were

officially exempt from ASF inspection.

Even the CWS WAC staff director was not

cleared for such inspection.

Another factor which, in the staff director's opinion, caused lowered morale was

the fact that women could not go into

combat-supporting CWS units and that

the CWS refused to release women for any

other overseas assignments, on the grounds

that such action would violate security

and deprive installations of irreplaceable

personnel. CWS was therefore exempted

by the War Department from the WAC

shipment quotas allotted to most other

commands. The staff director estimated

that only about 20 percent of the Wacs

were employed on work that was too secret

to permit them to go overseas or even on

leave. She said, "The women could never

understand it. I fought to get just two of

them over, to give the others hope of

reward for good service, but I failed."

Another problem faced by CWS units

was that of obtaining good company

officers. "We had a very high type of

women on the average," the staff director

stated later. "We found that WAC commanders had to treat them like intelligent

adults. It was fatal to give unnecessary restrictions or to be too energetic in enforcing petty regulations." In general such restricted units, like those of other technical

services, were found to require special

attention to suitable recreation, rest, and

living conditions.

In spite of various problems, as the war

drew to a close ranking officers of the

Chemical Warfare Service indicated satisfaction with the women's contribution.

Army commanders in the field noted,

"The men often consider themselves frustrated combat officers and thus lose interest in research and production work,

but the Wacs eagerly plunge into their

jobs with all their energy." General Porter,

chief of the CWS, stated that Wacs had

exhibited "all of the soldierly qualities of

obedience, initiative, and devotion to

duty. . . . The WAC has permeated our

entire organization, and we owe them a

great debt."

 58

The Corps of Engineers

The fact that Wacs had been assigned

to the Corps of Engineers since early 1943

was almost as unknown, until August of

1945, as was the project on which they

were employed, the atomic bomb. Not until then was it revealed that 422 Wacs, approximately eight and a half percent of

the enlisted personnel under the command

of the Chief of Engineers, had been employed on the project. Maj. Gen. Leslie R.

Groves, commander of the project, wrote

to these women:

58

 Bull cited n. 49(4).
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 327

Little is known of the significance of the

contribution to the Manhattan Project by

hundreds of members of the Women's Army

Corps. . . . Since you received no headline

acclaim, no one outside the project will ever

know how much depended upon you.59

Manhattan District

The term Manhattan District was deliberately deceptive, for Engineer offices employing Wacs were located not only in

New York, Washington, and Chicago, but

also at Oak Ridge, Tennessee; Los Alamos,

New Mexico; and Pasco, Washington.

Here, the volume of classified material

had recently become such that maintenance of security was a problem, and it

was held essential that certain key secretaries and file clerks be under military

control. A first cautious request was made

for only 74 Waacs, who reported in June

of 1943; others followed shortly.

The WAC staff director, who commanded the Oak Ridge company for most

of its history, reported that she was sent to

WAC training centers to select many

members personally. The women interviewed were told frankly that, while the

work was secret and vital, they would do a

hard job, would never be allowed to go

overseas or to officer candidate school,

could never receive any publicity, and

would live at isolated stations with few

recreational facilities. A surprising number of highly qualified women responded.

Women were rejected if they did not actively desire the work, or did not appear

to possess "experience, judgment, earnestness, and sincerity of purpose." The staff

director highly recommended this system

of selection, to which she attributed her

detachment's good fortune in avoiding

many of the problems experienced by

Wacs in secret installations of other technical services. As a matter of fact, it later

proved possible to send a few women to

OCS and overseas without violation of

security.

There was likewise no pretense that

women would do glamorous scientific

jobs; the Corps of Engineers did not desire

to use Wacs as engineers or technicians,

but rather in general administration and

paper work. Those assigned were therefore

chiefly skilled stenographers, typists, telephone operators, clerks, and teletype and

cryptographic technicians.

Exact job descriptions were never recorded, for reasons of security, but it could

be stated that the women handled detailed

records and technical reports. These included the classified files, communications,

the production section, and all offices that

handled scientific reports. The District

Engineer, Brig. Gen. Kenneth D. Nichols,

stated: "Members of the WAC were

charged with a major portion of the

responsibility for preserving project security."

 60

A minority of the women were assigned

as chemists and other scientific technicians.

A few, by the end of the war, had worked

into various technical duties for which

they proved apt and in which they received on-the-job training. WAC metallurgy technicians became qualified

through work in ceramics, plastics, and

powdered metals. Electronics technicians

worked chiefly on the construction of

needed electronics equipment. WAC photographers became specialists in photo59

 All references, unless otherwise stated, are to the

following sources: (1) Ltr, Asst to Dist Engr, U.S. Engr

Office, Manhattan Dist, Oak Ridge, Tenn, to Hist

Div WDSS, 19 Apr 46. EIDMP-44, now in WAC

files, OCMH. (2) Unit History, WAC Det, 9812th

TSU-CE, Manhattan Dist. Copy in WAC files,

OCMH. (3) Interv with WAC Stf Dir CE, Capt Arlene G. Scheidenhelm, 14 Feb 46. (4) STM 30,

Strength of the Army, 5 Jul 45; WAC strength is from

ASF WAC Summary. 60

 Commendations cited n. 59(1).
328 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

graphing metals and metallurgical processes. Spectroscopic technicians were

eventually qualified for advanced work

with the spectroscope.

Most of the Wacs' positions carried considerable responsibility, and as the project

had a liberal allotment of grades, many of

the women had received good ratings by

the end of the war. Both the responsibility

and the ratings were a definite factor in

aiding morale, according to the WAC

commander, but even greater was the fact

that the work was hard and most women

were always kept busy.

Problems of Engineer Corps Wacs

Only one major problem was encountered by Wacs serving with the Corps of

Engineers, quite similar to that already

reported independently by other technical

services. This was the fact that the secrecy

surrounding all installations prevented inspectors and WAC staff officers from

checking on the accuracy of job assignment or the compliance of post commanders with War Department directives.

Serious morale situations soon developed in the Pasco and Los Alamos units,

where Wacs were habitually used as babysitters, servants for civilians, and other

nonmilitary jobs. In one, a number of

highly qualified communications experts

were assigned as barmaids to serve beer to

civilian laborers. The women stated that

they were subjected to rough language

and insulted by the civilians, until one fled

to Washington to appeal to the Air Forces

to obtain their transfer to bona fide communications work.61

 The case was reported to the Chief of Engineers, who

refused to transfer the women to the Air

Forces; the ASF WAC Officer and the

Ninth Service Command WAC staff director were both denied permission to visit

the installation. At the second WAC detachment, an even more widespread morale problem developed when a young

WAC officer without troop experience,

sent to the station to do an office job, suddenly found herself in command of a

newly acquired WAC company in addition to doing full-time office work, and

without the assistant required by War

Department regulations.

The problems presented at both of these

stations eventually became so serious that,

late in the war, the Corps of Engineers was

obliged to appoint a WAC staff director.

To avoid bringing in an outsider, Capt.

Arlene G. Scheidenhelm was named staff

director and was cleared to visit the other

stations. At one station the detachment

was reorganized; at the other, the staff

director stated:

I merely told the post commander that he

shouldn't use Wacs as barmaids or we should

all get in trouble; he asked which women to

reassign, I named them, and he reassigned

them at once. All that was needed was a

WAC Staff Director who was a part of the

Corps of Engineers.

Commendations

The day when the A-bomb news could

be released was dubbed by the Wacs "our

day," and they were, according to the

staff director, "the proudest Wacs in the

Army," feeling that they had done more

than most other Wacs to shorten the war

and save the lives of American soldiers. At

this time, the WAC units were awarded

the Meritorious Unit Service Award;

twenty women were presented with the

Army Commendation Ribbon; and one

received the Legion of Merit. Congratulatory messages were also received from the

Secretary of War, from General Groves, 61

 Specifically, to the Exec, Air WAC Div, Maj

Treadwell.
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 329

from the District Engineer, and from the

WAC Director. General Groves wrote:

As one who observed your performances

month after month, I wish to express my per- sonal appreciation. . . . You can well be

proud of your service with the Manhattan

District and the part you played in saving

countless American lives.

To this the District Engineer added:

No WAC assignment anywhere exceeded

in importance their mission with the Atomic

Bomb project.62

Ordnance Department

Some 700 enlisted women—over 5 percent of the enlisted strength—and 80 WAC

officers were eventually employed in ten

Ordnance installations in the United

States, including five depots, two arsenals,

two Ordnance districts, and the Office of

the Chief of Ordnance. Other requisitions

met with less success in that they sought

Wacs to replace civilian employees, who

"require fixed and steady hours of work"

and would not accept undesirable shifts.63

The first official reference to Corps jobs

at these installations concerned a controversy over the size of trucks which

women might properly drive. WAAC

Headquarters wished to set this limit at

one and a half tons, but, upon the objection of the Army Service Forces and the

reassurance of The Surgeon General, the

limit was raised to two and a half tons.

This provoked further objections from

Aberdeen Proving Ground, which stated

that the odd types of vehicles being driven

and tested by its Waacs could not best be

judged by tonnage. The Chief of Ordnance therefore asked an exception for

this installation, which was concurred in

by WAAC Headquarters.64

In the ballistics testing laboratories

where ordnance equipment was examined,

Wacs were employed in computing the

velocity of bullets, measuring the weight

of bomb fragments to determine the degree of fragmentation of bombs, mixing

gunpowder, and loading shells. They also

worked as draftsmen, mechanics, and electricians, and received practical training in

ordnance engineering. A good percentage

of the women were employed in ordinary

clerical duties. Reports from overseas theaters revealed that Ordnance Wacs were

found especially valuable in handling the

complicated stock records of ordnance

equipment, its procurement, storage, and

shipment.65

Ordnance Department also expressed

itself eager to employ WAC officers in

highly technical skills—engineers, mathematicians, analysts, designers, artists, statisticians, lawyers, and physicists. Unfortunately, the WAC Officer Candidate

School was designed for troop officers and

turned out very few such specialists, most

of them considerably below the desired

qualifications.66

The Quartermaster Corps

Contrary to the general impression,

those units and installations under the

62

 Commendations cited n. 59(1). 63

 (1) ASF WAC Summary. (2) Memo, CG Erie

Proving Ground for CofOrd, 30 Jun 44. Ord 322/731.

(3) Places of employment: Ordnance Depots: Atlanta,

Frankfort, Mt. Ranier, Red River, and Savannah,

Ordnance Districts: Philadelphia, St. Louis. Arsenals:

Raritan, San Antonio. 64

 (1) Ltr, 151st WAAC Tech Co to Dir WAAC, 10

Feb 43; (2) Memo, WAAC Hq for TAG, 19 May 43;

(3) Memo, WAAC Hq for SGO, 2 Jun 43; (4) AGO

Memo W635-3-43; (5) Ltr, Aberdeen Proving

Ground to CofOrd, 27 Aug 43. WA 45 1 (7-25-42)

1942, Vehicles for WAAC. 65

 (1) ASF WAC Summary. (2) Account by Col

Merle H. Davis, Ch. XXII, below. 66

 (1) Memo, Tech Div OCofOrd for MPB Ord, 16

Nov 43. Ord 322.436. (2) Memo, Dir Pers ASF for

CofOrd, 5 Jun 44. SPAP 210.3 (8-30-43).
330 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

control of The Quartermaster General did

not offer particularly suitable conditions

for the employment of Wacs.67 An early

survey by the Office of The Quartermaster General pointed out that it was not

advisable to use Waacs in graves registration companies; they could not replace

men in salvage collecting companies because personnel had to be armed and had

to perform heavy work in battlefield cleanup; they could not be employed in laundry

battalions, companies, or platoons because

these were mobile units operating in combat areas. It was suggested that Waacs

could be employed in fixed laundries in

the continental United States, which normally employed 89 percent women, but

these were civilian job vacancies. As for

bakery units, it was decided that breadbaking was definitely a man's assignment

because of the strength required. It was

not felt that Waacs should take over operation of light motor vehicles, which were

used to train men for combat areas.68

Furthermore, as in the Signal Corps,

employment was restricted by the requirement that enlisted women be assigned only

in units. Most quartermaster depots employed only a small detachment of enlisted men, and in many depots only

civilians were employed. The Office of

The Quartermaster General stated that, if

civilian replacement and use of small

numbers were authorized, Waacs might be

used in places where civilians were scarce,

or to take night shifts and other work that

civilians would not accept. The Quartermaster General did not particularly recommend such assignment, pointing out

that provision of suitable housing and

messing would be a problem for small

numbers, and that it would be undesirable

to mix Waacs and civilians because of the

difference in pay and privileges.69

Therefore, by the time of the conversion

to Army status, the Quartermaster Corps

employed only one WAAC unit, located at

Camp Lee, Virginia, where the women

worked in the Quartermaster School and

the ASF Training Center. Although The

Quartermaster General assured Director

Hobby at this time that "On the whole the

girls are pleased with their assignments

and are performing them in a satisfactory

manner," the unit at Camp Lee suffered

more than usual losses at the conversion.

One possible explanation was The Quartermaster General's admission that some

20 percent of the women had at that time

not yet replaced men. The women at

Camp Lee eventually came to be employed also by the Quartermaster Board

and the Quartermaster Replacement

Training Center at that installation. Only

one additional unit was recorded—that of

the Fort Robinson Quartermaster Depot.70

The employment of WAC officers, who

could be scattered about in small numbers, was more suitable to the Quartermaster Corps than that of enlisted women.

In early 1944 the Office of The Quartermaster General stated that "within the

next few weeks a shortage of QMC officers

will develop. A number of units are scheduled for activation and demands for over67

 Text is based on (1) Seven documents found in

OQMG files. (2) ASF WAC Summary. 68

 (1) Memo, Serv Installations Div OQMG for Mil

Plans Div, 26 Jan 43, and 4 Inds. QM 321 WAC 1943.

(2) Memo, by Brig Gen Henry D. F. Munnikhuysen,

OQMG. QM 320.2 WAC 1942. (3) 1st Ind, "K.H." to

SigC, 16 Nov 42, to Bsc Ltr, Chief MPD CSigO to

OQMG, 10 Nov 42. QM 320.2 WAC. 69

 Ibid.

70

 (1) Ltr, Maj Gen Edmund B. Gregory to Dir

WAC, 16 Jul 43, QM 321 WAC. (2) Memo, Capt

Laura Asbury, WAC Asst, for MTD ASF, 29 Mar

44. QM 320.2 WAC.
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 331

seas requisitions are heavy."

 71

 Accordingly, it was suggested to depot commanders that they requisition Wacs, and

a combined requisition for 340 WAC

officers was placed with the Army Service

Forces, which by mid-1944 had netted

some 100 WAC officers. These officers

ordinarily required no training other than

a brief orientation course, although some

were admitted to the depot course at the

Quartermaster School and at the Columbus ASF Depot. A WAC staff director,

Maj. Laura Asbury, was eventually employed.

The only available strength figures indicated that the Quartermaster Corps eventually employed at least 250 enlisted

women and 125 WAC officers on its own

installations. An unknown number, probably much larger, was also employed on

posts, camps, and stations by local quartermasters in offices, warehouses, and sales

commissaries—these being under the jurisdiction of an air or service command or

overseas theater, and not counted apart

from the rest of the overhead. In 1944, The

Quartermaster General stated:

Personnel of the Women's Army Corps

have become an integral part of this [QM]

organization, and we now have unfilled requisitions from QM installations requesting

more WAC personnel.72

The Transportation Corps

Early pessimists feared that ports of

embarkation were no place for Wacs, who

would undoubtedly be invalided by the

rough physical work or seduced by the

transient combat troops. Actually, the

Transportation Corps proved second only

to the Medical Department among Army

Service Forces agencies in the number of

Wacs employed, and first in the number

employed on its own Class II installations.

With a peak strength of over 5,000

women, some 6 percent of its total enlisted

strength, the Transportation Corps was

able to maintain large WAC detachments

in the eight major ports of embarkation—

New York, Boston, Hampton Roads,

Charleston, Los Angeles, San Francisco,

Seattle, and New Orleans. Each port had

one or more WAC detachments and its

own WAC staff director, whose work was

co-ordinated by a senior staff director, Lt.

Col. Mera Galloway, located in the Office

of the Chief of Transportation.73

These 5,000 women were obtained by

the Transportation Corps by means of

enthusiastic pursuit along every possible

avenue of recruiting. Since most ports

were in labor-short areas, they were hard

hit by the ASF's directives that general

service men be replaced by Wacs and

civilians. Civilians were scarce, and Wacs

were at once requisitioned for every manner of duty. Some of these uses were

approved, while some, involving shipboard service, were at the time considered

too unusual.74

The number thus acquired proving insufficient, other women were obtained by

transfer from commands which found

71

 (1) Ltr, Gen Munnikhuysen, OQMG, to CG

Boston Depot, 12 Feb 44. QM 210.31 WAC. (2) Ltr,

OQMG to 20 QM depots, etc, 21 Mar 44. QM

210.31 WAC. (3) Memo, OQMG for TAG, 2 Mar

44. QM 210.31 WAC. 72

 ASF WAC Summary. 73

 Unless otherwise documented, this section is

based upon: (1) History of Hampton Roads POE,

The Road to Victory, Vol. II, pp. 174 ff. Copies in

OCMH. (2) Intervs with Capt Jane Engleman, WAC

Stf Dir TC, 1945-46; Capt Fay Foushee, WAC Pers

Off TC, 1946-Oct 1947; Lt Key, WAC Pers Off TC,

Oct 1947-48. (3) ASF WAC Summary. (4) STM 30,

Strength of the Army, 5 Jul 45. 74

 Ltr, TC to Dir WAC, 16 Dec 43; also 1st Ind and

Ltr, Dir WAC to CofT, 28 Feb 44. SPTPM 220.3

WAC, in SPWA 320.2 (8-18-42)(1) sec 6.
332 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

them unassignable because of low aptitude

or lack of skill; the Transportation Corps

was confident that it could assign and use

any sort of Wac. Puerto Rican Wacs, whose

possible language difficulties were feared

by some commands, were requested and

successfully employed. When WAC training centers were forced to relinquish their

bands in the interests of personnel economy, the Transportation Corps acquired

the musicians. When at last station-andjob recruiting was authorized, the Transportation Corps used its own recruiters to

conduct such a lively campaign for Port

Wacs that it, like the Air Forces, had to be

restrained from implying that a new corps

had been set up.

Transportation Corps Job Assignments

The women assembled by these means

were assigned to a variety of duties. Some

700 of them, in New York and San Francisco, were assigned to postal battalions

where all V-mail letters were processed.

Wacs opened the letters, checked for correct form and for rips and tears, and sent

them to the commercial company that

photographed them; incoming letters were

likewise processed, with Wacs operating

the machines that put each letter in an

envelope. This work proved extremely

monotonous, calling for 24-hour duty on

several shifts, and was successfully performed for over two years.

Large numbers of Wacs, both enlisted

and officer, also worked on the piers at

every port, assisting in the staging of troops

for overseas and the reception of returning

troops. This type of assignment began in a

small way when Wacs were tentatively assigned to assist in staging female personnel—civilians, nurses, and Wacs. More

than a hundred Red Cross women thus

staged wrote to the commanding general:

It is our unanimous opinion that we have

never been in an area where everything func- tioned more smoothly. There has been none

of the confusion or discomfort which we had

come to consider a normal part of the embar- kation process.75

The use of Wacs in staging was soon

expanded to include all types of personnel

embarking or landing. WAC checkers on

piers and ships processed not only outgoing personnel, but an estimated 800,000

items of supply for overseas forces. For

example, in the San Francisco Unit Supply Office, Wacs not only kept records of

the types of guns, the proper ammunition

for each, and the type to be issued to each

man according to his destination, but they

also actually handed the gun to the man.

One Wac said, "The soldiers come in unarmed and go out with a gun, and it gives

me a pretty good feeling." As the men

began to return from overseas, all-WAC

bands in New York and San Francisco

went out on small craft to meet the ships.

As men came down the gangplanks, allWAC teams met them for roll call and

routine checking, after which other Wacs

led them onto the proper train. Incoming

officers also reported to a Wac's desk to

receive any changes in orders. In this

reception process, male military personnel

were ordinarily employed only to check

heavy baggage. The women generally reported no particular difficulty from the

troops. One port noted, "Directions given

[by Wacs] to troops debarking were cheerfully obeyed for the men 'just wanted to

hear them talk.'"

In addition to postal and pier work,

Wacs were employed in many other duties

75

 Ltr, Ruth Frederick, Gp Leader, American Red

Cross, to CG NYPOE, 12 Nov 46. WAC Stf Dir TC

file.
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 333

which differed little from those of other

commands. At a typical large port, the

Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation, it

was reported:

Though pier duty had priority over all

other WAC assignments . . . [there were]

dozens of other jobs in water, rail, motor

vehicle, and mechanical maintenance, machine records, salvage, communications, photo-laboratory, mess, and supply. . . .

The Wacs key-punched tons of manifests,

cargo loading reports, convoy recaps, and

what not . . . proofread passenger lists one

inch thick, which were checked and rechecked. . . . There were 45 MOS numbers: butcher, sales clerk, auto-parts clerk,

multigraph operator, quartermaster supply

technician, tailor, photographer, movie projectionist. . . .76

At some ports, WAC medical companies

were also assigned to administer shots,

assist in processing, and keep records. During debarkations from hospital ships, these

women were withdrawn from regular

duties to act as guides, type admittance

cards, and help in the Finance Department. On their own time, the women were

discovered to be running errands and

shopping for their patients, and carrying

home the men's newly issued uniforms to

iron. Most ports were deliberately striving

to make wounded men feel that their

country gave them a grateful and personal

reception, and it was found that Wacs

excelled in this effort. The effect on the

women's morale was likewise good, as they

felt less disposed to make known their own

gripes when observing the greater discomforts of the wounded.

The chief difficulty encountered in the

administration of Transportation Corps

women concerned the fact that they often

worked long hours and on night shifts as

well as on monotonous duties, and were

thus extremely susceptible to fatigue,

nervousness, improper sleeping and eating

habits, and impaired health. To combat

this situation effectively, it was necessary

for the cadre to maintain long and irregular hours. One commander of a postal

battalion stated that for months she habitually slept for only two or three hours

at a time, since the only time to discover

the women's needs was when they were

relaxing, talking, and eating after completion of their work shifts. As a result, where

health and morale were maintained it was

at the expense of the company officers,

who wore out quickly.77

Later Experimental Assignments

As the Transportation Corps gained in

experience in WAC administration, it

began to show propensities, comparable

only to those of the Air Forces, for experimentation with new and unusual duties.

Soon after the invasion of Normandy in

1944, the all-WAC 29th Traffic Control

Group was hand-picked from experienced

Port Wacs and sent overseas. This 

omitted the usual WAC overseas training

at Fort Oglethorpe, and was entirely

trained and equipped at the port, with

such success that the European theater

WAC staff director pronounced it the besttrained WAC group ever sent to Europe.78

Shortly afterward, to cope with the

huge backlog of supplies for Europe which

developed after the invasion of France, the

Transportation Corps in September of

1944 organized a flying squad of approximately 100 Wacs, who were rushed to help

clear out the jam at the Elmira Holding

76

 History cited n. 73(1), Ch. 14, written by Sgt

Freda Zegman, HRPOE. 77

 Interv with Capt Theresa Davis, wartime CO

WAC Det NYPOE. 78

 Sec Ch. XXI, below.
334 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

and Reconsignment Point. Here the Wacs

found warehouses and a large open storage area crowded with an apparently

hopeless assortment of boxcars, tanks, and

other equipment. Much top-secret paper

work was found to be involved in sorting

manufacturers' lists and routing supplies

to proper destinations. WAC clerks, checkers, and drivers worked outdoors for most

of the winter, in three around-the-clock

shifts, even operating the heavy lifts which

moved and sorted supplies, and sleeping

in the gymnasium of a local college. WAC

officers later were of the opinion that the

work involved had been too heavy for

women, but no men were available to the

Transportation Corps for the assignment

and women performed it successfully.

With the end of the war and the resulting load of returning shipping, the Transportation Corps took a step not shared by

any other zone of the interior agency, and

set up rest camps similar to those used in

combat areas. WAC camps were established shortly after men's camps were set

up, one located near Camp Stoneman,

California, and one at Vassar College. The

idea proved extremely successful in combating fatigue, particularly for postal

battalions and others in tedious and confining work.

Toward the end of the war, the Transportation Corps also achieved its previously thwarted objective of employing

Wacs on shipboard. Earlier WAC objections to placing five or six enlisted women

and a WAC officer on shipboard were

based on fears that the women would

either require expensive special provisions

or would have none, since they could not

use the men's recreational and living areas.

Late in 1944 the Transportation Corps

again requested Wacs for such duty, stating that "an urgent need exists for radio

technicians for troop and hospital ships."

 79

WAC radio operators were by this time

as scarce as male ones, and could not be

provided by the Signal Corps, but the

nature of the idea appealed to the Air

Forces, which voluntarily furnished Wacs

who merited reward for long and superior

service in radio instruction in AAF schools.

Three or four enlisted women and one

WAC officer were assigned to each of several hospital ships, where they proved successful; one reported later, "It has been

weeks since we have been referred to as

experiments."

 80

 With the success of the

WAC radio operators, other Wacs came to

be employed on shipboard as clerical

workers and as medical technicians to

assist the nurses.

Quarters for such women did not prove

a major problem, since they were usually

housed in a cabin with its own toilet facilities, or with the nurses. As feared, the life

proved confining and lacking in provisions

for recreation for women. Enlisted women

were not permitted to fraternize with passengers of either sex or with crew members

of the opposite sex. On hospital ships,

women not on duty were allowed to visit

with patients, which proved of some

morale value to both. One Wac reported:

"Most of them are anxious for a game of

bridge or just talking ... it makes us feel

that our job is worth while if we have a

small part in helping to bring them home

safely."

Nevertheless, "hospital ship fatigue"

often developed; commanding officers believed that two months' unbroken duty

without shore leave should be the maximum, although some individuals were

able to continue for a year or more with79

 Memo, CofT for CG ASF, 30 Sep 44. SPRPM

220.3 WAC. 80

 Ltr, Sgts Brown and Niles and Cpl Kunmick,

undated. Folder, Hospital Ships, WAC Stf Dir TC

file.
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 335

out loss of efficiency. On other ships,

where members were at sea only about ten

days on each trip, with stopovers in foreign

ports, the restrictions of shipboard life

proved less important. The only reported

casualties were two WAC officers who had

to be reassigned for habitual seasickness.

The employment of WAC officers,

originally requested only to secure approval of requisitions for enlisted women,

soon proved so successful that WAC officers were assigned to other ships. Many

such officers were graduates of the Army's

School for Personnel Services, and were

assigned as reconditioning officer, special

services officer, and related duties. They

were responsible for conducting discussions in the wards concerning veterans'

benefits, hospital policy, and discharge

procedure, for preparing a daily news

sheet, for conducting the orchestra, and

for arranging variety shows in the wards.

War Bride Ships and Dependents' Ships

With the end of the war, the employment of Wacs on shipboard expanded into

a new and sometimes controversial duty:

that on "War Bride Ships" and "Dependents' Ships." On Army ships bearing

Italian, French, German, English, and

Australian brides to the United States, one

WAC officer was ordinarily assigned as

assistant transport commander. This officer was responsible for stocking the ship's

exchange with supplies needed by women;

for the women's welfare in such matters as

housing and feeding; for supervision of the

nursery and diet kitchen. She was appointed liaison between the transport

commander and the women, to explain

his policies; she maintained regular office

hours when passengers could present their

personal problems, which were usually

numerous; she organized discussions on

the monetary system, dress and customs,

prices, products, and geography. Transport commanders confronted with voluble

and excitable groups of passengers soon

stated that WAC assistant transport commanders were invaluable, and eventually

delegated to them the additional duties of

post exchange officer and billeting officer.

While Red Cross women, stewardesses,

and Army nurses were also on board, the

essential need was for a liaison officer in

the chain of command and familiar with

Transportation Corps policies.81

Good results were also obtained from

the employment of enlisted women on the

same ships, although there were ordinarily

only a handful on any one ship. These

were chiefly clerks, or medical technicians

employed in the formula room under the

direction of Army nurses, with little contact with passengers.

A different and somewhat greater problem concerned enlisted women passengers

on the same ships. Such women, like enlisted men, were already resentful of the

War Department policy which caused

them to be allotted worse accommodations

than the foreign civilian women who had

married American soldiers. Their indignation frequently overflowed when, in addition to their ordinary work details such as

kitchen police and latrine duty, transport

commanders repeatedly assigned them to

details involving day-and-night care of

babies whose mothers were seasick, unsanitary in methods of infant care, or enjoying shipboard entertainment. The

problem was not alleviated when war

brides were supplanted by soldiers' wives

and children en route to join men stationed overseas. These families, by Army

Regulation, received better accommoda81

 For general discussion of War Bride Ships: Ltr,

WAC Stf Dir NYPOE to CofT, 19 Jan 46, with incl.

SPTAA 324.5 WAC, copy in WAC Pers Off, TC.
336 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tions than male and female replacements

on the same ships, and at the same time

showed a certain tendency to regard the

enlisted personnel as servants rather than

as fellow passengers. Again, the Wacs'

special objections concerned baby-sitting

and other unmilitary work details often

deemed especially suitable for enlisted

women. In both cases, there appeared to

be no solution as long as the Transportation Corps was required to carry civilian

dependents while troops were still being

transported, and to give civilian women

better accommodations than those authorized for military women and men.

Evaluation

In discussions of a permanent women's

corps, the Transportation Corps requested

that from two to three and a half percent

of its Regular Army strength be made up

of Wacs in a variety of skills, principally

clerks, postal workers, stenographers,

typists, and communications experts.82

Maj. Gen. Charles P. Gross, Chief of

Transportation, stated:

The Wacs have demonstrated thoroughly

their value to the Transportation Corps.

They have become an integral part of our

ports, not only because of the quality of their

work, but also because of the enthusiasm they

have displayed and their loyalty to the Trans- portation Corps.83

However, with the placing of ocean transport for all services under the jurisdiction

of the Navy, the Wacs on shipboard were

scheduled for peacetime replacement by

Waves, who had not previously been permitted to serve on ships.

The Adjutant General's Department

Although duties of The Adjutant General's Department were almost without

exception suitable for women, that Department—like the other administrative

services—did not have a number of Class

II installations under its command as did

the technical services, but merely provided

personnel for station overhead. The AGD

was co-operative in the matter of training,

first admitting officers and then enlisted

women to its schools at the request of the

WAC. Such training was sometimes desired to qualify women for positions in

WAC administration, and at other times

to enable them successfully to replace

male AGD personnel in various commands. WAC officers attended both the

administrative and the classification

courses at the AGD school and later the

personnel consultants' course.84

Possibly the largest single group of AGD

WAC employees was that assigned to the

Classified Reproduction Section in the

Pentagon, with the particular assignment

of reproducing the weekly minutes of the

General Council as well as other material

for the office of the Deputy Chief of Staff—

ordinarily top secret in nature. Of this

work, the Deputy Chief of Staff, General

McNarney, stated in 1944:

WAC personnel were assigned to the Classified Reproduction Section in order to solve

a most difficult problem. I feel that their

performance has been a fine tribute to the

Women's Army Corps, and I am extremely

grateful for their fine work and loyal service.85

82

 Memo, CofT for TAG, 14 Jan 47, (Rpts Contl

Symbol WDGPA-(OT)-78) file TCPER-MPB-320;

in reply to Ltr, TAG for CofT, 26 Dec 46, A6AMPM-320 (11-27-46). 83

 ASF WAC Summary, TC sec. 84

 (1) Memo, Dir WAAC for TAG, 17 May 43; (2)

Memo, Exec WAAC for TAG, 4 Jun 43. SPWA

210.63, in AG file. (3) Memo, AGO Tng Br for Dir

WAAC, 25 May 43. AG 210.63 (AG Sch) OT-S. (4)

Memo, Exec WAAC for TAG, 23 Jul 43. SPAP 352

(5-19-43). 85

 ASF WAC Summary.
THE ARMY SERVICE FORCES 337

Finance Department

No statistics were preserved as to the

numbers, if any, of Wacs on duty with the

Finance Department in the service and air

commands. Upon request, the Finance

Department obligingly set up a quota of

six for the WAC for its officers' course at

Duke University, beginning in July of

1943. A little later, enlisted women were

admitted to eight successive classes of the

two-month enlisted finance course, to an

eventual total of 305 women, of whom

266—about 87 percent—were graduated.

The only possibly unsuitable Finance

duties for women were those in which it

was necessary for the paying officer to

wear or keep available a revolver or other

weapon. Neither the Finance Department

nor WAC Headquarters was able to see

any reason why an otherwise qualified

woman should not be allowed this privilege, inasmuch as the paying officer seldom was required to shoot anyone.

However, the War Department refused to

make an exception in this case to the general rule about "combat" assignments.86

Corps of Chaplains

When the WAAC was established, the

Corps of Chaplains noted that there were

two possible modes of utilization: that

women ministers be used as chaplains for

WAAC training centers, and that enlisted

women be used as chaplains' assistants.87

The first of these was never seriously considered. The Corps of Chaplains reported

that, when the First WAAC Training

Center was established:

Quick to take advantage of the new situation were the organizations of women

preachers, and a considerable amount of

agitation followed. . . . The statutes omitted

any reference to the sex of chaplains, and at

that time War Department directives did not

make any specific statement on the subject. However, by tradition, as well as by general

Army policy, chaplains were assumed to be

of the male sex.

All applications from women ministers for

commissions in the Corps of Chaplains

were therefore refused. Ministering to the

spiritual needs of the Wacs did not prove

a problem to male chaplains, who stated,

"Actually, the presence of Army women

seemed to make very little difference in

the work of most chaplains."

The use of enlisted women as chaplains'

assistants was likewise originally disapproved by the Chief of Chaplains, who felt

that it might prove compromising for a

chaplain to be shut up alone in his office

with a female assistant, and that even if it

did not, the enlisted men who ordinarily

revealed intimate problems to a chaplain

would not do so if a woman was present.

The assignment was not forbidden, but

was left to the discretion of stations in the

field. Within a few months, such assignments began to take place on the initiative

of local chaplains and personnel officers.

Some of the women assigned were clerktypists and general office workers, while

others were musicians, such as organists

and choir directors, or organizers of

church activities. The Corps of Chaplains,

after some experience with such employ86

 (1) Historical monograph, Personnel, General.

Job A46-156, Drawer 4, ASF files of OCofFin, Jul

1940-Nov 1945. (2) Memo, Fiscal Dir for TAG, 21

Jun 43. AG 210.63 Army Fin Schs (2-9-43)(1). (3)

Historical Monograph, Mil Tng, OCofFin, Tab G,

Basic WAC Em Fin Course. Job A46-156, Drawer 4,

OCofFin. 87

 This section, including quotations, is based on:

(1) Military History of the Second World War: Corps

of Chaplains, Part III, pp. 95 ff. OCMH. (2) Memo,

Lois Hill, Secy, for Dir WAAC, 10 Mar 43. SPWA

230.3.
338 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ment, reported, "It was soon found that

they could be used as Chaplains' Assistants

to the same degree as men in the Army."

It was observed that women in the

Army played much the same part in a

post's religious life that civilian women did

in the average community: they attended

services more readily, formed more than

a proportionate share of the choir, and in

general were willing to lend more support

to church activities. Under the circumstances, the employment of women as fulltime chaplains' assistants ceased to excite

comment. Estimates indicated that Wacs

formally assigned to work with the Corps

of Chaplains did not number more than a

few hundred.

Only the Army Air Forces formalized

the employment program to the extent of

sending women to a school. Women already assigned to this duty were permitted

to attend the AAF Chaplains' Assistants

School for training in choir work, maintenance of records, and other necessary

activities. These women represented all of

the three major religious groups in the

United States and both the white and

the Negro races.

The Provost Marshal's Department

There was no official indication that

Wacs were ever employed, in World War

II, to replace male military police except

at WAC training centers, where such employment was more or less necessary to

avoid embarrassing male police. Early in

the WAAC's existence, G-3 Division of the

War Department had suggested that it

was undesirable to assign men in the

younger age groups "to units or activities

not to be used for combat service" and

that the necessary high caliber of military

police be secured from older age groups,

limited service men, and Waacs—the

Waacs to be employed "to the fullest extent where appropriate."

 88

 Such assignment was never considered by WAAC

Headquarters to be especially appropriate

except in clerical positions in Provost

Marshal offices or to assume custody of

women.

Even this latter use was not realized to

the extent deemed permissible by WAAC

Headquarters. A request was made by Director Hobby in the summer of 1943 for

WAC MP detachments at large centers of

population where female absentees were

often apprehended, but this was refused

by the Army Service Forces because male

MP's would not have been replaced.89

Throughout the war there were frequent rumors and reports that Wacs in

scattered stations and overseas were being

employed as military police; at times publicity photographs showed women wearing

the armbands of MP's or parking guides.

Upon investigation these were usually

found to be office workers in a posed

photograph. No employment involving

the carrying of weapons was officially

authorized for Wacs.

88

 Memo, G-3 for CG SOS, 26 Sep 42. WDGCT

322.999 MP (9-16-42), in SPAP 320.2 General. 89

 Memo, MPD ASF for Dir Pers ASF, 10 Aug 43.

SPAP 320.2 WAAC (5-17-43).
CHAPTER XIX

The Medical Department

(ASF)

Slowest of all ASF services to employ

Wacs, the Medical Department by the end

of the war had become the greatest user,

employing some 20,000 Wacs, one fifth of

the entire Corps, almost one half of Army

Service Forces WAC personnel. These were

to be found in general, regional, and station hospitals, ports, air bases, and convalescent centers, as well as in the few installations directly under The Surgeon

General's command, such as the Army

Medical Center in Washington.

The slow start resulted from the fact

that well-trained civilian personnel and

enlisted men were plentiful when the

WAAC was organized. "It is the opinion

of this office," stated The Surgeon General

at that time, "that it is not desirable to

utilize the WAAC in Army hospitals."

 1

WAAC Preplanners had not pressed the

issue, since requisitions from other agencies were already more than could be

filled.2

In 1943, when the Service Forces surveyed the possibilities of expanding the

Corps to a million members, The Surgeon

General appointed a board of medical officers to reconsider the employment of

Waacs. Hospital commanders, queried by

the board, requested Waacs to a total of

some 10,000 women for the ASF and

almost as many for the AAF, to replace

from 30 to 50 percent of their enlisted

men. Nothing came of the study; Director

Hobby informed the board that she was

"in accord with the idea that members of

the WAAC could be utilized in such a

capacity," but the difficulties of recruiting

prevented her from supplying the personnel.3

During the summer of the conversion,

the WAAC was able to make available to

The Surgeon General less than two hundred individuals a month, for technical

training at the Army-Navy General Hospital.4

 Reports indicated that hospitals in

the field were also obtaining certain numbers of women from post headquarters

companies, although the women had been

neither trained nor equipped for the work.

1

 1st Ind, SGO to CG SOS, 14 Apr 42. SPMCP,

SGO 322.5-1, in SPMCM 322.5-1 WAC, SGO Hist

Div.

2

 Later comments from medical officers indicated

a universal idea that the Director had attempted to

force Waacs on Army hospitals. Actually, only two

routine inquiries had ever been made, as a part of

surveys—the first before Director Hobby's arrival in

1942, and the second by the ASF in 1943. No followup was made for agencies replying in the negative.

See Chs. II and V. 3

 (1) Rpt of Proceedings of Bd of Offs, 11 Mar 43,

appointed by Office Order 41, SGO, 26 Jan 43; (2)

Ltr, SGO to all SvCs, AAF and CofT, 29 Jan 43.

SPMCT, SPMCM 322.5-1 WAC, SGO Hist Div. 4

 Memo, SGO for CG ASF, 2 Jun 43. SPMCM

322.5-1 WAC, SGO Hist Div.
340 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

In early 1944, the nationwide personnel

shortage caused the Medical Department

an unprecedented loss: the forced transfer

to the Infantry of some 5,000 combat-fit

men, trained technicians upon whom hospitals had depended for normal operation.

This loss brought about really urgent

requisitions for Wacs. "The Medical Department is critically short," The Surgeon

General's Office protested. "Efforts to hire

civilians in sufficient numbers have as a

whole failed. . . . With the withdrawal

of enlisted men, there will be an urgent

need for at least 50,000 additional Wacs to

work in medical installations." The Surgeon General therefore asked an "extensive recruiting program" to recruit Wacs

specifically for the Medical Department.5

The request for 50,000 Wacs was impossible of fulfillment, nor could the Medical

Department be given first priority on even

the actual intake without causing withdrawal of Air Forces, port, and other recruiting teams. Instead, Director Hobby

was able to offer the Medical Department

merely the privilege of recruiting for hospitals under the station-and-job plan,

which was a simple matter of adding them

to the existing list of participating installations. In the spring of 1944, the Corps' recruiting and publicity media therefore lent

their support to what was called the Female Medical Technicians Campaign.

Female Medical Technicians Campaign

The Medical Department's demands

were unusually difficult to meet, in that

only highly qualified workers were acceptable.6

 Particularly sought were women with college training who could serve

as bacteriologists, instructors in lip reading and Braille, pharmacists, optometrists,

psychiatric social workers, orthopedic

mechanics, and numerous other technicians.

Specifications were set for education,

training, and experience which were so exceptionally high that the ordinary recruiting station was deemed unable to evaluate

them accurately. The Medical Department therefore followed the WAVES' example and secured the assistance of the

Officer Procurement Service, which assisted regular recruiters by filling out a

qualification certificate guaranteeing assignment to, and suitability for, a technical job.

For example, a WAC psychiatric social

worker (Specification Serial Number 263)

was required to have "at least two years of

supervised experience in social case-work

... or a graduate degree in social work,"

and it was stated that those accepted "will

be assigned directly upon completion of

basic training and are eligible on the basis

of such assignment to attain the grade of

staff sergeant, dependent on individual

ability and the existence of vacancies." A

WAC laboratory technician was required

5

 (1) Memo, Brig Gen Raymond W. Bliss, Chief,

Opns Serv SGO, for Dir Pers ASF, 11 Feb 44, SPMCP

322.5-1; Ind, Dir WAC to Dir Pers ASF, 12 Feb 44,

SPWA 341. (2) Memo, Col Arthur B. Welsh for Col

John R. Wood, re Off Procurement Serv. (3) Memo,

MPD ASF for TAG, 11 Apr 44. SPGAP 341 Gen-69.

(4) Memo, Chief, Pers Serv SGO, for Dir MPD ASF,

2 Jun 44. SPMCM 322.5-1 WAC, SGO Hist Div. 6

 This section is based on the following: (1) Memo,

Lt Col Edward R. Whitehurst, Chief, Enlmt Br SGO,

to Chief of Pers SGO, 13 Mar 44; (2) SGO Ltr, Chief,

Pers Servs SGO to each SvC Surg, 15 Mar 44; (3)

Memo, Chief, Enlmt Br SGO, for Dir Officer Procurement Service, 13 Apr 44; (4) Ltr, ASF Procurement Div for CGs of all SvCs, 24 Mar 44, FR-198;

with incl Ltr, SGO to all SvCs, 15 Mar 44; superseded by Ltr, 15 Jun 44, FR-202. SPMCM 322.5-1

WAC, SGO Hist Div. (5) WD Cir 340, 29 Dec 43.

(6) Interv with SGO WAC Stf Dir, Capt Maribeth

Turnbull, 13 Feb 46. (7) SGO Tng Div, Rpt on

Schooling of Enl Pers, MD, 1 Jul 39-30 Jun 44.

OCMH. (8) Memo, G-1 for Asst DCofS, 11 Jan 45.

CofS 324.5 WAC. June-December 1944 intake: 4.099.
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 341

to have a B.S. degree or three years' experience, and was similarly promised eligibility for a staff sergeant's rating. Other

specialties were comparable. The Surgeon General agreed in return to accept

the Officer Procurement Service's recommendation without change and to provide

the guaranteed assignment.

In addition, regular recruiters were authorized to accept other women for three

months' training as medical and surgical

technicians, provided that the women had

AGCT scores of 100 or better and had

graduated from high school. Thus, only

women in the upper half of the intelligence

range of the population, and of near-officer caliber, were channeled to the Medical

Department.

In spite of the high requirements, the

Female Medical Technicians Campaign

proved reasonably successful, the Medical

Department's glamor obviously being

second only to the Air Forces'. Women

were recruited so surprisingly fast that the

entire Medical Technicians' School reserved for WAC training proved inadequate. Within a few months some 4,000

well-qualified women had been recruited

for Army hospitals—a number which,

though short of 50,000, proved to be all

that was required at the time.

Success of Training

It was quickly demonstrated that Medical Department training courses offered

women no unusual difficulties. In early

months, Medical Department schools

were already carrying a peak load, and

housing and sanitary facilities for women

were so inadequate as for a time to cause

a serious welfare problem. This condition

was remedied gradually as male enlisted

personnel for training became scarcer, until by the end of the war over half of the

students at the enlisted technicians schools

were Wacs. No alteration was required in

the usual training courses for men, except

for omission of training in catheterization,

which was considered unsuitable. Women

in most cases qualified in two months for

specialties that ordinarily required three

months' training, and in three months for

other specialties normally requiring four.

Morale and discipline were generally

high.7

Relative Success in Medical Jobs

The actual success of women in various

types of hospital work varied with the

duties. The most successful women were

generally those who performed the more

technical duties, especially ones related to

patient care and reconditioning. Hospital

authorities at first had felt that only male

combat returnees should help rehabilitate

the wounded, "due to personality changes

of combat-wounded patients," which

would presumably make them allergic to

noncombat soldiers, especially female ones.

When the first women began to be assigned to hospital work, authorities discovered, instead, that "the psychological

reaction to feminine association has been

most beneficial in combating certain prevalent attitudes of overseas returnees."

Even untrained Wacs, according to commanders, showed natural ability for the

work and obtained satisfaction from it.

Authorities concluded that, "due to the

personal services rendered and to the enthusiasm and understanding exhibited by

7

 (1) SGO Hist Div, Med Dept Tng Activities, 1 Jul

45-2 Sept 45, A Supplement. OCMH. During this

period: Enrolled: 1,838 EM, 1,506 EW. Graduated: 588

EM, 1,329 EW. (2) Supplement to Rpt cited n. 6(7).

(3) SGO Hist Div, Hist of Tng of MD Female Pers.

OCMH.
342 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

such personnel, there has been a marked

increase in the morale of the patients

which is definitely considered to be an important part of the therapeutic regimen."

In hospitals that pioneered in using Wacs

in such work, complete satisfaction was

expressed by all concerned.8

Psychiatric Social Worker and Psychiatric

Assistant

Although earlier surveys had pronounced women unsuitable for any sort of

psychological work with men, the Medical

Department successfully employed more

than 300 women as psychiatric social

workers and psychiatric assistants. Women

performed case work, interviewed patients

and wrote case histories, carried out psychiatrists' mental hygiene prescriptions,

and maintained necessary files and records

on mental patients.9

Educational and Physical Reconditioning

Personnel

More than 150 women with college degrees and teaching experience were enlisted and given one month's training in

the educational reconditioning course at

the Army's Special Services school. They

were then employed to teach various

school subjects to patients during convalescent periods in Army hospitals.

Women were pronounced by medical authorities to be particularly successful in

such teaching, since "men are conditioned

to female instructors . . . and there is a

psychological advantage to their employment."

The same school's course in physical

reconditioning was barred to Wacs as inappropriate. One Wac accidentally attended, graduated, and was successfully

assigned; others did the work without such

training and were pronounced "capable

of fully participating in physical reconditioning, without specific limitations."

When Wacs conducted games, recreational athletics, and exercises for male

patients, there was noted "a marked increase of patient participation and enthusiasm."

 10

Therapy Assistants

Although the Medical Department had

no authority to commission the highly

trained civilian occupational therapists, as

did the Navy, it succeeded in securing several on an enlisted status. In addition,

more than two hundred women, experts in

some handicraft, were recruited and assigned to convalescent hospitals to lighten

the load on civilian occupational therapists by teaching leatherwork, weaving,

and other crafts to the mentally or physically handicapped.

To assist commissioned physical therapists, the Medical Department gave a

short course which successfully trained

some 500 Wacs as physiotherapy aides, for

duty in general and convalescent hospitals.11

8

 Memo, Fld Dir, Reconditioning Consultants Div

SGO, for SG, 16 Feb 45. WDWAC 341. 9

 This and following subsections based on: (1) Rpts

cited ns. 6(7), 7(1), 7(2). (2) Interv cited n. 6(6). (3)

Final Rpt for 29 Jun-4 Aug 45, Lt Col E. R. Whitehurst, WAC in Procurement of Female Med Technicians, SGO Tng Div, 1945. It is not apparent

whether this list includes both the Officer Procurement Service recruits in the 1944 Female Medical

Technicians Campaign, and the General Hospital

Campaign recruits of 1945, or only one of the two.

In any case it has been used as a safe minimum. 10

 (1) Memo cited n. 8. (2) Rpt cited n. 7(2). (3)

Interv cited n. 6(6). 11

 (1) Rpts cited ns. 6(7), 7(1), 7(2), and Interv

cited n. 6(6). (2) Memo, Exec SGO for Dir WAC, 14

Aug 44. SPMC/DD-DW 322.5, in WDWAC 720. (3)

Ltr, SGO to TAG, 2 Apr 45. SPMCM, in SGO Hist

Div 220.1 WAC.
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 343

Laboratory Technicians

More than 700 women were recruited

and assigned as laboratory technicians.

Those with a B.S. degree or three years'

experience were assigned immediately,

while others were acceptable for the Army

school if they had graduated from high

school in the upper half of the class and

had some laboratory experience. Women

seemed entirely suitable for such duties,

which consisted chiefly of analyzing specimens, making bloodcounts, preparing reagents, performing basal metabolism tests,

and typing blood.

Similarly, some 500 women were recruited for X-ray work—those with experience for immediate assignment, and

those with high school education, including physics and photography, for three

months' training in Army schools. Technicians not only operated X-ray equipment, but prepared patients for treatment,

managed protective measures, and developed film.

Medical Stenographers and Clerks

Recruiters had considerable success in

locating recruits with both a knowledge of

medical terms and the necessary clerical

or stenographic skills. Such women were

used in hospital offices to type records,

prepare reports, take dictation at conferences, and construct technical charts.

Miscellaneous Technicians

With promises of a master sergeant's

rating, recruiters succeeded in enlisting

approximately a dozen dental hygienists,

able to scale and polish teeth and perform

other oral prophylactic work. Larger

numbers of women with high school education, and of the proper size and weight

to fit into a dental cubicle, were also enlisted for three months' Army training as

dental technicians and assistants.

The Officer Procurement Service also

secured small numbers of recruits for various other technical duties: some forty

pharmacists and pharmacists' aides, a half

dozen lip reading technicians, and lesser

numbers of Braille teachers, optometrists,

hearing aids technicians, and others in

rare specialties.

Only one flaw marred the assignment of

such specialists during most of 1944. This

was a certain lapse in liaison between procurement and employment authorities on

the matter of salaries. Thus, the Officer

Procurement Service's advertisements in

professional journals had headlined the

Medical Department's statement that

Army specialist pay compared favorably

with civilian technician pay, and that promotion to the specified rank for each duty

depended upon "the proficiencies of the

individual and existing vacancies." It had

not been made clear that there were no

existing vacancies and would not be for

the current war; most hospitals' grade

allotments were already exceeded by assigned men and by the daily return of

highly rated men from overseas. Women

recruited under the Female Medical Technicians Campaign therefore could rarely

be promoted at all, and almost never to

the specified rank. Hospital commanders

naturally refused the requests for discharge of specialists who had enlisted under the wrong impression, and tended to

blame the Officer Procurement Service for

overglamorization of opportunities. On

the other hand, that agency was able to

show that it had merely operated on the

written specifications furnished it by The

Surgeon General's Office, and was not
344 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

clairvoyant as to the internal conditions in

Army hospitals.12

Commissioned Duties

Somewhat more fortunate were those

few skilled technicians who were recruited

on a commissioned instead of enlisted

status.13 Since The Surgeon General

lacked Congressional authority to commission females in the Sanitary Corps, a

special arrangement was made whereby

WAC bacteriologists, serologists, and biochemists were commissioned in the WAC

and detailed in the Sanitary Corps. Similarly, a number of WAC officers holding

administrative jobs in hospitals were detailed in the Medical Administrative

Corps to replace combat-fit male officers.

The Surgeon General had for some time

had Congressional approval of commissioning women physiotherapists in the

Medical Corps, without reference to the

WAC. For a time the training course leading to a commission was open only to

civilian women. Finally, at Colonel Hobby's insistence and because of difficulties

in recruiting students, qualified enlisted

women were offered the same opportunity,

and several hundred were commissioned.

Eventually the Medical Department's

interests in this work were found better

safeguarded by WAC recruitment of college graduates for training on an enlisted

status and subsequent commissioning, and

the greater part of the procurement of

commissioned physical therapists was

thereafter managed through the WAC.

Medical and Surgical Technicians

Greater in numbers than all of the skilled

specialists obtained through the Officer

Procurement Service or by commissions

were those women obtained direct through

recruiting stations—the medical and surgical technicians.14

 These were to number

from 6,000 to 10,000 by the end of the

war. Such women ordinarily had no medical experience, but upon proof of the

required education and AGCT score were

promised training in the Army's enlisted

technicians schools and subsequent assignment as medical or surgical technicians.

The duties of such ward personnel

proved in general only slightly less suitable

for women than those of the Officer Procurement Service technicians. Medical

technicians made beds, gave baths, took

temperature, pulse, and respiration; prepared patients for meals, carried trays,

and fed patients if necessary; gave enemas

and bedpans; filled icebags and hot water

bottles; kept ward records, prepared dressings, and kept linen closets neat. Surgical

technicians performed much the same

duties, as well as sterilizing gowns and

equipment and giving pre- and postoperative care. In general both were intended to

assist nurses by relieving them of simple

details of patient care.

Wacs ordinarily proved highly adept at

such simple nursing duties, and approached the work with an enthusiasm

and a sense of dedication not always found

among male technicians. On the other

hand, it was an accepted principle from

the beginning that women could not replace all or even half of the male tech12

 Ltr, Dir Tng, MD Enl Techns Sch, Camp Atterbury, Ind., to Dir WAC, 28 Aug 44, and reply.

WDWAC 210.3 (1945). 13

 Sources for this section cited ns. 9, 11. 14

 WD Cir 121, 19 Apr 45, denning duties of all

SSN's. Ltr, Dir Pers ASF to Maj Gen Russell B. Reynolds, 15 Feb 45, with incl. SPAP 220.3 WAC (7-28-

43). Statistics from Rpt cited n. 9(3).
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 345

nicians in any installation, since certain

duties required great physical strength

and others involved services for male patients that were considered inappropriate

for women to perform. The accepted ratio

was about 40 percent enlisted women to

60 percent men. Where these ratios were

preserved, the jobs of medical and surgical

technicians appeared extremely well

suited for women.

The WAC medical and surgical technicians nevertheless suffered from a particularly obvious comparison with civilian

women employed as paid nurses' aides.

Trained by the Red Cross, these were

almost identical in qualifications and

training with the WAC medical technician, and were intended for similar

duties. Civilian nurses' aides had figured

in Medical Department history since

World War I, and were frequently women

with home responsibilities who had accepted the work for patriotic reasons.

Nevertheless, it was a rare enlisted woman

who did not remark the fact that civilian

nurses' aides could quit if not given desirable duties, got three times the Wac's

salary for half the hours per week, and in

addition had officers' privileges on the

post, all of which the Wac herself might

have had but for the wiles of an Army

recruiter.

Possibly no more unhappy example had

yet occurred of the unwisdom of recruiting both military and civilian personnel

for identical duties and of using them on

the same installation. The final indignity

to many enlisted women came when all

hospital civilian employees were allowed

to wear the Wacs' uniform, the surplus

blue cotton dress formerly worn by nurses,

thus depriving enlisted women of the only

visible glory of military status.

The Hospital Orderly

The only hospital job on which women

were admittedly unsuccessful was the least

skilled: that of hospital orderly, or corpsman. Women had never been recruited for

this purpose, but in 1943, when certain

low-grade workers accumulated at training centers, the WAC requested the Medical Department to train them as ward

orderlies.15 The Medical Department accordingly set up an experimental training

course, but within a few months was

obliged to abandon it, pronouncing

women unsuitable for hospital orderlies

because of "the limited tasks to which this

type of personnel might be assigned, and

the impossibility of using them to replace

enlisted men as ward orderlies."

 16

 These

women, unlike enlisted men of the same

category, could not successfully work long

hours lifting heavy objects, pushing loaded

food and linen carts, and scrubbing wards

and corridors.

Two more attempts to train Wacs as

orderlies, at Mayo and Nichols General

Hospitals, likewise failed, and The Surgeon General informed the Director that

such personnel required so much supervision that the nurses' load was increased

instead of lightened. In any case women

orderlies could not replace men on a onefor-one basis because of lesser physical

strength. Therefore, the position of orderly

was not represented in the Female Medical Technicians Campaign, and the standards set for recruits were far above that

appropriate for such personnel.17

15

 Draft of Memo, WAAC Hq for SvCs, 11 Aug 43.

SPWA 220.3. 16

 Rpt cited n. 6(7). 17

 Memo, SGO for ASF, 21 Oct 44. SPAP 319.1

WAC (10-9-43).
346 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Under the circumstances, the War Department was at first unable to account for

a growing trend that began to make employment of WAC orderlies the rule rather

than the exception. Widespread reports

indicated that in many hospitals ward

orderlies were beginning to outnumber

technicians among WAC personnel. Hospital commanders, for reasons not at once

apparent, showed an increasing tendency

to assign Wacs of high intelligence and

technical training to duties that were exclusively those of charwomen and kitchen

police, even when such women had in

their possession written Recruiting Service

guarantees of assignment as medical technicians, which by specification included

no work heavier than "keeps bedside

tables neat."

Repeated investigations shortly made

clear that, although the Medical Department had acted on the assumption that

technicians were needed, hospitals were if

anything overstaffed on personnel for

patient care and short chiefly in low-grade

positions that civilians would no longer

accept. A civilian observer reported, "Cadet Nurses, civilian nurses' aides, civilian

nurses, Army nurses, and enlisted men are

all above them [Wacs] in the hospital caste

system and do all the actual medical care

of the patients."

 18

 It was clear—at too late

a date—that the Medical Department

should instead have asked a campaign to

recruit women in the lowest aptitude and

educational group and without commitment as to duties.

All reports confirmed the situation. The

commanding officer of Gardiner General

Hospital told inspectors that he "had no

use for Wacs except as ward orderlies

whom he might use on cleaning and

scrubbing duties."

 19

 At Fort Jackson,

South Carolina, the commanding officer

published a memo stating, "All [WAC]

personnel . . . will be used entirely for

cleaning of wards."

 20

 From Halloran

General Hospital, a Wac wrote:

If I had only known before I joined what I

know now they could have shot me before

I would have ever joined. Your people at the

recruiting office show a beautiful film that

shows the girls at work really doing things for

the boys. . . . We scrub walls, floors, make

beds, dust, sweep, and such only. . . . They

should stop this farce of recruiting 'medical

technicians' and ask for 'mop commandos.'

 21

Even an indignant civilian worker

wrote, "Most of them [Wacs] had medical

technician training [but] cleaning is all

they do officially."

 22

 Civilian visitors to

hospitals—including Mrs. Robert P. Patterson, wife of the Under Secretary of

War—likewise protested to the War Department concerning conditions they saw.

Mrs. Patterson commented on the WAC

orderlies' makeshift uniforms, bedraggled

appearance, overstrenuous duties in kitchens, long hours, and lack of the privileges

and training given enlisted men. Military

visitors carried the same report. Conditions discovered on one visit by the ASF

WAC Officer, Colonel Goodwin, were so

alarming that they were personally communicated to The Surgeon General's

Office by General Dalton, with the advice

that he would follow up on action taken.

This he directed to include better attention to the women's appearance, better 18

 Ltr cited n. 14. 19

 Memo, Capt Chance, GSC, for Maj Gen Stephen

G. Henry, G-1, 13 Mar 45. WDWAC 331.1. 20

 Memo, Asst CO for all Ward Offs, Ft Jackson

Regional Hosp, 18 Feb 44, atchd to Ltr, Dir Pers ASF

to CG 4th SvC, 26 Mar 45. SPAP 220.3 WAC (7-

28-43). 21

 Atchd to Ltr, Dir Pers ASF to Dir Pers 2d SvC,

16 Feb 45. SPAP 220.3 WAC (7-28-43). 22

 Incl to Ltr cited n. 14.
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 347

salvage and supply, provision of one day

off a week for kitchen police and orderlies,.

and an investigation of the chances of

upgrading orderlies.23

By the summer of 1944, even before the

end of the Female Medical Technicians

Campaign, the problem had become one

of the Corps' most serious. For the few

women who had come into the Medical

Department before the campaign, the

question was merely one of malassignment

to a duty possibly above their strength. For

those who had been promised assignment

as medical and surgical technicians, the

matter was the more urgent one of the

Army's good faith. A more unfortunate

situation, or one more provocative of resentment on all sides, had never before

occurred in the Corps' history. To the

hard-pressed hospital commander,

charged with maintaining patient care,

the insistence upon fulfillment of the written recruiting promises seemed an unwarranted infringement upon his command

prerogatives in assigning duties to keep the

hospital functioning. For the WAC Recruiting Service, it was pure disaster. No

other Army command, however much it

deplored the necessity of recruiting promises, had ever deliberately violated them,

and the Recruiting Service saw the source

of supply of Wacs for the entire Army

threatened by the personnel practices of

one agency.

Request for Survey

By early summer of 1944, with the

Female Medical Technicians Campaign

still continuing, the number of complaints

reaching the Director's Office "from civilian and Congressional sources" was so

great that Deputy Director Rice asked the

major commands for an investigation to

determine the actual situation:

The few investigations conducted in response to some of these criticisms have substantiated the fact that conditions in these

assignments are in many instances contrary

to the well-being of women. Realizing the

load on the hospitals . . . the Director WAC

does not wish to recommend to the War Department that women not be utilized in this

capacity, but because of conditions now alleged to exist in both time-length of daily

scheduled duties (without commensurate

time off) and in actual scrubbing work and

other menial tasks, she feels that her responsibility for the well-being of women calls for

study of such utilization.24

A simultaneous move came from The Inspector General, who informed the Chief

of Staff, ASF, that "possibly there is misassignment of WAC personnel," and asked

a survey.25

Reports of surveys, when received some

months later, disclosed that the situation

was in some respects worse than expected.

In the Army Service Forces alone, over

1,200 enlisted women—about 5 percent of

its total WAC strength—were found assigned as orderlies. Almost every station or

general hospital was guilty in an appreciable number of cases. At one, ten technicians were used as orderlies, at another

seven, at another six—in every case a percentage of the company large enough to

cause comment. It was found that nonmedical specialists were also being mal23

 (1) Memo, "JND" for Gen Somervell, 13 Jul 44.

SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43). (2) Routing Slip, Dep

Dir Pers ASF to Gen Somervell, 13 Jul 44. Folder,

WAC Rctg, ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 24

 Memo, Lt Col Rice for CG AAF, AGF, and ASF,

29 Jun 44. WDWAC 720. 25

 Memo, Gen Styer, CofS ASF, for Dir Pers ASF, 6

Jul 44, with Memo, ASF WAC Off for Dir MPD

ASF, 31 Jul 44. SPEX, in SPAP 220.3 WAC (7-28-

43).
348 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

assigned as orderlies, one station alone

having converted thirty graduates of the

motor transport school to this use.26

Hours of Work

Surveys also confirmed another fact

which began to suggest that hospital work

on an enlisted status was possibly not

proper for women. This was the difference

in hours of work for military and for civilian personnel. The customary hours in

Army hospitals were 40 hours a week for

civilian employees or 48 hours with overtime pay, and 8 hours a day for Army

nurses. Enlisted men were believed to have

more endurance, and traditionally worked

a 12-hour day in Army hospitals.

The difficulty for Wacs was that they

were both female and enlisted. As females,

a 12-hour day was no more appropriate

for Wacs than for nurses, and even less appropriate when Wacs were used for strenuous physical labor. As one female medical

officer observed, "Wacs are replacing enlisted men but you are not turning women

into men by an Act of Congress. . . . Wacs

are enlisted women but they are still

women."

 27

 On the other hand, Wacs were

enlisted personnel, and if they worked

only an 8-hour day the damage to the

morale of enlisted men on the same wards

was reported to be considerable because of

the discrimination involved, and one-forone replacement was made even more

difficult.

The surveys revealed that enlisted

women were almost without exception

required by hospital commanders to work

12 hours a day and often more. Also, many

were working 7 days a week and were not

allowed compensatory time off during the

work day or any leaves or passes. In addition to the regular 12-hour day, all were

obliged to take night calls in emergencies,

since civilian nurses' aides were not quartered on the post. Wacs also had to manage on their own time the four-hourweekly continuation training courses

required by the ASF, and other duties such

as company fatigue, inspections, personal

grooming, and sometimes laundry. As a

result, enlisted women in Army hospitals

were found to be working a minimum of

72 hours weekly and a maximum of at least

100, in addition to company duties. For

example, Camp Wheeler, Georgia, employed trained WAC medical technicians

as ward orderlies on a 12-hour, 7-day

week, a total of 84 hours a week exclusive

of emergency duty, training, and inspection. Camp Croft used a 131⁄2-hour day,

6-day week, or 81 hours a week plus extras.

Other variants at different hospitals produced the same general totals.28

These discoveries posed one of the most

difficult questions to be encountered by

the Army in its employment of womanpower: to what extent the Army could be

bound by labor laws and civilian rules in

the hours of work for women. Eighteen of

the states had laws to the effect that 48

hours per week, or 8 hours per day for 6

days, were the maximum for women

workers. In England, the Factory Act of

1937 placed the maximum for women at

from 48 to 54 hours, and even in the

darkest days after Dunkerque, the Ministry of Labour recommended that these

hours not be exceeded. The U.S. Army

Industrial Hygiene Laboratory, after a

study of women in industry, reported:

26

 Memo, MPD ASF for G-1, 12 Sep 44. SPGAM

322.5 WAC (9-6-44)-97, in SPAP 220.3 WAC (7-

28-43). 27

 Min, Med Tng Conf, Ft Oglethorpe, 1-3 May

45, pp. 29-30, comments of Maj Margaret Janeway.

WAC folder, SGO Tng Div. 28

 Memo cited n. 26.
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 349

One of the lessons learned in World War I

and again after the collapse of France in 1940 was that excessively long hours of work

do not ultimately pay, even when considered

solely on the basis of output and apart from the effect on health. . . . All of the available

evidence from England and this country indicates that working hours in operations

involving a fair amount of physical effort

should not exceed 60-65 per week for men,

and 55-60 per week for women.

A committee representing the Army,

Navy, Public Health Service, War Manpower Commission, Labor Department

and other agencies had agreed in 1942

concerning either male or female civilians

that "one scheduled day of rest for the

individual approximately every 7 days

should be a universal and invariable

rule."

 29

The Army Medical Department was

therefore obviously exceeding all accepted

safety limits in requiring a routine 72

hours a week and frequently 84 or 100

hours, and a 7-day week. On the other

hand, the Army was in a somewhat different position from civilian agencies. Since

it was entitled to ask a man's life in combat, it appeared equally entitled to ask

that a woman sacrifice her health if required. There was a strong feeling in the

Medical Department that any special regulations or labor laws concerning hours or

type of work for women constituted discrimination; also, many Army doctors did

not believe that any real damage to health

would result. A representative of The Surgeon General stated, in refusing to accept

the assignment of a WAC staff director for

the Medical Department:

Some think that there has been entirely

too much said on the subject of the physical

capabilities of males vs. females and I can only say that I don't think any of them work

as hard as they will when they become housewives and mothers.30

Director Hobby's recommendation, after she had considered the survey, was that

any sacrifice was justified, either of health

or life, if a true emergency required it; but

that, since commanders did not deliberately kill men unnecessarily, the WAC

should not unnecessarily sacrifice women's

health. As a means of determining whether

a true emergency existed, she proposed

that the hours worked by Army nurses be

considered the criterion. If nurses were not

busy enough to require extended hours,

and if the situation continued over months

and years, there obviously was no emergency but rather a failure of hospital commanders to take aggressive action to improve personnel management. She therefore proposed that WAC and Nurse Corps

hours be identical. This theory met with

the general disapproval of hospital commanders, and was not to be acceptable for

many months.

There was thus by the end of the summer of 1944 considerable doubt in WAC

authorities' minds as to whether women

should properly be employed at all in hospitals on an enlisted status, but should not

instead be hired as civilians on a 48-hour

week and with the privilege of quitting if

overtaxed, a move that would also avoid

the one-for-one replacement problem. To

this was added the ethical question of

whether recruiters were any longer justified in making commitments as to technical assignments which quite possibly

would not be fulfilled.

Cessation of Medical Department Recruiting

Any such decision was postponed when,

in late September of 1944, WAC recruiters

29

 (1) Baetjer, Women in Industry. (2) Helen Baker,

Women in War Industries (Princeton University Press,

1942). 30

 Memo, Col Durward G. Hall, SGO, for Col

Whitehurst, 15 Nov 44. SGO Hist Div 220.1 WAC.
350 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

received a request from The Surgeon

General to discontinue the Female Medical Technicians Campaign. At this time,

some months before the Battle of the Bulge,

war news seemed good, and on the basis

of low casualty estimates from overseas

The Surgeon General believed that adequate hospital personnel had been obtained. Recruiting of paid nurses' aides

was also scheduled for suspension; recruiting of nurses lacked only a few hundred of

meeting the original ceiling. On the basis

of similar reports from other agencies concerning the approaching end of the war,

the entire WAC Recruiting Service made

plans to go on a maintenance basis at the

end of the year.31

It was thus prematurely hoped that a

clash between procurement and medical

authorities had been avoided for the duration. Surveyors, reporting finally in October, believed that they had corrected half

of the cases of broken recruiting promises,

and others were scheduled for correction if

and when discovered. The ASF was not

willing to take further action at the moment, since this "would harass commanders . . . corrective action is not now

advisable"; it was hoped that time and the

end of the war would bring the necessary

readjustment.32

Resumption of the offensive in Europe

brought greatly increased casualties, plus

heavy hospitalization from combat fatigue,

exposure, and trench foot. In one month

the Army received more casualties from

overseas than it had in all other months

since Pearl Harbor, and soon the sick and

wounded were being returned at the rate

of 20,000 monthly. Almost overnight the

situation regarding future medical care

changed from comfortable to desperate.

A re-evaluation of the Nurse Corps ceiling indicated that installations in the

United States would be short more than

8,000 nurses; only 41,839 nurses were in

the Army, 75 percent overseas, of the

50,000 now believed needed at once. Also,

although the Cadet Nurse Corps had absorbed some 177,000 young women and

$192,285,518 in appropriations, it was

chiefly designed to meet civilian nursing

needs and had at this time furnished the

Army only a few hundred cadets. In a

final blow, more than 5,000 general service enlisted men were again ordered transferred from the Medical Department to

make up Army Ground Forces casualties.

This was the situation when, on 16 December 1944, the Battle of the Bulge

began.33

At about this time a number of drastic

measures were taken simultaneously by

the Medical Department, any one of

which would have been adequate to meet

the situation that actually developed. In

spite of certain objections from the General Staff, the Nurse Corps ceiling was

raised to the total of 60,000 recommended

by The Surgeon General. The Surgeon

General on 19 November assured the

Secretary of War that the nursing situation

was "nearly hopeless." In an effort to

arouse both the public and the General

31

 (1) M/R, Conf of Representatives of Dir WAC

and TAG, 19 Oct 44. SPWA 341. (2) Memo, G-1 for

ASF, 26 Oct 44, with Inds and M/R through 8 Dec

44. SPAP 341 WAC (11-6-44). 32

 (1) Memo cited n. 26 and Min cited n. 27. (2)

Memo, MPD ASF for Dir Pers ASF, 7 Aug 44,

SPGAA 210.3 WAC (7-6-44)-157; (3) Memo, Dir

Pers ASF for MPD, 9 Aug 44; (4) Memo, MPD for

Dir Pers ASF, 3 Oct 44, SPGAC 210.3 WAC (10-3-

44)-157. All in SPAP 220.3 WAC (7-28-43). 33

 (1) Organized Nursing and the Army in Three

Wars: A Political and Administrative History of the

Army Nurse Corps, by Mary W. Standlee, Walter

Reed Gen Hosp, in collaboration with Col Florence

A. Blanchfield, R.N., ANC, pp. 461, 479, 606.

MS copy furnished author for review and comment.

Hereafter cited as ANC Hist. (2) Rpt cited n. 6(7).
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 351

Staff to his needs, he went so far as to bypass the Bureau of Public Relations to give

alarming statistics, based on the new

Nurse Corps ceiling, to a well-known columnist. Great national concern resulted.

Near the beginning of the new year, a proposal to draft nurses went from the Secretary of War to the President, and from him

to Congress. Meanwhile, to fill the immediate gap, plans were made for the Red

Cross to recruit 5,000 more nurses' aides.

And even earlier, on 15 November, The

Surgeon General's Office discussed plans

to reverse the decision on WAC recruiting

and to request some 8,000 more Wacs.34

Exact plans for these 8,000 WAC recruits developed slowly during the last six

weeks of 1944. At first The Surgeon General, Maj. Gen. Norman T. Kirk, after receiving the pledge of higher authorities to

do everything possible "to strengthen

Kirk's hand,"

 35

 asked for 8,500 enlisted

medical and surgical technicians, either

men or women. It was stated that each

could fill a nurse vacancy by assuming

enough routine nursing duties to permit

one nurse to handle the professional duties

of two. For each of these men or women,

The Surgeon General asked a rating of

T/4, or sergeant, as befitted the skills involved. After discussion, both The Surgeon General and the Army Service

Forces recommended that all of the technicians be Wacs, since the limited service

men available for retraining seemed chiefly

interested in getting out of the Army, and

it was felt that women would have more

enthusiasm for caring for the wounded in

the long hospitalization and rehabilitation

period ahead. Again the Medical Department asked for women in the upper

AGCT and educational brackets.36

The Service Forces immediately authorized their hospitals to carry one WAC

medical technician overstrength for each

unfilled vacancy for a nurse. No announcement was made to the field as to how these

extra technicians would be obtained, or

whether they would get the T/4 rating

previously recommended by The Surgeon General.37

Over this point, the General Staff disputed during the last days of 1944. Directives to curtail all WAC recruiting went

to the field on 20 December, and an immediate decision was necessary if they

were to be recalled. Resumption of the Female Medical Technicians Campaign

would have been simple, but Director

Hobby was not willing to sponsor a drive

to induce highly qualified women to enlist

unless some better assurance could be

made that recruiting promises would be

fulfilled. She sent The Surgeon General a

list of questions concerning the means of

providing the guaranteed job and grade,

and in reply was assured only that the hospital training would be very valuable and

would give the women an excellent

chance, after the war, of being hired by the

Veterans' Administration.38

The temper of the moment was one that

made refusal to recruit for the purpose unthinkable. Director Hobby's telephone

34

 (1) ANC Hist, pp. 526 ff. Also Memo, SW for

President of U.S., 30 Dec 44, Mr. Goldthwaite H.

Dorr's file, Office of Records and Co-ordination,

Office of SW. (2) Memo, Col Whitehurst, SGO, for

Maj Gen George F. Lull, Deputy SG, 15 Nov 44. SGO

Hist Div 220.1 WAC. 35

 Pencil note on Memo, SG for G-1 through MPD

ASF, 23 Nov 44. SPMCM, in SPAP 220.3 WAC

(7-28-43). 36

 (1) Memo Routing Slip, Exec SGO for Dir WAC,

22 Nov 44. WDWAC 341. (2) Memo cited n. 35. 37

 Ltr, Dir Pers ASF to SG and all SvCs, 9 Dec 44.

SPGAS 320.2 Med (12-9-44)-285, SGO Hist Div

220.1 WAC. 38

 (1) Ltr, TAG to all SvCs, 20 Dec 44. SPXPR-I

WAC (12-20-44), in SPAP 341 WAC, sec II. (2)

Memo Routing Slip cited n. 36(1).
352 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

conversations revealed that she shared the

general belief that "those boys are being

wounded without people there to do things

for them." Nevertheless, she cast about for

any alternative to sending more women on

enlisted status to Army hospitals. She went

so far as to suggest in high places that nursing standards were too high, and that

rather than use Wacs with a few weeks'

training, the Nurse Corps should employ,

as warrant officers or on a similar status,

the practical nurses and graduates of

smaller nursing schools who were not acceptable for commissions. This, she was informed, was impossible because of the

pressure of civilian nursing groups against

recognition of such women. Plans to recruit more Wacs therefore continued.39

Director Hobby's concern over the situation was such that she went in person to

General Marshall to record her protests.

General Marshall shortly thereafter interjected into the War Department conferences an opinion that sufficient women of

the high caliber desired could not be recruited by the WAC for these jobs unless

the Army could back up its guarantee of

work involving patient care and a rating.

Unless these could be assured the recruits,

General Marshall refused to sanction any

further recruiting of women as medical or

surgical technicians.

Since such assurance was impossible under the current system, he proposed that

the new Wacs be sent to hospitals in Table

of Organization companies. The rigid

T/O unit came equipped with its own extra allotment of grades, and with specifications as to the exact job of each member;

neither the job nor the grade could be

changed by field commanders. Such units

for women had long ago proved impracticable for general duty Waacs, since few

stations could use identical inflexible units,

but general hospitals were a different matter, since all had almost identical missions

and organization, and all used technicians.40

Wacs vs. Nurses' Aides

Before such units could be authorized,

Director Hobby became aware of another

fact which again caused her to consult

General Marshall: The Surgeon General

was asking the Red Cross for 5,000 civilian

nurses' aides to be recruited at the same

time that the WAC would be recruiting its

8,000 enlisted technicians. WAC recruiters

feared that no WAC campaign, even if it

guaranteed a good job and a rating, could

succeed in competition with Red Cross offers of higher pay and officer privileges for

identical jobs in identical hospitals on a

civilian status. Instead, recruiting funds

would be wasted and the government

placed in an indefensible position.

On 5 January 1945, General Marshall

wrote to his deputy, Lt. Gen. Thomas T.

Handy:

I have just talked to the Director of the

WAC and she tells me the ASF is going after

5,000 nurses aides.

My guess would be that this will ruin what

I want to do in creating General Hospital

companies in the WAC organization, because of the pay status and general competition

with the Red Cross. . . . Please look into this business and see that

we are not working against ourselves in this

enterprise. I want action.41

The decision between Wacs and nurses'

aides at once involved the War Depart- 39

 Tp Convs, Col Hobby. Drawer 6, G-1 WAC

files 312-312.9, DRB AGO. 40

 Memo, "JPR" for Dir WAC, 29 Dec 44.

WDWAC 341. Describes 27 Dec 44 conf. 41

 Memo, CofS for Handy, 5 Jan 45; copy is Tab A

to reply, G-1 for CofS, 5 Jan 45. WDWAC 341 WAC

Hosp Units (4-22-45); also in CofS 324.5 WAC.
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 353

ment in much bitterness and misunderstanding. In training, the two positions

were virtually identical, although graduates of the Red Cross course were considered by The Surgeon General to be

"not as well trained" as WAC graduates

of the Army's six-week course, and often

needed retraining.42 In relative cost, also,

the WAC appeared to have a slight edge.

A study made by the Chief of Staffs office

indicated that a Wac cost from $1,032 to

$1,368 yearly, including pay, housing,

food, and clothing, while a civilian nurses'

aide received $1,752 to $2,190 for a 48-

hour week.43

However, civilian advocates of nurses'

aides noted that there were always many

hidden costs to military personnel and

that the Red Cross bore the cost of recruiting and training aides. Army Nurse Corps

leaders preferred civilian aides, stating

that nurses would be needed to train

Wacs, that Wacs were subject to redeployment, that WAC officers had been given

Army rank a year before nurses, and that

women under WAC command would be

subject to call for drill without regard to

patient care.44

In making its decision the War Department considered all of these arguments of

less consequence than the decisive one:

Wacs could not quit when the shooting

ended. G-1 Division stated:

Since the personnel necessary for the care

of the sick and wounded in Army hospitals

must be available not only during the next

. . . months but throughout the period when

the Army hospitals must care for and rehabilitate all men wounded during the war, it is

considered essential that a sufficient complement of military personnel, enlisted for the

duration plus six months, be available.45

Breaking off with the Red Cross aide

program proved a delicate business; the

Red Cross for many years had been accustomed to recruit Army nurses as well

as aides, and to set the standards of acceptance. Since Red Cross officials objected on

the ground that commitments had been

made to women already in training, it was

agreed to hire all of these before discontinuing the program.46

Red Cross leaders co-operated in agreements by which their graduates might be

guaranteed a medical technician rating

without further training if they enlisted in

the WAC. Resentment within some of the

Medical Department offices was longerlived. After the end of the war, Training

Division, Surgeon General's Office, stated

in its history that the Medical Department

had never requested the 8,000 Wacs at all,

or planned to use them, until Director

Hobby had exerted influence upon General Marshall to cancel civilian nurses'

aide recruiting, thereby forcing the Medical Department to take Wacs "to meet the

shortage thus created."

 47

T/O Units for General Hospitals

Upon receipt of General Marshall's demand on 5 January, G-1 Division called

from their evening meals WAC Deputy

42

 (1) Memo, Pers Div SGO for Tng Div SGO, 10

Feb 45. Tng Div SGO WAC file. (2) Memo, Lt Col

Westray Battle Boyce for Col Charles F. Collier (G-1

Div) and Col Hobby, 24 May 45. WDWAC 220.3. 43

 Memo, G-1 for Col Frank McCarthy, Secy GS,

13 Jan 45. CofS 324.5 WAC. 44

 (1) ANC Hist, p. 492 ff. (2) Memo, Maj Edna B.

Groppe, O Dir ANC, for Col James R. Hudnall,

SGO, 10 Oct 44. File 23, Nurses' Aides, SGO Mail

and Recs Br. 45

 Memo cited n. 6(8). 46

 (1) Memo, G-1 for CofS, 5 Jan 45. WDWAC

341 WAC Hosp Units (4-22-45). (2) Ltr, SW to Mr.

Basil O'Connor, American Red Cross, 16 Jan 45. CofS

324.5 WAC. (3) Tp Conv, Col Rice and Mrs. Walter

Lippmann, 1 Feb 45. Drawer 6, G-1 WAC 312-312.9. 47

 Rpt cited n. 6(7).
354 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Director Rice and representatives of The

Surgeon General, in various stages of offduty attire, and the group worked all

night to deliver to General Marshall the

completed plan for WAC hospital companies.48

The Table of Organization, details to be

prepared later by The Surgeon General's

Office, was set at 100 women, in an assortment of technical and clerical jobs believed

to be adaptable to any general hospital.

Since no member was to be less than a

skilled technician or clerk, no rating less

than T/5 or corporal was included—a

slight decrease from The Surgeon General's estimate that a T/4 or sergeant

would be required for each, and one which

gave the new units no higher spread of

grades than that of men already in Army

hospitals. Any hospital desiring one or

more of such companies was to report the

fact, and the women would then be recruited with complete assurance of assignment to that hospital and to a technical

job, which would if successful automatically carry a T/5 rating.49

G-1 representatives pronounced the

T/O an excellent idea, which would not

only permit recruiters to make foolproof

guarantees, but would also prevent hospitals from frittering away, in luxurious station overhead, personnel given them to

care for the sick. The chief of G-1's Personnel Policy Branch stated later:

These units were developed to furnish

medical and surgical technicians and other

specialists in the hospitals, to assist the nurses.

They were not developed for the overhead

personnel of the hospital. Their purpose was

to assist and care for the wounded and sick.50

To prevent injustice to women recruited

earlier, the plan required that every Wac

already working at such a hospital be incorporated into the T/O unit, or be transferred from the hospital if she was deemed

incapable of performing a technician's

duties. Pursuant to this scheme, The Surgeon General's Office was required on the

night of 5 January to report the number

of Wacs already at each hospital, which

was subtracted from the number to be recruited to fill the unit. It was therefore

confidently anticipated by planners that

the establishment of the T/O units would

remedy two ills at once: it would remove

women from work as hospital orderly,

which was officially considered beyond

women's strength, and it would redeem all

recruiting promises, past or future. The

question of hours of work was also resolved

by War Department approval of a circular

requiring the same hours for all military

women, commissioned or enlisted. Last,

but far from least in the minds of enlisted

women, the Director eventually secured

authorization for a hospital uniform, a becoming rose-beige chambray, which could

not be worn by civilians.51

General Hospital Campaign

Because the women had to reach the

hospitals simultaneously with the peak of

returning casualties, the General Hospital

Campaign was launched almost at once.

Women were required to have a score in

the three upper AGCT brackets. White

House co-operation was extended when

Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt invited Colonel

Goodwin to share a press conference in

48

 (1) Completed plan: Memo cited n. 46(1). (2)

Description of planning session by Col Collier, G-1

Div, p. 8, Min cited n. 27. 49

 Tab B of Memo cited n. 46(1). The T/O provided 67 T/5's and 33 higher grades. 50

 Remarks by Col Collier, n. 48(2). 51

 (1) Tab C of Memo cited n. 46(1). (2) Remarks

of Col Whitehurst, SGO, pp. 26, 29. Min cited n. 27.

(3) WD Cir 121, 19 Apr 45.
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 355

MEDICAL RECRUITING DISPLAY

January, and General Marshall again

wrote to all state governors, seeking their

aid.52

The appeal of nursing jobs to women

was reported as "terrific," even in what

the public now knew were the last days of

the war. The General Hospital Campaign

was soundly backed by public relations

authorities, with numbers of local stories

such as "WOUNDED APPRECIATE HELP," and

effective local stunts. For example, Fitzsimons General Hospital received a

giant bell, which toured Denver, tolling

every eighty seconds to mark the return of

one more American battle casualty who

needed care.53 A quota of about 6,000 by

1 May was set; in mid-career it was raised

to 7,000; yet recruiters met and passed the

number by the end of March, a month

ahead of schedule.54

Training also went off well. The Third

WAC Training Center at Fort Oglethorpe

was turned over to medical recruits, and a

shortened basic course was followed by a

six-week medical course on the same post,

52

 (1) Memo cited n. 46(1). (2) Ltr, TAG to all

SvCs, 13 Jan 45. AG PR-I 341 WAC (1-13-43). (3)

Ltr, AGO to all SvCs, 23 Jan 45. SPXPR-I-341

WAC, copy in WDWAC 341 (1945). (4) D/F, G-1 for

CofS, 5Feb 45. WDWAC 000.7 (1945-46). (5) Ltrs,

CofS to all State Governors, 7 Jan 45. WDCSA 324.5

WAC. 53

 Omaha World Herald, February 19, 1945; Denver

Post, February 22, 1945. 54

 Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 5 Apr 45. WDWAC

341.
356 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

staffed by Army doctors, nurses, and enlisted technicians from nearby hospitals.

Both students and training authorities had

only praise for the excellent and practical

course and for the instructors.55

The recruits themselves were a promising group, extremely enthusiastic. Many

were motivated by the fact that relatives

had been casualties; they wished to give to

some wounded soldier the care they had

not been able to give personally to their

own wounded. The majority were young

single women of good character and intelligence; they successfully completed the

three-month course in six weeks, with few

failures even in cases where women with

lower-than-qualifying AGCT scores had

been erroneously recruited. About 5,000

were graduated as medical and surgical

technicians, and 1,300 as medical clerks.56

However, the difficulties inherent in the

whole General Hospital Campaign became obvious even before the women reported for duty. The Surgeon General's

representative stated:

Utter confusion and conflicting policies

and directives re ideas as to the utilization of

this personnel have been flagrant since the

original idea of WAC Table of Organization

companies was conceived.57

Because of the confusion, repeated conferences were held with Director Hobby

and with medical officers from every service command, without much success. Although the hospital T/O had been drawn

up by The Surgeon General's Office itself,

that office believed that changed conditions merited abrogation of recruiting

commitments.

Even before the new recruits reached

the hospitals, the Battle of the Bulge was

won and January's fright concerning medical care was in the past. Just as V-E Day

was in prospect, all of the drastic attempts

to get medical personnel were embarrassingly successful and bore fruit simultaneously. The nursing profession, under

threat of the draft, had responded with a

rush; in the three weeks between 8 and 29

January 1945, over 10,000 applications for

commissions were filed. Draft rumors also

stimulated 60 percent of senior cadets to

choose the Army instead of civilian employment. Hospitals proved resourceful in

hiring civilian nurses. In May, the director of the Army Nurse Corps, Col. Florence A. Blanchfield, returned from Europe

to find that there were actually too many

nurses. She recommended that 2,000

civilian nurses be released, and secured a

recall of the proposed draft legislation. As

a result, hospital commanders everywhere

objected to the WAC T/O units, and

pointed out that they no longer needed

Wacs to care for the sick, but were in

urgent need of more orderlies, kitchen

police, and charwomen.58

The matter of grades was also a disappointment. It had been guaranteed by

G-1 that these would be an extra allotment, but when the ASF appealed to Lt.

Col. Westray Battle Boyce, the G-1 WAC

officer handling the grades, it was in55

 (1) Memo, SGO Tng Div for SGO Resources

Analysis Div, 26 Jan 46; (2) Memo, ASF Plans and

Opns Div for SG, 5 Feb 45, SPMOC 532; (3) Memo,

Capt Turnbull for Dir Tng Div SGO, 23 Feb 45; (4)

Min cited n. 27. WAC file, SGO Tng Div. 56

 (1) Rpt cited n. 7(2). (2) Remarks by Lt Col

Elizabeth H. Strayhorn, Comdt, 3d WAC Tng Cen.

Min cited n. 27. 57

 Memo, Col Hall, Actg Chief, Pers Serv SGO,

for Surg Gen, 14 Mar 45. WAC file, SGO Tng Div. 58

 (1) M/R, Extract from SGO Diary, 28 Feb 45,

initialed ERW, (2) Min, Mtg in O Dir WAC, 9 Mar

45; (3) Memo, Col Whitehurst to Col Hall. WAC

file, SGO Tng Div. (4) Min cited n. 27. (5) Memo,

SGO Pers Servs for CG ASF, 9 Jan 45. SGO Hist Div

322.5-1 WAC. (6) Memo, G-3 for CG ASF, 10 Feb

45. WDGCT 320.3 (1-5-45), in WDWAC 341. (7)

D/F, G-3 to CofS, 30 Jan 45. CofS 324.5 WAC. (8)

ANC Hist, pp. 553, and 584-5.
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 357

formed that "you must find them," and,

after further appeals, it was six months before these were forthcoming from G-1

Division.59

Meanwhile, men and women already

in hospitals felt that the new recruits were

receiving their grades. They also failed to

realize that the T/O grades were no

higher than those already allotted hospitals, the only difference being that in the

new units every member received a low

rating at the expense of fewer high ratings

than men in hospitals possessed. In any

case the new arrivals could be promoted

at once under the T/O while older hands

had to wait for a vacancy in the existing

overstrength.

The Air Forces solved the problem by

getting War Department approval to the

promotion of every Air Forces medical

technician, man or woman, to the merited

grade of T/5 regardless of other overstrength, but The Surgeon General asked

instead that the situation be equalized by

not promoting the new recruits. The Surgeon General's representatives privately

admitted that they had concurred in setting up the T/O with rated technicians,

and that "some of the things that you and

I object to most strenuously were recommended by The Surgeon General's own

office." Nevertheless, SGO Training Division now proposed that hospitals be freed

to utilize the new recruits in any duties in

which they were most needed, and to promote them on the same basis as other personnel. It was also proposed that some

1,800 recruits still in basic training not be

given the technical training they had been

promised, but be sent at once to unskilled

work.60

Director Hobby opposed this plan on

the grounds that recruiting promises made

to women and affirmed by their state governors at the request of General Marshall

could not be broken. The Surgeon General's representative objected:

Colonel Hobby has the idea that every

company should be exactly as the Table of

Distribution prescribes. . . . This is an unrealistic and impossible point of view. ... In one

breath, the theme of G-1 and the Director WAC appears to be to give the Surgeon General what he wants and needs and the next

is to say that the Surgeon General will take

what they give.61

Nevertheless, on this point the War Department's final decision was that recruiting pledges could not be broken.62

Even greater opposition from The Surgeon General's Office was offered toward

the plan to assign all hospital Wacs to

these companies. The directive produced

after the all-night planning session of 5

January had stated specifically, "The

WAC personnel now on duty at General

Hospitals will be absorbed into the companies within the T/O strength." The

Army Service Forces reported to the General Council as late as 13 March that the

personnel on duty at general hospitals

would be included in these units and be

given at least 90 days to qualify for grades.

On the next day it developed that the

Office of The Surgeon General had not

been aware of this clause; representatives

also denied seeing The Adjutant General's

59

 (1) Comment 2, MPD ASF to G-1, 18 Oct 45, to

basic D/F, WD Manpower Bd to G-1, SG, ASF.

WDSMB 323.3 (Hospital), in WAC file, SGO Tng

Div. (2) Interv with Col Goodwin, 2 May 51. 60

 (1) Memo cited n. 57. (2) AAF Reg 35-54 A

(Amendment), 28 Jun 45, with notes. WDWAC

220.01. (3) Draft of proposed Ltr, SGO Tng Div to

CG ASF, Jul 45. WAC file, SGO Tng Div. (4) Quotation from Comments from Pers Servs, 18 Jul 45.

SGO Tng Div. (5) Memo, SG for MPD ASF, 23 Jun

45. SPMOM, WAC file, SGO Tng Div. 61

 Memo cited n. 57. 62

 AG Ltr to SvCs, 1 Jun 45. AG 322 (5-29-45)

OB-I-SPMOU-M.
358 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

letters to the field that set up the companies on this basis. The Surgeon General

had even issued contrary directives saying

that WAC orderlies would be retained. On

this point, since there had been no public

commitment, Director Hobby was overruled and the directive rescinded.63

The general hospital T/O units lasted

less than a year. Shortly after the defeat

of Japan The Surgeon General obtained

their dissolution on the grounds that they

were too large for the decreasing size of

hospitals, and would hinder demobilization. Wacs in these companies remained

at hospitals as part of the regular bulk allotment, but the General Staff required,

before permitting inactivation of units,

that every woman receive the rating

promised her. Thus the general hospital

recruits could finally be used on any

duties, as desired by The Surgeon General,

but at least they had corporal's stripes.64

Conclusions

Final reports from inspectors in the last

months of the Corps did little to dispel

doubts concerning the suitability of hospital employment for women on an enlisted

status. There was no doubt of its suitability

for women on some status. The care of patients held an attraction for them, and

even when Wacs were allowed officially to

do nothing but scrubbing and cleaning,

they devoted off-duty hours to the patients,

writing letters, reading, shopping for them,

and running various errands. Hospital

commanders with few exceptions praised

the work of Wacs to inspectors even while

objecting to restrictions imposed by recruiting commitments. One said, "I'd

rather have one Wac than three civilians."

 65

Final developments gave little indication that Medical Department policy

could change to the extent necessary to

protect the health of women in an enlisted

status. In spite of the War Department circular requiring the same working hours

for enlisted women as for nurses, the 12-

hour day continued. When inspectors

found women at Walter Reed Hospital

working an 80-hour week long after the

end of hostilities, the commanding general

stated frankly that he had "circumvented

the provisions of the circular by putting a

small number of Army nurses on 12 hours

duty."

The prominent women of the WAC's

National Civilian Advisory Committee

visited general hospital companies at

work, after the Chief of Staff had overruled objections to the visit from both ASF

and The Surgeon General; they reported

themselves shocked at conditions. Barracks were frequently crowded, ill ventilated, and sprinkled with coal dust;

workers on all shifts used the same bar63

 (1) Min, Gen Council, 13 Mar 45. (2) Min cited

n. 58(2). (3) Ltr, AGO to SvCs, 12 Mar 45. AG 322

(3-8-45) OB-I-SPMOU-M. (4) Ltr, SGO to all

SvCs, 15 Jan 45. SPMCM, SGO Hist Div 322.5-1

WAC. (5) Memo, Col Boyce for Cols Peter Schmick

and Hobby, 21 Mar 45. (6) ASF Ltr SPGAC-210.3

WAC, 26 Apr 45. SPAP 220.3 WAC. (7) AG Ltr cited

n. 62, and amendment, 13 Jul 43. 64

 (1) D/F, WD Manpower Bd to G-1 WD, SGO,

ASF, 10 Oct 45. WDSMB 323.3 (Hospital), WAC

file, SGO Tng Div. (2) Ltrs, AGO to all Comdrs, 3

Dec 45, and later dates. AG 322 (11-28-45) OB-ISPMOU-M. (3) D/F, G-1 to CofS, 8 Oct 45.

WDGAP 320.2 WAC in 320.2 (1945). Incl in Ltr,

CofS to State Governors, 17 Oct 45. CofS 324.5 WAC. 65

 (1) Transmittal Sheet, MTD ASF to SGO, 7 Jun

45. Wac file, SGO Tng Div. (2) Memo cited n. 19.

(3) Memo, Capt Margaret Stone for Dir WAC, 7 Jul

45. WDWAC 333.1, in WDWAC 319.1 Hosps. (4)

Memo, Lt Col Mary-Agnes Brown for Dir WAC, 27

Jul 45. WDWAC 333.1. (5) D/F, G-1 to SG, 3 Oct 45.

WDGAP 333 WAC, in WDWAC 333.1. (6) D/F, G-1

for CofS, 4 May 45, and D/F's, G-1 to ASF, 22 May,

29 May, 9 Jun 45. WDGAP 341 WAC.
THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT (ASF) 359

racks, disturbing those trying to sleep

either day or night; and hours had not

greatly improved, with women still required to train and frequently to launder

their clothing on their own time. There

was also no evidence that the practice of

malassigning technicians had abated.

General Dalton eventually lost patience

with repeated violations, and Colonel

Goodwin ascribed to him personally most

of the credit for redeeming such broken

commitments as were redeemable.66

By some coincidence, the Navy reported

the same experience, and the director of

the Bureau of Naval Personnel stated

later:

Experience indicated that in some jobs too

much was asked of the women's physical

strength. Oddly enough, the outstanding offender was BuMed. ... As evidence mounted

of women breaking under the strain of long

hours, the office of the Women's Reserve put

increasing pressure on BuMed to remedy the

situation.

A 51-hour work week was regarded by

WAVES authorities as "the desirable maximum," but the Bureau of Naval Personnel

reported, "Efforts to have this cast in the

form of a directive failed to overcome the

opposition of Naval tradition against

'union hours'."

 67

Final recommendations by the Army

Medical Department confirmed the fact

that continued utilization of servicewomen

was contemplated by Army hospitals. For

commissioned positions, The Surgeon

General asked and obtained legislation to

allow women to be commissioned directly

in a women's medical specialists corps,

headed by its own colonel, which would

include dietitions, physical therapists, and

occupational therapists.

The Surgeon General also advocated

that enlisted women who worked in hospitals be enlisted in the Medical Department alone and not in the WAC. This

move would have obviated the requirement for a WAC company commander

and for compliance with War Department

restrictions as to the hours and types of

duty for members of the WAC. The War

Department did not look with approval

upon any such proposal for the setting up

of independent women's corps in the different administrative and technical services, which tended toward compartmentalization as opposed to integration; it also

did not agree to abdicate its Army-wide

responsibility for safeguarding the wellbeing of women. Medical Department

utilization therefore continued upon the

wartime terms and without much greater

clarification of the situation than had

hitherto prevailed.68

66

 (1) Ibid; also series of Itrs, SPAP 220.3 WAC (7-

28-43) beginning 1 Feb 45. (2) Interv with Col Goodwin, 2 May 51. 67

 WAVES Hist 68

 (1) HR 1943, 80th Cong. (2) HR 3054, 80th

Cong. (3) Final strength report: Memo, Dir WAC

for Gen Henry, 18 Aug 45. WDWAC 319.1 Hosp.

ASF: General Hospitals.................... . 12,087

Convalescent Hospitals................ . 423

Regional Hospitals................... . 2,203

Station Hospitals ..................... . 1,379

Port of Embarkation .................. . 890

16,982

AAF: (as of 30 Jun 45)...................... . 3,055

20,037
CHAPTER XX

The North African and

Mediterranean Theaters

The North African Theater of Operations was the pioneer in employment of

Waacs overseas.1 The experiment owed its

impetus to the first theater commander,

Lt. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had

been impressed with the efficiency of British servicewomen, and to his deputy, Maj.

Gen. Everett S. Hughes, who fifteen years

before had prepared the General Staff

study, Participation of Women in War. On

most lower echelons there was a less favorable general attitude, ranging from mild

skepticism in headquarters offices to bitter

opposition in the great majority of soldiers'

letters.2

The theater received its first five WAAC

officers on 22 December 1942, some six

weeks after the invasion of North Africa.

The women, qualified as secretaries, were

assigned by the War Department to England, but upon General Eisenhower's request were immediately placed by the

London headquarters on a ship bound for

North Africa. A day out of port, the ship

was torpedoed, and the women came into

port aboard a British destroyer, which had

taken two from the burning ship and three

from a lifeboat. The day in the lifeboat

was remembered by the Waac participants

as a hectic interval in which they lost all

their equipment, the only crewman

aboard became violently seasick, and the

women fished five or six men, one badly

injured, from the water. When the Waacs

arrived in port, dirty and bedraggled, they

were greeted by anxious dignitaries who

contributed oranges, toothbrushes, and

other emergency items. General Matejka

offered half a jar of hand cream, while

Maj. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith procured

small-sized men's trousers, which the

women found they could not get into.

General Smith immediately chose as his

assistant one particularly filthy member

who had lost hairpins and hat and been

vomited on; he confided to her later that

he "picked the worst-looking so her feelings wouldn't be hurt." The greatest con1

 No official WAC history was discovered in theater files. This chapter draws upon: (1) The sections

concerning NATO in SPWA 320.2, WAAC classified

files, DRB AGO. (2) WAC policy file, in possession

of Lt Col Dorothea A. Coleman. Hereafter cited as

Coleman file. (3) Intervs with, and written comments

from, Lt Col Dorothea A. Coleman, 21 Jan and 8 Feb

46; Lt Col Cora M. Foster, 8 Mar 50; Maj Hortense

M. Boutell, 8 Mar 50 and 6 Mar 51; Maj Ruth M.

Briggs, 6 Mar 51; Maj Aline Drezmal, 6 Mar 51. (4)

Memo, WAC PRO, Hq MTOUSA, for WAC Gp,

WDBPR, 12 Sep 45, sub: WAC Redeployment.

WDWAC 000.7. Hereafter cited as Redeployment

Summary. (5) Clippings and publicity material, cited

by name and envelope. DRB AGO. (6) Interv and

written comments from Dr. Sidney T. Mathews.

OCMH. (7) Review of this chapter by Col Westray

Battle Boyce Leslie. 2

 For all excerpts from mail, see NATO AG files

319.1 Morale, Vols. II-V.
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 361

tribution came from General Marshall,

who met the women at the Casablanca

Conference and took home a list of lost

equipment. Finding that there was no

legal means of free replacement, he personally paid for and forwarded new clothing, refusing to accept repayment.3

Arrival of First Unit

The first enlisted women arrived in the

theater a month later. The 149th WAAC

Post Headquarters Company, called by

newspapers "the first American women's

expeditionary force in history," was one of

the most highly qualified WAAC groups

ever to reach the field. Hand-picked and

all-volunteer, almost all members were

linguists as well as qualified specialists, and

almost all eligible for officer candidate

school. The company was shipped from

the United States on a regular military

transport, which encountered no enemy

action. The only difficulty was the loss of

unit equipment, which never arrived in

Algiers. The unit's vehicles were later

found to have been issued to a male unit

at the port, while cooking equipment,

medical supplies, folding cots, recreational

equipment, typewriters, and clothing

maintenance supplies vanished, a serious

loss in view of shipping conditions and the

absence of women's supplies in theater

warehouses. Such occurrences in later

shipments were to be prevented by the

prior appointment of a theater WAAC

staff director to make advance preparations.4

The unit reported on 27 January 1943

to General Eisenhower's headquarters in

Algiers, a location now considered safe,

except for air attack, from the conflict still

raging to the east. The women were

housed in the dormitory of a convent

school some distance from the headquarters. The unfamiliar climate and the unheated quarters caused almost every member to succumb immediately to colds and

other respiratory disorders—a tendency

noted also in newly arrived men. Waacs

washed in an outdoor trough, carried

water in helmets, and worried in their

usual manner concerning the impossibility

of careful laundry or neat appearance.

Working hours were long; women were

carried in trucks to the headquarters at an

early hour, and home again for an early

curfew. The nightly bombings, with brilliant displays of antiaircraft fire, made

sleep difficult for the first weeks.

Nevertheless, most women managed a

satisfactory adjustment, and most of the

sick required no hospitalization.5 Morale

was high, and women called themselves

the luckiest in the Corps, commenting

variously, "Life has been one thrill after

another"; "All my life I wanted to travel

and see strange sights and now I am doing

just that"; and, of the ack-ack fire and

burning barrage balloons, "No Fourth of

July celebration could be more spectacular."

 6 Ecclesiastical authorities protested

when Wacs were housed in church quarters, but soon admitted that they had

"never imagined that a unit of American

women could be so well-disciplined and so

considerate as well."

 7

3

 Intervs cited n. 1(3); also two WDBPR Press

Releases. (1) "Torpedoed," in Env, Africa — Interesting Backgrounds. (2) 27 Jan 43, in Env, Stories—

1943. 4

 (1) Memo, CO 149th WAAC Post Hq Co, APO

514, for Dir WAAC, 8 Feb 43. WDBPR file of NATO

correspondence, DRB AGO. (2) For theater strength

figures, see Table 7, Appendix A. 5

 Ibid.; also Memo, CO 149th WAAC Post Hq Co

for Dir WAAC, 23 Feb 43. Same file. 6

 WDBPR Env, Africa—Ltrs Written by Waacs. 7

 Ltr, Col Donald B. Adams to Dir WAC, 23 Mar

44. WD WAC 000.7.
362 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

As there were not enough Waacs in this

first unit to supply every office's needs, the

theater adjutant general reported an "inevitable scramble by chiefs of general and

special staffs to obtain additional WAAC

personnel."

 8 The largest part of the company went to the Signal Corps and to the

newly organized Central Postal Directory.

Others were assigned, by twos and threes,

to various headquarters offices: three to

the Office of Psychological Warfare; three

to the adjutant general's office; one as

General Elsenhower's secretary and one as

his driver; more than a half dozen to drive

other officers. Ten more were assigned as

cooks and bakers to keep food ready for

workers on three shifts.9

Reports on initial job success were consistently good. Among the first to receive

commendation were telephone operators

and other communications workers in theater headquarters. The Voice of Freedom—the entire telephone switchboard

system of theater headquarters, large

enough to service a good-sized city—was

eventually manned entirely by WAAC

supervisors and operators. Many telephone operators had from ten to fifteen

years of civilian experience as operators

and supervisors, and some were bilingual.

A record for calls handled was set, and the

theater chief signal officer, Brig. Gen.

Terence J. Tully, stated, "It is highly desirable that the use of Wacs be extended,"

particularly to message center and cryptographic duties.10

The first postal directory workers were

likewise successful. Officers in charge reported that "since the Waacs have taken

over with an entirely different attitude toward the job than the men who had previously handled it, the percentage of errors

has decreased materially."

 11

 Although

the job was considered by some to be a

deadly routine, Waacs were somewhat romantically apt to visualize the pleasure of

a soldier in getting long-delayed mail, or

the anguish of a mother erroneously returned her letters, stamped "missing in

action." The postal directory's Army

supervisor stated:

The office was piled ceiling high. These

girls came in and took over and worked from

8 a.m. until 9:30 p.m. seven days a week until it was cleaned up. . . . They never

thought of asking for time off and I had to

order them home nights.12

Administrative Difficulties

This early and continued job success

was deemed remarkable in view of the administrative difficulties that the unit encountered during its first six months. Theater authorities attributed the confusion

that developed to the absence of a WAAC

adviser on the staff level, for the women

had been sent without a WAAC staff director for the theater—the first and last

time that such a mistake was made.13 In

the meantime, certain policy questions

had arisen which even General Hughes,

with his long study of the problem, felt unable to answer. He sought Director Hobby's advice by mail, but she felt it undesirable to attempt long-distance pronouncements in ignorance of local

conditions.14

8

 Ltr, Brig Gen Thomas J. Davis, AG AFHQ, to

Col Hobby, 29 Sep 43. SPWA 320.2 sec 7. 9

 Inez Robb dispatch, WDBPR Env, AfricaOpinion. Gen Offs. 10

 Memo, Gen Tully for CG NATOUSA, 27 Sep

44. Coleman file. 11

 Ltr, Gen Hughes, Dep Theater Comdr, to Dir

WAAC, 29 Apr 43. SPWA 320.2 sec 5. 12

 AFHQ Press Release, "Postal," WDBPR,

Env, Africa—Interesting Jobs. 13

 Cbl 3093, 20 Jun 43. SPWA 320.2 sec 5. 14

 Ltrs, Gen Hughes to Col Hobby, 17 Apr 43, and

to Col Catron, 13 May 43, and reply 3 Jun 43. SPWA

320.2 sec 5.
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 363

MAJ. WESTRAY BATTLE BOYCE, WAAC Staff Director, North African Theater,

reads orders replacing enlisted men of the adjutant general's office with enlisted women, Algiers,

North Africa.

Finally, responsible commanders in the

theater were stirred to action by the report that a large number of Waacs did not

intend to enlist in the WAC. At this, General Eisenhower cabled a request for "a

highly competent senior WAAC officer to

be sent to this theater without delay."

 15

Director Hobby promptly complied with

the request and sent a theater WAAC staff

director, Maj. Westray Boyce, previously

staff director of the Fourth Service Command. Major Boyce, according to General Hughes' account, "arrived to find the

girls in a state of mind which required

immediate and drastic action. This she

took."

 16

 The previous company officers

and key cadre were returned to the United

States in a body, since it appeared impossible to place individual responsibility or

to restore the women's lost confidence;

all later proved successful in a variety of

duties in the United States. A request was

cabled for "competent, experienced" company officers to fly to the theater.17

15

 Cbl cited n. 13. 16

 Ltr, Gen Hughes to Col Hobby, 1 Jan 44. SPWA

320.2 sec 9. 17

 Cbls W7 186, 12 Aug 43, and W8669, 30 Aug

43. SPWA 320.2 sec 5.
364 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Meanwhile, the company had been successfully pulled together by one of the five

officer secretaries, Capt. Martha Rogers,

who had not been previously considered

for company duty for lack of "voice and

command" presence. Major Boyce secured

some reassignment of women who were

unsuitably assigned or not kept busy. She

also succeeded in slowing up the promotion of Waacs, which she felt that a few

section chiefs had been making too indiscriminately. After the reorganization,

morale soon improved, and the number of

Waacs lost at the conversion to Army

status was less than had been anticipated.

Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower personally

addressed the women in mid-August and

informed them that they were necessary

to the fighting ahead, and that "if a single

one of you goes home, it's too many."

 18

Because of the general alarm at the results of lack of staff supervision, General

Eisenhower and General Hughes personally drafted and put into effect a system

that gave Major Boyce greater power than

any ever held at any other place or time

by any other WAC staff director. Under

the title of Theater WAC Executive Officer, she was given virtually complete command jurisdiction over Wacs in the theater, bypassing normal military channels

in all matters except supply and routine

post administration. She was supreme on

all matters of promotion, job suitability,

discipline, discharge, and well-being. In

fact, the system was a complete reversion

to the old WAAC regulations, although

few WAAC officers in the United States

had ever exercised all of these powers as

fully as Major Boyce now did.19

These powers did not last long, for a

new commander, Lt. Gen. Jacob L.

Devers, replaced General Eisenhower a

few months later, and soon restored the

command prerogative of Army officers.

He also placed the WAC staff director's

office in G-1 Division; as a result, she

could no longer consult directly with the

deputy chief of staff. However, in the interim, the theater staff had become accustomed to consulting the WAC staff director on policy matters, and the habit persisted even after WAC command powers

were revoked and after Lt. Col. Westray

Boyce was succeeded, in less than a year,

by Lt. Col. Dorothea A. Coleman. The

headquarters eventually directed in writing that the WAC staff director be allowed

to comment on all matters affecting Wacs

before action was taken by any headquarters division.20

 With this precaution, it appeared to be a matter of little moment

what command system was used, and the

early administrative problems seldom if

ever recurred in later units.

Further WAC Shipments

From the time of arrival of the first unit,

theater requisitions for more Waacs had

been repeatedly forwarded to the War Department, with the highest shipment priorities. As soon as approaching military

status warranted, these began to be

shipped, in accordance with General Marshall's policy of priority to combat theaters. The second shipment arrived in

May, some four months after the first, and

contained chiefly workers for the Central

Postal Directory, although fewer than the

chief of that agency had tried to obtain.

In August of 1943, a platoon of about

18

 (1) Cir 205, Hq NATO, 23 Oct 43. Coleman file.

(2) Ltr cited n. 16. (3) Quotations from AFHQ, Press

Release, 17 Aug 43. WDBPR Env, Africa—Opinion,

Gen Offs. 19

 Cir cited n. 18(1). 20

 MTO Ltr, 7 Feb 45, sub: Responsibilities of

WAC Stf Dirs. AG 322.01/234 A-O.
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 365

sixty members arrived in Casablanca and

proceeded to Mostaganem for service with

the Fifth Army. In September the 60th

WAC Headquarters Company arrived to

augment the 149th, and the 61st for SOS

headquarters at Oran.21

The need to release more men to staff

Signal Corps installations in Italy brought

about the activation of a complete WAC

Signal company, which arrived in Algiers

in November. The women were welcomed

by the Deputy Chief Signal Officer, Allied

Forces Headquarters, who promised them

long hours of work under "far from ideal

conditions."

 22

 Members were assigned as

route clerks, high speed radio operators,

teletypists, cryptographic code clerks, and

to cutting tape in radio rooms. On the

same ship with the Signal company was

the first WAC contingent for duty with the

Air Forces in the theater, the Twelfth Air

Force Service Command at Algiers. This

unit was picked up at the port of debarkation by transport planes and flown direct

to its parent organization. According to

its chief of staff, "We have a lot of work for

them to do right now; we can't afford to

have them sitting around a port for several days."

 23

 Enlisted members, like those

in preceding shipments, were again highly

qualified, ranging from a former dean of

women to a translator of African dialects.

Most were assigned as telephone operators, file clerks, typists and stenographers,

and to aid in the air service command's

work of forwarding ammunition, engines,

and other supplies to the front.

In January of 1944, the theater announced the arrival of another contingent

for service with the Air Forces—some 372

enlisted women and eight officers, bringing the theater total to over 1,500. These

were divided into four units for assignment

to four different stations in North Africa.

Other shipments continued during 1944,

eventually bringing the theater total to approximately 2,000. The theater thus assumed third place in the number of Wacs

employed overseas, being eventually surpassed only by the European and Pacific

theaters.24

These Wacs were processed in and out

of the theater by a WAC replacement

depot, operated in conjunction with the

men's depot, but with its own experts in

WAC clothing, equipment, records, and

other processing. Here new arrivals were

given orientation talks by the WAC staff

director, with hints as to how best to profit

from the past experiences of Wacs in the

theater. New arrivals were interviewed

and assigned by a WAC specialist in G-1

Division, who was aware of the probable

training, capacities, and limitations of

WAC personnel.25

Even before the full 2,000 had arrived,

Wacs had begun to move out into Italy,

beginning with the Fifth Army platoon in

November of 1943. At the height of the

Italian campaign there were fourteen

WAC units with the various commands in

Italy, including the Fifth Army, the Peninsular Base Section, and the Air Forces. By

the end of the Italian campaign all of the

theater's Wacs were in Italy.

21

 (1) ETO WAC Hist, p. 7. (2) Cbl W3105, 20

Jun 43. SPWA 320.2 sec 5. (3) Press Release cited n.

12. (4) Hist, 6669th WAC Hq Plat (Overhead), APO

464, Fifth Army. In possession of Lt Col Cora M.

Foster. (5) Intervs cited n. 1(3). 22

 Press Release, 11 Nov 43, sub: WAC Sig Co Arrives; and Press Release 125237 AFHQ. WDBPR

Env, Africa—SigC Co. 23

 Two Press Releases, subs: WAC, and WAC Air

Corps Co Arrives. WDBPR Env, Africa—AAF Wacs. 24

 (1) Stars and Stripes, Algiers, January 20, 1944.

(2) Peak strength: 1929, Jun 45 (96 offs, 1833 EW).

Lowest: 206, Jan 43. Coleman file. 25

 Intervs with Col Coleman cited n. 1(3). (2) Ltr,

Hq MTO to CO Hq Comd AF (Overhead), 2 Apr

45. AG 2220.3 298-P.
366 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

WACS ARRIVING AT CASERTA, ITALY, 17 November 1943.

Fifth Army Wacs

The theater's most unusual experiment

in WAC employment was that of the Fifth

Army Wacs, who claimed the honor of being the first Wacs to set foot in Italy, and

in fact on the continent of Europe. Although never more than sixty women were

involved, the experiment was considered

to be potentially more important than its

size would indicate, since it might determine the degree to which women could in

future emergencies make up part of tactical units.26

When the Fifth Army jumped off for

Italy, the Wacs were not too far behind it,

arriving in Caserta, via Naples, on 17 November 1943 under the command of 1st

Lt. Cora M. Foster. The T/O called for 10

telephone operators, 7 clerks, 16 typists, 10

stenographers, 1 administrative clerk, and

cooks and other cadre. In late January the

unit split into forward and rear echelons,

and the forward echelon, including all

telephone operators and some stenographers, moved into the bivouac area near

Presenzano. Here the women lived in

pyramidal tents and worked chiefly in the

Fifth Army's mobile switchboard trailer.

By March the rear echelon was also in

tents near Sparanise. Unit records noted

26

 All statements concerning Fifth Army Wacs are

from: (1) Hist cited n. 21(4). (2) Intervs cited n. 1(3).

(3) Redeployment Summary.
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 367

that the women "thrived on it; the sick call

rate dropped way down."

For the rest of the Italian campaign, the

units followed the Fifth Army up the

peninsula, usually being located from

twelve to thirty-five miles behind the front

lines. From June to September the forward

echelon's longest stay in any one place was

five weeks, the average being two. The

women lived in whatever billets were

available—schools, factories, apartments,

and chiefly tents. The forward section

spent most of the winter of 1944-45 living

in tents in the mountains above Florence.

The women usually wore enlisted men's

wool shirts, trousers, and combat boots,

and carried only the few necessities that

could be moved forward with them.

The unit proved unusually successful.

It received Lt. Gen. Mark W. Clark's

praise as well as being one of the few to receive both the Fifth Army Plaque with

clasp, in 1944, and the Meritorious Service

Unit Plaque in 1945. There were twentyseven awards of the Bronze Star. The forward echelon included some of the most

skilled telephone operators on the Continent, able in a matter of minutes to get

through the complicated communications

networks to the commanding officer of any

unit sought by General Clark. The unit's

morale and esprit de corps were perhaps the

highest in the theater's WAC units. Its

members wore the Fifth Army's green

scarf. "They were," said Colonel Coleman,

"Fifth Army first and Wacs second—perhaps the best-integrated unit in the

theater."

The dangers of a combat area did not

present any great problem in this case.

During the last days in Anzio, air raids

offered the nuisance of noise and falling

shell fragments, but fortunately the area

had just been vacated by a combat unit

that had left adequate foxholes and dugouts. The Wacs were lucky in having no

injuries, in spite of some close calls. During the advance up the peninsula, they

were frequently within sound of longrange artillery, and almost always in an

area of complete blackout, but required no

guard except the usual one that patrolled

the entire camp. Italian service troops ordinarily set up the WAC and Nurse Corps

tents, and the Wacs took them down themselves, with the aid of two Italian laborers

to load them on trucks.

In spite of the fatigue that developed

from repeated moves, officers noted that

the women "griped and complained less

than soldiers in rear areas." Signal Corps

units in rear areas were surprised, upon

offering Wacs rotation to less exhausting

conditions, to find that not one telephone

operator would agree to quit the Fifth

Army unit.

WAC commanders credited much of the

sustaining sense of integration to the personal policies of General Clark, who saw

to it that a stirring ceremony was made of

any occasion, such as the swearing-in of

Waacs to the Army, or the presentation of

medals and awards. When visiting dignitaries came to the area, Wacs stood honor

guard with men of the 34th Division.

Women were left in no doubt that they

were considered useful and valuable members of the group. Such measures inspired

a loyalty among the women that long

hours, fatigue, and discomfort could not

shake.

It was undoubtedly significant that

Wacs under such circumstances seemed

exempt from the pattern of administrative

needs that was invariable in sedentary

units. The almost total absence of grades

and ratings did not noticeably affect morale, although an expert switchboard op-
368 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

erator of two years' service was lucky to

get a pfc. rating. The longer hours, the

lack of privacy, the necessity for wearing

clothing designed for men, all seemed to

have little effect. Telephone operators

seemed to be immune from the illness and

tension experienced by women on identical shift work in more permanent companies a few score miles to the rear. Rude

remarks from occasional unfriendly males,

which caused a morale problem among

Wacs elsewhere, were more or less brushed

aside by women too busy to notice them

and too assured of their own usefulness to

doubt it. Under the circumstances, the

staff director considered it a pity that all

Wacs could not be employed in such units.

WAC advisers recommended that any

such groups, for best success, be carefully

selected. The best-suited type of woman

was believed to be one whose physical

stamina was average or better, who liked

outdoor life, and who was well balanced

mentally and emotionally. In a small isolated group, it was found fatal to include

those with irritating habits and mannerisms—overtalkative, grouchy, or erratic.

The ambitious or the highly qualified

woman was also not a good choice, since

top supervisory jobs in a tactical headquarters did not go to women, nor did they

receive the high grades that those in rear

areas did, many still being privates after

two years. Emotional self-control was also

vital, since the women were constantly surrounded by men, especially by combat

troops coming back for a rest. Besides

fending off advances, said the staff director, "The Wacs had to listen to the men

and let them blow off steam, and this put

an additional strain on the women's

nerves." A mature woman was found preferable, especially one whose only interest

was not the opposite sex. The lone company officer who accompanied each section had to be especially self-reliant and

self-sufficient; her conduct necessarily had

to be above reproach.

It was Colonel Coleman's final judgment that WAC units similar to this Fifth

Army unit might easily be used, if necessary, in army and corps headquarters, or

wherever nurses could be used, provided

that the women were as well qualified.

The only limitation, she believed, was that

too many women should not be used in

any one headquarters, since the headquarters force was also the security force, and

lost a combatant for every woman specialist present.

Headquarters Duties

With the exception of the small Fifth

Army experiment, the remainder of the

theater's Wacs were employed in ordinary

headquarters duties not strikingly different from those in comparable agencies in

the United States. Woman in Allied Forces

headquarters and Services of Supply headquarters were employed by almost every

staff section—ordnance, judge advocate,

adjutant general, and others, and as secretaries to ranking officers. In addition, the

headquarters of the Mediterranean Allied

Air Forces and the Twelfth and Fifteenth

Air Forces employed Wacs, in units stationed at various times at Caserta, Bari,

Foggia, and Florence.

In organization, the most distinctive

feature in the Mediterranean Theater's

employment of Wacs was that all women,

with the exception of Air Forces and Fifth

Army Wacs, were eventually organized

into a single battalion under WAC command. This unit was the 2629th WAC

Battalion, stationed in Caserta, under the

command of Maj. Hortense M. Boutell.

The battalion included a postal company,

a message center company, a WIRES com-
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 369

pany, two headquarters companies, a replacement depot detachment, and a small

Signal group on detached service, first in

Constantine and then in Rome. Eventual

enlisted strength totaled approximately

900, about half of theater WAC strength,

plus 52 WAC officers, and some 400 British ATS attached to the battalion and

housed with it. With such a large concentration of female personnel under WAC

command, matters of supply, administration, and discipline were considerably

simplified.27

In all units—Air, Ground, or Service

Forces—the most striking difference from

employment in the zone of the interior

was the higher degree of skill and ability

involved. All but a negligible number of

enlisted women were qualified for skilled

jobs; there were only two WAC "laborers"

in the theater—one basic, one repairman.

The statistically average Wac in this theater was a trim, healthy young woman, unmarried, older than the average soldier,

with better education than the zone of the

interior Wac.28 Thus, the theater never

experienced the problems of the zone of

the interior in assigning personnel of low

aptitude or little training. The higher

average ability was reflected in the final

tally of WAC assignments in the various

headquarters.29

Type of Duty Percent

Total. ............................. . 100.0

Clerical. ............................... . 31.9

Communications........................ . 29.2

Stenographic........................... . 16.3

Miscellaneous. .......................... . 12.7

Headquarters Cadre..................... . 9.9

Such high percentages of skilled personnel not only made assignment easier,

but minimized problems of maladjustment, mental health, discipline, and improper or too-heavy work. In most units

women did not even have to perform

kitchen police and fatigue duties, since

local labor was available and it was considered uneconomical to waste a skilled

Wac's time in such heavy tasks. The large

WAC battalion alone eventually had

about 250 civilian servants.

The advantages that the theater enjoyed in such high-type personnel were

made clear by its reaction when, in later

shipments from the United States, the

quality declined somewhat, especially for

officers, concerning whom an observer

protested, "If we cannot give them officers

who are outstanding leaders, we should at

least give them officers who are ladies and

whose conduct is such that the enlisted

women can respect them."

 30

 A corresponding decline in the care of selection of

enlisted women more than doubled the

number who promptly had to be returned

to the United States because of physical

breakdowns.

The only major problem in WAC employment encountered by the theater was

that of the Signal Corps Wacs.31 By midsummer of 1944, women in this work

began to suffer from fatigue and depression; their sick rate was twice as high as

other Wacs', and morale was low. The theater chief signal officer diagnosed the

fatigue as "resulting from working long

hours over a period of several months

27

 Interv with Maj Boutell, 8 Mar 50; interv and

written statement, 6 Mar 51. 28

 Redeployment Summary. 29

 Ibid. Statistics in Coleman file are even higher for

the period Jun 43-Jun 45. 30

 (1) Memo, Col Boyce for Dir WAC, 28 Oct 44.

WDWAC 320.2. (2) Cbl W1960, 5 Feb 44. SPWA

320.2 sec 9. 31

 Discussion from: (1) Memo, WAC CO 6715th

WAC Com Co, APO 512, for CO 2629th WAC Bn

Hq 29 May 45. Coleman file. (2) Rpt, Bn CO 2629th

WAC Bn to Dep CSigO NATOUSA, 11 Sep 44. Coleman file. (3) Memo cited n. 10, Tab A, 2 Sep 44. (4)

Memo, Traf Off 3141st Sig Serv Gp for CO 2629th

WAC Bn, 22 Sep 44; Tab B is D/F, Theater WAC Stf

Dir, 10 Sep 44; Tab C is Rpt of Surv Com, 11 Sep 44.
370 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

under pressure caused by the necessity for

speed and security in handling messages,

and the realization of the operational importance of every duty they perform."

WAC and Medical Corps officers felt that

the difficulty was due, not to the work

itself, but to the lack of leaves or furloughs,

the rotating shifts so short that sleeping

habits never became adjusted, and the

long hours of off-duty training in other

Signal Corps work. Most important was

the shift work; Major Boutell later surmised that this alone was the chief problem, coupled with the lack of privacy or

quiet in living quarters, which made sleep

difficult for night workers.

By mid-1944 about 8 percent of the

women who had been in Signal Corps

work for a year or more were found already unfit for further overseas service,

and others were, in the opinion of their

commanders, building up a nervous tension that in time would permanently end

their usefulness unless transfers or leaves

could be arranged. The theater chief signal officer was unable to suggest any remedy except to try to enlist large numbers of

Wacs for Signal Corps work with the

promise that they would be discharged

after two years in the Army. He also felt

that, if a 2 percent overstrength of personnel could have been provided the Signal

Corps by the War Department, the Signal

Corps could have permitted rotation and

leaves for all personnel. Major Boutell

was of the opinion that there was no real

solution for the Wacs unless one could be

achieved by the Signal Corps as a whole.

With this exception, there could be no

doubt that most of the women were happy

in their overseas assignments; they commented variously: "I love my work and

enjoy being overseas"; "I wouldn't miss

being here for anything"; "I like being

close to the war"; "I wouldn't change

places with any girl back home." One

said:

Many wonderful things happen to us.

We've sailed the seas as other troops have, served on foreign soil, marched in Allied Na- tions parades, have seen and met some of the

world's most famous men.

Another wrote:

Mother, I have never before had the com- plete satisfaction of worth-while accomplishment that I get from my present work. And I

greatly doubt that I shall ever be inspired to

put such wholehearted energy and effort into

anything which my life after the war will

demand of me.32

There was considerable debate, as in

most such theaters, whether special housing and security measures required for

women outweighed their usefulness on the

job. It was the opinion of the staff director

that there was little truth to the allegation

that women required extra guards. She

added:

There was an M.P. at each barracks in the

cities, but there was also one at the officers'

club, the noncoms' club, and all enlisted

men's barracks, to keep out the civilians. Even where women lived in tents, they

needed only the usual patrol.

The only objection, in her opinion, was

that Wacs, on moving to new quarters,

usually needed help in setting up bunks,

latrines, and showers.

Degree of Adjustment Required

At no time was there any serious question of the ability of enlisted women to

adjust to conditions of life in a theater

such as this one. Possibly the greatest

physical hardship was the usual absence of

heat and hot water in the quarters,

32

 (1) Press Release 1 17715 , Wacs in Ord, Env,

Africa—Ord Wacs. (2) Ltrs, WDBPR Env, Africa—

Ltrs.
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 371

whether tents or mansions. Except for this,

the usual billet was comfortable—frequently an apartment house, school, or

hotel, considerably more pretentious

than barracks in the United States. Theater authorities closely co-ordinated housing assignment with WAC advisers, leaving to them the matter of determination

of suitability. The theater consistently

maintained the requirement that Wacs be

assigned only in groups of fifty or more, in

spite of attempts by numerous agencies to

scatter them about in small numbers; this

requirement, in the opinion of WAC advisers, greatly facilitated control of housing as well as of discipline.33

Wacs in North Africa or Italy were seldom long without items of clothing necessary to health, if not to comfort and good

appearance. Because of the relative difficulty of maintaining a stock of women's

clothing, men's clothing frequently had to

be issued in emergencies. Women's supplies were hard to come by. Women went

months without their full issue of clothing; large and small sizes were scarce, shoe

repair slow, the stocking situation often

critical. Post exchanges did not always

have items needed by women. Hairdressing facilities were often inadequate, since

the men's barbershops were of course of

little use to women. Supplies forwarded to

units near the front were often lost, particularly in the case of small units like the

Fifth Army Wacs, whose usual supplies

filled only a small easily misplaced box.

"Some of the stuff was never found; I suppose it's still over there," commented Colonel Coleman.

It was discovered that women in all

kinds of work did not have enough warm

clothing. For many work-type clothing

needs, neither regulation WAC coveralls

nor seersucker work dresses were suitable.

For lack of a warm soft work jacket, oversized wool shirts were cut off and made

into battle jackets. In meeting these various emergencies, theater headquarters

permitted close staff supervision by WAC

specialists. The theater was always quick

to requisition available new items of clothing, and protested whenever such items

appeared in the United States before theater Wacs had them.34

Health, Discipline, and Morale

Theater Wacs were never in danger of

capture, although they were frequently in

air raid areas. The WAC billet in Naples

was hit in one bombing, but, as members

commented, "it only knocked down the

ceiling and 'one wing." Maj. Margaret D.

Craighill, inspecting for the War Department later in 1944, noted no serious tension among enlisted women as a whole.

She stated, "The medical service given to

the WAC is excellent," consisting of two

women medical officers on full-time duty,

which included a monthly trip to all units

for the required monthly physical inspection. The only defect in care noted by

Major Craighill was the fact that "sick in

quarters" was not permitted, resulting in

many subterfuges by women with temporary menstrual disorders who did not

wish to be hospitalized. Major Craighill

reported:

Dysmenorrhea seems to be more frequent

among both nurses and Wacs in this theater.

Some who were never before subject to diffi- culty during menstruation now complain of

severe pain. Reasons for this are not appar- ent; fatigue and constipation may be con- tributing factors.35

33

 NATO Ltr, 9 Jul 44. AG 324.5-O. Coleman file. 34

 (1) Cbl W-464/6920, 19 Sep 43. SPWA 320.2

sec 7. (2) Ltr, Gen White, G-1, MTO, to Dir Hobby,

16 Sep 44. WDWAC 320.2. (3) Cbl W6706, 2 Dec 43.

SPWA 320.2 sec 7. 35

 Memo, Maj Craighill for SG through SG

MTOUSA, 20 Sep 44. SGO Hist Div 319.1

MTOUSA, Women In.
372 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Administrative arrangements for WAC

medical care, with minor exceptions, were

pronounced satisfactory, with adequate

unit dispensaries and beds in general hospitals. As a result, evacuation rates were

not excessive, being somewhat less for

Wacs than for nurses. As for time lost from

work, the theater enjoyed the distinction

of being one in which the annual noneffective rate for Wacs was less than the comparable nonbattle non-effective rate for

men—about 2.7 per 100 strength for Wacs,

and 3.6 for all personnel exclusive of battle

injuries.36

The rate of venereal disease was so low

as to be negligible, although for men in

the area rates were frequently alarming

and the disease endemic. Among Wacs,

cases were pronounced by Major Craighill

to be "very infrequent"—less than one per

month, with only fourteen cases having

been reported by the end of 1944. The rate

of pregnancy was less than that in comparable civilian age groups in the United

States, and quite similar to that of nurses

in the theater. Although no records were

kept as to marital status, it was known that

more than half of such women were married, with the number of pregnancies increasing toward the end of the war as the

theater began to provide hotel quarters for

married couples.37

The number of courts-martial during

the entire two and a half years, through

June of 1945, was extremely small, records

showing no general courts, only six special

courts—chiefly for censorship violations—

and thirty-two summary courts for almost

2,000 women. WAC officers felt that "the

worst disciplinary problems have been created by a few women who obviously should

not have come overseas because of lack of

adaptability or emotional instability."

Some cases of misconduct were attributed

to unhappiness about job malassignment.38

There was every indication that WAC

morale was good in most cases. Company

commanders considered morale to be almost entirely dependent upon full utilization of time and skills; one observed,

"They wanted not only to be useful but to

be inwardly sure of their usefulness." In

cases where low morale did occur, such as

in certain Signal Corps units, investigators

were unable to find any bad effect from

rough living conditions or lack of recreational facilities or the desire to return

home; the only factor that had a definite

effect on health, morale, and efficiency was

that of job satisfaction.39

For the maintenance of morale, off-duty

classes of interest to women were sponsored

by the theater early in 1944, even before

Director Hobby was able to get the U.S.

Armed Forces Institute and other agencies

to provide special courses for women.

When rest camps and recreation centers

began to be established to permit brief

passes and furloughs for male troops, Wacs

were included and were provided with living quarters, messing facilities, and quotas

for such locations as Algiers, Capri, Rome,

and later the Riviera, Venice, Switzerland, and Jerusalem. Although the average stay was only from three to five days,

the rest was found to be a great relief from

barracks life for women, and served in lieu

of a convalescent hospital, which was not

provided for women. For a restful evening

off, WAC authorities, working with British

women's services, were able to obtain adequate separate facilities for women's clubs,

where women could enjoy an evening of

36

 (1) Ibid. (2) Statistical Data. Coleman file. 37

 Ibid.

38

 (1) Statistical Data. Coleman file. (2) Rpts, WAC

COs, 6715th WAC Com Co and 6667th WAC Hq Co,

29 May 45 and 7 Jun 45, respectively. Coleman file. 39

 Documents cited n. 31.
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 373

bridge, cooking, and feminine companionship. The theater also permitted the WAC

staff director to call meetings of WAC

company officers and to send them

monthly news bulletins, in an effort to

improve leadership and administration.40

In the matter of decorations and citations WAC units and individuals were also

included. The WAC sergeant who had

supervised theater telephone communications received the Legion of Merit from

General McNarney himself in a retreat

ceremony. General Eisenhower awarded

the Soldier's Medal to a WAC private who

saved a soldier from a pool of flaming

gasoline, at the expense of severe burns.

Other decorations and battle stars were

not unusual. Grades and ratings were likewise generally good, except among Fifth

Army and Signal Corps personnel, and by

the end of the war in Europe only a few

hundred women who had been long overseas were still unrated.41

Soldier opposition had possibly a worse

effect on morale than it did in the United

States, since not only the Corps' existence

but its presence overseas was questioned.

Even before the women's arrival, letters

streamed homeward advising against enlistment, and afterwards came the masspregnancy rumors which helped to inaugurate the slander campaign. Almost 100

percent of soldier comment was unfavorable or obscene. An Army supervisor

noted:

That sort of thing has a direct effect on the

morale of the girls over here because their families write to them and want to know if

they are true. ... It bothers me because I

can see the effect on the morale, spirit, and

pride of the kids working for me.

Early arrivals also had to face insults in

the streets. One Wac, advising her sister on

enlistment, noted, "How many times I've

heard some GI call us dirty filthy names,

names that I would never allow anyone to

call me if I were a civilian." WAC officers

excited even more resentment than enlisted women, chiefly when they outstripped men in rank or promotions.

From those soldiers who worked in

offices with Wacs, or were stationed in the

same vicinity, the comments tended to become more favorable. The women's military bearing likewise was praised. Soldier

comment noted:

As the girls came down the boulevard, they

really drew the applause. You have to hand

it to them, they look good on parade. I doubt

if West Pointers could appear better.

Unfortunately, only a minority of soldiers ever worked in offices with Wacs, or

had any opportunity for becoming acquainted with them. Even where soldiers

and Wacs were stationed in the same cities,

there were not enough Wacs to permit

much firsthand acquaintance between the

two. Women shortly became so surfeited

with requests for dates that it was necessary to provide separate recreation rooms

and snack bars where they might relax

and enjoy feminine companionship. The

conduct of combat men, particularly

young Air Forces officers, was a problem,

for, said the staff director, "They would

just sweep into the dayrooms and take

over the place, and nothing could be done

with them." There was no doubt that a

Wac date, where available, meant much

to many American men. One wrote:

40

 (1) Intervs with Col Coleman cited n. 1(3). (2)

MTO Ltr, 29 Apr 45, sub: Educational Interests of

WAC Pers. AG 353.8/264 TWSD-O. (3) Memo, G-1

NATOUSA for Sp Servs, 29 Dec 44; Conf Notes;

Monthly Ltrs. Coleman file. 41

 (1) Statistical Data, 1943-45. Coleman file. (2)

M/R, 10 Jan 44, SPWA 200.6. (3) At end of War:

about 34 Pvts, 207 pfc's, according to Coleman

intervs.
374 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Some of the boys and I have been dating

some Wacs and having a grand time. They

have a day room all of their own with pingpong table, darts, and cards. They have a

small library too. About eleven o'clock in the

evening they get some sandwiches for us at

the mess hall and we polish them off with a

couple of cokes. They are a heck of a nice

bunch of girls and full of pep and fun. It's

nice to be able to talk to some feminine

company that speaks your own language.

On the other hand, a Red Gross worker

noted:

Too many GI's get out of hand and then

wonder why the Wacs won't go out with

them. There are about 10 percent of the GI's

that spoil things for the other 90 percent.

From the viewpoint of the War Department, the most alarming thing about soldier opinion in the North African theater

was its effect on recruiting. The theater,

like others not surrounded by the American public, never displayed a highly developed sense of those public relations

measures that might have counteracted

the soldier comment and reassured the

women's families. Thus, in the early days

it failed to take any positive countermeasures, although as early as February and

March of 1943 some American foreign

correspondents attempted to do so, notably John Lardner, Inez Robb, and Ernie

Pyle.42

Although the first overseas Waacs were

the Corps' greatest potential recruiting

publicity asset, few stories or pictures came

back. Recognizing that such attention

could not be afforded by a combat theater

for a tiny minority, Director Hobby attempted to stem the flood of bad publicity

by sending a Waac photographer and a

writer on temporary duty to get favorable

stories. These could be given little assistance in the way of Signal supplies, laboratory facilities, or transportation, since the

problem of winning the campaign was immediate and that of recruiting Waacs was

remote. The two officers nevertheless managed to secure much favorable comment

in various news sources, and to send back

pictures of Waacs with General Eisenhower, Maj. Gen. James H. Doolittle, Lt.

Gen. Carl Spaatz, and Gen. Henri H.

Giraud, and with Spahis in a colorful

review.43

Social Association

Possibly the only other theater problem

in WAC employment stemmed from the

lack of a firm policy on officer-enlisted

relationships. General Eisenhower and

General Hughes, in setting the first policy,

were of the opinion that no restrictions

should be placed on social engagements.

Any other policy appeared difficult to enforce because of the presence at Allied

Forces headquarters of large numbers of

Allied officers and American naval officers, whose services permitted off-duty

social association of officers and enlisted

personnel. After her arrival, Major Boyce

concurred, provided that officers did not

date enlisted women who worked for

them, thus avoiding the danger of favoritism in promotion. When General Devers

took command, he reversed this policy

and, over the objection of Major Boyce,

directed that both Wacs and nurses observe military customs in selecting their

off-duty escorts. Exceptions were made

only for relatives and fiances, who had to

carry a letter to prove their status.44

42

 WDBPR Env, Africa—Opinion, Favorable. 43

 Rpt, Capt Ann McIlhenney and Lt Charlotte

McGraw to Dir WAC, sub: Rpt on NATO Pub Relations. SPWA 320.2 sec 5. 44

 (1) Hughes Ltr to Col Hobby cited n. 14. (2)

NATO Cir 23, 26 Feb 44; Med Base Sec Cir 20, 3

Mar 44. Coleman file.
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 375

GEN. HENRI H. GIRAUD REVIEWING WAACS in a colorful ceremony in North

Africa.

Neither system worked perfectly. Mixed

dating in itself caused no difficulty, so long

as women did not date their supervisors,

except in a few instances in which officers

brought enlisted women to their clubs

against the wishes of other officers who did

not wish to associate with them. Enlisted

men were bitterly jealous when officers

monopolized the Wacs, but when the

Devers ruling restricted enlisted women

to dating enlisted men, the unfavorable

comments continued and worse problems

arose. Major Boyce asked that British and

Navy officers be made subject to the ruling, but this proved impossible, and unfortunate public disturbances resulted when

military police arrested enlisted Wacs

escorted by British or Navy officers.

WAC commanding officers also reported difficulty with Army officers who

ignored the rule and then attempted to

prevent punishment of enlisted women

whom they had dated. WAC commanders

were loath to enforce the ruling when

officer escorts were not likewise punished,

but were allowed no choice under the

regulation. Violations were flagrant, and

commanders feared that respect for all
376 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

discipline was being damaged. It was attempted to allow some latitude by issuing

letters of authorization for engaged couples, but when informed that notices of

engagement would be mailed to hometown papers, all but two such couples

withdrew their requests for authorization.

Inasmuch as over half of the enlisted

women in the theater were eligible for

officer candidate school, it was impossible

to hope that "natural social level" would

cause them to prefer enlisted men. Only

the Fifth Army experienced little difficulty, because it was possible to maintain

one policy in this command.

No solution was ever found to the problem, which enlisted women frequently

cited as the reason for their desire to leave

the Army as soon as eligible for discharge.

Upon losing an excellent secretary, General White discovered that her departure

was due entirely to one incident in the

theater, in which she had been arrested for

dining in public with her husband, an

officer.45

Marriage was not forbidden, and in

addition to the Wacs who married officers

there were a number of the theater's 4,000

nurses who had married enlisted men.

Theater authorities were shortly obliged

to be realistic about the situation. Finally,

hotels were set aside to which officers and

enlisted men might take their wives, and a

wife was authorized to take the status of

her husband when accompanied by him

to hotels, messes, and clubs. However,

WAC weddings were not frequent; only

about 135 had occurred by the end of the

war.46

Other Women's Groups

Wacs in North Africa and Italy considered themselves particularly blessed in

the relative scarcity of American civilian

employees, who in many other theaters

occupied the best jobs. In the few cases

where civilian women were employed in

this area, the WAC staff director succeeded in pulling Wacs out of the offices

concerned, so that conflicts were avoided,

and, said Colonel Coleman, "We also successfully ran the OSS civilian women out

of the WAC off-duty dress." It was not

until the virtual end of hostilities that good

enlisted jobs began to be taken over by

that phenomenon which always annoyed

Wacs irrationally: numbers of civilian

women, complete with officers' privileges,

fur coats, and duly authorized WAC uniforms.

In addition to the few civilian women

employees of the Army, there were other

women's groups in abundance—civilian

groups such as the USO and the Red

Cross, and military groups such as the

British ATS and the French "WAC." Of

these, the British ATS were the most numerous. Some months after the arrival of

the first Waacs, and especially when the

theater's Supreme Allied Commander was

British, British women in small numbers

began to arrive. In general they were

housed and fed with the Wacs and worked

with the British sections of the various

headquarters. The British women proved

most generous in sharing their recreational

facilities with the Wacs, and all services

mingled companionably for tea and other

occasions.

In the Fifth Army two groups of ATS

women lived and ate with the Wacs. The

British women were pleased with the

American mess and, said Captain Foster,

"it was a pleasure to have them." As much

45

 Intervs and excerpts from mail cited n. 1(3) and

n. 2.

46

 MTO Cir 52 sec II, 3 Apr 45. Coleman file.
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 377

could not be said for certain USO women

sometimes billeted with the Fifth Army

Wacs, since they habitually managed to

be absent at moving time, leaving their

tents for the Wacs to take down. Also living with the Fifth Army Wacs were the

chief nurse, Red Cross women, and several

French women officers. In general Wacs

had only praise for the French women's

corps, which, after a confused start on

ambiguous status, achieved military standing and discipline and whose ambulance

drivers were often sent farther forward

than the women of any other service.

As for the American Red Cross, personal relations usually depended on the

individual; as a group, it appeared to

WAC commanders that "there was no

place in their program for us." The older

British services, on the other hand, had by

this time made provision for women in

their recreational services. When the

American Red Cross failed to provide for

the Wacs, the British YWCA set up a

series of rest camps in Italy, and General

Sir Harold R. L. G. Alexander backed an

Allied Women's Club in Caserta. All of

these served as many Wacs as ATS, and

made it possible for the Wacs to have

recreation and three-day passes comparable to those which American services

provided for men only. In general, WAC

authorities noted that "American agencies

were not too well set up to do anything as

far as women were concerned, and more

often the Wacs had to take care of them."

 47

For a time it was feared that the Wacs

would have to take over supervision of

some 500 members of the German

women's forces captured in the area. The

uncertain status of these women, which

might or might not have been that of civilians, roused some doubts in the minds of

WAC authorities as to the result if the

situation had been reversed. Had German

captors been forced to decide WAC status,

there appeared some likelihood that Wacs

would have been considered civilians

through confusion with the numerous

civilian women in the OSS, USO, and

other groups, all of whom wore the WAC

uniform.

Demobilization

As the end of the war approached,

WAC advisers became increasingly concerned that in wartime there was no limit

to the overseas tour of duty of administrative troops. WAC company commanders

noted that there were a few women in

every company who became physically or

emotionally unfitted for efficient overseas

service but who could not be returned, for

lack of any authority, until totally

disabled.

Colonel Coleman felt that for certain

types of work, particularly in the Signal

Corps, personnel should be able to look

forward to relief at a definite time, and

that it would in the final analysis be

cheaper to return a good worker while he

or she was still capable of rehabilitation

and continued service in the United States.

She advised theater commanders, "Good

service should not be permitted to end in

hospitalization if it is possible to avoid it."

It was also Colonel Coleman's opinion

that women, if left overseas past the

proper time for return, were affected

spiritually, not by war and death so much

as by long residence in war-disrupted

countries where the standards of native life

were low and heartbreaking destruction

was widespread. Under such circumstances, WAC commanders noted that

47

 Intervs and statements cited n. 1(3).
378 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

"women gradually hit a place where they

have to live on the surface," and a certain

temperamental change, of which they

were often unaware, appeared to have

made them less vulnerable to the sight of

others' suffering. For this reason, even

when women's health and efficiency were

untouched, Colonel Coleman concluded

that it would be better, if replacements

and shipping were available, to limit an

overseas tour to eighteen months.48

When rotation to the United States was

finally authorized by the War Department, it was clear that Wacs would not be

eligible in competition with men who had

much longer service, and in fact most

women felt that return would be improper

under the circumstances.

At Director Hobby's request, the War

Department late in 1944 added a microscopic quota for Wacs and nurses, enough

to assure return of emergency cases. Even

when Wacs became eligible under regular

rules, there was no immediate relief. The

theater decided that directives on rotation did not oblige it to return Wacs until

a "suitable replacement" was available,

and that men even in the same skill were

not suitable replacements for women.

The theater's new G-1, General White,

commented:

I contend emphatically that you cannot

cut us off from WAC replacements on the

grounds that the theater is overstrength. That is like saying you won't give us any

more shoes because we have too many caps.

Eventually the theater was obliged to permit a few Wacs to be returned without

replacements, since the War Department

decided that these were more badly

needed in more active theaters.49

When actual demobilization began,

some 80 percent of the women were found

to be eligible for discharge under the point

system. In spite of some attempts to persuade them to sign up for longer service,

some four fifths of eligibles indicated that

they wished to be discharged. Many were

retained as long as the "military necessity"

clause permitted, until after the defeat of

Japan, when the War Department directed return of remaining overseas Wacs.

By the end of 1945, all enlisted Wacs were

out of the Mediterranean theater.50

The Wacs' eagerness to depart indicated, by all evidence, merely a desire for

discharge and no condemnation of theater

employment as compared to that in the

United States. When rotation first began,

women who had returned to the United

States wrote back comparisons highly

favorable to the theater. Accustomed to

being treated as essential employees, they

found civilians in the best jobs in the zone

of the interior, and the civilian population

scarcely as respectful as that of occupied

areas. Army barracks, even with heating

and laundry facilities, were not as comfortable as the apartments and hotels that

the Mediterranean theater had provided;

neither were there civilians or prisoners

to relieve the troops of kitchen police and

fatigue duty. Upon receipt of such reports,

an overwhelming majority of 95 percent of

the remaining women in the theater stated

that they preferred to stay overseas until

eligible for discharge, rather than return

4 8

 (1) Memo cited n. 31(1). (2) Quotations from

M/R, Stf Dir's Opinion, Rotation. Coleman file. 49

 (1) Memo, Col Hobby for Gen Henry, 21 Aug

44. WDWAC 320.2. Quota asked was 0.5 percent per

month. (2) Memo cited n. 30(1). (3) Quotation from

Ltr, Gen White to Col Hobby, 3 Jan 45. WDWAC

320.2. (4) Only 120 women were ever returned

(1944-45), according to Col. Coleman. About 136

received a furlough in the United States. 50

 (1) Statistical Data, Jun 43-Jun 47; (2) MTO Ltr

to all subordinate comds, 23 May 45, sub: Readjustment of WAC Pers. AG 370.01/746-A-O, Coleman

file.
THE NORTH AFRICAN AND MEDITERRANEAN THEATERS 379

to face the hardships of life in the United

States. When, upon the cessation of hostilities, a sizable number of individuals on

temporary duty were obliged to remain

for permanent duty in the United States,

their protests were audible in Italy.51

Final comments of both Army and

WAC authorities indicated that the theater's WAC experiment had been a successful one. The first theater commander,

General Eisenhower, stated of the women:

The WAC in Africa has proved that

women can render definite contributions to

the winning of the war, and that their capa- bilities in this regard extend to an actual

theater of operations. ... In some cases one

Wac has been able—because of her expert

training—to perform tasks that previously

required the assignment of two men. The

smartness, neatness, and esprit constantly exhibited has been exemplary . . . their general

health and well-being have certainly been

equal to that of our best enlisted units.52

The Air Commander in Chief of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, Lt. Gen. Ira

C. Eaker, added:

As a result of my observation of the WAC

personnel to date, I am thoroughly con- vinced that it should be retained in the afterthe-war peacetime Army. I believe it is an

indispensable service to our Army in the

present emergency. There are innumerable

tasks which I have observed WAC personnel

performing in the Air Forces with remark- able efficiency. . . . They have a capacity for many specialized duties essential to the Air Forces to a greater extent perhaps than any

other Air Force soldier.53

General Clark of the Fifth Army called

to tell the Director that he wanted to take

his headquarters platoon into Austria with

him: "They've plenty of points but I have

to have them."

 54

 Col. Westray Battle

Boyce, visiting the areas as second Director WAC, after the end of the war, noted

that morale was good and the women well

adjusted, with adequate provision by the

theater for their welfare.55

51

 (1) Memo cited n. 30(1). (2) Coleman Interv. 52

 Statement by Gen Eisenhower, AFHQ, 9 Jun 43,

Hist Background of WAAC-WAC, App. E. WDBPR

file, DRB AGO. 53

 Ltr, Air CinC MAAF to Dir WAC, 27 Jan 44,

in History of Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, Dec

43-1 Sep 44, by Hq MAAF, Vol. II. 54

 Memo, Exec WAC for Dir WAC, 16 Jun 45.

1945-46 WAC files. 55

 M/R, Rpt of Visit by Dir WAC, Tab B, Mediterranean. WDWAC 333.1 (1945-46).
CHAPTER XXI

The European Theater

of Operations

The European Theater of Operations,

the first to requisition Waacs, was the second to receive them. By the end of the war

it employed 8,316 women, the largest

number in any overseas theater.1

The first requisitions, made by the theater Services of Supply in the summer of

the Corps' formation, were not pressed

after Lt. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower's departure for North Africa. After some six

months of waiting for shipping priorities,

the first two units earmarked for the theater were disbanded and their members

were sent either to North Africa or to stations in the United States. In the spring of

1943, the Services of Supply again sent a

requisition, but again furnished no shipping priority and shortly thereafter canceled the request.2

 Impetus in the program

passed to the theater's Air Forces, of which

General Eaker noted later:

Shortly after I arrived in England the

problem was presented to me. . . . The

commanding officer counseled me against

bringing Waacs over ... he said that I

would be held responsible.3

Accepting the responsibility, the Eighth

Air Force requested an entire WAAC battalion and set a shipping priority for the

summer.4

In mid-April of 1943 the theater WAAC

staff director, Capt. Anna W. Wilson, arrived in London to make preparations for

the unit. Small advance parties from the

Signal Corps and other groups were also

present. Captain Wilson made plans for

reception, housing, and assignment of the

women, and for such feminine needs as

laundry rooms, sanitary facilities, special

post exchange items, and clothing main1

 Unless otherwise indicated, all references and

quotations are from the Report of the General Board,

U.S. Forces, European Theater, Study of the Women's

Army Corps in the European Theater of Operations.

OCMH. (See Bibliographical Note.) Hereafter cited

as ETO Bd Rpt. Other major references: (1) ETO

WAC Hist. (2) WAAC classified files, SPWA (later

WDWAC) 320.2 secs 1, 2, 4a, 4b, 6, and 8a, DRB

AGO. (3) History of USSTAF, 516.01, Vol. III, Ch.

II, pp. 150-58. USAF Hist Div. Cited as USSTAF

Hist. (4) Historical Records Rpt 315c, Wacs in European Division, Air Transport Command. USAF Hist

Div. Cited as ETO ATC WAC Hist. (See Bibliographical Note.) (5) Interv with Col Mary A. Hallaren, Dir

WAC, and written comments, 14 Mar 50, (6) Comments on draft of MS by Dr. Hugh M. Cole, author

of The Lorraine Campaign, UNITED STATES ARMY

IN WORLD WAR II (Washington, 1950). 2

 (1) Ltr, ETO WAAC Stf Dir to Dir WAAC, 16

Jun 43. AG 322.3, SPWA 320.2 sec 4a. (2) Rad 8786,

USFOR London to WAR, 15 Apr 43. (3) Ltr, WAC

Hq to CG ETO, 20 Feb 43; Rad 7329, London to

WAR, 17 Feb 43. SPWA 320.2 secs 2 and 46. (4)

Memo, WAAC Hq for CG ASF, 17 Mar 43. SPWA

320.2 sec 4a. (5) D/F, OPD WDGS for CG ASF, 22

Mar 43; 1st Ind to unidentified basic Ltr, Opns Div

ASF to Dir WAAC, 12 Apr 43. SPOPU 320.3 (4-6-

43).

3

 Address to WAC OCS 60th Graduation Class,

17 Nov 45. WDWAC 352. 4

 Rad 9130, London to WAR, 27 Apr 43. SPWA

320.2 sec 2.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 381

tenance supplies. The WAAC's way was

smoothed by the long-accepted presence of

the many British women's services, as well

as of the Voluntaires Françhises, the Norwegian ATS, the Polish ATS, the Canadian WAC, and other such groups.5

The arrival of the American WAAC was

nevertheless of considerable public interest. Captain Wilson reported:

We were interviewed by the press and on

short-wave radio, and were a little surprised

to find ourselves near-celebrities. We are now

settled in a very comfortable flat overlooking

Hyde Park . . . two bedrooms, two baths,

kitchenette, and a living room.6

Captain Wilson noted that a disproportionate amount of her time was consumed

by the social and public relations activities

required of her. As in other overseas theaters, there always existed a certain tendency for the WAC staff director to be considered dedicated to official teas, press

conferences, and ceremonies instead of to

her military responsibilities.7

First WAAC Separate Battalion

Upon receipt of the Air Forces' shipping

priority, WAAC Headquarters rounded

up as many members of the original units

as could be found, with replacements for

those who had gone to North Africa.

These were rapidly organized at Fort

Devens to form the 1st WAAC Separate

Battalion, under the command of Capt.

Mary A. Hallaren. Women were equipped

with full winter uniforms, as authorized

for England, plus gas masks, canteens,

first-aid packets, utility packs, helmets,

and pistol belts without pistols. Their

training included judo, hikes with full

packs, and an obstacle course which, although not required for noncombatants,

every woman elected to go through. The

555 enlisted women and 19 officers were

so eager for the long-awaited assignment

that no case of AWOL occurred prior to

sailing. On 16 July 1943, almost a year

after the initial request, the battalion

reached England.8

Upon arrival the women were divided

into companies and assigned to various

Air Forces stations. Housing consisted of

"everything from castles to huts,"

 9

 generally being identical with the type used

for male troops at the stations. Theater

historians later noted, "It was anticipated

that special housing and physical facilities

would be required for the Wacs, but the

problem of housing Wacs provided no particular difficulties."

 10

It was immediately apparent that WAC

employment in England offered little more

difficulty than employment in the United

States, and had the advantages of new

sights and experiences and the stimulus of

closeness to combat. The regulation WAC

uniform was obviously inadequate for

work in unheated buildings during the approaching winter and for the projected

movement to the Continent, but time permitted remedial action. The supply lanes

to the United States were by this time open

and were relatively short, and many items

could be procured from British stocks.

The dangers of the area were no more

5

 (1) ETO WAC Hist, pp. 7-13; also ETO Bd Rpt.

(2) Ltr, Lt Gen Frank M. Andrews, Hq ETO to Dir

WAC, 1 May 43. SPWA 320.2. 6

 Ltr, WAAC Stf Dir ETO to Dir WAAC, 30 Apr

43. SPWA 320.2 sec 4a. 7

 ETO Bd Rpt, incl App. 112. 8

 (1) Rpt of Tng and Staging, PRD, Camp Shanks,

N. Y., undated. SPWA 320.2 sec 2. (2) Interv cited

n. 1(5). (3) Series of documents, SPWA 320.2 secs

1 and 2. WAAC sources say 557 enlisted women. 9

 Statement by Col Hallaren, Nov 51. WAC files,

OCMH. 10

 ETO WAC Hist, pp. 10-11; also ETO Bd Rpt.
DOCKING IN SCOTLAND. Advance party of WAAC officers and enlisted women are

greeted by a bagpipe band upon their arrival, 11 May 1943.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 383

than those confronting the civilian population, and appeared to have little effect

on morale; General Eaker later noted,

"One of the factors in their success was

courageousness. I saw this demonstrated

when German planes came over . . .

they keep more calm than men in emergencies."

 11

The first arrivals were an immediate

success to a degree which, in the opinion

of Air Forces commanders, motivated the

extensive requisitions that followed. General Eaker stated, "It was not long before

they were the best we had . . . other

forces followed our lead."

 12

 An Eighth Air

Force supervisor stated:

Their work has improved the efficiency of

my office tremendously. Their attitude, dis- cipline, and efficiency are of such value that

not only enlisted men but some officers have

been released to perform other duties.13

In a typical Air Forces flight control room,

Wacs were shortly assigned as teleprinters, typists, and switchboard operators.14

 General Eaker noted his surprise in

finding that "military secrets were going

to have to be kept by women," and added:

One of their most important duties was to

keep secret and confidential files. They were

intelligent and learned quicker. They were

the best photo interpreters . . . keener, and

more intelligent than men in this line of

work.15

Build-up of Units Before D Day

Further requisitions followed from both

the Air Forces and theater headquarters.

Personnel for the next shipment was at

first organized as the 2d WAC Separate

Battalion, but at the request of the theater

the battalion was inactivated and its members shipped as casuals without grade

allotments. The move was made possible

by the Corps' recent military status, and

was pronounced by the theater to be more

suitable to its needs, since the women

could be integrated into existing units.

These Wacs arrived in the theater in September and November of 1943, and were

assigned to both Air Forces and theater

headquarters, bringing the total of theater

WAC enlisted strength to 1,126. In October of 1943, as a result of continuing requisitions, the War Department raised the

theater WAC quota to 2,775.16

Before this quota could be shipped, the

War Department at the end of the year informed the theater that no more Wacs

could be sent for several months. Losses of

the conversion period had left existing

units in need of replacements, while the

manpower shortage of early 1944 was

already being felt. Theater protests followed, citing the approaching invasion of

the Continent. General Spaatz and General Eaker appealed personally to General

Arnold in Washington, asking that he

prod the War Department.17

The theater also asked permission to

make up some of the deficit by recruiting

and training American civilian women living in the British Isles, believing that considerable numbers might thus be obtained.

This authority was not granted for some

time, and even when later put into effect

proved an insignificant source of recruits,

as did a similar provision for transferring

to the WAC the few American citizens in

11

 Address cited n. 3. 12

 Ibid.

13

 ETO Press Release 1601, 14 Aug 43. ETO PR

file Adm 365 WAC, DRB AGO. 14

 ETO Press Release 1832, 6 Dec 43. Same file. 15

 Address cited n. 3. 16

 (1) See Table 7, Appendix A. (2) ETO WAC

Hist, pp. 8-9; also ETO Bd Rpt. WAC sources say

September and October for arrival. 17

 Rad W8189, USFOR London for USAWWWAR, 6 Dec 43. SPWA 320.2 sec 6.
384 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the British women's services. It became

clear that the European theater must depend upon recruiters in the United States

for its supply of Wacs.18

There followed what was, over the next

months, to be a continuing skirmish over

the numbers and skills of Wacs who could

be sent overseas. The War Department

noted that, to meet the theater's heavy demands for skilled typists and stenographers, not only would the entire recruiting intake be required, but it would be

necessary for stations in the United States

to resort to the embarrassing expedient of

using male typists to replace Wacs "for

combat" instead of vice versa. The theater

in reply urged that they be so embarrassed.

In its opinion, overseas areas, being obliged to support and supply troops under difficulties, required the best workers

for each type of duty; the argument was

that one Wac typist could replace two men

while eating only half as much.19

At the moment part of the dispute was

resolved in the theater's favor by General

Arnold of the Army Air Forces, who secured permission to cut loose the Air

Forces quota from the rest of the theater's,

and to supply all the Wacs that General

Spaatz requested, provided that only AAF

stations were called upon to supply them.

In February of 1944 the War Department

therefore approved a new quota for the

theater, 4,448 Wacs for the Air Forces and

1,727 for all other commands, a total of

6,215 for the theater.20

Requests from the Services of Supply in

Europe were slower to come in. It was not

until just before D Day that the SOS requested several large groups, so hastily

that some, especially telephone operators,

had to be provided with air priority.21

Under the new quota, WAC shipments

were at once resumed and, during the first

half of 1944, arrived in the theater almost

faster than they could be accommodated

at reception facilities. Just before D Day,

theater WAC strength had reached 3,687.

At this time the War Department was

again forced to shut off the supply, pleading heavy shipments to the Pacific. In

spite of theater protests, no further quota

increase was to be granted for some

months.22

By D Day, Wacs were assigned to Headquarters, Supreme Allied Expeditionary

Force; Headquarters, ETO; to the Allied

Expeditionary Force; and to other theater

organizations. Within the Air Forces, they

were in Headquarters, U.S. Strategic Air

Forces; Headquarters, Eighth Air Force;

Headquarters, Ninth Air Force; Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Air Forces;

Headquarters, VIII Fighter Command;

Headquarters, IX Bomber Command; I,

II, III Bomber Divisions; and the 2d, 14th,

20th, and 96th Combat Wings. There

were also numerous independent organizations that used almost a thousand Wacs

in Europe, including the Air Transport

Command and the Office of Strategic

Services.23

Before D Day, initial job assignment in

some of these organizations suffered from

the fact that only the Air Forces in Eng18

 (1) ETO WAC Hist, p. 9. (2) ETO Bd Rpt, Vol.

I, p. 27. (3) Ltr WAC Stf Dir to Dir WAC, 7 Aug 44.

WDWAC 352 British Stf College. 19

 (1) Cbl E-31714, Eisenhower to WD; (2) Cbl

WAR 49888, 13 Jun 44; (3) Ltr, WAC Stf Dir ETO

to Dir WAC, 24 Jun 44. WDWAC 320.2 ETO. 20

 ETO Bd Rpt; differs slightly from Ltr, TAG to

CG ETO, 10 Mar 43, sub: Quota of WAC Pers for

ETO. AG 320.2 WAC (2-18-44) PO-M-A, in SPWA

320.2 (1944). 21

 Sources cited n. 2. 22

 Sources cited n. 19. These say strength was almost 6,000; later TAG figures give 3,687. See Table

7, Appendix A. 23

 Later mentioned: U.S. Gp Contl Council, 12th

Army Gp, First AB Army, and MIS. ETO Bd Rpt;

also ETO WAC Hist, p. 19. Independent orgns: ACT,

OSS, O of Mil Attache, Governments in Exile, Br O

of JAG MIRS, AACS, U.S. Strategic Bomb Surv.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 385

land were as yet engaged in combat. Other

headquarters still had plenty of enlisted

men, and were still located in areas where

competent civilian help was obtainable.

Therefore, while Wacs would be needed

in the future, and were welcomed by

higher commanders who had requisitioned them for this reason, their welcome

from subordinate commanders and enlisted men was less enthusiastic. In Lt. Col.

Anna W. Wilson's opinion:

Male soldiers who were firmly established

in their administrative, clerical, and com- munications jobs and were not trained for

combat naturally were fearful of the arrival

of WAC personnel. Their comments on and

reception of WAC personnel were derogatory

and cold. The Wacs felt that they were un- welcome, which in fact they were. Months

passed before this feeling of ill-will disap- peared.24

Censorship of letters showed that there

was much bitterness in the accounts written home by enlisted men and Wacs alike,

which upon investigation had "no reasonable basis" but which authorities feared

would damage WAC recruiting.25

Until D Day, as a result of the abundance of personnel, Wacs therefore at

times did not replace men, or were assigned to only part-time work, or were

fitted into existing organizations in duties

less responsible than those of enlisted men

and British civilians and less useful than

the positions the women had occupied in

the United States. The staff director listed

incorrect assignment as first among causes

of low morale. The WAC personnel officer

noted, "The greatest gripe from Wacs has

constantly been, 'not enough work to

do.' " 26 Luckily, the serious morale problems that usually accompanied such a

situation in the United States did not develop, chiefly because of the women's

sense of nearness to combat and the prospect of more useful days ahead.

Office supervisors discovered no loss of

efficiency during the buzz-bomb raids,

and in fact, as D Day approached, there

were grounds for believing that the reverse was true. One unit, which arrived in

London simultaneously with the V-1, reported:

At first the Wacs were up most of every

night, spending much of their time in the im- provised basement shelter. Since this area

was not properly equipped, there was great

loss of sleep, and the nervous tension which

resulted was almost as bad as the bombs.27

However, the women soon became accustomed to the alarms and slept all night

without going to the shelter, and they

worked without interruption even when

bombs fell close to their offices. Several

Wacs were awarded the Purple Heart for

injuries received in bombings; they were

more fortunate than British servicewomen

in that none died of these injuries.28

The Move to the Continent

Less than a year after the first group's

arrival, the invasion of Normandy began

and Wacs moved out into France and later

into Germany. A lively dispute had raged

all spring over the propriety of taking

women along. The more gloomy objectors

stressed the fact that the women would

probably be killed or captured and, if captured, might not, under the rules of land

warfare, be recognized as "protected personnel" and would not, like nurses, be entitled to officer prisoners' privileges. Some

24

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 10 and 12. 25

 (1) ETO Bd Rpt. (2) Morale Rpt, 1-15 May 43,

to Chief Info and Censorship Sec ETO. ETO Opns

Rpts, Adm 365 WAC, DRB AGO. 26

 ETO Bd Rpt, p. 55; also Vol. II, App. 17. 27

 ETO ATC WAC Hist. 28

 Six deaths of Wacs were reported as of December

1944: 2 accidental poisonings, 2 auto accidents, 1

peritonitis, 1 meningitis. ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. III, App.

114.
LANDING IN NORMANDY, 14 July 1944, above. Photographs, below, were taken in the

WAC camping area on 1 August 1944.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 387

feared that fighting men would worry so

much over the Wacs' safety that their efficiency would be impaired. Others questioned whether women could live in tents

under field conditions. Officers on the

other side of the argument declared that

their offices required their Wacs and that

conditions on the Continent would be no

worse than those in London under the

buzz bombs, which had not disrupted office work. The WAC staff director was of

the opinion that Wacs should move with

their headquarters, in view of the reported

success of the Fifth Army's experiment in

Italy. The Wacs themselves were, as

always, inordinately eager to go.29

The theater's decision was that the

Wacs would go along, and that 50 percent of the personnel of Forward Echelon,

Communications Zone, would be WAC.

Necessary plans were made for clothing

and maintenance, tentage, and welltrained cadre. An initial attempt was made

to select personnel carefully on the basis of

ability, physical stamina, and emotional

stability; the group selected to follow invasion troops onto the beaches was also

given a strenuous training program, plus

field clothing and equipment. Unfortunately, it was soon clear that the whole

WAC population of England would

shortly be on the move, and that other

units coming directly from the United

States would have to go to France without

special screening or acclimatization.

As the time approached for movement

to the Continent, certain bookkeeping difficulties had to be solved. When the

WAC's own Table of Organization units

had been dissolved, the War Department

had specified that overseas Wacs would be

assigned only to large headquarters operating under bulk allotments. Assignment to

vacancies in men's T/O units was prohibited because of the notion that every T/O

unit would sooner or later move out to do

battle.

Actually, Air Forces and Signal Corps

headquarters, although under T/O's,

were able to operate from bases farther behind the lines than were some of the bulkallotment Communications Zone headquarters. To avoid violating the T/O ban,

the Air Forces for the first months employed Wacs on an impractical and confusing lend-lease basis from theater headquarters. Bookkeeping difficulties almost

wrecked this program and shortly forced

the War Department to relax its ban and

permit Wacs to be assigned to men's T/O

units, to "suitable noncombatant positions

in fixed headquarters or installations."

 30

With this, the stage was set for easy movement of Air Forces and Signal Corps Wacs

to the Continent. As a matter of fact, the

term "fixed installation" was shortly to be

interpreted by the theater to mean a tent

moved forward not more than once a day.

The first Wac to arrive on the Continent

was a stenographer who, on 22 June, flew

in and out of one of the beachheads to

record a conference. The first regular

WAC unit landed in Normandy on 14 July

1944, almost a year to the day after the

first group had arrived in England, and

thirty-eight days after D Day. These

Wacs, assigned to Forward Echelon, Communications Zone, arrived on the Normandy beaches in LST's, and camped out

in an apple orchard. They slept under

shelter halves or in pyramidal tents on

Army cots, received the usual field rations,

and washed in cold water carried in hel29

 The entire account of the movement into France

and Germany, unless otherwise stated, is from ETO

Bd Rpt and ETO WAC Hist. 30

 Ltr, TAG to CG ETO, 10 Mar 44. AG 320.2

WAC (2-18-44) PO-M-A, in SPWA 320.2. Change

was later written into WAC Regulations.
388 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

mets. They immediately went to work as

telephone operators, typists, and clerks,

working in tents, cellars, prefabricated

huts, and mobile switchboard trailers. Because of the cold and mud, they wore leggings, trousers, and combat jackets; even

long underwear was now popular.31

It was not noted that the men's anxiety

over WAC safety impaired their efficiency,

as had been feared; in fact, historians recorded that men were glad to have American women to talk and sing with, and "just

to look at." However, since living and

working conditions were equal, the normal

amount of masculine griping was found to

be definitely hampered.

More Wacs arrived at once, by plane

and boat, some in units and some with

their sections—Normandy Base Section

(Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force), and Air Forces units, also

Quartermaster, Transportation, Engineers, Ordnance, and others. Large groups

of Signal Corps telephone operators arrived, many having been hastily flown in

from the United States on a high-priority

requisition. The most forward and mobile

WAC detachment was reported to be the

unit with the 12th Army Group, which

advanced with its headquarters close behind the fighting lines.

On 31 August, five days after the fall of

Paris to the Allied forces, a WAC advance

party arrived, and on 1 September Wacs

began pouring into the city from Normandy and England, by plane and by

truck convoy. WAC telephone operators

at once took over French switchboards just

abandoned by the German army; office

workers operated with captured German

office supplies; cooks and mess sergeants

assumed supervision of French cooks and

waitresses in the various messes; and the

Wacs themselves moved into and gradually filled a number of hotels in the city.

By October, 3,000 Wacs were in France;

by the end of 1944 over half the ETO

WAC units were there.

The Transportation Corps shortly sent

picked personnel from the United States

to form a traffic regulating group entirely

composed of Wacs; many of the map tracings for routing combat supplies were

made by this group. The Signal Corps organized an all-Wac battalion, composed

of switchboard teams, message center

teams, and teletype teams. This could not

be called a WAC battalion because its

tables called for combat equipment, and

Wacs were noncombatants; Signal Corps

authorities therefore called it the % 3341st

Signal Service Battalion, with the % mark

indicating, to the initiate, Wacs. Another

all-Wac battalion, composed of Negro

personnel, came in a unit toward the end

of 1944 and took over half of the Postal

Directory for the theater. Besides these allWAC units there were Wacs in almost

every command echelon down to the

Army group level.32

In the eight months before V-E Day,

Wacs followed closely behind the fighting

forces. Food, quarters, and supplies were

the same as those available to the men.

The only reported difficulty concerning

quarters was the absence of heat and hot

water; doctors estimated that 25 percent

of the women in one unit had chilblains.

Conditions were extremely unsettled,

medical and hospital care uncertain; there

was cold, rain, snow, and mud; it was seldom any longer possible to have advance

inspection of housing. Nevertheless, the

strenuousness of this period had no perceptible effect; authorities were in fact

31

 See also Synopsis Hist of WAC, atchd to Memo

WAC Gp WDBPR for Dir WAC, 31 Jul 45, sub: Proposed ETO WAC film. WDWAC 062. 32

 After V-E Day, Wacs were also .assigned to the

Third, Seventh, and Fifteenth Armies, and to the

40th Bombardment Wing.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 389

LT. COL. ANNA W. WILSON, WAC Staff Director, European theater, lunches in the field

in France, 1 August 1944.

surprised to discover that the WAC sick

rate was the lowest of the year. During the

initial six weeks when Wacs were landing

on Normandy beaches, only one woman

had to be sent back to England because of

illness. Wacs noted that after the V-bombs

in England, the sound of distant artillery

fire in Normandy was a relief. Morale remained high in direct proportion to the

women's sense of playing an immediate

and essential part in the winning of the

war. With civilians temporarily left behind, and men for office work scarce, Wacs

were at last the valued employees they had

been in some units in North Africa. This

period, in spite of its lack of physical comforts, was reportedly the one in which

ETO Wacs were happiest. In December

of 1944, during the dark days of the Battle

of the Bulge, offices depended greatly on

their women, and WAC morale and efficiency were at a peak.

At the time of the Battle of the Bulge,

theater representatives went to Washington and personally sought and obtained

resumption of Wac shipments. These, by

V-E Day, had raised the ETO WAC

strength to more than 8,000—the largest

number of Wacs utilized by any foreign

theater. The number was only half of the

16,000 that had been requisitioned, and

much less than the 25,000 to 50,000 that

the WAC staff director felt would have

been requisitioned had there been any
390 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

hope of receiving so many. As the Air

Forces mission shrank after V-E Day,

greater proportions of the total came to be

employed by field and service forces.33

When, in the spring of 1945, the First

Tactical Air Force and the 12th Army

Group headquarters opened in Heidelberg

and Wiesbaden, no one debated whether

or not to take Wacs to Germany; they

moved with their headquarters as a matter of course. After V-E Day, only a handful of Wacs were left in England; the majority came to be concentrated in Germany

at Berlin, Frankfurt, Wiesbaden, Heidelberg, and other headquarters. Here and

in Paris, living conditions became luxurious in comparison to wartime billets and

to the average accommodations of troops

in the United States.

In Paris, Wacs lived in hotels with

maids, dining rooms, no work details, and

good recreation and sight-seeing facilities.

In Frankfurt, they were housed in a wellheated apartment building, ordinarily

with only two women to a room, and ate

at an excellent mess boasting small tables

and tablecloths, with civilians to do all but

supervisory work. There were available a

complete and quick civilian laundry service and good recreational facilities. In

Wiesbaden, women lived in cold but comfortable apartments and a handsome private home. In Heidelberg, a comfortable

hospital building was used for housing.

Visiting War Department inspectors late

in 1945 reported that "with few exceptions, these Wacs were living under better

conditions and with more comforts than it

was possible to have during the war."

 34

WAC Job Assignments

During the entire period of employment, the most notable difference from the

pattern of job assignment in the United

States was that a higher type of personnel

was available to the theater. As in the

North African theater, the women who

made up these shipments constituted, on a

statistical average, the cream of the Corps.

Records showed that 99 percent of ETO

Wacs were skilled, and that more than 50

percent of enlisted women had the AGCT

scores required of officers. Such women

were not only easier to assign but, as later

studies showed, were less liable to become

disciplinary problems, suffer low morale,

or require medical discharge. No "holding

depot" to accommodate unassigned personnel was ever needed for women, since

all were readily assignable.35

Another notable difference in the employment pattern resulted from the theater's decision to limit women's jobs to a

rather narrow range. Like most overseas

theaters, the European theater considered

women's job superiority proven only in

routine clerical, stenographic, and communications duties, and was loath to risk

shipment of other skills in which a man

might not be efficiently replaced. Final

records of WAC assignment indicated that

about 35 percent of the theater's enlisted

women were employed as stenographers

and typists; another 26 percent were

clerks; 22 percent were in communications work. These percentages of scarce

skills were considerably higher than those

available to the Corps as a whole. In the

United States, as in Britain, personnel

shortages had admitted servicewomen to a

wide variety of work and had made it

necessary to accept recruits in any skill. In

the European theater, only 8 percent of

American servicewomen were employed 33

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 26 and 27; Vol. II, App.

10, pp. 4-5, and p. 14. 34

 Rpt, Maj Frances Clements, G-3, and Capt

Velma P. Griffith, PRO. WDWAC 333.1 (1945). 35

 ETO Bd Rpt statistics.
POSTAL DIRECTORIES IN THE EUROPEAN THEATER
392 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

in the more unusual skills: medical technicians, mechanics, draftsmen, interpreters, weather observers, and photographic

specialists.

The maintenance of this policy at times

was carried so far as to result in the malassignment of women with "unfeminine"

skills. Thus, some one hundred WAC mechanics in the Air Service Command,

although pronounced "highly satisfactory" in this work, were ordered reassigned

to unskilled desk jobs on the grounds that

it was not appropriate for Wacs to wear

coveralls. Other WAC mechanics remained unassigned at ports, and were

eventually transferred to the Air Transport Command.36

The policy also made it increasingly

difficult for the War Department to approve theater requisitions, and for shipping agencies to fill them satisfactorily.

Many requisitions, while numerically

reasonable in view of the total strength of

the Corps, would have required skimming

almost all stenographers and many typists

from stations in the United States—a sacrifice which the War Department deemed

unjustified in view of frequent reports that

there was already widespread theater use

of WAC stenographers as typists and of

typists as clerks. Stations in the United

States experienced difficulty in providing

even the numbers approved. The theater

reported receiving typists labeled stenographers and clerks called "potential typists." Also, as volunteer stenographers and

typists were all shipped, it became necessary for stations to send nonvolunteers who

were known to be more liable to psychiatric breakdowns. Plenty of volunteers for

overseas service remained in the Corps,

but not in the requested skills. Eventually

the War Department was obliged to inform the theater that its requisitions could

no longer be approved if they asked percentages of scarce skills higher than could

reasonably be supplied. The theater's requisitions thereupon dropped a notch in

skill, but continued to concentrate upon

clerical fields, in spite of the staff director's

attempts to interest offices in using Wacs

in medical, mechanical, and other work.

An additional complication in shipment was the matter of grades. Since arriving casuals were assigned to existing

units, the theater asked that they arrive

with low grades in order not to outrank

men and women already in those units.

Expert stenographers were sought in the

grade of private, and experienced company officers in the grade of second lieutenant. The Army Service Forces filled

several shipments with Wacs who voluntarily relinquished their ratings for a

chance at overseas service. However, when

later nonvolunteer shipments arrived with

ratings, a morale problem arose and the

War Department ordered the ratings restored to earlier arrivals, not wishing to

establish a policy of reducing to the grade

of private all men and women sent overseas. Eventually the War Department was

forced to apply a percentage ruling to

WAC shipments, requiring the theater to

absorb a percent of higher grades equal to

the over-all distribution.37

Rather than ship women who did not

meet the exacting specifications in theater

requisitions, incomplete shipments were

sometimes made, a practice that also met

with objections from the theater, since

short shipments upset assignment plans

almost as seriously as did unqualified ones.

At other times, shipments were delayed

until after the theater's need had changed

36

 ETO Bd Rpt statistics, Vol. II, App. 12 of App.

1, and Vol. III, Apps. 95-96. 37

 (1) ETO WAC Hist, p. 26, 34. Also ETO Bd Rpt.

(2) D/F, G-1 to MPD ASF, 10 Mar 45. WDGAP

320.2 WAC, in WDWAC 320.2 ETO.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 393

or had been filled from other sources.

Colonel Wilson later commented:

The fluctuating supply of WAC personnel,

engendered by the voluntary recruitment

policy, prohibited firm planning . . . and

resulted in an immeasurable expenditure of

money, time, and effort, all of which would

have been avoided by the application of

selective service to women.38

Officer Assignments

As was generally true overseas, ETO

WAC officers were frequently less fortunate than enlisted women in the variety of

their assignments and the degree of responsibility delegated to them. Several

WAC officers attended the British Staff

College in a class with British women officers, but an assignment adequate to justify

this high-level training could not be found.

Wacs who had graduated from the Army's

own Command and General Staff School

were assigned to jobs such as photointerpreter. A generous portion of 32 percent of

the WAC officer strength was made available for WAC administration. A high percentage of the others was used in routine

jobs which were similar to those of enlisted

personnel except that an officer was required for security reasons—code and

cipher officers, watch officers, signal officers, photointerpreters, censors, and military secretaries.39

 In spite of a War

Department letter prohibiting the employment of WAC officers as stenographers,

aides, and chauffeurs,40 by the end of the

war, no less than forty-five WAC officers—

14 percent of the total—were serving as

personal assistants to ranking officers in

the European theater.

Such employment of WAC officers

caused other ranking officers in the theater to ask that their enlisted WAC secretaries be directly commissioned and continue on the same job. Director Hobby

steadily opposed all of these proposals,

maintaining that if the women were more

worthy of commissions than other Wacs in

the theater, they should be selected by an

officer candidate board, and that to open

the door to such a policy would mean

yielding to the political pressure of hundreds of other prominent sponsors who

still sought WAC commissions for friends

and constituents. The War Department

therefore never wholly sanctioned the

European theater's request, but a concession was made which permitted deserving

cases to be forwarded for review in Washington. Under this authority several direct

commissions were eventually granted—

none to secretaries, but several to technicians such as the WAC sergeant who, as an

expert on bridge demolition, was already

filling the job of a major in the Corps of

Engineers.

Because of a peculiar loophole in the

WAC legislation, there was no legal barrier to the direct commissioning of British

civilian women in the WAC; however, in

the European theater only one civilian,

General Eisenhower's chauffeur-secretary,

was commissioned in this way, over Director Hobby's protest.41

38

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, p. 27. 39

 ETO Bd Rpt statistics as of 1 Nov 44. 40

 Ltr, DCofS USA to AAF, ASF, AGF, and overseas theaters, 11 Aug 44. CofS 324.5 WAC. 41

 For details see Chs. XXII and, below. Colonel

Hobby had repeatedly discouraged ETO inquiries in

this matter, and General White had written General

Eisenhower a long personal letter citing obstacles, but

after three Allied citizens were commissioned in

Australia without her consent, the Director received

a note from Colonel McCarthy, Secretary to the General Staff: "After a talk with Gen Eisenhower, Gen

Marshall decided that Miss Summersby should be

commissioned directly. I understand that the WAC

will have objections but I believe that the decision is

final." Memo, Secy WDGS for Dir WAC, 31 Oct 44.

WDWAC 320.2 ETO.
394 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

WAC Staff Director's Office

Some initial difficulty was reported by

Colonel Wilson in establishing her own

office and her relative responsibilities. In

her opinion, theater authorities, while

welcoming the enlisted women, were not

initially receptive to an active role by

WAC staff officers, particularly in the first

months before General Eisenhower's return in 1944. The title of Director was

objectionable to the headquarters because

"by definition and practice in the civilian

world [it] implies a certain amount of the

command function."

 42

 As a result, Colonel Wilson and her subordinate staff directors in air and service forces headquarters

found that

. . . until the WAC Staff Directors became

personally known in the commands, they

met many difficulties in the performance of

their mission, especially with respect to making staff visits and collecting information

necessary for making long-range plans and

policies.

Equally objectionable to theater authorities was the word inspection in the War

Department's provision that "a principal

function of staff directors will be continuous inspection . . . for the purpose of gaining information upon which to base

recommendations on ... plans and policies." In spite of the War Department

directive, the theater refused to authorize

staff advisers to visit WAC units, on the

grounds that this usurped the inspector

general's duties or those of male commanders. Theater authorities also were

reluctant to allow WAC staff officers to

receive statistical reports on WAC strength,

losses, disciplinary action, and other problems.

Until the end of 1943 the theater did

not define the position of the WAC staff

director's office, which was unofficially

that of a section of G-1 Division. As a

result, other sections of the headquarters

co-ordinated matters with the staff director only when the existence of the section

was known to them.

Colonel Wilson noted that staff actions

and directives which supposedly applied

to both men and women frequently

omitted any provision for women, with

resulting confusion in the field, but that

"failure to provide adequately for female

personnel was never the result of intentional neglect, but of oversight resulting

from the magnitude of the overall European Theater planning job."

Soon after General Eisenhower's return

from North Africa at the end of 1943, a

formal announcement was made of the

establishment of the WAC Section, G-1

Division, and it was required that "all

matters pertaining exclusively to the

Women's Army Corps and necessitating

the formulation or interpretation of policy

will be referred directly to the WAC Section."

WAC officers also became part of the

offices of the quartermaster, the provost

marshal general, Special Services, Information and Education, the adjutant general, and the inspector general. This generally proved a great advantage from the

Wacs' viewpoint. Not until a WAC officer

was assigned to Special Services in April,

1944, was a complete recreational program designed to fit the needs and interests of women. The assignments also

generally proved acceptable to the office

concerned; the theater's chief quartermaster later noted that numerous early mis42

 This and following, including quotations, all from

ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 16-17, 17, 19, 20, 21, 43,

80-82, and Vol. II, App. 2 of App. 1, and Apps. 7

and 10, p. 11.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 395

takes would not have occurred except "for

lack of a female advisor in OTCQM prior

to the arrival of the first women troops."

 43

In the next few months, subordinate

headquarters employing numbers of Wacs

acquired their own WAC staff directors. A

directive was published officially authorizing field "visits" by the staff director.

The informal collection of a monthly statistical report through "technical channels" was also sanctioned, although only

the Air Forces in the theater ever agreed

to require this officially.

In spite of these great improvements,

the position in G-1 Division did not prove

entirely satisfactory to Colonel Wilson,

who found that her office's nonconcurrences were often lost in the final G-1

decision and were not apparent to either

higher echelons or other staff sections.

With the establishment of Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force, at

some distance from the rest of the headquarters, the WAC staff director was not

again officially able to see the general

whom she was responsible for advising; at

this time there were nine intermediaries

between them.

On the other hand, the staff director,

who had left the United States in WAAC

days, retained many operating functions

that in the United States were willingly

dropped as soon as military status permitted. The staff director's office had

powers of assignment and reassignment of

Wacs; it approved or disapproved all promotions of WAC officers, even those employed on duties unrelated to the Corps; it

requested and suballotted quotas, requisitioned personnel, and took action on requests for the discharge or return to the

United States of individuals in the WAC.

In general, it performed for G-1 Division

all personnel functions relating to women.

Here, as elsewhere in WAC administration, it proved to be difficult to relinquish

operating powers until some voice was

obtained in the shaping of policy.

It was not to be until after the end of the

war, and after Colonel Wilson was replaced as staff director by Lt. Col Mary A.

Hallaren, that earlier efforts bore fruit in

a directive stating:

Although her office is an adjunct of G-1

Division, the position of the WAC Staff Director is on the same level as the assistant

chiefs of staff with respect to all matters per- taining to the WAC. On such matters she is

advisor to the Chief of Staff and the chiefs of

the general and special staff divisions. . . . Channels of communication between . . .

divisions and the WAC Staff Director are

direct.

This circular also repeated War Department directives insuring "continuous

inspection. " 44 Colonel Hallaren later

stated, "From the day this went out, we

had no problem; it was a joy to be in the

Headquarters."

 45

Housing, Supply, and Clothing

From the first it was clear that administrative arrangements for Wacs in a theater

of this type would present no insuperable

problem even in the absence of a strong

staff planning section. In general, Wacs

received exactly the same type of housing

that was provided for male administrative

troops, which was usually much superior

to that provided for troops in the United

States. The majority lived in hotels and

houses, although a few others had barracks, Nissen huts and, temporarily, tents.

43

 Memo, Actg Theater Chief QM to Theater Gen

Bd, USFET, 5 Dec 45. ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. III, App.

75.

44

 Ltr, Hq USFET to all CGs, 8 Aug 45. AG 322.01

GAP-AGO. 45

 Interv, 14 Mar 50.
396 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

While the women remained in England

the theater required that all proposed

WAC housing be inspected by a representative of the staff director before a unit

moved in. On the Continent such inspection was not always possible.46

The locating of most WAC housing in

civilian communities made extra protection for women's quarters unnecessary,

and also eliminated the need for excessive

restrictions upon the women's freedom

except those required of the entire population. The theater found that Wacs resented

even minor restrictions such as "march

cuts" to work during morning and evening dark hours, preferring to get about

independently. Because of the uncertain

nature of transportation facilities, enlisted

women were not sent from station to station without a WAC officer escort, unless

a woman's commanding officer certified

that the travel concerned did not require

an escort. Other than these, there were no

restrictions for Wacs which did not apply

to men.

Organizational supplies were also generally superior. Because of the precedent

of the British women's services, the Wacs

obtained bed linens and mattresses, plus a

limited number of electric irons and some

hairdressing equipment, although this last

was never rated entirely adequate. Post

exchanges were ordinarily as good as

those in the United States. Mess equipment was also generally adequate. In spite

of the absence of milk, fresh fruits, and

other items, the WAC messes were well

rated, with cooks showing ingenuity in

preparing dehydrated foods and other

standard Army rations, which were superior to those of the British. Wacs usually

had a separate mess only if civilian employees could be obtained for all heavy

labor; kitchen police and similar fatigue

duty became almost as unknown as it had

been in Italy.47

The only immediate problem presented

by the area was that of suitable clothing.

The standard winter uniforms that Wacs

had brought from the United States were

considered inadequate, especially in the

Air Forces, where many women were assigned to night shifts in unheated buildings and underground operations centers.

The situation was declared an emergency,

and the issue of enlisted men's longsleeved undershirts and long drawers was

authorized. Since Wacs were found to be

catching colds because of a certain reluctance to wear these ill-fitting garments,

the theater immediately requested many

extra items above the regular issue: wool

underwear designed for women, wool

shirts, a field jacket and wool liner, with

matching trousers and trouser liner, combat boots, and long wool hose. Most of

these were obtained from the United

States after much delay. Because of the

limited cleaning and repair facilities, all

Wacs in the theater also received extra

exercise dresses, wool skirts, and field

shoes.

The Quartermaster-designed trousers

and jacket, when finally received from the

United States, were found to be bulky and

unbecoming, could not be tailored to fit

the figure, and shrank and faded when

laundered in the field. A smart three-piece

wool uniform was therefore designed by

the European theater—slacks, skirt, and

battle jacket—which was found to be

durable, warm, lightweight, and becoming for wear either under field conditions

or in the city. A request for this was for46

 ETO WAC Hist, pp. 10-11; also ETO Bd Rpt. 47

 (1) ETO Bd Rpt, incl Vol. III, App. 75. (2) Ltr,

Asst Theater WAAC Stf Dir to Dir WAC, 5 Jun 43.

SPWA 320.2 sec 4a.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 397

warded to the War Department, which

refused to authorize it on the grounds that

all available material was being used to

produce the new ETO battle jacket uniform for men. At this, the European theater found means of procuring in England

enough of these uniforms to furnish each

woman at least one. With the benefit of

these additions, Colonel Wilson noted that

ETO Wacs were better dressed than those

in the United States, where cold-weather

garments and other extra items were not

issued except to a few outdoor workers.48

Maintenance supply of uniforms was

also good in comparison to that of other

overseas locations. The theater engaged

in a continual struggle to keep up adequate stocks of women's clothes, and had

chronic shortages, particularly in small

sizes, but this was no more than could be

said of most stations in the United States.

The theater experienced an additional

difficulty in that purchase of rationed

clothing in civilian shops was forbidden to

American troops in England. Wacs needed

many items that were no longer issued,

such as warm bathrobes, bedroom slippers, brassieres, and handkerchiefs. As

items brought from the United States

began to wear out, the theater cabled to

The Quartermaster General to point out

that, while in the United States it might

be practicable to call these items nonessential and to require a woman to buy her

own, such procedure was inappropriate in

an overseas area where the items required

ration cards that the Wacs did not possess.

Fully 60 percent of the women, the theater

estimated, were in need of girdles. The

Quartermaster General refused to resume

issue of these items, but eventually arranged for their purchase and resale

through post exchanges to women overseas.49

Health, Morals, and Discipline

During the entire period of employment, there was little to indicate that

service in the European theater was more

detrimental to women's health or behavior than service in the United States,

or produced any problems that would

have rendered the employment of Wacs

uneconomical. For most of the war

months, the WAC attrition rate remained

the same as that of noncombat men—one

half of one percent.50 This was in spite of

startling statistics computed in the early

days, when it was reported that ETO

Wacs, unlike those in the United States,

appeared to be losing twice as many days

from work as men. This rate seemed due

chiefly to the high incidence of respiratory

disorders. Upon investigation it was found

that most of the Wacs at this time were

newly arrived in England, and that the

rate of respiratory disorders among newly

arrived male troops was also twice as high

as that of the theater as a whole. In addition, Wacs were chiefly office workers, and

the rate of respiratory disorders among

male headquarters troops was also twice

that of the field forces.

An odd additional factor was the unsatisfactory model of military shoes for

women, and the shortage of proper sizes,

which, according to a medical report,

. . . loomed large in the noneffective rate for

Wacs during the period when they were being

admitted to the hospital for adjustment of

48

 (1) Rpt, by ETO WAC Stf Dir, 12 Jul 44.

WDWAC 421. (2) ETO Bd Rpt. (3) ETO WAC Hist,

p. 14. 49

 (1) Cbl W8720, USFOR London to AGWAR,

16 Nov 43, SPWA 320.2 sec 6. WAAC GI file. (2)

ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. III, App. 121. 50

 This and following from ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I,

pp. 48, 58-60, 123; Vol. II, Apps. 1 and 13; Vol. III,

Apps. 114, 117.
398 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

shoes. . . . The proper fitting of shoes is still

an unsolved problem. Metatarsal bursitis

and fallen arches are common disorders.51

The WAC illness rate was further increased by the fact that pregnant women,

although not ill, were hospitalized and

returned as patients, for their better protection. As Wacs became acclimated, and

as improved administration caused less

delay in processing of female patients, the

final rate of time lost in hospital was found

to be only 2.2 percent for Wacs as against

2.5 percent for all troops, nonbattle cases

only.52

Women were found to develop psychological disorders somewhat less frequently

than men, and records kept for the first

year and a half showed that only a dozen

requests for return home had been initiated. "Female complaints" caused almost

one-fourth of WAC hospitalizations, and

were serious enough to cause the Air

Forces surgeon to recommend that "women with menstrual disorders should be

eliminated prior to their dispatch to a

Theater of Operations."

 53

However, this rate of time lost because

of female complaints was exactly compensated for by the higher rate of venereal

disease among men. The WAC venereal

disease rate was variously computed at

from one sixth to one ninth that of the

men, and considerably less than that of

civilian women in the United States. In

the first year, with over 6,000 women,

there were only about 10 cases, including

both married and unmarried.54 Most of

the latter were from a small minority of

women who, in the theater's opinion,

should not have been enlisted and should

certainly not have been sent overseas.

After inspecting the theater Wacs for the

Medical Department late in 1944, Major

Craighill stated, "We have found that the

medical problems as respects morals are

much better controlled in WAC than in

civilian units."

 55

 Army historians later

noted, "venereal disease among the Wacs

was conspicuous by its almost total absence."

 56

The WAC pregnancy rate was likewise

negligible.57 For unmarried women it was

estimated as about one a month, out of

6,000 women then in the theater, while

about two married women a month were

returned for pregnancy, the total rate being less than one sixth of the rate among

civilian women in comparable age groups

in the United States. The number of Wacs

returned because of pregnancy did not

raise the total WAC attrition rate above

that of the men. The infrequency of discharge for this cause was such that no

entirely satisfactory system of processing

pregnant returnees was ever worked out,

with some hospitalized women awaiting

return for as much as two months, and at

least three babies being born in the theater.

Both the WAC pregnancy rate and the

venereal disease rate compared favorably

with statistics available on Wacs in the

United States. Fearing that overseas conditions placed a greater strain upon accepted standards of conduct, Colonel

Wilson and the ETO medical consultant

51

 Memo, Maj Craighill for SG, through Chief Surg,

ETOUSA, 30 Nov 44. SGO Hist Div 319.1 ETO,

Women In. 52

 Bull, U.S. Army Med Dept, Vol. VI, No. 3, Sep

46, p. 285. 53

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. II, App. 1 54

 (1) ETO WAC Hist, p. 32. (2) ETO Bd Rpt, Vol.

II, App. 13, p. 9. 55

 Min, Senior Offs Mtg, Celtic Hotel, 6 Nov 44.

ETO folder Adm 534, Mss—Wacs in ETO, Opns

Rpts, DRB AGO. 56

 USSTAF Hist. 57

 This and the following paragraphs are based on

and quote: ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, p. 59, Vol. II, App.

13, p. 6, Vol. III, Apps. 114, 115, 121. Also see Ch.

XXXI, below, for details.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 399

decided that Colonel Hobby's moralizing

approach to the facts of life, as incorporated in hygiene manuals, was too Victorian and that it "had been a mistake"

not to include very frank sex advice. Several "fairly vigorous lectures" were therefore presented to the enlisted women, but

because of "reverberations" from the

WAC unit, medical authorities were

obliged to desist. The British women's

services likewise discovered that their

women preferred advice that was moral

rather than chemical or mechanical in

nature.

Medical care provided for women appeared to be quite similar to that available

in the United States. Like the War Department, the European theater appointed

a woman doctor to be medical consultant

for women, suffered setbacks in its attempts to provide service for scattered

WAC minorities, and did not until the end

of the war get around to appointing gynecologists on the staffs of general hospitals

that treated Wacs and nurses. The War

Department's medical consultant for

women's welfare, Major Craighill, reported:

The medical care of Wacs in England and

France is excellent . . . dispensaries, station and general hospitals having special medical

facilities for women. Very few hospitals are

equipped for gynecological or obstetrical

cases. . . . The health of the WAC is good . . . there is no evidence of undue fatigue. Tension is apparent only among those groups

having insufficient work to occupy them

fully.58

There was no indication that ETO Wacs

were appreciably less healthy than those

in the United States. Some reports showed

that ETO Wacs lost less time in the hospital than Wacs in the zone of the interior,

but ETO authorities believed their WAC

noneffective rate to be slightly higher.59

WAC disciplinary records were also

good. Statistics compiled by the Air Provost Marshal showed that men committed

various offenses from ten to a hundred and

fifty times as often as women.60 On a percentage basis, men were AWOL 89 times

as often as women, drunk 85 times as

often, and violated miscellaneous Articles

of War 150 times as often.61

Commands reported that "Wacs classed

among the most smartly and neatly

dressed troops on the stations." Serious

misconduct was lacking, and the advance

plans for a group of female military police

were never carried out. Court-martial

cases were few; there were only two general courts reported among Wacs in the

history of the theater. Historians, questioning whether this rate resulted from

good behavior or from undue leniency of

WAC company commanders, examined

company punishment records closely and

determined that there had been "no tendency to coddle or minimize punishment

for misdemeanors. . . . Supervision at

the detachment level was more thorough

and constant than among males."

 62

Of aid in maintaining this record was

the fact that the theater acted to make

clear the disciplinary powers of WAC

commanders by reaffirming the War Department's two safeguards: that enlisted

women would be assigned only in groups,

and only under the command of a WAC

officer.

58

 Memo cited n. 51. 59

 Weekly Health Rpt, Vol. V, No. 9, ASF, SGO;

ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, p. 123; Vol. III, Apps. 114, 119,

121. Hospitalization rate:

35 per 1,000 for U.S. Wacs

34 per 1,000 for Army, less evacuees

27.18 per 1,000 for Wacs in ETO 60

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, p. 40. 61

 ETO Bd Rpt, pp. 37-42. 62

 USSTAF Hist.
400 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Civilian Competition

Final theater reports indicated only one

important handicap to WAC employment

in an area such as this one: the competition with civilian employees. This problem, although appearing minor at first

consideration, became more prominent in

the period following the slackening of hostilities and was eventually rated the European theater Wacs' number one difficulty

by both WAC staff directors, as well as by

returning enlisted women.

It had been originally contemplated by

the Chief of Staff that no civilian women

would be employed overseas, but by the

time of the WAAC's formation it was

already clear that such employment could

not be prevented in certain areas. As early

as 1942, Director Hobby had therefore

proposed that difficulties between the two

groups be minimized by directing that

"no organization or group of women employed by the American forces . . . wear

a uniform or parts of a uniform which are

of a color or a pattern which would cause

them to be confused with members of the

WAAC."

 63

She pointed out that existing regulations provided a satisfactory uniform for

American civilian employees—the blue

hostess-librarian uniform—which was ordered through Special Services from commercial firms that were ready to supply

them. However, the Army Service Forces

refused to send this proposal to the War

Department, and it was not considered.

Instead, at a meeting at which the Director was not represented, it was decided to

sell the WAAC officer uniform to any

civilian women going overseas.64

The problem had small immediate importance, since until after the cessation of

buzz-bomb danger very few American

civilians went to the area, and British employees lived at home and seldom wore

uniforms. To Colonel Hobby's inquiry,

Colonel Wilson replied, "This is a situation about which we are not unduly concerned." In the early and dangerous days

of the invasion, Wacs were the only female

employees in most cases. Later, the theater

decided to take female civilians to the

Continent as soon as conditions became

safe and stable, and it was necessary to

provide them with quarters and identifying uniforms. Colonel Wilson concurred

in a recommendation that civilians get

separate messes and distinctive uniforms,

but instead the theater authorized officer

accommodations for them and allowed

each command to prescribe its own uniform. At this, a considerable morale problem resulted among equally qualified

enlisted women, mitigated somewhat in

cases where British civilians were veteran

employees who had shared the bombings

and rationings.65

Early in 1945, a morale crisis was precipitated by news of plans to send overseas

large numbers of American civilian women

as soon as hostilities ended. At this time

Director Hobby's staff learned that "a

meeting was held in the Secretary of War's

office, at which representatives of the

Quartermaster and G-1 were present, but

no representative of this office . . . those

present agreed that the WAC uniform

should be provided for civilians overseas."

In a series of confidential memoranda, the

63

 Memo, Dir WAAC for CofS, 10 Oct 42, sub: Ltr

of Instr to CG ETO. SPWA 320.2 sec 1. 64

 D/F, Dir Mil Pers ASF to Dir WAAC, 16 Oct 42.

SPGA M/322.5 WAAC (10-10-42), in SPWA 320.2

sec 1. 65

 (1) ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 71, 21; Vol. III,

App. 135; Vol. III, App. 10, p. 7. (2) Quotation from

Memo, WAC Stf Dir ETOUSA, for Col Howard E.

Kessinger, Exec, G-1 WDGS (on tour of ETO), 28

Aug 44. WD WAC 421.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 401

Director protested that WAC enlisted

women were as well qualified as the civilians who would wear the officer uniform;

that civilians should not receive officer

privileges without accompanying military

responsibilities and discipline; that the

social association problem would be hopelessly complicated if civilians wore the

WAC uniform; and that the practice

"would react to the serious detriment of

the morale of the enlisted women who

have served the Army well and faithfully

under the rigorous conditions of overseas

life without [such] pay or privileges. . . " 66

The Director shortly succeeded in getting a directive to the European theater

that civilians would get only the enlisted

uniform, and this with the addition of

conspicuous colored shoulder straps,

sleeve braid, and cap crown, plus a blue

hostess-librarian overcoat. The theater

cabled back for a reconsideration of continued issue of the unchanged WAC uniform, which would considerably simplify

its supply and storage problems. This was

not granted, but hundreds of unmodified

uniforms were already in the hands of

civilians, and War Department attempts

to get the directive enforced in the theater

were never wholly successful. Colonel Wilson was not asked to comment; she noted,

"The problem was of such a controversial

nature that it was impossible for the WAC

Staff Director to initiate a paper as a

branch of G-1."

 67

With the posthostilities arrival of American civilian women, the Wacs' esprit

vanished, as well as pride in Army status

and uniform. The women talked of little

else; the gist of their more printable comment was that they had been hooked as

sentimental suckers by a government that

penalized enlisted service and handsomely

rewarded those who stifled their patriotic

fervor until the danger was over. The

theater noted numerous "natural jealousies" that arose between the two groups.

The Wacs' chief complaint was not the

pay or officers' mess and quarters, but the

uniform, and the fear that the Corps'

hard-won reputation for neatness and

good conduct was rapidly vanishing in the

eyes of the occupied nations and the

American soldiers alike as a result of the

way in which their uniform was worn by

civilian women untrained in military customs and unsupervised as to appearance

or living habits.

In addition to the civilian employees in

WAC uniform, there were women movie

stars, newspaperwomen, Congresswomen,

society women, and the entire casts of

traveling shows such as Panama Hattie.

Further indignation was provoked when

these women, as well as USO workers and

nurses, got priority on the scanty WAC

maintenance stocks, resulting in shortages

to enlisted women. Also, civilians could

date officers and attend officers' social

functions. They had different housing

standards, less restrictions, no inspections,

and no company punishment. Though

holding jobs similar to enlisted women's,

their top salary was $745 a month as

against the WAC maximum of $138.68

66

 (1) Memo, Exec for Dir WAC, 24 Feb 44; (2)

WD Cir 118, 22 Mar 44; (3) Memo, "KKJ" for Dir

WAC, 26 Feb 45, WDWAC 319.1 Johnson (1945-46);

(4) Memo, Dir WAC for Col Guenther, 1 Mar 45;

(5) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 27 Mar 45; (6) Cbls

CM-OUT 57510, WD to ETO, and CM-IN 26948,

ETO to WD, 25 Mar 45. All in WDWAC 421. 67

 Ibid. Quotation from ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. II, App.

7: Memo, WAC Stf Dir for G-1 SHAEF, 4 May 45. 68

 Min cited n. 55. ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. III, Apps. 71,

132, 134. Monthly salaries:

Minimum Maximum

U.S. civilian in ETO ............. . $220.00 $745.00

Continental civilian.............. . 110.00 372.00

WAC .......................... . 50.00 138.00
402 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

The theater also admitted that "occasionally there was a tendency to cater to

the civilians in order to keep them happy

and on the job, and on the other hand to

delegate to WAC personnel in the same

office the more difficult and less pleasant

jobs and overtime work because they were

military personnel and subject to

orders."

 69

 When questioned by WAC officers concerning the necessity for this

practice, ETO's Chief of Military Personnel replied: "The matter is a command

function based on the overall view which

probably the individual does not understand."

 70

The civilian women themselves were

equally resentful. They felt that their

quarters were often worse than the WAC

officers' quarters, sometimes lacking in

heat when WAC quarters were heated.

Civilian personnel also lacked the many

military benefits and provisions for

morale-building recreation and entertainment that enlisted Wacs had. No system of

hearing civilian women's complaints was

set up until 1947, and no action was taken

on them.71

It was in vain that WAC officers attempted to point out to the enlisted

women that the fault lay in Congress'

failure to draft women as well as men,

thus forcing the Army to employ civilians

to make up the deficit, and to grant extra

privileges to attract them. The women's

hostility remained unabated through the

final days of the war, and was reflected in

postwar refusal of former Wacs to accept

civilian employment with the Army. As

Wacs became eligible for discharge, the

theater, with the War Department's approval, worked out a system that would

permit former Wacs to transfer to civilian

status and good civilian jobs in the Army

of Occupation, but of more than 8,000

Wacs, only 126 chose to accept the offer.

Neither did the majority desire to serve

the Army any longer on military status.72

Social Association

A second policy problem, which became

more noticeable in 1945 as a complication

of the civilian importation, was that of the

social association of officers and enlisted

personnel of opposite sexes.73 Until American civilians arrived and began dating

their section chiefs, Wacs had lived without too much objection under General

Devers' written directive that the customs

of the service would apply except to relatives and fiances carrying letters of authorization. This prohibition, during the war

months, was fairly well observed in the

subordinate commands and in the rural

areas, but was generally ignored in cities

and higher headquarters because of the

anonymity which couples could easily find

in large cities such as London and Paris.

Enlisted men made sporadic objections

when Wacs dated officers, although believing that they themselves should be allowed to date nurses, but the relative

abundance of dateable women in England

prevented any real hard feeling.

It was only with the move to Germany

and the end of the war that feelings on the

subject became more intense. For the

eighteen months after his return to Europe, General Eisenhower was not informed of his theater's policy in this

69

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, p. 132. 70

 Min cited n. 55. 71

 Intervs with civilians returned from Europe. 72

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. III, Apps. 131, 133, 134; Vol.

I, p. 133. 73

 Unless otherwise stated, discussion is from ETO

Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 6, 25, 135-39; Vol. III, Apps. 137-

49.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 403

regard. After V-E Day he discovered it

from "gripe letters" from Army nurses to

Stars and Stripes, complaining that it would

be less evil to go out with "good respectable privates" than with officers who were

always married men. General Eisenhower

asked what the "alleged regulation" was

that prevented a nurse from going out

with an enlisted man, and added, "What

is all this?" Upon learning that the theater had a written restriction against social

mixing, he wrote:

I want good sense to govern such things.

Social contact between sexes on a basis that

does not interfere with other officers or enlisted persons should have the rule of decency and deportment—not artificial barriers.74

Colonel Wilson had not brought the

matter to General Eisenhower's attention

because she believed that distinction was

advisable and had a basis in civilian life,

where, "for example, no railway company

exists in which section hands or brakemen

expect or want social intimacy with the

president of the company."

 75

 In answer

to General Eisenhower's query, Colonel

Wilson recommended, with the concurrence of all subordinate Army commanders, that the current situation be allowed

to continue. She informed General Eisenhower that Colonel Hobby favored such

a policy, although actually the opposite

was true.

Colonel Hallaren, upon assuming office

as ETO WAC staff director, advocated a

reversal of the policy. She felt that she

spoke for the enlisted women, who still

resented social discrimination, and that

while Wacs probably would not take

undue advantage of a relaxed policy,

"they get claustrophobia with the door

closed."

 76

In the commotion of demobilization,

the theater commander failed to approve

either proposal. Without rescinding the

written ruling, he authorized establishment of an all-ranks restaurant in Paris

where "mixed" couples could get food.

Later, after civilian restaurants were

opened, there was no particular problem

for violators of the rule.

Policy on Marriage

Closely connected with the social association problem was that of marriage of

military personnel. The theater's written

orders were, "When two members of this

command marry, thereafter either they

will be stationed at widely separated posts,

camps, or stations, or, when appropriate,

one of the parties will be removed from

the theater."

 77

 The orders applied only to

nurses and Wacs, and not to American

and Allied civilians and women of liberated countries. They directly contradicted

the War Department circular, which

stated that Wacs would not be transferred

solely because of marriage to persons serving in the same station.78

The theater chaplain protested to General Eisenhower that, since engaged couples did not wish to be separated because

of marriage, "a condition of concubinage"

was resulting, and the WAC staff director

put it more explicitly that "military couples lived together without the marriage

ceremony for fear of being separated."

General Eisenhower, upon reading these

statements, personally reaffirmed his

policy that "Persons in the military service

will not be permitted to establish homes

and families in this active theater."

74

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. III, Apps. 136, 146, (11-23

May 45) 75

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 136-39. 76

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. III, App. 147. 77

 Hq ETOUSA Cir 41, par 5a, 17 Apr 44. 78

 WAAC Regs, 1 Jun 43; WD Cir 462, 1944, par

12b.
404 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Although medical reports indicated

that "arbitrary separation of husbands

and wives within the theater does not tend

to reduce the incidence of pregnancy,"

 79

it was not until after the end of the war in

Europe that the transfer requirement was

relaxed. The WAC marriage rate at once

quadrupled. Even so, a station was forbidden to allow married couples, military or

civilian, to be domiciled together—a provision that later resulted in publication by

an interested newspaper of a reprimand

to an Army captain beginning, "It has

come to the attention of this headquarters

that you are living with your wife. This

must cease at once."

 80

There were only 323 WAC marriages

in the theater, of which all but eight were

to Americans. Historians noted, "It has

always been a rare sight in London to see

a Wac with a member of any foreign service or with a civilian from any country

other than her own." Women noted that

"almost any man from the States seemed

to think it was a crime for any Wac to cast

more than a pleasant glance at a foreigner,

when there were so many Americans in

Europe who preferred American women.

. . ." Likewise, the Wacs mixed less with

the British civilian population. Reports

noted:

Though a large majority of the Wacs were

entertained in British homes, few of them

visited these homes more than once or twice. Wacs were in a rather different position from that of the American men in the Army. . . .

81

Public Relations

A last management problem, which was

intensified with the close of hostilities, was

that of WAC public relations.82 Wacs in

the European theater, like those in other

overseas areas, never had a public relations problem in the sense that Wacs at

home did, where they were constantly observed by critical American civilians.

ETO Wacs generally encountered only respectful Continental audiences. However,

war correspondents did their best to substitute for the home folks in this respect,

from the day that the 1st WAC Separate

Battalion landed and was met by thirtyeight correspondents and publicized in

600 newspapers. Press relations were so

time-consuming that a WAC staff officer

was installed in the ETO Public Relations

Office, to cope with news requests. Here

her work resolved itself chiefly into a

struggle to produce favorable news releases faster than enterprising reporters

could produce unfavorable ones.

On the credit side, the European theater quickly reached a volume of WAC

news stories equaled by few others, in spite

of disagreements with Washington as to a

reasonable compromise between the capacity of cable facilities and the needs of

recruiters in the United States. Because of

the news value of overseas items, Director

Hobby sent a WAC writer and a photographer to stimulate output, and later devoted much of her own 1944 visit to

England to this purpose. The theater

obligingly produced many general-interest

stories on the WAC, plus home-town releases on almost every Wac in the theater.

The WAC Public Relations Officer, Maj.

Henriette Horak, also publized events

that would put the WAC in a good light:

79

 Memo cited n. 51. 80

 (1) Hq ETOUSA Cir, 9 Jun 45, par V. (2) Above

passage based on ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 55-58, and

Vol. II, Apps. 39-47. General Eisenhower's policy:

App. 39. Chaplain's protest: App. 42. Newspaper

quote: Washington Post, March 2, 1947. 81

 ETO ATC WAC Hist. 82

 All statements on public relations, unless otherwise indicated are from ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 115-

18, and Vol. III, App. 112.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 405

the "adoption" of British war orphans;

visits of Wacs to Paris cathedrals; the story

of the responsible work done by Wacs at

the Postdam Conference and the Nuernberg trials. Stories were placed in Yank,

Life, Vogue, and many others; newsreel

coverage was obtained; Wacs were pictured with Generals Eisenhower, Smith,

Doolittle, Eaker, Lt. Gen. John C. H. Lee,

and others.83 To promote GI-WAC friendship, much was made of the naming of a

bomber the "Pallas Athene-GI Jane" and

a locomotive the "WAC Blazer." By the

machinations of the WAC Public Relations Officer, Wacs were slipped into Berlin ahead of other women to achieve a

noteworthy "first."

 84

The size of the theater nevertheless

made it necessary for the WAC Public Relations Officer to decentralize control of

releases to various lower echelons not having Wacs on their public relations staffs.

The unfavorable stories that slipped by

male public relations officers were all of

one type: derogatory comments about

Wacs by the soldiers, which reporters

seemed to take especial pains to evoke.

The WAC Public Relations Officer admitted that one of her "chief headaches"

was "the antagonism between the Army

male and the Army female." As a result,

there were frequent releases such as one

from Eighth Air Force headquarters,

which consistently refused to accept a Wac

public relations officer, "Soldiers Prefer

English Girls to Wacs."

 85

The worst releases of this type came toward the end of hostilities, when Field

Marshal Sir Bernard L. Montgomery's

headquarters released a statement that

numbers of the WAC and ATS would be

sent into Germany to prevent soldiers

from fraternizing with German women.

The women's duties, said the story, were

to act as dance partners, to chat, and to

drink tea.86 This appeared in Stars and

Stripes, in the London Daily Mail, and in the

New York Times. The story was widely reprinted in the United States; some writers

and one radio religious hour stated that

Wacs were being transferred to camps

where men visited German brothels too

often, and that the brothels were now being filled by Wacs.87

In the United States, the National Federation of Press Women asked that the

War Department take a definite stand

against this type of overseas "propaganda," but the head of the War Department Bureau of Public Relations took no

action because, as he informed Director

Hobby, "I think the statement [from Montgomery's headquarters] was well meant,

even if poorly advised ... I smell the

needling by correspondents."

 88

 This type

of release continued, fostered somewhat by

soldier letters in the European theater Stars

and Stripes, which in August of 1945 printed

what United Press reporters called "a

blizzard of bitter letters" from soldiers;

this was also picked up in the United

States.89

83

 Ltr, PRO ETO Hq to Dir WAC, 30 May 44.

WDWAC 320.2. 84

 ETO Press Releases 8296, 29 Jan 44, and 9747,

16 Nov 44. ETO Adm 365 WAC, DRB AGO. 85

 Eighth AF Hq Release, Des Moines Register, January 20, 1944. Also: (1) Memo, Dir WAC for CG

AAF, 2 Feb 44, and reply, 21 Feb 44, from CofAS,

Gen Giles, citing cbls. SPWA 001.-N. (2) Chicago

World Herald, August 21, 1945, UP release, "Soldiers

Lambaste Wacs." 86

 New York Times, December 5, 1944, by Times correspondent with British Second Army. 87

 (1) Ltr, Dr. K. Frances Scott to Dir WAC, 14 Jan

45, and atchd file. WDWAC 330.14. (2) New York

Journal-American, December 8, 1944. 88

 Ltr, Natl Fed of Press Women to Dir Hobby, 16

Dec 44, and Inds. WDWAC 080. 89

 Chicago World Herald, August 21, 1945, UP

release.
406 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

WAC recruiters in the United States

lived in constant apprehension of these

periodic outbursts, which got wide publicity because of public interest in overseas

news. This particular problem never

found a solution; even in the Army of

Occupation damaging releases continued

to be permitted and even originated by

Army public relations officers.90 From the

European theater viewpoint the problem

had no great effect on WAC efficiency, although it did tend to hamper recruiting

in the United States.

Posthostilities Period

While the WAC's problems of public

relations, civilian competition, and social

discrimination were considered worthy of

record by students of personnel management, they were not conspicuous in the

general morale let-down that followed the

end of hostilities in Europe, nor as serious

as the social and moral problems of men

in the occupation forces.

In this period, the efforts of the theater

as a whole were turned toward the maintenance of morale and good conduct for

both men and women. Women received

furloughs and passes under the same rules

as for men, were included in Information

and Education plans, and were provided

with facilities at selected leave areas.

Wacs were generally less able to avail

themselves of those facilities than were

men, since most Wacs were employed in

critical categories and could not be released by section chiefs to participate in

programs designed mainly for idle troops.

Wacs were permitted to take courses such

as those at Shrivenham and Biarritz, but

few were able to attend.

American Red Cross authorities had

from the beginning endeavored to provide

identical services for Wacs and enlisted

men, but reported themselves handicapped by the attitude of their women

field workers: "Many of the women approached [to run a WAC rest area] said

they had come over to serve the men and

not the women."

 91

 Clubs for enlisted

women and WAC officers were eventually

set up in London. After some delay, a

WAC rest home was established near Oxford soon after the invasion, and moved to

Nice after V-E Day; it proved extremely

useful, since the Wacs had no convalescent

hospitals.92 The men's program of return

to the United States—Rehabilitation, Recuperation, and Recovery—was never applied to Wacs, because of their shorter

length of service, although Colonel Wilson

felt that if a small quota had been included in the program it would have aided

morale.93

In this period various devices were employed by WAC commanders to help in

sustaining morale: unit clubs; a relaxation of regimentation; athletic tournaments; the salvage of toys, food, and clothing for homeless children; and the hospital

visitation program.

Demobilization

Colonel Wilson was not included in

planning conferences for the Army of Occupation, but the theater planners determined independently to employ even

90

 Memo, Actg Chief, WAC Gp WDBPR for Dep

Dir WDBPR, 29 Jan 45. WDBPR WAC Gp file Organization of WAC Group. 91

 Ltr, Miss Eleanor C. Vincent, Asst National Dir,

Mil and Naval Welfare Serv, Red Cross, to Miss

Helen Walmsley, 7 Sep 44. WDWAC 080 Red Cross

(1945). 92

 This was administered by the Army with recreation furnished by the Red Cross. ETO WAC Hist, pp.

30-32; ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. II, App. 10, p. 10. 93

 ETO Bd Rpt, pp. 52-55 and 69-70.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 407

more Wacs than had been used in wartime. It was decided that 50,000 Wacs

could be used in the Army of Occupation,

but that in view of the size of the Corps,

only 10,000 would be asked, these to be in

addition to the thousands used by the Air

Forces in Europe.

Further disagreement with the War Department followed as to the relative needs

of the zone of the interior and the Army of

Occupation. Theater representatives

asked, in conference, "Why is it difficult to

get personnel now? What are the Wacs doing over there that they can't be spared to

come here as replacements?" To this, War

Department spokesmen replied that the

administrative load of demobilization

would fall on the United States, not the

theater, and that "Wacs [in Europe] gripe

that there isn't enough work to do—that

they would go in the Army of Occupation

only for fraternization—they resent it."

 94

The War Department therefore at first

refused the request for more WAC personnel, stating:

The average limited service man in the

United States has a much lesser degree of in- telligence and effectiveness than the average

Wac, and it would thus be most difficult to

have limited service soldiers take over the

jobs which Wacs are now performing.95

The General Staff also objected that excombat returnees could not be traded for

Wacs in the United States because the

men had too high grades, were lacking in

skills, or were temperamentally unsuited

for the work.

Director Hobby did not take sides in the

matter, other than to recommend that all

or no requests be approved, in order that

Wacs not be used in the Army of Occupation except in sufficient numbers to give

them a "recognized status" and to make

provisions for their health and supply

economically justifiable.96 Finally, a compromise was reached: the War Department refused to exclude the AAF's quota

from the requested quota of 10,000, but

agreed to raise the theater quota, including Air Forces, from 8,000 to 10,000—thus

in effect permitting shipment of 2,000

more women.97

Shipments to supply the additional

women had already begun when the onset

of demobilization intervened. At this time

the European theater used its unfilled

WAC quota of 10,000 as an excuse for refusing to release women eligible for discharge, saying, "This personnel will

necessarily be considered essential if the

theater quota has not been reached, and

will not be eligible to return to the Zone

of the Interior."

 98

As in the Mediterranean theater, male

replacements in the same skill and MOS

were not considered acceptable. The War

Department therefore took a step that

would have forced return; it cut the theater quota from 10,000 to 6,000 on the

basis of "other needs" elsewhere.99 The

theater refused to comply; while returning

a few women in unwanted skills, it informed the War Department that it had

"frozen" the return of WAC stenographers

and typists until WAC, and not male, replacements in these skills were received.

This proved a fruitless move, for after

the defeat of Japan and the end of WAC

94

 Min cited n. 55. Also ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. II,

App. 7. 95

 Memo, Secy WDGS for Dir WAC, 12 May 44.

WDCSA 424.5 WAC, in CofS 324.5 WAC. 96

 (1) D/F, G-1 for CofS, 2 Feb 45. WDGAP 320.2

WAC, in CSA 324.5 WAC. (2) Memo, Exec WAC for

Dir WAC, 21 Feb 45. WDWAC 201.6. 97

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I; also D/F, G-1 WD to MPD

ASF, 10 Mar 45. WDGAP 320.2 WAC in WDWAC

320.2 ETO. Quota was 200 offs and 10,400 EW. 98

 Memo, ETO for TAG, 6 May 45. AG 387

RCGA, in WDWAC 320.2 ETO. 99

 D/F, G-1 Div WDGS to TAG, 7 Jul 45. WDGAP

320.2 WAC (2-2-45), in WDWAC 320.2.
408 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

recruiting, the European theater, like all

others, was informed that no more Wacs

would go overseas. Soon after, the War

Department forbade any theater to retain

discharge eligibles, men or women, on the

grounds of "military necessity." Thereafter, demobilization of nonvolunteer

Wacs proceeded rapidly. The theater reported that the War Department's action

"was a serious blow to the European theater, which considered Wacs its primary

source of critically needed clerical and

communications personnel, and [it] required the revision of plans for their utilization in the Army of Occupation."

 100

Appraisal

The statements of both theater commanders and the women themselves indicated that WAC service in the European

theater was considered suitable and successful. General Eisenhower informed the

War Department:

During the time I have had Wacs under my command they have met every test and

task assigned them. I have seen them at work

in ... England, France, and at Army installations throughout the European The- ater. Their contributions in efficiency, skill,

spirit, and determination are immeasurable.

General Lee added, "The work of the organization has been superior." The Chief

Signal Officer, Maj. Gen. William S.

Rumbough, called their work with the

Signal Corps "superior." Maj. Gen. Willard S. Paul, G-1 of ETO, reported, "I

have received nothing but the highest

praise for the results you have

achieved."

 101

The Air Forces in the theater added

similar praise. General Spaatz of USSTAF

stated:

The WAC has been of inestimable value.

. . . Its members have worked devotedly,

often at arduous tasks requiring exceptional

performance.102

General Eaker later added:

Women made, in my opinion, the best soldiers in the war. I feel that Wacs should be

retained as part of the postwar military

plans.103

The Air Forces in the theater summarized

their conclusions concerning WAC employment favorably:

Wacs proved much less of a problem than

had been envisaged. ... It was found that

Wacs could live under conditions substantially the same as those of male personnel.

. . . Perhaps the greatest achievement of the

Wacs was their triumph over the prejudices

of the male military mind. The half-amused,

half-scornful attitude of some officers in responsible positions was not justified by the

performance of the Wacs. A balanced judgment would find that the Wacs have been

deserving of any extra time and effort which

might have had to be expended on them be- cause of their sex.104

The verdict of the Wacs themselves was

also favorable. The life of a Wac in the

European theater was obviously superior

with regard to housing, recreation, sightseeing, and the absence of kitchen police

and other work details. ETO Wacs were

more smartly and warmly dressed than

Wacs elsewhere. They had experienced

the morale lift of constant forward movement to new and exciting areas, as opposed to the tedium of years at one station

in the United States; the element of

shared dangers had added to Corps esprit.

Also, in spite of the poor start in obtaining

appropriate ratings, ETO Wacs by the

end of the war had more than twice as

high a percentage of the first three grades

100

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, p. 114. 101

 All from ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, p. 11. 102

 Ibid. 103

 Address cited n. 3. 104

 USSTAF Hist.
THE EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS 409

as did Wacs in the United States, even

though they still had only half as many

high ratings as ETO air force men.105

WAC officers also had twice as high a percentage in the grades of major and captain as did those in the United States.106

Awards and decorations were plentiful.

Besides three presidential citations, there

were about two hundred Bronze Stars and

a few other decorations, and the percentage of women receiving the Legion of

Merit was considerably higher than that

in the United States.107 As a result of all

these advantages, ETO Wacs were distinctly proud of their period of service,

and upon discharge frequently protested

turning in their battle jackets, the only

means of distinguishing themselves from

the 92 percent of the Women's Army

Corps that had not been sent to Europe.108

On the other hand, only a fraction so

small that it was not recorded volunteered

to stay in Europe, either as Wacs or civilians, beyond the date of discharge eligibility. Only 30 percent said they would

later be interested in joining an inactive

WAC reserve if one should be created.109

Theater surveys by ETO Special Services

Division, attempting to find out how

many women would stay, started much

unrest and eventually caused Congressional investigation of charges of undue influence in forcing women to volunteer.110

One such allegation stated, "Their officers

want to keep the Wacs overseas but the

girls themselves do not want to stay."

 111

However, while asking discharge, some 63

percent of enlisted women and 85 percent

of WAC officers preferred to stay in the

theater until eligible for discharge, instead

of again serving in the United States.

The approval of both ETO Wacs and

the theater commanders of the conditions

of WAC service, as they had known it in

England and Europe, was to have an effect upon the future of the Corps far beyond that which might have been expected from their small numbers. From

Colonel Wilson and theater commanders

there came repeated and enthusiastic

recommendations that Congress be asked

to provide for "the inclusion of women as

an integral part of ... the Regular

Army and Reserve Corps." These recommendations were later to be revived when

the postwar War Department and the Director's Office were taken over by new

staffs from the European theater. At that

stage, WAC demobilization plans were to

be reversed, and the Army of Occupation

was to receive its Wacs. At that time also

Generals Eisenhower, Devers, Spaatz, and

Eaker were to spearhead the successful

drive to ask Congress to continue the

Women's Army Corps in the peacetime

Regular Army.112

105

 The exact comparative figures are not given on

the graph (ETO Bd Rpt, p. 45; also Vol. II, App. 1)

from which the comparison is taken, but seem to correspond to those from Strength of the Army, STM-30,

June 1945. 106

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 14, 7 1: ETO approximate grades as of 31 Aug 45; WAC officers, worldwide, are from Strength of the Army, June 1945. 107

 ETO Bd Rpt, p. 48 and App. 26: 4 Meritorious

Unit Plaques, 3 Presidential Citations, 15 Purple

Heart, 9 Legion of Merit (7 to officers), 229 Bronze

Star, 2 OBE, 1 Legion of Honor, 6 Croix de Guerre,

113 Certificates of Merit, 7 MBE, 2 Luxembourg

Couronne de Chene. For final TAG figures on decorations and awards, see Table 8, Appendix A. 108

 (1) Cbl WAR-65259 to CG ETO, 17 Sep 45; (2)

D/F, G-1 to ASF, 25 Sep 43. WDGAP 421 WAC, in

WD WAC 421. 109

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 7 and 133. 110

 (1) Rpt, Nov 44, sub: Postwar Plans of EW in

WAC; (2) Rpt, Nov 44, sub: Attitude of 175 WAC

Offs Toward Remaining in WAC Overseas. WDWAC

320.2. 111

 Ltr, Dir WAC to Clare Boothe Luce, 15 Jun 45,

in reply to correspondence, 7 Jun 45. WDWAC 095

Forsht. Also similar letters in this file. 112

 See Ch. XXXVI, below.
CHAPTER XXII

The Southwest Pacific Area

The last of the major overseas commands to employ considerable numbers of

WAC personnel was the Southwest Pacific

Area (SWPA). Here, although the first

shipment did not arrive until the middle

of 1944, some 5,500 women eventually

served—the second largest number to be

employed by any overseas area.1

The delay in employing Wacs was

readily explained: there was no shortage

of female clerical workers in Australia,

where some 20,000 civilians were employed by the American forces. Therefore,

when Army-wide surveys were made at

the time of the Auxiliary's formation, and

again at the time of its contemplated expansion, the theater rejected the idea of

using Waacs, stating that all available

shipping was needed to bring combat personnel to its authorized level.2

Until late in 1943, several of the headquarters in Australia had entertained the

hope that civilian employees would be

permitted to move with them when the

northward attack was launched through

New Guinea and the Philippines. At this

time, a personnel crisis was precipitated by

the immediacy of the offensive combined

with the final refusal of the Australian

government to let its women move from

the continent, in view of existing labor

shortages. The theater therefore began a

series of requests to Operations Division

of the War Department General Staff,

seeking to raise its Troop Basis to permit

the shipment of general service men to replace the civilians. Limited service men

were not wanted, in view of the unpromising nature of available material.3

These requests met with consistent refusal from the War Department. The theater was already authorized to have 3.2

percent of its military strength in overhead, as against only 1.5 percent for the

1

 No official WAC history was prepared by SWPA.

(For a description of the sources used in this chapter,

see Bibliographical Note.) All references, unless otherwise indicated, are to: (1) 30 folders of SWPA material, now at Kansas City Records Center, cited by

folder and drawer number. (2) Historical material,

WAC Assigned to SWPA, typed, undated, and unsigned, although Capt Velma P. Griffith (WAC PRO,

SWPA—an eyewitness to many events and with access to theater WAC data) acknowledges authorship.

Cited hereafter as Griffith Account. (3) Rpt, GHQ

USAFPAC to TAG, 1 Nov 45, sub: Rpt on WAC Pers

in SWPA Prepared in Accordance with AG Ltr 333.5

(9-27-45) OB-S-A, 1 Nov 45. Official copy in G-1

WD 321-333 WAC, 18 May 45, AGOF-C-333 WAC,

DRB AGO. Cited as. AFPAC Reply. (4) Draft of the

above, prepared by WAC Staff Director, AFPAC, and

approved by WAC Staff Directors, AFWESPAC and

FEAF. Now in WAC Classified file. Cited as WAC

Draft AFPAC Reply. (5) Official Rpt, Col Westray

Boyce, Dir WAC, to CofS USA, 22 Mar 46, sub: Rpt

of Visit to WAC Pers in Overseas Theaters. Also

earlier draft of same. WDWAC 333.1. Cited as Boyce

Rpt. (6) For list of interviews, statements, and comments, see Bibliographical Note. 2

 Rads: 1122 (CM-OUT 7466), 22 Aug 42, and

reply by C-484 (CM-IN 5492), 13 Sep 42; 1631

(CM-OUT 508), 2 Mar 43, and reply by C-724

(CM-IN 2934), 6 Mar 43. 3

 Unless otherwise cited, all references to OPD action are to OPD 320.2 Australia, Sec IX, Cases 265-

303, Dec-Apr 44, DRB AGO. Cited as OPD file.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 411

European theater, and stations in the

United States were by this time almost

stripped of general service personnel. Instead, it was suggested that the theater

render its headquarters mobile by screening the half-million troops it already had,

among whom there were believed to be

numbers of clerically skilled men.

This move was considered impracticable by the theater. Instead, there was

some discussion within the several headquarters of the possibility of employing

Wacs, under the misapprehension that

they could be requisitioned to fill civilian

job vacancies. The move was generally

favored by Headquarters, Fifth Air Force,

and by the Services of Supply, but rejected

by the higher echelon, U.S. Army Forces

in the Far East (USAFFE).4

In the early days of 1944, Operations

Division of the War Department received

a personal visit from Lt. Gen. George C.

Kenney, Commanding General, Allied

Air Forces and Fifth Air Force, who expressed a desire to get WAC personnel for

his command. However, a call to ASF

Military Personnel Division revealed that,

of the Wacs who were expected to be

available for overseas shipment during the

entire year, only about 800 enlisted women

and 200 officers remained unallotted.

OPD at once acted to freeze this number

until the Pacific's needs could be considered. Director Hobby was then overseas,

but a call to her office revealed that, at the

current rate of recruiting, a "reasonable

number" of this 800 women could probably be obtained within a few months. At

this, OPD radioed the theater asking

whether General Kenney's request represented theater opinion. If so, it was promised that the theater's Troop Basis would

be increased by 1,000 in order to accommodate the shipment.5

SWPA protested by radio:

Proposed allotment totally inadequate for

minimum theater requirements. . . . Can

use 10,000 or more Wacs. . . . Theater Chief

of Staff who should reach Washington today

has data on theater overhead requirements

and on positions which Wacs may advantageously fill.6

Director Hobby first learned of the new

development on 11 February 1944, soon

after her return from Europe, when Lt.

Gen. Richard K. Sutherland, General

MacArthur's chief of staff, came to her

office and informed her that at least

10,000 Wacs would be immediately required by the theater. "He appeared," she

stated later, "to be under the impression

that Wacs were still Auxiliaries and would

not count against the Troop Basis."

 7

The Director informed General Sutherland that in her opinion the shipment

could not be made for two reasons: first,

Wacs were military personnel and would

require a military allotment just as men

would; and second, the WAC had not yet

recovered from its conversion losses and

from heavy shipments to Europe, and

could not provide women in any such

numbers in the clerical skills requested.

4

 No supporting documents were found. The WAC

Staff Director, USAFFE, recalled seeing in the files

a USASOS request disapproved by Maj. Gen. Charles

P. Stivers (USAFFE) without stated reason. Brig. Gen.

Harry H. Baird (USAFFE) stated in 1948 that earlier

staff studies questioned supply, housing, protection,

etc.; these were not found, nor any evidence of why

such doubts were not communicated to the War Department by Lt. Gen. Richard K. Sutherland in his

1944 request for Wacs. Ltr, Mary-Agnes Brown to

OCMH, 23 Apr 51; Memo, Col Harry H. Baird for

HD SSUSA, 29 Jul 48. OCMH. 5

 (1) M/R, 1 Feb 44, sub: WAC Pers in SWPA,

with copy of rad atchd. OPD file. (2) For final theater

strength figures, see Table 7, Appendix A. 6

 Rad C-1319 (CM-IN 4025), GHQSWPA to

WAR, 6 Feb 44. 7

 WAC Daily Journal, 11 Feb 44; quotation from tp

conv, Mrs. Hobby and author, Oct 50.
412 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

General Sutherland refused to accept

this rejection as final. A few days later the

Director learned that, in a conference with

General Somervell, a plan had been devised whereby 4,000 of the theater's civilian allotment would be given to the ASF

in the United States in exchange for 4,000

of the ASF's military allotment. General

Somervell also agreed to supply 4,000

Wacs from those under his control, to fill

the allotment. This arrangement was approved by the War Department, and the

theater was advised by radio that its

Troop Basis had been increased by 4,000.8

This transaction naturally differed from

those concerning initial shipments to

Africa and England, in that plans were no

longer made by the Director WAC, in

accordance with the system adopted at the

end of Auxiliary status. Thus, matters concerning the Troop Basis and overseas shipment were now properly planned by OPD

and were carried out by the various ASF

operating agencies.9 The staff studies and

directives concerning the 4,000 allotment

bore only the concurrence of agencies that

normally concurred in such matters for

men: G-1, G-3, Military Personnel Division of the Army Service Forces, and the

War Manpower Commission.

At a later date the question was to be

raised as to whether the General Staff

should have requested the Director WAC

to make a study of the area from the standpoint of the well-being of women. However, her new small staff no longer contained inspectors, and in any case the

original destination, Australia, appeared

considerably more safe and stable than

had North Africa at the time of initial

shipments. As of this date, small groups of

Wacs were also successfully serving in

India, Egypt, and New Caledonia. To

assist the theater in planning for any contemplated forward movement of Wacs,

comparable to those into Italy and Normandy, it was determined that a WAC staff

director would be sent in advance of the

enlisted women, and the Director was allowed to nominate this officer. As OPD

began to order shipments to the port, the

Director was generally furnished with an

information copy of their composition.

In three matters the Director attempted

to secure retention of Auxiliary procedures

different from those for shipment of men.

In December of 1943, and again in the following March, the Office of the Director

asked ASF's Mobilization Division to provide any Wacs going to the Pacific with

the same tropical clothing and equipment

already authorized for the China-BurmaIndia theater, since no maintenance

stocks for women yet existed in Australia.10

This was not done; Wacs being ordered

to the port were authorized only winter

clothing, in line with the custom for the

shipment of men to Australia in its winter

season. The Office of the Director also

requested that WAC company commanders continue to have a voice in the approval of the stability and character of

Wacs sent overseas. This request was disapproved upon the recommendation of

ASF's Director of Personnel. Finally, Director Hobby requested The Surgeon

General to continue giving Wacs a com- 8

 D/F, OPD for DCofS, 2 Mar 44, sub: Increase of

Overseas Establishment in SWPA, with approval

"OLN" for DCofS. OPD file. 9

 For a discussion of the relations between OPD and

ASF operating agencies, see: (1) Ray S. Cline, Washington Command Post: The Operations Division, UNITED

STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washington,

1951). (2) Chester Wardlow, The Transportation Corps:

Responsibilities, Organization, and Operations, UNITED

STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washington,

1951). 10

 Memo, Asst Exec WAC for ASF Mobilization

Div, 11 Dec 43; and Memo, Actg Dir WAC for same,

21 Feb 44. SWPA 320.2 (8-18-42)(1) sec 6.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 413

plete overseas physical examination, as

had been previously done in Auxiliary

days to detect gynecological disorders or

pregnancy, but this was also refused as too

time-consuming, since men going overseas

had no such examination, only a briefer

physical inspection.11

The assembly of shipments proceeded

with unusual speed, because of the immediacy of the move from Australia. On the

basis of informal lists of needed personnel

furnished by General Sutherland, orders

for the first shipment of 1,000 women were

issued by OPD on 15 February even before the request for 4,000 was formally

approved. A formal requisition for 270

WAC officers and 4,730 enlisted women

was forwarded from the theater on 11

March 1944. The majority of the requests

were for clerical and stenographic skills

such as had already been requested by

other theaters. This requisition was approved by the General Staff, plus other

later requests from the Far East Air Forces

in the theater, to a total of 7,500—a quota

that was never to be entirely filled.12

Direct Commissions

The first three Wacs in the theater were

appointed by local action before any shipments were made from the United States.

General Kenney during his visit had requested WAC status for his Australian

secretary; General Sutherland during his

stay sought the same for his receptionist

and for the secretary of Maj. Gen. Richard

J. Marshall, Deputy Chief of Staff, SWPA.

It was stated that key officers would suffer

a serious lapse in efficiency if obliged to

part with their experienced Australian

and British personnel. Although the act

of Congress limited WAC enlistments to

American citizens, appointment to officer

status was not mentioned; since all WAC

officers were derived from the ranks, the

possibility of appointing noncitizens had

never been considered. Previous requests

from the European theater had, up to this

time, been withdrawn when the WAC

policy was explained to General Eisenhower. However, General Sutherland refused to withdraw his requests, and, over

Director Hobby's nonconcurrence, direct

commissions were immediately given to

the three Australian and British employees. Although all WAC officers to date

had been initially commissioned second

lieutenants, two of the women were commissioned as first lieutenants and one in

the grade of captain.

This action was taken over the adverse

recommendation of General White, G-1

of the War Department General Staff, who

felt so strongly on the matter that, after

being unable to dissuade theater representatives, he personally walked with them

to the Chief of Staffs office to register his

protest. General White was finally overridden when General McNarney, Deputy

Chief of Staff, was informed

 13

 that the

commissions were personally desired by

General MacArthur as essential to headquarters operation.

When Director Hobby also called to

register her protest, she was informed that

it was the Chief of Staffs policy never to

refuse any urgent personal request of a

theater commander if it was possible to

grant it.14 She nevertheless placed in writing her request that the three commissions

be revoked, stating:

11

 See Ch. XXIX, below. 12

 AFPAC Reply. FEAF requisition, 15 Jul 44: 84

offs, 2,916 EW. 13

 By Gen Sutherland, according to Gen White's

diary, entry of 3 Jan 44. 14

 Ibid., and intervs with Gen White, 5 Jan 51, and

with Lt Col Mary-Agnes Brown, Jun 45 and 5 Jun 47
414 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

I believe that the policy of appointment

cited above will cause the personnel of the

WAC to feel that the War Department has

broken faith with them, and that the contin- uance of such a policy will be a great blow

to the morale of the entire Corps. . . . The

policy of selecting officers only from gradu- ates of officer candidate school, and of select- ing officer candidates only from the ranks,

has been presented to the American public

throughout the history of the Corps as a

soundly democratic one.15

This apparently minor event received

widespread and generally unfavorable

publicity in Australia, which had it own

women's services for qualified women, as

well as British women's services. An even

worse reaction came from Army men, particularly young combat officers who had

not yet been promoted to equal ranks. Soldier mail, in the month before the first

American Wacs arrived, showed that 90

percent of the comments about all Wacs

were unfavorable, many obscene, alleging

that all Wacs would be used only for

"morale purposes" for officers.16 This situation was to cause a serious morale problem among arriving Wacs.

In the United States, General White's

office was at once swamped with renewed

demand from Congressional and military

sources for direct commissions for American civilian women with prominent sponsors.17

 The War Department held that the

three commissions were irrevocable, but

public reaction continued to be so adverse

that G-1 Division succeeded in blocking

any further appointments, except the one

in Europe which was requested again in

view of the exceptions made for SWPA.

However, the Director secured a ruling

against further such action in the future.18

In the theater, commanders noted continuing bad effects for months after the

event, especially upon the morale of highly

qualified enlisted men and women. Some

commanders were obliged to forbid the

women to talk or write of the subject, on

threat of disciplinary action. The women's

reaction was generally surprising to those

not informed of the Corps' previous history and basic problems.19

Arrival of WAC Staff

Director Hobby released for assignment

as staff director an experienced officer from

her own staff, Lt. Col. Mary-Agnes Brown.

Since the Southwest Pacific Area was

known to be headed by ranking Regular

Army officers with World War I experience, Colonel Brown was believed especially qualified by virtue of twenty-five

years' acquaintance with Army channels.

She had been employed in Army finance

in World War I, had ten years' experience

as executive secretary to ranking Army

medical officers, and was thereafter an

attorney for the Veterans' Administration,

holding the degrees of A.B., LL.B., and

SJ.D. In the Army she had been the first

staff director for the Eighth Service Command and later executive officer in the

Office of the Director WAC. With four

officer assistants, Colonel Brown flew to

the theater, arriving on 15 March 1944, to

15

 D/F, Dir WAC for G-1, 25 Feb 44. SPWA 320.2

(2-25-44)B, in SPWA 314.7 (1-7-43) sec 5. 16

 (1) See Chart, p. 000. (2) MI Rpt 107, 31 Aug 44.

SFPOE, in MID files. (3) Personal ltr, Catholic priest

to Col Hobby. WDWAC 330.14 (1945). 17

 Numerous ltrs, especially to and from Senator

Charles O. Andrews, 10 Apr 44. WDWAC 095 and

SPWA 095. 18

 D/F, G-1 for TAG, 21 Apr 44, WDGAP 210.1

WAC (4-17-44), approves attached Memo, Dir WAC

for CofS, 14 Apr 44. Approved by CofS, 18 Apr 44.

WDWAC 210.1. 19

 (1) Seminar comments. (2) Griffith Account,

"Awards and Decorations." (3) Intervs with Col

Brown, Col. A. Robert Ginsburgh, and Miss Dorothy

Pat Costello, former sergeant in GHQ detachment.

(See Bibliographical Note).
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 415

help prepare for the arrival of the enlisted

women two months later.

Upon her arrival, the staff director was

assigned to the senior American administrative headquarters, USAFFE. No WAC

personnel was assigned to General Headquarters, an operational Allied headquarters, except for two of the directly commissioned officers. The staff director was not

delegated the customary responsibility

 20

for the WAC program. This was instead

placed upon G-1 Division, USAFFE,

headed by Col. Harry H. Baird. Subsequently, G-1 Division noted:

The G-1 Section originally was charged

with the handling of WAC personnel due to:

(a) Their newness in the theater; (b) The fact

that they were covered by a special allotment

of overhead grades and ratings by the War

Department; (c) The fact that it was neces- sary to keep in complete touch with the

strength of the WAC Corps and the utiliza- tion of members during the period of arrival

in the theater.21

Most of the duties assumed by G-1 were

merely the normal staff duties now commonly performed by similar commands in

the United States; however, it also held

responsibility for policy matters. It believed that, so far as possible, enlisted

men's policies should be applicable to the

WAC. Colonel Baird recalled later that,

"As far as the theater was concerned,

there was no 'WAC program' except for

an evident required publicity program."

 22

There existed some belief that WAC advisers' experience and training were not

always adequate to cope with the conditions that existed in the area. Colonel

Baird later noted:

Almost every one in top positions in GHQ,

USAFFE, and SOS had served a generation

in the Regular Army, as well as having seen

service in World War I. For them to have

formed very definite ideas on staff procedure, command, and military custom—which was

the situation—was natural and logical. The

Wacs lacked the background of military custom and they had little understanding of the

possible far-reaching and serious effects of an action or decision.

The staff director's office was set up as

the WAC Section of the Special Staff and,

in the months before the Wacs' arrival,

was called on chiefly to attend conferences

and for public and social duties. In the

matter of public relations, Colonel Brown

was given a free hand and was encouraged

by USAFFE to take all necessary steps to

establish good will prior to WAC arrival.

In the following weeks the staff director

received calls from heads of the Australian

Women's Auxiliary Service, YWCA, and

Red Cross, and other officials. She attended theatrical performances, the Australian Arts and Crafts exhibit, a memorial mass, a WAAF ceremony. She went to

receptions, gave luncheons, made formal

calls at Admiralty House, Government

House, and the American consulate. She

broadcast radio programs, met visiting

celebrities, and was photographed with

koala bears. As a result, before the arrival

of the first shipment in May, public attitude was believed to be definitely more

favorable.23

20

 All WAAC and WAC Regulations without exception required every commanding general employing WAC personnel to employ also, on his staff, a

WAC staff director who would be responsible for continuous inspection and for advising him on the welfare of the women. WD Cir 462 (1944) was latest wartime statement. 21

 Check sheet, G-1 USAFFE for CofS USAFFE

through WAC Sec, 11 Apr 45, Tab 6 to WAC Draft

AFPAC Reply. 22

 All of Col Baird's statements from Memo, Col

Baird for HD SSUSA, 29 Jul 48. 23

 Monthly Historical Reports, WAC Staff Section,

USAFFE, for Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep 44, Incl in Ltr, WAC

Stf Dir USAFFE to Dir WAC. WDWAC 319.1 SWPA

(1944); also in Folder, Monthly Historical Rpts, WAC

Sec USAFFE, at Kansas City Records Center. These

reports hereafter cited as WAC Sec USAFFE Hist

Rpt, by month.
416 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

The only serious deficiency in planning

at this date appeared to be in the matter

of clothing. During a visit to the United

States in March, Colonel Baird urgently

recommended that two skilled WAC supply officers be sent by air to the theater.

Queried for confirmation of this request,

the theater authorized air shipment of one

supply officer and one public relations

officer. The supply officer, Capt. Lavern

Bartholomew, was first ordered to OPD

for indoctrination on supply needs of the

area, and arrived in the theater in midApril. Since at the same moment the first

large group of enlisted women was boarding ship on the U.S. west coast, and the

second was under orders, her supply planning was limited to later shipments. Planning was further delayed by the fact that

Captain Bartholomew was not at once

assigned to the office of the theater chief

quartermaster, although Colonel Brown

recommended this action on the grounds

that supply planning was not a function

either of the WAC Section or of G-1,

which lacked the necessary data and

authority.24

On 4 May 1944, a week before the

landing of the first ship bringing Wacs,

Colonel Brown and her assistant, Capt.

Charlee L. Kelly, were sent to New

Guinea to inspect the first advanced location, Port Moresby, to which some of the

women would be sent two weeks after

arrival. No unusual difficulties were expected in the area, since Port Moresby

had long been regarded as a rear echelon,

at which American nurses and Red Cross

women had been stationed for about two

years.

At the camp site, it was discovered that

the quarters were entirely adequate but

not prepared for troop occupancy; the

staff director secured from the local quartermaster an agreement to prepare the

quarters as soon as possible. Colonel

Brown also discovered a fact not previously considered by supply officers—that

malarial control regulations required all

women in New Guinea to wear trousers

both at work and off duty. The regular

issue for men assigned to headquarters

duty was six pairs of summer khaki. As

officers, nurses had been able to purchase

the trousers through commercial civilian

channels in Australia, and were now required to have six mosquitoproof khaki

shirts and six pairs of slacks apiece, which

the chief surgeon described as "the minimum number which would take care of

requirements."

 25

Returning immediately to Australia,

Colonel Brown informed Brig. Gen. William F. Campbell, Chief Quartermaster,

U.S. Army Services of Supply, Southwest

Pacific Area (USASOS), that there was

no such item as slacks in the WAC wardrobe, and that the nearest approach was

the heavy herringbone twill coverall, of

which arriving Wacs would have only one

pair apiece. On the same day, the WAC

supply officer was assigned to General

Campbell's office, and a radiogram was

sent to Washington requesting that the

issue of two-piece coveralls to Wacs not already en route be increased to five pairs

per individual, pending study of the

problem.26

On the following day, Colonel Brown

and her staff were received by General

MacArthur, who, according to historical

reports,

24

 WAC Sec USAFFE Hist Rpts, Apr, May 44; also

in OPD file. 25

 Annual Rpt, 1944, Chief Surgeon USASOS

SWPA, pp. 36-37. 26

 Rpts cited n. 24; also interv with Col William F.

Campbell, 31 Jul 47.
ARRIVING IN SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA, on 12 May 1944, above. Two days later members of the first contingent board buses for their new camp at Yeronga Park.
418 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

. . . welcomed the WAC; spoke of the magnificent contribution of Australia to the war

effort; praised the nurses and Red Cross

women; spoke of how horrible war is; the

two enemies our men have to fight—Japs

and nature; and the morale factor of the

presence of the WAC besides their contribu- tion to their jobs . . . that he had asked the

War Department for 10,000 Wacs and that

he was getting less than half that number.27

This was the last official conference with

General MacArthur until just before the

Wacs departed at the end of the war.

First WAC Contingent in Australia

A few days later, after all preparations

had been made for the reception of the

first Wacs at Brisbane, it was discovered

that the ship was about to put in at Sydney. Colonel Brown and other welcoming

officers flew to Sydney, where it was found

that USASOS personnel, long desirous of

obtaining Wacs, had planned a cordial

reception. On the morning of 12 May, an

impressive number of general officers,

heads of Australian services, and curious

soldiers and sailors were on the pier to

watch the first 640 Wacs disembark from

the transport West Point.28 The Wacs made

a good military appearance in their winter

uniforms, according to a public relations

officer:

With every eye trained on them, the Wacs

marched off in their best military formation to pile into trucks. They were dressed in Class A uniform plus utility coat, field shoes,

helmet, full field pack strapped on the back,

and they carried in their hands everything

from Red Cross ditty-bags to pillows, candy, radios, typewriters, and other cherished

treasures. One Wac even carried a guitar.

"Gee, they're real American girls," remarked

one GI unbelievingly.29

The Wacs proceeded at once to Brisbane, which was only a two-week stopover

for the first group destined for New

Guinea, but where others were to stay for

several months while civilian employees

were replaced and the various headquarters rendered mobile. The 526 enlisted

women and 114 officers were divided between USAFFE and USASOS. Most of

the officers, and one company of the enlisted women, were assigned to operate the

Central Postal Directory at Port Moresby,

New Guinea. USAFFE's remaining 198

enlisted women were assigned to various

headquarters offices, including 55 to the

adjutant general, and from one to ten

each to G-1, G-2, G-3, G-4, the chaplain,

inspector general, headquarters commandant, judge advocate, provost marshal, special services, information and

education, and finance. USASOS assignments were not recorded, but were presumably similar.30

Army officers responsible for the

women's placement reported strong initial

resistance on the part of many section

chiefs, who were not enthusiastic about releasing civilian employees, but such

objections were usually short-lived in view

of the prospective departure from Australia.31

 An additional difficulty in replacement was presented by the fact that

the first to arrive were in many cases not

clerical workers, the higher clerical skills

in the United States having been already

well combed over by the European thea27

 WAC Sec USAFFE Hist Rpt, May 44. 28

 Paragraphs on landing and stay in Australia, unless otherwise specified, are from: (1) Griffith Account, "Australia." (2) AFPAC Reply, both draft and

approved versions. 29

 Griffith Account. Numbers are from AFPAC

Reply, although Colonel Brown later believed that

nearer 1,000 had landed. 30

 Folder 203.1, 1st Contingent, Theater WAC Stf

Dir files. 31

 Col. A. Robert Ginsburgh, "The Good Staff Officer in the Field," Infantry Journal, August 1946, pp.

10-11.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 419

ter. Also, theater requisitions had included

drivers, mechanics, radio operators, and

other specialists who, it was now decided,

could not safely be used in New Guinea.

As a result, a headquarters in the urgent

days of preparing for movement was faced

with the necessity for retraining chauffeurs and other workers as clerks and

typists—a problem which occasionally left

the impression that untrained Wacs had

been shipped.32 In August the theater requested deletion from future shipments of

fifty-four drivers, as well as some draftsmen, cashiers, bookkeepers, and other

specialists, but the War Department reply

was, "Impossible to delete ... as personnel already en route to theater or under

shipment orders."

 33

Under the circumstances, it was surprising to staff officers that the replacement was none the less accomplished

speedily and successfully. General Campbell noted later:

I was assigned 39 Wacs to replace 78 Aus- tralian girls. The Wacs didn't know one

Quartermaster report from another but they

quickly caught on: even those who had been drivers showed aptitude for it, and did more

and better work than civilians. I never saw

a bunch more willing to do a job.34

In one other respect, that of selection,

several of the Wacs were inferior to the

initial shipments to other theaters. A few

days after the arrival of the first group, one

member went AWOL and was finally apprehended only after conspicuous misconduct in the city of Brisbane, which came

to the attention of the American consul

and of some of the citizenry. Inspection of

her records showed that she had been

shipped overseas after a series of disciplinary offenses and courts-martial. Further

investigation uncovered several more records of the same character. The women

were promptly shipped back to the United

States, accompanied by a report pointing

out that Wacs should not be selected on

the same basis as combat troops, and that

as the first ambassadors and representatives of American womanhood in a foreign

country, such women left something to be

desired.

Using this evidence, Colonel Hobby

finally secured re-establishment of the requirement—a considerable deviation from

men's rules—that WAC company commanders must certify the suitability of any

enlisted woman sent overseas, and that

WAC staff directors must certify any

officer.35 Later selection was reported as

much improved. Theater medical authorities felt that many physical and mental

breakdowns could have been avoided had

women with known records of instability

not been sent. A subsequent report

commented:

It appears that the selection of WAC per- sonnel sent to this theater was not made carefully enough, especially in the case of

commissioned personnel. The "unloading" of less than "excellent" type personnel on an overseas requisition was a practice which

flourished to the detriment of the WAC in this theater. WD Circular 362, 6 Dec 44, put

a check on this practice, but a great deal of

damage had already been done. Conditions

of this theater put the greatest demands on

women commanding other women as regards

stability and judgment, and the calibre of

many company officers sent here leaves

much to be desired.36

As expected, the Australian stopover

presented no important difficulties in

housing or supply. Wacs were housed at

32

 Tech Int Rpt T/PFI-2472, Strategic Int Det, Hq

4th SvC, 7 Jul 45, to CG ASF. MID files. 33

 Folder 203.6, 6th Contingent. 34

 Interv, 31 Jul 47. 35

 (1) Ltr, Col Brown to Dir WAC, 7 Aug 44.

WDWAC 320.2. (2) WD Cir 291, 11 Jul 44, Sec IV,

succeeded by WD Cir 362. 36

 WAC Draft AFPAC Reply.
420 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Yeronga Park, generally riding to work on

city trams; USASOS Wacs later transferred to Victoria Park. The lack of heat

in some offices and part of the quarters,

customary as it was to Australians, caused

a high incidence of minor pulmonary disorders, seldom disabling in character.

Barracks were somewhat more primitive

than those in the United States, with

bucket latrines, outside showers, and

limited laundry facilities, but were in general superior to those of male troops in the

area. Wacs enjoyed city recreational

facilities, and stated that they had plenty

of Australian fruit and green vegetables

and more than plenty of Australian

mutton.

Arrival in New Guinea

Beginning on 28 May, only two weeks

after the landing in Australia, 100 WAC

censorship officers and 88 enlisted women

left by air for Port Moresby.37 As perspiring Wacs stepped from the first plane, clad

in coveralls and wool-lined field coats, and

carrying full field pack, they were met by

an advance party with cameras and flashbulbs, intent on preserving the moment

for recruiting purposes. Driving along the

14-mile road from Port Moresby to their

camp site at John's Gulley, they found

much of the way lined with fuzzy-haired

natives, and with soldiers who shouted,

waved, whistled, and called out such questions as "What State are you from?" or

"How's San Francisco?"

The WAC quarters, inside a hot and

dusty barbed-wired enclosure, were

among the best enlisted housing in New

Guinea—long wooden barracks with iron

roofs, cement floors, and screened walls,

with outside showers and toilets, but

boasting a water-borne sewage system.

The barracks were not yet fully prepared

for troop occupancy, and the women,

fresh from the United States, were at first

baffled by the lack of furniture except

Army cots, which thwarted their attempts

to unpack clothing or set up the orderly

room typewriter. They were also worried

about prospects of doing their laundry

without laundry facilities or hot water, or

of eating, since the WAC mess was choked

with debris and there was no drinking

water.

However, a friendly men's unit nearby

loaned the women a Lyster bag for drinking water, and fed them bread and jam,

after which they borrowed trucks and set

out to scavenge supply dumps for boxes,

crates, tin cans, nails, and broken furniture. "The Quartermaster salvage dump

proved a fascinating place," wrote one

woman. They also borrowed a tool kit

from the men, and improvised shelves and

hangers for clothing and stands for the

orderly room typewriter and files. By

nightfall they considered themselves theater veterans. An enlisted woman wrote,

"Now that we have our boxes, we are different people. We have found our sense of

humor, and a sort of objectivity."

The work at Port Moresby proved

heavy but routine, the operation of the

Central Postal Directory in general offering nothing unfamiliar. The enlisted

women sorted, checked, readdressed and

forwarded soldier mail in what inspectors

pronounced a highly competent manner.

The WAC officers were employed as censors to replace male officers, and were also

37

 All descriptions of Port Moresby, unless otherwise specified, are from: (1) Monthly Hist Rpts, 5203d

WAC Det, May-Aug 44, incl in Ltr, WAC Stf Dir

USAFFE to Dir WAC. WDWAC 319.1 SWPA. (2)

Griffith Account, "Port Moresby." (3) AFPAC Reply,

both WAC Draft and final versions.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 421

complimented by their supervisor, who

observed:

I don't know what there is about women

that makes them so sharp-eyed in reading

letters, but the ones I have here possess an

uncanny knack for picking up hidden secur- ity breaches, such as tricky codes a soldier

may devise to tell his wife where he is. ... They are turning out more and better work

than the male officers they released to the

combat area.38

The only immediate difficulty in the

area was that of the uniform. The skirted

winter uniforms had necessarily been left

behind for storage in Australia, leaving

each woman, for her entire supply of outer

garments, only the one pair of herringbone twill coveralls that had been issued

for shipboard wear. Since there were no

WAC maintenance stocks in the theater,

each woman was provided with two more

pairs of coveralls by the expedient of withdrawing them from other Wacs still in

Australia. The heavy coveralls proved too

hot for the climate and irritating to

women's skin, as well as being so unsightly

that nurses and other female personnel in

the area were not permitted to wear them.

Heat and skin diseases soon made it necessary for the headquarters to authorize the

wearing of the WAC cotton shirt with the

trousers of the two-piece coveralls, a practice that eventually became theater-wide,

although officially forbidden by the theater surgeon, since the WAC shirt was

lighter than the men's khaki, and below

the weight believed safely mosquitoproof.

The unit historian noted also that a few

lucky women "had adopted suntan

pants." Gifts of flowers and candy were

scorned, and the successful applicant for

a date was one who came carrying, as well

as wearing, khaki trousers.

An additional problem that soon became evident was the unexpectedly restricted life of the enlisted women. WAC

advisers, having been informed of the safe

and civilized nature of the Port Moresby

area, had believed that, as in Italy and

Normandy, the ordinary camp security

system would afford women sufficient protection, since there was little danger at

this date from either the enemy or the

natives. Instead, the headquarters directed

that, in view of the large number of male

troops in the area, some of whom

allegedly had not seen a nurse or other

white woman in eighteen months, Wacs

would be locked within their barbed-wire

compound at all times except when escorted by armed guards to work or to approved group recreation. No leaves or

passes, or one-couple dates, were allowed

at any time. The women's reaction was

unfavorable; inspectors reported that they

believed that higher commanders thought

them "children or criminals," and therefore confined them in "a concentration

camp." On the other hand, those restrictions that also applied to men were accepted by the women without comment.39

Within a few months the WAC area

had been rendered more comfortable than

most of those that were later to be found

at more advanced bases. For labor beyond

their strength, the women gave the natives

cigarettes, candy, and even the otherwise

useless WAC hats. Visitors reported considerable shock at beholding the natives

dressed in WAC hats and very little else.

There were soon shelves, a graveled

walk through the mud, a dayroom set up

by the Red Cross, and even improvised

dressing tables. The women learned from

the men to wash their clothing in cold

38

 Griffith Account. Copy of commendation also in

Folder, 5203d WAC Det, Drawer X-28040. 39

 AFPAC Reply, both versions. Also interviews.

(See Bibliographical Note.)
422 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

water and to press it by sleeping on it or

by hanging it up very wet. WAC cooks

eventually cleared the debris from the

WAC mess hall, overhauled the stoves,

and soon had a mess which, their historian

reported, "had a steady stream of daily

business calls from officers who usually arrived just before dinner."

The women later obtained two washing machines, electric lights, and electric

irons. In a few more months the Wacs had

such luxuries as a recreation hall, a softball team, and a jukebox. They also persuaded the nurses to move their hairdressing shop so that Wacs could share it,

since they could not use the men's barbershop. A Wac was put into the post

exchange to order items women needed.

In spite of initial adjustments, only one

woman in the detachment showed complete "inability to adjust to a tropical environment," and had to be returned to

Australia. The unit grew in size, and was

soon bypassed by Wacs moving north.

Headquarters Rendered Mobile

Meanwhile, with the aid of two more

large shipments of WAC personnel, the

various headquarters in Australia had

succeeded in making themselves mobile.

On 26 June 1944, the second WAC contingent landed in Brisbane—357 enlisted

women and 28 officers—which was again

divided, with USAFFE headquarters receiving about 99, the Port Moresby

detachment 68, and the remainder going

to Headquarters, USASOS. Included

among the various skills were 75 clerks, 65

stenographers, and 52 typists. On 10 July

a third contingent landed at Brisbane—8

officers and 371 enlisted women—again

in chiefly clerical skills, and again divided

among USAFFE in Australia, USAFFE

in Port Moresby, and USASOS in Australia. In addition, 84 women of this last

group were given to the newly formed

Headquarters, Far East Air Forces

(FEAF), which had not filed its own

formal requisitions until July and thus

had not received any on the scheduled

date for movement in August.40

A matter which unit organization did

not reveal was that not only USAFFE,

USASOS, and FEAF, but also GHQ,

were employing Wacs. By August of 1944,

shortly before the jump-off from Australia,

GHQ had borrowed 74 Wacs from

USAFFE and 31 from USASOS—a total

of 105, with 150 more on requisition.

Colonel Brown recommended that these

women be organized into their own detachment when numbers warranted, and

assigned to GHQ, as were enlisted men,

and Dutch, Australian, and British

women. This request was refused, since it

was the Supreme Allied Commander's

desire that American women not be assigned to GHQ, but attached for duty

from some lower administrative echelon.

Of these 105 women, 56 worked in GHQ's

Signal Intelligence Division, 28 as telephone operators, 10 with the Chief Regulating Officer, and lesser numbers in other

offices.41

Scarcely any one policy, supply situation, or personnel practice was common to

all of these groups—GHQ USAFFE,

USASOS, and FEAF—even when they

shared one camp. Because of the poor

communications and local differences in

climate and facilities, it was USAFFE's

practice to promulgate only broad instructions and to leave the subordinate com40

 (1) Folders 203.2, 2d Contingent, and 203.3, 3d

Contingent. (2) List of shipments, AFPAC Reply. 41

 Correspondence folder, 5205th WAC Det,

Drawer X-29853.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 423

mands free to meet the changing situation.

For this reason, Colonel Baird noted that

"the theater was most reluctant to publish

a fixed policy or general rule to establish

uniformity in WAC control and administration. This was true for the men also."

Exceptions could therefore be found to

almost any general statement which could

later be made concerning theater Wacs as

a group. A theater housing policy for Wacs

was almost the only published over-all

policy, and even this was found impracticable outside of Australia.42

A source of some later comment was the

fact that Wacs were assigned to the advanced echelons of all of these headquarters. For nurses, the theater had formerly

adopted a contrary policy of "using them

only in rear areas," causing them to be replaced by male corpsmen in evacuation

hospitals and in field hospitals during

active phases of service—a practice which,

inspectors reported, had caused low

morale and psychiatric casualties among

the women.43

Theater historians later expressed some

doubt as to the necessity for the opposite

policy concerning Wacs, since Australia

was, to the end, a great supply base at

which some noncombat men remained,

and certain other headquarters, such as

Air Transport Command, winnowed the

necessary male clerical personnel for more

advanced bases from among ordinary

troops.

Maj. Gen. William O. Ryan of the

ATC, upon inspecting the New Guinea

bases, declared the area unsuitable for

women and canceled the orders of ATC

Wacs about to fly in from Hawaii. Nevertheless, responsible Army officers were

unanimous that the theater could not

have taken similar action. Col. A. Robert

Ginsburgh, who was both G-1 and G-3

of USASOS, stated later:

USASOS could not possibly have moved

from Australia without the Wacs. . . . Except

for the Wacs, I had only the few clerically

skilled men which higher headquarters let

trickle through to USASOS, plus a few

malarials and other men sent back from

combat, naturally not very useful at exact- ing office work.44

Colonel Baird of USAFFE likewise indicated that the decision was a military

necessity. General MacArthur himself,

when later questioned as to the advisability of this course, replied:

I moved my Wacs forward early after oc- cupation of recaptured territory because they

were needed and they were soldiers in the

same manner that my men were soldiers. Furthermore, if I had not moved my Wacs

when I did, I would have had mutiny . . . as they were so eager to carry on where

needed.45

The Wacs themselves were eager to get

forward, and the staff director later expressed "complete accord" with the

decision.46

Oro Bay

Wacs began to move out of Australia

early in August of 1944; by October only

42

 AFPAC Reply, both versions; also Memo cited

n. 22. 43

 (1) Memo, Maj Craighill, MG, Consultant for

Women's Health and Welfare, SGO, for TAG through

CG USAFFE, 8 Jun 45, sub: Med and Social Conditions of Women in Mil Serv in SWPA. WDWAC 333

Pacific, and in SGO Hist Div 319.1-2 Women,

SWPA. Hereafter cited as Craighill SWPA Rpt. Attached is a list of interviews with more than 200 individuals in SWPA, including chief nurses, WAC detachment commanders, hospital commanders, Army

commanders, inspectors, etc.; also Table of Comparative Rates of Medical Evacuation for Wacs and

Nurses, 1 Jul 44 to 1 Apr 45. (2) Data in possession of

Col Brown. 44

 Seminar Comments. (See Bibliographical Note.) 45

 Statement to Col Boyce in Tokyo, 14 Oct 45,

quoted by her in Boyce Rpt. 46

 Ltr, Miss Mary-Agnes Brown to OCMH, 23 Apr

51. OCMH.
424 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

COMMANDING OFFICER OF THIRD CONTINGENT OF WACS to arrive in

Australia is greeted at the pier on 10 July 1944. In the group greeting Capt. Ida M. Ross from

left to right are Brig. Gen. Homer C. Brown, Lt. Col. Mary-Agnes Brown, Capt. Charlee L.

Kelly and Lt. Vera Mankinen.

a negligible number remained on the continent.47

 First to move was USASOS,

which on 9 August 1944 sent an advance

unit to Oro Bay for service with its Intermediate Section (Intersec). These were

shortly reinforced by the arrival at Oro

Bay on 6 September, direct from the

United States, of the largest WAC shipment yet received—47 officers and 1,253

enlisted women. These were divided between Intersec headquarters at Cape

Sudest and USASOS Base B at Oro Bay

proper. On 30 October another large shipment of 21 officers and 571 enlisted

women for USASOS also landed at Oro

Bay, followed later by a final smaller one

in January of 1945. A WAC staff director

for USASOS was designated, the position

being held successively in the next twelve

months by Capt. Natalie Reebel, Maj. Ellen Bailey, and Maj. Annie V. Gardiner.48

The supply situation of the Oro Bay

Wacs was not improved, for the first few

months, by the fact that the entire September shipment arrived completely

equipped with arctic clothing, including

ski pants and ear muffs. No explanation

47

 Oro Bay discussion, unless otherwise stated, is

from Griffith Account and AFPAC Reply. 48

 Sources cited n. 40.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 425

or comment on this phenomenon was ever

advanced by supply agencies in the theater or in the United States; no arctic

shipment of Wacs had ever been directed

by the War Department during World

War II.49

The Oro Bay area proved generally

suitable for women, with WAC camps,

carved from the jungle, lying along the

seashore, with beaches for front yards and

palm trees for shade. Swimming was permissible under certain conditions. Barracks were made of wood and screens,

with a large recreation hall and mess hall

already built nearby. The staff director,

Colonel Brown, accompanied by Captain

Reebel, had visited and slept in these barracks before the arrival of the women, and

had checked with the Base B staff on other

necessary preparations.

Since Oro Bay was principally a major

supply base, much of the Wacs' duties concerned the stock record reports and other

paper work necessary to get materiel forwarded to combat troops. The Distribution Office was almost entirely staffed by

Wacs, who kept track of the ships and supplies in New Guinea, whether mobile or at

bases or consigned to the area from Australia or San Francisco. Army service command units to enter Leyte with the next

wave of combat troops included men

pulled out of offices at Oro Bay and replaced by Wacs.50

As at Port Moresby, the only unexpected difficulty in the employment of

women in the area was that of restrictions

not applied to men at the same base. Colonel Brown noted that before her departure

the base commander, Brig. Gen. Clarence

L. Sturdevant, had agreed to treat the

women like other troops. General Sturdevant, one of the few members of the Pacific

staff who had observed WAC administration in the United States prior to his assignment to the Pacific, believed that

"overly protective measures such as

barbed wire fences and armed guards

were unnecessary and undesirable."

 51

However, before the troops' arrival this

decision was reversed. Thereafter, all

USASOS bases used a system of protective custody for women. Barbed wire was

put up around the Oro Bay WAC area,

and the women were forbidden to leave

"any area at any time" without armed

guards, even being marched to approved

movies in formation under guard. A list

of further restrictions was published in

order to prevent "regrettable incidents

and unwholesome impressions of any

nature."

 52

Off-duty activities were limited to approved unit parties and other mass entertainment to which women could be taken

under guard, and even for these a woman's date had to be named twenty-four

hours in advance, subject to disapproval

by the senior WAC officer. Outside the

WAC area, vehicles carrying women

could not stop en route to the approved

destination, or any woman leave the vehicle, or the vehicle leave the main road.

Women were forbidden to board boats,

ships, or craft of any sort, or to ride in aircraft. "Informal social gatherings of males

49

 Description of arctic shipment was deleted by

theater from WAC draft report, but is well substantiated by interviews with participants. The only arctic shipments were those made to Alaska and Labrador by the ATC, which staged, equipped, and

shipped its own Wacs. 50

 (1) Interv with Col Ginsburgh, 25 Jul 45. (2) M.

Hamlin Cannon, Leyte: Return to the Philippines, a

forthcoming volume in this series. 51

 (1) Marginal note on draft of this chapter. For

fuller documentation see: (2) WAC Draft AFPAC Reply. (3) Memo 90, Hq Base B USASOS, 21 Nov 44.

(4) Reg 10-55, Hq USASOS, 19 Dec 44. (5) Reg 10-

100, Hq AFWESPAC, 2 Sep 45. (6) Ltr cited n. 46. 52

 Memo 66, Hq Base B USASOS, 22 Aug 44. This

replaces an earlier Memo 15, 8 Apr 44, with C-1, 5

Jun, and G-2, 25 Jul.
426 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

and females" were forbidden unless the

commanding officer designated the spot

for them. All women were required to be

in quarters by 2300 unless authorized to

stay out until midnight, which was the absolute deadline.

Because of the growing effect of these

provisions upon discipline and mental

health, Colonel Brown later appealed

again to USASOS headquarters to revert

to the system first approved by the base

commander. Although Maj. Gen. James

L. Frink later agreed to authorize his base

commanders to grant Wacs "the greatest

possible freedom consistent with their personal safety," very few actual modifications ever resulted.53

Hollandia

On 31 August 1944, three weeks after

the first Oro Bay shipment, a group of Far

East Air Forces Wacs took off from Brisbane for the next stop, Hollandia, some

eight hundred miles beyond Oro Bay.

Here the environment was far less favorable and, while combat troops had landed

four months before, the last Japanese raiding parties had still not been driven from

the hills. The prudent FEAF Wacs, having heard that wild country lay ahead,

climbed from their air transport laden

with sixty baby chicks and twenty-five

laying hens—which, incidentally, never

laid thereafter. USAFFE and USASOS

Wacs followed, until there were shortly

more than a thousand in the Hollandia

area.54

Climate and living conditions in Hollandia, except for GHQ's elevated camp

site, were in general the least favorable yet

encountered by the advancing headquarters. Rain was continual in some seasons,

clothing was generally wet from perspiration, and heat prevented more than a few

hours sleep at night. The red New Guinea

clay apparently had the ability simultaneously to blow into the hair as dust and

stick to the clothing as mud. During the

first weeks there were no laundry facilities

for men or women, and the slow-drying

coveralls proved difficult to keep clean.

For some time women had no hairdressing

facilities, of which a medical officer noted,

"They have as much need of them as men

do of barbershops."

 55

Also, everyone shortly turned yellow

from the required atabrine. One officer

reported, "Frankly, women who had

looked very well in Australia looked like

hell in Hollandia." Men and women alike

began to get skin diseases; some had to be

sent back, including one competent WAC

commander whose loss, USASOS authorities stated, "we could very ill afford."

Weather conditions often prevented active

recreation, while attempts at approved

social entertainments bogged down under

the weight of heavy coveralls and field

shoes in 100-degree temperatures.

These conditions were particularly felt

by USASOS personnel, both men and

women, in their hot and humid camp site

on low ground near the harbor. Here

Wacs shared, with assorted insects,

wooden-floored tents and a converted

warehouse. The FEAF camp site was

scarcely more healthful, with tents pitched

on ground subject to flash floods of mud

53

 (1) Memo, Gen Frink, CG USASOS, for CG Intersec, 23 Oct 44, with incl Stf Dir Recommendations

re WAC Pers at Intersec and Base B. GSCG 324.5.

(2) Ltr, Stf Dir SWPA to all WAC Dets, 27 Oct 44,

with incl Ltr. Folder, 5200th WAC Det, Drawer X29443. 54

 Hollandia account, except as cited, from: (1)

Griffith Account. (2) AFPAC Reply, both versions.

(3) Interv cited n. 50(1). 55

 Major Craighill. See Table of Comparative Rates

of Medical Evacuation for Wacs and Nurses, atchd to

Craighill SWPA Rpt.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 427

and water, and at the foot of a hill a

strenuous hike from the offices on top. For

a time the FEAF unit also housed the

USAFFE Wacs, most of whom worked for

GHQ, but within a few weeks this arrangement became so unsatisfactory to

FEAF that, without warning, it bodily

ejected the GHQ Wacs and their belongings, without a company officer.

Emergency housing was hastily worked

out, and the GHQ Wacs eventually benefited by a move to tents in the GHQ area

on a cool mountain top. To prevent such

misunderstandings in the future, the staff

director recommended in September and

again in January that the unit be formally

organized and assigned to GHQ as were

enlisted men, but she was again informed

by USAFFE that "The Commander-inChief did not want Wacs assigned to GHQ

and under the circumstances no attempt

would be made to do so."

 56

 Because of its

ambiguous status, the GHQ unit suffered

chronic supply difficulties, and eventually

departed from Hollandia without ever receiving its organizational equipment.57

The GHQ unit, upon Colonel Brown's

recommendation, attempted the experiment of housing Wacs, nurses, and Red

Cross women in one camp without barbed

wire, and with a minimum of restrictions.

No particular difficulties were experienced, and there were only two instances

of prowlers, of whom it was reported,

"The Wacs took care of them."

 58

 The success of this experiment did not, as the staff

director had hoped, persuade other commands to try it. USASOS units at all stations, employing some 60 percent of all

Wacs, continued to use varieties of the unpopular "concentration camp" system.

Air Forces units ordinarily relaxed the

system to abolish locked compounds, requiring only armed escorts and traveling

in minimum groups of four. The FEAF

staff director noted that "No serious incidents were reported as a result of the

wider degree of freedom exercised by Air

Force units."

 59

A fourth WAC unit was eventually organized in Hollandia by the Far East Air

Service Command (FEASC). Although

handicapped when the departing FEAF

transferred to it more than sixty WAC

drivers and other unassignables needing

retraining, the FEASC detachment requisitioned more Wacs and reached an eventual strength of approximately seven

hundred.60

At this time premature optimism was

general when, toward the end of 1944, the

WAC medical evacuation rate for the first

six months in the theater was computed

and proved to be not too much higher

than the men's, the loss rate being 62 per

1,000 per year for men (nonbattle causes

only) and 98 per 1,000 for Wacs. This rate

appeared especially good in view of the

current rate of 202 per 1,000 for Army

nurses, a rate that had generally prevailed

since their arrival. Theater reports stated

that the WAC rate compared "very favorably" with the men's, and that the difference was due to gynecological disorders,

other disabilities incurred by the Wacs being generally of the same nature and degree of severity as those incurred by men.61

56

 (1) WAC Hist Rpt (shows Stf Dir check sheets on

23 Aug and 7 Sep). (2) Folder, 5205th WAC Det,

Drawer X-29853. Also minutes of seminar. 57

 From 16 different items of correspondence in

Folder, 5205th WAC Det, Drawer X-29853. 58

 Statements by Colonel Brown at seminar and on

margin of draft of chapter. 59

 Ltr, Lt Col Mary L. Kersey, WAF, to OCMH,

21 Apr 51. 60

 Hist Rpts, Jan, Feb 45. Folder, FEASC WAC

Det II. 61

 WAC Draft AFPAC Reply, cited in D/F, G-1

WD to CofS USA, 13 Sep 45. WDGAP 330.11 WAC

(5-26-45).
428 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

HOLLANDIA, NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA. Wooden-floored tents occupied by the women.

Other evidence tended to support even

more optimistic conclusions. For one

period, during which the average length

of nonbattle hospitalization was computed separately, the average stay for

Wacs was only 10.5 days as compared to

18 days for men. There was a slight suspicion among the Wacs themselves that

they could withstand the hot weather better than the men. On the other hand,

while many Wacs had gained weight in

Australia, they, like many men, now began to lose; some suffered a "gradual and

continuous" loss from the time of their

arrival. Authorities blamed this on "loss

of appetite after long periods of diet composed principally of canned and dehydrated foods."

 62

The Philippines

Wacs arrived in the Philippines on 26

November 1944, some thirty-six days behind the first wave of combat troops. The

Wacs' presence was again required by

USASOS' personnel plan, a repetition of

its previous maneuver. To man the immediate northward push from Leyte, it was

again necessary to pull men out of the

organizations that had landed on Leyte

and to send them forward in the islandhopping toward Manila. The mechanics

of this exchange was handled by a WAC

enlisted woman, later a warrant officer,

Margaret Sterling, who received high

commendation from USASOS authorities 62

 AFPAC Reply, both versions.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 429

HOLLANDIA, NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA. Women at work in the finance office.

for her management of the selection and

training of WAC replacements in this and

previous moves. GHQ and FEAF also

made the decision to move their women to

Leyte.63

Colonel Brown attempted to move the

staff director's office forward from Hollandia ahead of the enlisted women, and

succeeded in getting orders for a permanent change of station to Leyte. However,

these orders were shortly revoked by G-1

Division, over her protest, and no representative of the WAC Section was permitted to visit the Leyte area until some weeks

after the enlisted women's arrival.64

The first enlisted women, the GHQ

unit, took off for Leyte accompanied by

"Tokyo Rose's" prediction, "Of course

they won't get there." As promised, trouble was encountered when the first planes

were obliged to circle for some time before

they could land, and were immediately

strafed when they started to unload. Arriving Wacs, accustomed to being a sensation, were nevertheless surprised to see

hundreds of men fleeing the airstrip and

plunging into brush and foxholes. The

women soon grasped the maneuver, and

hit the foxholes as promptly as did the

combat veterans on the same planes; from

this vantage point they cheered as two

63

 (1) Interv cited n. 50(1). (2) Griffith Account,

"Citations." 64

 Colonel Brown's notes on draft of chapter. WAC

file, OCMH. USAFFE orders: WAC Sec USAFFE

Hist Rpts.
430 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Japanese planes were shot down in

flames.65

Conditions during the rainy season nevertheless proved so unexpectedly bad as to

raise the issue of whether or not the Wacs

should be sent back, even over their objections. Proceeding through hub-deep

mud to Tacloban, the GHQ Wacs were

housed in a deserted mission school where

Japanese soldiers had been recently garrisoned. Fortunately, the yards were

already honeycombed with Japanese foxholes; the entire day and night were described as "a series of enemy air-raids and

ducking for shelter."

 66

 USASOS men and

women, arriving soon after, shared an area

in a sea of mud, in which frameless tents

were pitched so closely that they had to be

tied together. FEAF Wacs were slightly

better off. On the day after their arrival

General Kenney himself inspected the

area, and in the next month drainage

ditching was performed by "shovelequipped Colonels, Majors, Lieutenants,

and non-coms from the A-2 Section."

 67

However, the chief WAC problem on

Leyte was not housing, which was the

same for men and women, but rather the

lack of suitable equipment. There were no

overshoes for women, and only four of the

GHQ Wacs had more than one pair of

field shoes, which never dried out but had,

the commander reported, to be "cleaned

and put back on while still wet." The supply of coveralls was still so poor that, she

noted, "there is no way of keeping in dry

clothes."

 68

 A search was made for men's

overshoes or field shoes in small sizes, but

even after calling upon the Navy it was

impossible to find enough to equip the

women.

Nevertheless, the women were averse to

leaving Leyte, and no move was made to

return them. The History of USAFFE

reported:

They kept communications open at Leyte

between alerts that sent them into foxholes,

only to return to take more messages all

through the night.69

The deputy chief ordnance officer noted:

The Advance Section, USASOS, which

went into Leyte, worked long night hours in

the lantern-lighted tents when we were get- ting ready for an operation. We were interrupted frequently by air-raids, but they

didn't panic.70

After a rough three months on Leyte,

conditions improved as they had at previous stations; food and supply were better,

laundry and hairdressing facilities were

obtained, and emergency housing was improved. Troops of both sexes had more

time for swimming, sight-seeing, and shopping at the local market. The chief interest

was the battle for Manila; as usual, the

Wacs again wished to move forward. As

released prisoners, wounded, and sick began to be evacuated, some Wacs took up

clothing collections among their own

scarce stores for the women and children

from internment camps, and volunteered

off-duty help in hospitals.

Other Bases

Meanwhile, during and after the move

to Leyte, Wacs had been sent to other

bases.71 The decision was made by

USASOS headquarters that Wacs must

go out to all of Intersec's lettered bases

65

 (1) Folder, 5205th WAC Det, Drawer X-29853.

(2) Griffith Account. 66

 Descriptions of Philippines experiences not otherwise documented are from: (1) Griffith Account. (2)

AFPAC Reply, both versions. 67

 Folder II, WAC Det FEAF, Drawer X-25096. 68

 Folder, 5205th WAC Det, Drawer X-29853. 69

 History of the United States Army Forces in the

Far East 1943-1945, by Hist Sec, G-2 Far East Command. OCMH. Cited as USAFFE Hist. 70

 Interv with Col Merle H. Davis, 24 Jul 47. 71

 This section based on Griffith Account, AFPAC

Reply, and Interv cited n. 50(1).
WAC AREA, TACLOBAN, LEYTE ISLAND, 27 December 1944. Note regulation dress

shoes worn by woman.
432 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

except those already to the rear, even

where somewhat primitive conditions

existed. As a result, USASOS Wacs were

moved from Oro Bay not only to Hollandia but, on 24 November, to Base E at

Lae and, on 6 December 1944, to Base F

at Finschhafen. The USASOS staff director visited these bases in advance of troops,

to help select WAC areas, and no particular difficulty was reported. Wacs at Lae

lived in a hospital area, and those at

Finschhafen in quarters of native construction, which were considered superior

to tents. Both groups were later to be the

last to leave as other bases moved forward.

Jobs remained the familiar USASOS routine of cargo tonnage, troops movements,

vessel routing reports, and other service

paper work.

On 13 February 1945, the USAFFE

mail and censorship unit likewise moved

forward from Port Moresby to the coral

island of Biak. Although the location presented problems of heat and glare, it eventually offered many conveniences. Except

for an air raid in which no WAC casualties were suffered, the Biak Wacs' closest

approach to war came with their visits to

hospital ships and general hospitals.

Manila

On 7 March 1945, four days after

organized resistance ended in Manila, the

GHQ Wacs left Leyte and reached the

area by air, across a bay still clogged with

sunken ships. A WAC officer described

their arrival:

The plane landed on a black-top high- way

 72

 that served as an air-strip. Wacs

climbed out and sat cross-legged on the

ground taking in the scene. Down this modern roadway passed an array of assorted vehicles . . . people and their belongings

coming back to the city. . . . Heavy artillery

fire could be heard in the distance routing

the Japs out of the hills only a few miles

away. The route into the city led past . . .

a once thriving business section, now a pile of

crushed buildings, twisted iron gratings,

debris. . . . Dead Japs still lay along the

streets awaiting burial. GHQ, and USAFFE

Wacs were housed in De La Salle College . . .

called "atrocity college" because of the

atrocities committed there by the Japanese. Bodies had been removed a day previously

and floors and walls creosoted and fumigated.73

Fighting was still going on in the outskirts

of the city, snipers were being routed out,

and guards were heavy. One Japanese

prowler was later caught in the WAC mess

hall, and two others were shot down and

died at WAC onlookers' feet, but there

was, an observer reported, "no hysterics"

among the women.

The disturbed conditions continued for

some weeks. Water was scarce and had to

be hauled. The GHQ Wacs bathed in helmets, lived by candlelight at night. Latrines were erected in the courtyard, with

half a dozen shower heads. Men's mess

halls lacked space to serve the women, and

Wacs lived on K rations until they could

get their own mess hall into operation. Dehydrated food was the chief sustenance for

all troops; some women lost their appetites, preferred to sleep at mealtimes, and

often ate only one meal a day. Until blood

and filth could be removed, flies were so

numerous that a severe epidemic of dysentery afflicted the GHQ Wacs. Their commander's greatest fear was that some of the

violently ill women, groping their way in

the blackout to the outdoor latrines, would

fall and detonate the remaining Japanese

booby traps believed to be on either side

72

 A later description refers to the highway as a city

street and gives a route somewhat different from that

in the present account. 73

 Griffith Account for entire Manila discussion unless otherwise cited.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 433

of the board walks. Nevertheless, there

was soon set up what was described as "an

orderly efficiently operating headquarters

in the midst of chaos, confusion, and destruction." In buildings full of bullet and

shell holes, GHQ Wacs for the first weeks

propped up broken desks and chairs, used

crates for file cases, chunks of twisted metal

for paperweights, and fragments of exploded shells for ash trays.

The USASOS Wacs delayed their arrival until, in the opinion of their battalion

commander and later staff director, Major

Gardiner, the worst of the dirt with the

resulting dysentery was eliminated. They

were housed in the Far Eastern University

and in overflow tents on adjacent areas.

Buildings were in relatively good condition, and the headquarters was quickly

established.

As various New Guinea stations were

closed, Wacs were moved into the Manila

area until eventually most of the entire five

thousand were concentrated there. Army

Forces, Western Pacific (AFWESPAC),

the successor to USASOS, used over a

thousand women who were housed in

frame-and-burlap barracks on Ascarraga

Street. A small general depot group at

Quezon City lived in floored tents in an

area which the Wacs soon neatly landscaped. At the demolished Fort McKinley,

FEAF Wacs lived in an attractive breezy

camp with partitioned buildings, neat

dayrooms, and their own club for dancing.

At Nichols Field, FEASC Wacs had hot

and dusty tin barracks. The Philippine

Base Section WAC detachment drew comfortable but crowded nurses' quarters,

where they lived six and eight to a twowoman compartment, and enjoyed that

novelty, clothes closets. Wacs at Santa

Ana Racetrack, working for the Allied

Translator and Intelligence Service, lived

for a time in muddy unfloored tents, later

moving to thatch-roofed huts of 20-Wac

capacity. Wacs with the signal intelligence

section were housed at San Miguel Plantation in frame and tin barracks, and lived a

very quiet country life.74

For some time restrictions in Manila

were even tighter than elsewhere, since

the city's remaining recreation facilities

were generally off-limits, and a seven

o'clock curfew was imposed for security.

Also, the move to Manila did little to improve the supply situation. One company

commander was obliged to ask that Wacs

not be arrested by military police for not

being dressed in the khaki uniform now

required of all men and nurses, since

"WAC personnel are not out of uniform

when wearing coverall trousers with cotton shirts, because of the necessity for such

wear as Class A uniform due to lack of

supplies. Some members have only one

pair of [men's] khaki slacks."

 75

 Just after

the first Wacs' move to Manila, the WAC

Section sent a memorandum to G-1 of

USAFFE pointing out that while the supply difficulties for male troops in the area

were great, those for Wacs had been even

greater: "No supply has been available for

Wacs where I have been stationed since

our departure from Australia."

 76

Job Assignments

In Manila, and in the outlying bases,

final records of WAC job assignment were

scanty. The theater estimated that, as of

the spring of 1945, 70 percent of the Wacs

were engaged in administrative and office

74

 For WAC detachments at end of war see Griffith

Account. 75

 Correspondence Folder, 5200th WAC Det,

Drawer X-29443. 76

 Memo, Capt Juanita Stryker, WAC Sec

USAFFE, for Gen Baird, 12 Mar 45. Tab 12, WAC

Draft AFPAC Reply.
434 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

work. The most common WAC jobs were,

in order: clerk-typist, clerk (general),

stenographer, typist, message center clerk,

chauffeur, cook, and file clerk.77 The estimated percentages in each type of job

were, toward the end of the war:78

Duties Percent

Technical and Professional................ . 2.52

Radio and Electrical..................... . .08

Communications........................ . 2.04

Mechanical and Trade................... . .81

Administrative and Office. ............... . 69.33

Motor Transport........................ . 6.45

Food.................................. . 4.52

Supply and Stock........................ . 8.77

Miscellaneous. ......................... . 5.48

By comparison with world-wide employment, the Pacific had used notably fewer

women in communications, and more in

routine office and supply jobs.

The approximate peak distribution of

WAC troops among the several commands

was estimated as:79

Command Percent

USAFFE (including GHQ) .................. . 23

USASOS................................. . 6 0

Air Forces: FEAF .......................... . 6

FEASC......................... . 1 1

Concerning the work done by the 23 percent assigned to USAFFE and GHQ, the

History of USAFFE noted:

The WAC were typists, switchboard oper- ators, administrative officers in signal centers

and message centers, chief clerks, mess ser- geants, translators, historians, Personnel and

Transportation Officers, Top Secret Officers, Executive Officers, and Assistants to Adjutants General. They drove heavy vehicles;

handled stock reports, censored the mail of

the whole theater.80

In addition to such duties, Wacs were by

1945 also assigned to the Joint Supply and

Survey Board, the Radio and Radar Unit,

the Psychological Warfare Board, the

USAFFE Board, the fiscal director, the

Civil and Military Censorship detachments, the A-D Board, and Section 22 of

GHQ.81

Within USASOS, its 60 percent of

Wacs were assigned not only to the headquarters but to ten base depot companies

including quartermaster, ordnance, signal, engineer, chemical warfare, and

medical.82 For example, the ordnance

office of USASOS employed several hundred Wacs, of whom its chief noted:

Ordnance had more than 100,000 line

items on which it maintained stock control

in the theater, first by cards and later by

IBM. Most men do not like this type of work, and even so the women are more painstak- ing. Each enlisted Wac would handle one

small group of items, and each WAC officer

would supervise several such groups. Our tendency was to leave them on the group

they had learned, but they did not show signs

of weariness. Many of the women were outstanding in morale.83

Percentages of Wacs in the various

USASOS offices were not recorded, with

two exceptions: the finance office at Intersec, serving approximately 2,800 personnel, was staffed entirely by Wacs; the

editorial section of USASOS headquarters

was composed of one WAC officer, eight

enlisted women, and two enlisted men,

who reviewed all publications.84

The 17 percent of Air Forces Wacs did,

in general, the same type of work as that

in the Service Forces. No record of FEAF

jobs was preserved, but as of June 1945,

FEASC employed 574 Wacs.85 Of them,

77

 "Suggested Materials for a WAC Newsmap

. . ." Material in possession of Mary-Agnes Brown. 78

 AFPAC Reply. 79

 Ibid. 80

 USAFFE Hist. 81

 List in possession of Mary-Agnes Brown. 82

 Ibid. 83

 Interv cited n. 70. 84

 Newsmap material cited n. 77. 85

 Folder I, WAC Del FEAF, Drawer X-25096.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 435

Maj. Gen. Clements McMullen of the Far

East Air Service Command stated:

The FEASC WAC Detachment rendered

superior service to this command. Our Wacs

typed letters, ran mimeo machines, almost

entirely manned an International Business

Machine Statistical Unit, filed papers, drove

automobiles, worked in dispensaries, and

maintained their own homes, in a wonderful

manner. . . .86

Signal Corps duties were common to

GHQ, USAFFE, USASOS, and the Air

Forces. In the Intersec Signal Center,

Wacs at teletype machines handled an

average of 100,000 coded groups a day.

During the Leyte campaign, 130,000

words a day were handled, including coding and decoding. One four-position telephone switchboard averaged 6,500 calls

daily. GHQ's Signal Operations Group

commended the Wacs handling the Bataan exchange, saying:

Many favorable comments have been re- ceived by this office recently on the operation of the Bataan Switchboard. The speed, efficiency, and courtesy with which calls are

now being handled have been highly commended by representatives of the Chief

Signal Office, GHQ.87

FEASC reported that during the move of

its advanced headquarters to Manila, six

WAC telephone operators "without assistance, for two consecutive weeks ran the

FEASC switchboard at its new headquarters on a 24-hour 7-day week."

 88

Several hundred women were employed

on skilled work of a classified nature. The

Allied Translator and Intelligence Service

had 150 Wacs, including nisei, who did

what was described as "important secret

work" as interrogators and translators.

This unit maintained a high morale, and

was regarded as outstanding. Equally

secret although more monotonous was the

work of the 120 Wacs with the Signal Intelligence Service. The women were described as "highly skilled technicians,"

but it was admitted that "the secret nature

of their work, regardless of how interesting

and stimulating it was, in time became tiring due to the fact that it was confining

and restricted the individual."

 89

The work of the censorship unit and

the Central Postal Directory, successively

at Port Moresby and Biak, continued almost unchanged. Approximately a million

wrongly addressed pieces of mail were

processed monthly by the Wacs, who received reports of all changes of status or

location of theater personnel and worked

seven days a week checking cards in huge

locator files. The censorship group received

the Meritorious Service Unit Plaque for

having censored not only ordinary mail

but "practically all the foreign-language

mail written in the theater, involving a

knowledge of 31 languages."

 90

Nevertheless, inspectors found that censorship work, which at first had appeared

highly suitable for women, offered a definite mental hazard. One reported:

Much of what the men wrote was so ob- scene that the women became demoralized

from having to read it all day. . . . The

WAC censors became nervous, temperamental, and complaining; first they thought they

would lose their eyesight, then their minds. All came to complaint hour. By the end of

the war . . . many of them had become

definitely neurotic if not actually psychotic.91

An inspector general report in April 1945

86

 Ltr, CG FEASC to Dir WAC, 3 Jan 46. sub:

Commendation. WDWAC 201.22 and 330.13. (1945-

46).

87

 Correspondence folder, 5205th WAC Det,

Drawer X-29853. 88

 Hist Rpt, Jul 45, Folder II, WAC Det FEASC. 89

 Boyce Rpt. 90

 GO 157, GHQ US AFPAC, sub: Meritorious Serv

Unit Plaque Award (5203d WAC Det). Tab 14 to

WAC Draft AFPAC Reply. 91

 Interv with Capt Jeanne K. Letallier, WAC IG

SWPA, 9 Jan 46. Similar rpt in Craighill SWPA Rpt.
436 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

stated that an extremely low state of morale existed and that the health record

was poor: 20 percent were on sick call

daily, 50 percent suffered from eye strain,

and approximately 8 percent had already

been evacuated due to tropical diseases

and psychoneurosis.92 After the unit was

returned to the United States, the postwar

theater staff director wrote, "In any future

planning, I definitely oppose the use of

women in censoring male correspondence."

 93

A few other defects marred the WAC

job-assignment program, of a type which

in less active theaters had caused more

serious difficulty than was reported in the

Pacific. In some units, women, especially

stenographers, were not always kept busy

enough to suit them. Inspectors reported

of the FEASC detachment that "the largest percentage of complaints from this

group involved job utilization . . . complaints were registered in regard to the

limited amount of work actually being

performed."

 94

Nevertheless, women were apparently

more fortunate than men in this respect,

for a FEASC management control survey

reported the job utilization of enlisted

women to be better than that of enlisted

men in the same offices.95 On the other

hand, highly skilled women technicians

were more subject to malassignment than

men, for the environment greatly limited

the extent to which women could be scattered about, and WAC radio operators,

photographic technicians, drivers and

mechanics usually had to be retrained to

other skills.

In almost all commands, job promotion

was slow and skilled workers did not receive the ratings that the War Department, in allotting Wacs to the theater, had

provided. This spread of grades and ratings would have been generally appropriate for the MOS numbers held by the

women, but after a few months these were

not reserved for the Wacs but made available to the men, according to the system

of integration favored by WAC advisers in

the United States. Any other course, according to Colonel Ginsburgh, "would

have caused much ill-feeling among the

men."

 96

 Grades received by Wacs were

below the theater average for men in

skilled jobs; they were also somewhat

lower than those received by Wacs in

Europe and Italy. On the other hand, they

were higher than those of male labor battalions and unskilled service troops in the

theater, and even a single stripe on a

woman's sleeve provoked so much caustic

comment from unrated men that Colonel

Ginsburgh recommended that, in the

future, women in the Army be given no

grades. WAC officers' promotions were

likewise slower than in other theaters,

about half never being promoted in the

theater.97

Because theater policies differed, awards

and decorations were given less frequently

than in other theaters. Although Pacific

Wacs had moved more rapidly and lived

longer under field conditions than those in

Europe, they received only about one

fourth as many Bronze Stars. In some

cases there existed some feeling that

92

 Material atchd to Ltr, WAC Stf Dir AFPAC to

Dep Dir WAC, 8 Nov 45. Hobby files. 93

 Personal ltr, Lt Col Mera Galloway, WAC Stf

Dir AFPAC, to Dir WAC, 28 Dec 45. WDWAC 320. 94

 Memo, WAC Stf Dir FEAF for CG FEAF.

WDWAC 319.1 Pacific. 95

 Hist Rpt, May 45. Folder II, WAC Det FEASC. 96

 WAC Draft AFPAC Reply. Confirmed by Interv

citedn. 50(1). 97

 (1) AFPAC Reply, both versions. (2) STM-30,

Strength of the Army, Jul 45, p. 41. (3) Morale Evaluation Rpt on Women's Servs, AFPAC, Jul 45, incl in

Ltr, Actg Stf Dir AFPAC to Dir WAC, 11 Aug 45.

WAC C1 files.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 437

Bronze Stars and similar awards were

inappropriate for women. One WAC sergeant noted that identical recommendations were forwarded by her section chief

for herself and for the men under her

supervision, but that only the men's were

approved.98 There was only one award of

the Meritorious Service Unit Plaque, elsewhere quite common among WAC units.99

The Question of Expense

There existed from the beginning the

question of whether the expense of maintaining women in such an area was not so

prohibitive as to nullify any possible gain

from even the most superlative efficiency.

Theater authorities discounted this view

almost completely, and were unable to

understand how it had become so widely

circulated. To some extent its spread

seemed due to hundreds of statements in

soldier mail, such as "As far as replacing

men, that is purely a myth; it takes more

poor GI's to work for them, and more to

guard them, than they come anywhere

near replacing"; or, from an officer, "The

lady GI's haven't freed any men for the

fighting fronts. They require special quarters, special handling, and so damned

many MP's to guard them that it more

than eats up the manpower relieved."

Some thought that it took "three or four

GI's" for every Wac, or even, "For every

Wac that is sent overseas it required approximately eight soldiers to take care of

her."

 100

Actual employers of Wacs could find

little basis for such charges. "Wacs needed

some extra care and help in setting up

their housing," the USASOS G-1 stated,

"but a headquarters has to have administrative troops, and where will you find

male stenographers?"

 101

 A section chief

noted, "When we moved, we had to provide areas for women, but we would have

had to set them up for the nurses anyway;

it was only a few days' work, and didn't

have to be done again for months."

 102

 The

general view was that it was not an uneconomical procedure to employ service

troops to set up facilities for key office

workers, regardless of sex, although the

service battalions concerned could not be

expected to concur in the opinion.

Some guards had also undoubtedly been

required, much against the women's

wishes, but in daylight hours only one or

two were employed to march the whole

unit to work, which took a very few minutes. At night, for attendance at unit

parties, the duty was a purely voluntary

one. As for gate guards, the comment of

Colonel Boyce, the second WAC Director,

after a visit late in 1945, was:

It was noted that guards were considered

necessary and were therefore assigned to all

the other groups in the forward area, i.e.,

nursing personnel, medical groups, and general headquarters areas. It was established

that no more guards were required for WAC

personnel than for other types of noncombat

personnel assigned to duty in these forward

areas.103

Apart from the labor involved, there

remained the question of whether WAC

housing, messing, and other accommodations had not been prohibitively expensive,

or cost much more than the men's. There

was little evidence that they had, although

98

 Interv with Miss Dorothy Pat Costello, 4 Aug 48. 99

 AFPAC Reply, both versions: 1 Meritorious Service Unit Plaque; 4 Legion of Merit; 3 Soldier's Medal;

50 Bronze Stars. 100

 All except second from GHQ AFPAC Summary,

Comments on Women's Servs, 16 Jun 45, in possession of former WAC Stf Dir; second from WDBPR

file.

101

 Interv with Col Ginsburgh, 24 Jul 44. 102

 Interv with Col Merle H. Davis, Chief OO

WESPAC, 24 Jul 47. 103

 Boyce Rpt.
438 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Wacs were often allotted the best of the

enlisted accommodations already available to a headquarters.104

The choice of camp site went according

to the priority rating of each organization.

Thus, USASOS usually rated housing, on

a priority basis, after GHQ, USAFFE,

FEAF, and the Sixth and Eighth Armies.

The housing of USASOS Wacs was therefore ordinarily less desirable than that of

the men of those groups, although possibly

superior to that of USASOS men. The

History of USAFFE noted briefly, "The

WAC were not accorded special quarters

and special transportation or special supplies. In New Guinea, their quarters, mess,

and recreation were comparable to those

of male troops."

 105

The general impression that Wacs had

more expensive quarters seemed due

largely to the fact that visitors and historians arriving several months after the advanced echelons found some comforts

present. Reliable sources ascribed these

only to the persistent scavenging of the

women themselves, abetted by the everwilling labor of the endless supply of GI

suitors. In a typical camp on Leyte, Wacs

were assigned the usual dirt-floored tents,

but the women's dates brought them floors

for the tents, a piece at a time. Wacs also

traded with the natives for heavy labor

and useful or decorative items.

A far more useful source than either

Army men or natives was the Navy, particularly the Seabees, who were no less

willing to assist and far better supplied

with the wherewithal. A settled WAC unit

with reasonable access to land, sea, and

air forces was therefore likely to have a

landscaped camp site, graveled paths,

floors in the tents, dressing tables, and,

overhead, forming a heat-resisting space

below the iron or canvas roof, the billowing nylon of a discarded parachute. Recreation halls were likewise decorated with

native thatch, palms, trophies, and brightcolored supply parachutes.106

WAC messes, equipment, and rations

were identical with those of male units.

The Southwest Pacific Area was the only

overseas theater that could not ordinarily

relieve skilled office workers of kitchen

police duty, since civilian labor in New

Guinea was limited, although some was

available in Manila. Wacs staffed their

own messes or, if eating at the consolidated

mess, generally furnished their proportionate share of kitchen police, as they did

in the United States. Two men were usually assigned to large WAC messes to

service the field ranges and do heavy lifting.107

 Again, it appeared that any appearance of superiority was due only to

improvised decorations or well-prepared

food, which often ranked a WAC mess

with higher headquarters messes. The

Biak historical report stated, "The WAC

Mess Hall soon became the envy of the

post . . . the rumor flew that Wacs had

better rations, but the Wacs refuted

this."

 108

As for the matter of clothing, there

would have been no question of unusual

expense even had the Wacs received any.

WAC staff members estimated that, even

if the Army's usual policy of issuing all

needed items had been followed, the cost

of a Wac's clothing in malarious areas

would have been only $124, in nonmalarious areas $143, as against $233 for comparable items for Wacs in the United

States.109

104

 D/F cited n. 61. 105

 USAFFE Hist. 106

 (1) Boyce Rpt. (2) Griffith Account. 107

 AFPAC Reply, both versions. 108

 Folder, 5225th WAC Det, Drawer X-28368. 109

 Ibid. Also (1) Memo, Capt Stryker for Gen

Baird, 12 Mar 45. (2) Check Sheet, Capt Stryker to

CofS, USAFFE, 2 Apr 44. Tab 12, WAC Draft

AFPAC Reply. (3) Personal ltr, Maj Gen R. J. Mar-
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 439

Medical Evacuation Rate

The greatest question concerning the

efficiency of WAC employment in the theater did not concern expense of maintenance. It began to come to light only after

the move to Manila: this was the increasing rate of loss for medical reasons. The

earlier favorable rate had continued

through the first months of 1945, even

during the emergency period in Leyte.

The change in health was at first not startling; in April the GHQ detachment noted

a high percentage on sick call, but no

serious diseases, and concluded, "Apparently many are in a somewhat run-down

condition." In May the trend continued,

again without serious disorders but with

"the usual complaint [of] boils and other

skin ailments, colds, or other manifestations of fatigue."

 110

When the evacuation rate was computed theater-wide, it was obvious that in

these few months it had suddenly jumped

from 98 per thousand per year to 267 per

thousand. The chief surgeon's office informed Colonel Brown in February of

1945 that "At this rate, almost 20 percent

of the command will be lost per year by

evacuation."

 111

 By April, it was clear that

the figure was more like 25 or 30 percent,

and as much as 60 percent per year in

some units, such as FEASC. The significant fact in this connection was that the

6 percent rate for men had not increased

to any comparable degree. The rate was

even more startling when compared to

that of the Wacs in Europe and to those in

India and China, whose losses were the

same as the men's in those areas. The

Pacific WAC rate was now virtually the

same as that which Army nurses had experienced since their arrival, and four or

five times that of the men.112

The onset of this loss rate had come too

late to damage the efficiency record of the

WAC's first year, but at this time commanders believed that this efficiency

would have to be sustained for still another year of war in the Pacific. It therefore appeared urgent to discover, and if

possible remove, the cause of the increased

loss rate before it began to affect WAC

strength more seriously. Brig. Gen. Guy

B. Denit, Chief Surgeon, USASOS, stated

emphatically that the increase had no

medical or geographic cause: "Under the

sanitary system we had by that time, a

white woman could live in the area for

any length of time as easily as a white

man."

 113

Neither did the chief surgeon agree

with some medical officers who believed

that the Pacific theater, unlike the European, had no facilities for treating disorders peculiar to women, which thus required evacuation, whereas a man could

be treated and returned to duty. One doctor alleged that he and other medical

officers were

. . . unable to do anything for Wacs reporting

to the hospital with such diseases, as there

are no instruments or medications furnished

to Army hospitals overseas for their treatment. It seemed a waste of space and man- power to send Wacs overseas and then not

have medical instruments and medications

available to treat them.114

shall, CofS AFPAC, to Gen Stivers, OPD, 14 May 45,

(4) Ltr, Asst AG USAFPAC to CG USAFWESPAC,

31 Jul 45. AG 420 (7-31-45) WA. Tab 12, WAC

Draft AFPAC Reply.

110

 Hist Rpts, Apr, May 45. Folder, 5200th WAC

Det, Drawer X-29443. 111

 Memo, Asst Chief Surg for WAC Dir USAFFE,

16 Feb 45. REMD 704.11. In possession of MaryAgnes Brown. 112

 All rates and other health statistics cited, unless

otherwise specified, are from Craighill SWPA Rpt or

AFPAC Reply. 113

 Interv, 24 Jul 47. 114

 Tech Int Rpt T/PFI-2614, SID, Hq 4th SvC,

to CG ASF, 23 Jul 45. G-2 MID files.
440 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

No women medical officers were employed in the Pacific as they had been by

the European and Mediterranean theaters.

This explanation of the loss rate was

contradicted by General Denit, who stated

that he had available every supply and

facility, could get any needed gynecological instrument by air, and had deep

X-ray machines, radium, and other equipment. General Denit's view was for the

most part supported by the statistics,

which showed that less than one fifth of

the total loss was due to disorders peculiar

to women. The War Department's medical consultant, Major Craighill, after a

visit, noted, "Gynecological conditions are

usually mild in character and transitory in

occurrence."

 115

Neither could the high rate be attributed to undue medical lenience in the return of women to the United States. Major

Craighill indicated that "an even more

lenient policy in regard to return . . . would

seem indicated for the good of the group

and to salvage individuals for continued

service in the States."

The only notable medical deficiency

which was cited by theater authorities was

that of poor initial medical screening in

the United States. Major Craighill reported:

Medical officers in all overseas theaters

commented on the inadequacy of screening

of women for overseas duty. It was thought

to be the primary cause of medical evacuation rates for women, especially in the Southwest Pacific, where they were far higher than

for other personnel.116

A survey in the FEASC WAC detachment

indicated that as many as 50 percent of

the medical returns were attributed to

poor medical screening in the United

States, with a few evacuees having been in

the theater less than a month.117 On the

other hand, the screening of women for

service in the Pacific had been as good as

that of men, with identical selection procedures. Also, four fifths of the European

theater's Wacs, and most of those for India

and other areas, had been selected, like

the Pacific's, after the end of the Auxiliary

requirements for physical examinations.

With no medical deficiency thus entirely sufficing to explain more than a part

of the loss, General Denit stated instead

that in his opinion the primary cause of

the higher loss rate was to be sought

among theater policies other than medical. Independently, WAC inspectors also

arrived at the conclusion that the cause

of the higher WAC rate of loss did not lie

in the environment but in theater policies

toward women that did not apply to men.

Colonel Boyce, the second WAC Director,

stated after an inspection visit, "It is believed that the experiences of Wacs in the

Pacific which adversely affected their effective utilization were not inherent in the

geographical location."

 118

 The same view

was expressed by Major Craighill after an

inspection trip in 1945. Major Craighill

felt that there was nothing necessarily

dangerous about the area for women, and

made recommendations for improvement

that were all in the fields of supply and

administration.

Deficiencies in Uniform and Supply

Among nonmedical deficiencies which

had possibly contributed to the medical

loss rate, the most conspicuous was that of

115

 Unless otherwise cited, all of Major Craighill's

comments are from Craighill SWPA Rpt. 116

 Hist of Women's Med Unit, draft by Lt Col

Margaret D. Craighill, 23 Jul 46. SGO Hist Div. 117

 WAC Sec USAFFE Hist Rpt, Mar, Apr 45.

Folder II, WAC Det FEASC. 118

 Boyce Rpt.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 441

the clothing supply.119 Women had in fact

faced a difficult and dangerous environment less well equipped than the men in

the same headquarters. It was noted particularly that dermatitis, sometimes popularly called "jungle rot," led all other

causes for evacuation of women, even

though medical officers had originally believed that women would prove less susceptible because of higher standards of

personal cleanliness and more frequent

laundering of garments. There appeared

to be some obvious connection with the

fact that the WAC service uniform had

been the heavy herringbone twill, well

known to cause skin irritation to women

even in the United States. In fact, in the

India-Burma theater the chief surgeon

had refused to let Wacs wear this garment

at any time, pronouncing it a major health

hazard in a tropical climate. On the other

hand, some medical officers noted that

even had the Wacs possessed summer

khaki like the men's, women might possibly still have had a higher dermatitis

rate because of their more sensitive skins.

In addition, it appeared possible that

the rate of loss for malaria had increased

wherever Wacs substituted their cotton

shirts for the coverall top, since the shirts

were lighter in weight than the men's and

not believed mosquitoproof by The Quartermaster General. On the other hand, as

both General Denit and Colonel Brown

pointed out, experimentation had never

conclusively indicated what weight of shirt

was really mosquitoproof, and Navy

nurses in the area wore skirts instead of

slacks, so that the Wacs' uniforms might

possibly have offered as good protection as

any other type of garment.

Other minor possibilities were also

noted. It appeared that the rate of respiratory disorders might have been increased

by lack of protective footwear. The shortage of all garments had apparently increased illness during rainy seasons when

not enough dry coveralls were available

to permit a change. There was also some

evidence that the regular WAC wool

socks, heavy rayon underwear, low oxfords, and other issue items were not particularly suitable to the area.

Up to this time, all attempts at remedial

action had merely demonstrated that, if

women were launched into a campaign

improperly equipped, no "business as

usual" would produce the requisite supplies. Theater action to secure mosquitoproof slacks for women, and all other

needed items, was begun in 1944 in the

month of the Wacs' arrival in Australia.120

The months of May and June were consumed in Quartermaster staff studies as to

the proper amendments that should be

recommended in theater Tables of Equipment. The matter was not as simple as it

appeared to nonexperts in supply matters,

since there were many items of WAC uniform, undergarments, and footgear to be

considered, as well as the opinions of medical and technical specialists on the proper

weight and design of slacks and shirts. On

6 July 1944, a large-scale conference on

WAC supply was held by representatives

of USAFFE and USASOS with visitors

from Operations Division of the War Department General Staff. This produced no

immediate results, and later in July the

assistant staff director appealed by personal letter to Colonel Hobby to expedite

matters by securing immediate War Department authorization for ordinary khaki

slacks. In reply she was informed that The

119

 Interv with Capt Letallier, 9 Jan 46. Entire

following discussion is based on interviews and statistics already cited. 120

 Except as otherwise documented, the supply

discussion is from the monthly WAC Sec USAFFE

Hist Rpts.
442 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Quartermaster General was already developing specifications for a slacks suit,

but could not expend funds to procure or

ship any item without requisitions and

shipping priorities from the theater. It was

not until after the movement of most of

the Wacs from Australia had begun in

August that the theater requisition for

slacks went forward.121

Among women moving out to Hollandia and other bases, only the 6 percent

working for FEAF were reported as

equipped as well as men, since General

Kenney had refused to let them board

planes until they had been issued men's

khaki trousers from the ample stocks of

men's clothing in Australia.122 Issue of

men's clothing was considered by some

other commanders, but generally rejected

because the garments were ill-fitting and

required "unsightly" alterations; it was

decided to await arrival of women's slacks

from the United States.

However, following the theater's requisition in August, there ensued another two

months' delay for queries and replies concerning specifications. On 14 October

1944, the War Department gave its final

approval to specifications for women's

slacks, and informed the theater that the

slacks would be available in only ninety

days—one fourth the usual procurement

time for men's clothing. This schedule was

very nearly met, and in only four more

months the first shipment of slacks and

proper-weight shirts was on the pier in

California. Not only was this still a considerable distance from New Guinea, but

it was by this time February of 1945, and

the Wacs were moving on to Manila.

It was confidently expected that the

slacks would reach the women in Manila;

some 75,000 pairs were promptly shipped

from the United States, 5,000 of them by

air. However, upon reaching the theater,

they were off-loaded at way stations and

never reached the Wacs. When queried by

the War Department, the theater explained that it lacked transportation to

lift the newly received slacks from various

depots, so that assembly in the Manila

area was never accomplished.123

A similar difficulty accounted for the

lack of normal maintenance stocks of

standard items such as field shoes, coveralls, and undergarments. Maintenance

stocks had been routinely authorized for

shipment even before the first Wacs left

the United States for Australia, and numerous shipments had been made, few of

which reached the Wacs.124 The difficulty

was the same as that already discovered

by the Fifth Army in Italy—that the supplies for a tiny group became lost or misplaced when handled in the routine

supply channels for men's clothing. In this

case the difficulty was a hundred times intensified by the distances and shipping

problems in the New Guinea area, which

had no highways or railroads and few

good docks.

The problem was illustrated by six

WAC clothing shipments that were eventually traced.125

 Two of these shipments

reached the areas before the Wacs, were

put on sale in officers' stores, and were

"badly depleted" by unidentified custom121

 (1) Personal ltr, Capt Juanita Stryker, Asst WAC

Stf Dir SWPA, to Dir Hobby, 12 Jul 44, and reply

from Capt Patricia Lee Chance, Exec WAC, 16 Aug

44. WDWAC 320.2 SWPA. (2) WAC Draft AFPAC

Reply, Tab 12 (omitted from theater-approved version). 122

 According to his memoirs, General Kenney Reports

(New York, 1949). 123

 AFPAC Reply. 124

 Ltr, TAG to COMINCH SWPA, CG SFPOE,

and CofT, 21 Apr 44. AG 400 (4-18-44) OB-S-ESPMOT; Tab 8 of WAC Draft AFPAC Reply. 125

 Discussion from theater-approved version,

AFPAC Reply. Six examples are in WAC Draft,

deleted by theater.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 443

ers before the Wacs arrived. Two others

went to a base where Wacs were never stationed, and remained there. General

Campbell noted, "You don't run a Liberty

ship up and down the coast to pick up a

few WAC shoes."

 126

 One went to a station

where about one half the theater's Wacs

were then located, and was well utilized.

The remaining one also reached a WAC

detachment, although months after its arrival. General Campbell added, "Supply

for a million men spread over 4,000 miles

was difficult, but for 5,000 Wacs in small

scattered groups it was desperate."

 127

Even if supplies were received by the

women, it was difficult to keep them, in

view of the usual system of movement of

Wacs by air. This explained part of the

situation of the GHQ detachment on

Leyte. As early as September of 1944,

Colonel Baird had unsuccessfully recommended to USAFFE's deputy chief of staff

that, when a WAC unit moved by air, its

equipment accompany it, since "Experience has shown that otherwise it is a long

time before such items become available."

 128

 This was not considered practicable, but upon departure from Hollandia

the WAC supply officer had personally

watched the crating and loading on a ship

of whatever clothing and equipment could

not be carried by air. When this did not

arrive in Leyte, investigation disclosed

that the vessel was at another base, towing

two barges, and could not be turned

around for a few crates of WAC clothing.

Similarly, when the censorship unit

moved by air from Port Moresby to Biak,

some forty-eight tons of equipment and

personal baggage had to be left for shipment by water. Two months later, when

this still had not arrived, the detachment

commander protested that it was "critically needed . . . especially clothing of personnel," but the regulating officer informed her that there was no prospect of

any ship calling at Port Moresby to pick

it up.129

As for nonissue items such as girdles,

brassières, and pajamas, purchase of these

was not possible in Australia because of

rationing restrictions. Wacs got 25 clothing

coupons a year, but the purchase of a

girdle required 10 coupons, pajamas 12,

and a brassière 5. In New Guinea and the

Philippines these were unprocurable.

Colonel Brown recommended to USASOS

that brassières be added to allowances:

These items are absolutely necessary and

are peculiar to the needs of women. Enlisted

men are furnished all necessary items; there- fore enlisted women should not be expected

to buy items which are necessary for wear.

Women are continually requesting families

and friends to mail these articles, but with

the uncertainty of arrival by mail, they are

often without these necessary articles.

The theater therefore four times submitted

a request for the issue of such items, but

was four times refused; it never achieved

the solution, found successful in other

overseas theaters, of procuring the items

for sale in post exchanges. In fact, post exchange supplies of any sort for women were

extremely scarce. Several large groups

had never to this date been able to purchase any sanitary napkins—these also

being considered "nonessential" items

which were not issued to women, but in

other theaters usually purchased at post

exchanges.130

In the final analysis, most observers

concluded that the factor of supply had

been a major one in the WAC loss rate, 126

 Interv, 31 Jul 47. 127

 Unless otherwise documented, entire discussion

above is from: (1) Monthly WAC Sec USAFFE Hist

Rpts. (2) Tp Conv, 2 Feb 51. 128

 Check Sheet, 30 Sep 44. Folder, 5205th WAC

Det, Drawer X-29853. 129

 Folder, 5203d WAC Det, Drawer X-28040. 130

 AFPAC Check Sheet, WAC Sec to G-3, 19 Apr

45. In possession of Mary-Agnes Brown.
444 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

particularly in the rate of loss for dermatitis, malaria, and respiratory disorders.

Had it been possible to retain the women

in Australia until they were fully equipped

for field conditions, as had been possible

in England, the educated guess was that

the rate in excess of men's losses might

have been lowered.

Morale

There was every indication that the

women's morale had held up excellently

at most stations. All observers agreed that,

as in Italy, the one factor which had done

most to sustain morale was the nearness to

actual combat. Units in the most forward

areas were consistently found to have the

highest morale. The race to get forward

had become a matter of competition, and

WAC officers reported that the panacea

for supply shortages and primitive living

conditions consisted in "excitement and

pride in being the first Wacs."

 131

 A typical

group upon disbandment wrote sentimentally of the Leyte experiences—tents,

candles, no supply, mud, foxholes, air

alerts, rain—and added, with no apparent

sense of incongruity, "We'll never have a

detachment so ideal and so perfect

again."

 132

Even when Wacs were not actually near

the combat area, the constant presence of

combat-wounded and released prisoners

gave a sense of immediacy to their efforts.

Wherever possible—as for example at the

51st General Hospital—women were allowed to visit hospital wards. They saved

their beer and cigarette rations, cookies

from home, and flowers grown around

their tents to share with the patients, with

resulting good effect not only on the

wounded, but on the women themselves.133

Units everywhere had adopted monkeys, dogs, chickens; smuggled a duck on

shipboard; cherished unidentifiable native

animals. Songs were invented for all subjects ("If you meet a looie with big blue

eyes, you can look but you can't fraternize".)

 134

 The women took pride in improvising: a Christmas tree was made of

native thatch tied to a bamboo trunk,

decorated with scrap metal from enemy

planes. When most Christmas packages

failed to get through, inspectors noted that

"they opened the few that came and

shared them like sisters," while one supply

sergeant filled their shoes with "gifts" of

pistol belts and towels. Desiring a greenand-gold WAC guidon for the funeral of

a member of the FEASC WAC detachment, the women improvised one from

parachute lining, dyed with atabrine and

green ink.135

By comparison with problems of morale

among noncombat men, the Wacs' good

morale appeared even more striking, for

women seldom complained about, or were

depressed by, factors that were high on the

men's list—mail service, rotation, officers'

superior privileges, and the lack of good

movies and other entertainment. The only

common complaint factor was that of

food. Particularly noteworthy was the

mildness of WAC complaints about their

company officers' deficiencies as compared to the complaints by noncombat

men about their officers.136

131

 AFPAC Reply, both versions. See also Hist Rpts.

Folder, 5225th WAC Del, Drawer X-28368. 132

 Correspondence folder, 5205th WAC Det,

Drawer X-29853. 133

 Hist Rpts, Jan, Feb 45. Folder II, WAC Det

FEASC. 134

 Interv with Lt Mary B. Warner, 3 Oct 47. 135

 (1) Folder I, WAC Det FEAF, Drawer X-25096.

(2) Hist Rpts, Jan, Feb 45. Folder II, WAC Det

FEASC. (3) Quotation in Folder, 5225th WAC Det,

Drawer X-28368. 136

 For typical noncombat male complaints, see History of South Pacific Base Command by Hist Sec,

G-2, Hq SOPACBACOM. OCMH.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 445

However, there appeared to be a possibility that the generally high morale had

accounted for the moderate loss rate of the

first year. Company commanders voiced

the opinion that there was a general "end

of the line" feeling in Manila, at which

time women who had actually been ailing

for months suddenly gave up to their illness. Medical officers noted that, with

women, illness was more likely to mark

the breaking point in tension, rather than

the spree of some sort in which men might

seek escape from prolonged strain.

In addition, there was some evidence

that the factor of social pressure, which

had helped to sustain morale, had simultaneously damaged health. At all stations

not under actual attack, there continued

to be more unit dances and approved

group parties than the women had energy

to attend. The enlisted Wacs were the

chief source of American dates for the enlisted men, who vied for invitations to the

WAC recreation halls and in providing

unit entertainments approved for WAC

attendance, with bands, decorations, refreshments, and other inducements. WAC

bulletin boards in Manila were filled with

bright-colored posters carrying mass invitations. Some listed the menu, promising

ice cream or some other rare delicacy, for

the Wacs soon became blase about masculine company and refused to stir without

the guarantee of food.

On one occasion fraternal bloodshed

was narrowly averted when one unit's

trucks appeared, flying false colors, and

carried off the Wacs destined for another

unit's dance. No Wac was so old or unattractive as to be neglected, although commanders feared that this would some day

cause a painful readjustment to the facts

of life in the United States. While such attention was of great assistance to morale,

the constant social pressure increased the

ever-present problem of fatigue. Group or

mass entertainment had always proved

tiring to WAC units, but in most Pacific

bases there was often no alternative recreation. Colonel Brown early recommended

that, at well-established camps, service

clubs for joint use be provided, but this

was seldom considered practicable.137

Length of Working Day

In accordance with tropical custom,

working hours generally began at seven

or eight in the morning and ended at nine

or ten at night, in order to permit time off

in the heat of the day for leisurely meals.

Thus, at Intersec headquarters the working day covered fifteen hours, from seven

in the morning to ten at night, with threehour breaks for meals.

While the relative merits of the system

on a six-day week were not primarily of

WAC concern, since all personnel was affected, inspectors noted adverse results in

certain organizations staffed almost completely by Wacs and which, because of the

pressure of work, were obliged to work

these hours for seven days a week. The allWac Central Mail Directory was reported

as working such hours for seven days a

week, with no day off for five months; the

same was true of the all-Wac Casualty

Section and the Machine Records Unit.138

In some cases it appeared that women did

not avail themselves of the full time off for

meals when work was heavy or an operation being launched. An FEASC management control survey noted, "In general

the enlisted women were working longer

137

 Memo and Ltr cited n. 53. 138

 (1) Interv cited n. 119. (2) AFPAC Reply, both

versions, except that official version omits names of

specific offices having no time off.
446 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

hours than enlisted men performing similar skilled duties."

 139

 Also, women's timeconsuming chores such as laundry were

usually not done during the mealtime

breaks but after hours, by their own

preference.140

Inspectors were unable to determine

whether adverse effects were due to lesser

endurance than men in the same offices,

or to the women's tendency to put in overtime. In any case, even without overtime,

the hours of work were longer than those

used successfully with civilian women in

either the United States or Britain.

Among reported instances, the greatest

damage to health occurred among the

Hollandia Wacs in General McMullen's

Far East Air Service Command. These

stood reveille every morning at 0530,

walked back and forth some distance to

work three times a day in all weather,

worked an official minimum often hours

a day, until ten o'clock at night, seven

days a week, with only Sunday afternoons

off, these being reportedly spent standing

in line to get to laundry facilities. After less

than a year of this schedule, the medical

loss rate in the FEASC WAC detachment

jumped alarmingly, from 3 per month in

January of 1945 to 30 per month in June.

The Air Surgeon reported that "an increasing number of cases are on record for

nervousness and exhaustion," and recommended that personnel be given one full

day off per week to relieve "nervous tension." The June rate, if continued, would

total more than 62 percent medical

evacuation per year, an unprecedented

loss even for combat troops. The staff director for FEAF supported the Air Surgeon's recommendation, noting that

offices were not really busy; it was believed that the day off could profitably be

applied to all personnel to avoid discrimination in favor of women. However, General McMullen rejected the request for

Sunday mornings off, and informed the

surgeon, "Medical records do not indicate

any situation ... to cause me serious

concern."

 141

Discipline and Morals

In the minds of some observers a question arose as to whether the medical loss

rate could have been affected by the type

of moral disintegration popularly supposed to afflict men and women in the

tropics. However, if such disintegration

took place, it was more subtle than could

be measured statistically, and did not consist of the gross sexual immorality about

which most rumors centered. On the contrary, the pregnancy rate for the Wacs'

chief period of service in the Pacific was,

like that of other overseas theaters, less

than one half the world-wide WAC rate,

which was itself low by civilian standards.

During the period after the arrival in

Manila, with the relaxation of previous

restrictions on marriage, the WAC pregnancy rate rose considerably, but was still

less than the world-wide rate, and about

the same as that for nurses in the Pacific.

Of the theater's 5,500 Wacs, only 111 were

reported returned home pregnant, with

an estimated half of these being married

women. However, in spite of the frequent

restriction to compounds, the Pacific

Wacs' rate was considerably higher than

that of the European theater, which

placed no special restrictions on women.142

139

 Hist Rpt, May 45. Folder II, WAC Det FEASC. 140

 Interv with Maj Charlee L. Kelly, 28 Jul 47. 141

 Memo, WAC Stf Dir FEAF for CG FEAF

through CG FEASC, 19 Jun 45, with Rpt of Surg and

Ind, CG FEASC to CG FEAF, 22 Jul 45. AG 333.1.

Correspondence folder, WAC Det FEAF, Drawer

X-25096. See also Ltr cited n. 86. 142

 For world-wide rates, see Ch. XXXI, below. For

SWPA rates, see Craighill SWPA Rpt.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 447

Venereal disease rates were likewise so

low as to be negligible. One commander

of a unit of over 700 women stated that

she did not, in the entire time, have any

new cases.143

Further evidence that no gross moral

breakdown occurred was offered by the

fact that the Wacs were gradually able to

convince the enlisted men that their mission in the area was a military one. Statistics on the trend of enlisted men's comments showed that a remarkable decline

in the number of derogatory comments

took place as soon as the men actually met

the Wacs. From a high of 90 percent unfavorable comments in the month before

the Wacs arrived, the number fell slowly

until, in the month in which demobilization began, only 28 percent of comments

were still unfavorable, many of these being

from units that had never seen Wacs.144

WAC detachment commanders frequently expressed an uneasy belief that

the discipline or perhaps merely the esprit

of their detachments was not as high as

that which they had known outside the

theater. Some felt that the women's habitual evasion of petty restrictions had undermined respect for more important rules

and for those in authority. Others noted

a lessened sense of conventionality, decorum, or discreet behavior; the WAC inspector general added, "Dress them like

tramps and they may act like tramps."

 145

However, detachment disciplinary records

seldom revealed other than exceedingly

minor offenses attributed chiefly to tension, exhaustion, or loss of respect for

authority. One detachment's worst case

was a woman who was AWOL from midnight until three in the morning. Another

detachment's worst was a woman who,

after fifteen months on a particularly exhausting job, was "on the verge of a complete physical and mental breakdown,"

went AWOL, and "spent her entire absence in a native hut sleeping."

 146

A number of minor offenses concerned

violation of the ban on officer-enlisted

dating, although the theater experienced

fewer problems in this respect than the

European, since most Wacs were already

restricted to approved group entertainment. Restrictions on officer-enlisted association were frequently severe; at some

USASOS bases in New Guinea, even husbands and blood relatives were for a time

not permitted to see Wacs of a different

status. WAC staff officers stated, "It is believed that this has resulted in resentment

of persons concerned and in flagrant violations."

 147

The prohibition was originally adopted

only over the nonconcurrence of the staff

director, in line with a previous ruling that

nurses would not be allowed to date corpsmen. WAC company officers noted that

they were obliged to punish their enlisted

women while officer dates were not punished; officers sometimes removed their insignia to attend unit dances, and at other

times flagrantly violated the rule. Combat

units in the area merely tore up such notices; while in one case the officer concerned was the head of the local military

police who were charged with enforcement. Air Forces and USAFFE headquarters ordinarily enforced nonassociation

rules less strictly than USASOS, thus fur143

 Craighill SWPA Rpt. 144

 (1) Tab 13, WAC Draft AFPAC Reply. Also

Surv, Comments on Women's Servs, 16 Jun 45, GHQ,

USAFPAC, copy in possession of former WAC Stf Dir.

(2) Morale Evaluation Rpt, Attitude Towards Women's Servs, Jul 45, Hq AFPAC, incl in Ltr, Actg Stf

Dir AFPAC, to Dir WAC, 11 Aug 45. WAC C1 file

SWPA. 145

 Interv cited n. 119. 146

 Folders, 5200th, 5203d, 5205th, and 5215th

WAC Dets. Quotation from 5215th WAC Det, 21

Aug-20 Sep 45. 147

 WAC Draft AFPAC Reply.

THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 449

ther complicating the problem of unequal

punishment.

After Wacs reached Manila, the problem began to assume added importance,

and the WAC staff director again requested permission for the social association of "relatives and friends of long standing" carrying passes from their WAC commanding officers. The theater again refused to set an over-all policy. WAC

company officers, when asked to make

suggestions for the improvement of discipline, included "a definite policy for officer-enlisted relationships"; "fewer rules

and more rigid enforcement of same."

 148

An additional restriction, more severe

than any in the European or Mediterranean theaters, was FEASC's customary

prohibition against marriage of its members; as applied to women, it allowed

them to marry only if they became pregnant. In this command, women engaged

to men about to leave for combat often

quite frankly consulted the WAC staff director and the chaplain to ask why they

should not take that course. To prevent

this, the staff director repeatedly attempted to secure more lenient terms for

both men and women of American citizenship; this was eventually granted by

General McMullen only after the headquarters reached Manila.149

 Only 121 of

the theater's 5,500 Wacs married in the

theater during the war.150

Restrictions on Daily Life

In the opinion of many observers, one

of the most serious handicaps to the health

of women in the area had been the restriction to locked compounds in the majority

of stations in New Guinea, a factor which

did not affect male troops. It was noted

that, among medical causes of evacuation

for women, psychoses and neuropsychiatric disorders were second only to dermatitis. It was always to remain a matter for

debate whether the unusual restrictions

placed upon women were necessary and

inherent in the dangers of the Pacific area,

or were an unnecessary creation of arbitrary theater policies. Colonel Brown continued throughout the stay in New

Guinea to recommend the abolition of the

system, but few modifications were ever

reported with the exception of the GHQ

unit in Hollandia, the smaller Air Forces

group, and minor adjustments elsewhere.151

Three resulting unfavorable factors

were noted. The most obvious was the

noise, crowding, and lack of privacy

which, in the opinion of medical officers,

fostered mental disorders. Even if the area

was not noisy, women experienced a

"sense of confinement" which made them

unable to relax after strenuous office hours

or tiring mass entertainment. Major

Craighill reported that women appeared

to value privacy more than men, and that

even among nurses, who as officers were

less crowded in tents than enlisted women,

the rate of loss for psychiatric reasons was

increased by lack of privacy.

More important, in medical officers'

opinions, were the physical disorders fostered by simple lack of physical exercise,

recreation, and rest. Major Craighill

wrote, "Facilities for exercise are lacking

in most places. ... In the tropics, more

148

 (1) Marginal note by Colonel Brown on draft of

this chapter. OCMH. (2) Fraternization in FEAF was

forbidden by Stf Memo 15, 30 Jul 44. Folder, WAC

Det FEAF I. (3) Interv with former CO of a USASOS

WAC Det, 22 Jul 47. (4) Check Sheet, Hq USAFFE,

WAC Stf Dir, to DCofS, 23 Jul 45, Tab 15 to WAC

Draft AFPAC Reply. (5) Quotation from Correspondence folder, 5200th WAC Det, Drawer X-29443. 149

 Memo cited n. 141. 150

 Griffith Account, "Statistics May 44-Sep 45." 151

 Sources cited n. 51.
450 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

than elsewhere, proper exercise is important." According to one WAC adviser,

The greatest deficiency in recreational

facilities since the Wacs left Australia has

been that at no time has there been a place

to which they could go for a three-day pass

and get away from the mental strain of group

living.152

The Pacific area obviously offered few

advantages in this respect. Leave areas for

men existed in Australia, operated by the

Red Cross, but in spite of Colonel Brown's

repeated recommendations, the handful

of Wacs remaining in Australia were refused permission to use them until near

the end of the war, when the Red Cross

replaced one of its workers who had

blocked admission of women.153 The Air

Transport Command also operated a

regular "leave shuttle" to Australia, carrying men from New Guinea on 3-day

passes. Although this shuttle was organized in Hollandia by the date of the Wacs'

arrival, and although ATC historians

noted that it often operated half empty, it

appeared to be seldom employed by most

headquarters, and in any case Wacs were

not given a quota.154

Army nurses were originally allowed

leaves from forward areas every six

months, and were transported by special

planes to leave areas,155 but as the headquarters advanced, this privilege was also

considerably restricted, and it never applied to Wacs. During the entire stay in

New Guinea, no leaves or passes were reported as given to enlisted women at most

installations, because of the absence of any

approved place to spend them. Major

Craighill noted that, for both Wacs and

nurses:

Recent restrictions against nurses' leave to

Australia completely deprive personnel of all

rest areas. None are provided in the islands

for women for even short periods. Such facili- ties are especially needed because of the unusual restrictions on women's activities and

the lack of outside places for recreation.

In those areas where men also had no

rest areas or were not allowed to use the

leave shuttle, the situation appeared unavoidable, although some WAC advisers

questioned whether a local commander's

action in restricting women to compounds

did not obligate him to find some means

of equalizing the resulting mental tension

and physical sluggishness.

Also increased, in company officers'

opinion, was the women's resentment, disobedience, and immature conduct. As the

women were well aware, "restriction to

quarters" was ordinarily employed by the

Army only for punishment. When restriction to quarters was imposed by courtmartial, Army Regulations contained the

caution that it "will not be imposed in

excess of three months."

 156

 Even though

the Wacs' custody was protective and not

punitive, it was difficult to find a previous

occasion in Army history in which a soldier had been kept in protective custody

for a year or eighteen months. If the system was indeed required, as theater authorities insisted, to prevent rape of Wacs

by Negro troops in New Guinea, the War

Department was not in a position to protest command policies. However, to WAC

leaders in the United States, viewing the

problem from a distance, it appeared that,

if an area was so dangerous as to require

the long-term confinement of soldiers of

one sex, such soldiers should not be considered for employment in that area. 152

 AFPAC Reply, both versions. 153

 Ltr cited n. 46. 154

 (1) Interv with Dr. Samuel Milner, author of

Victory in Papua, a forthcoming volume in this series.

(2) The ATC in the Pacific, 7 Dec 41-1 Aug 44, p.

148. USAF Hist Div. 155

 Annual Rpt, 1944, Chief Surg, USASOS, p. 35.

SGO R-3232 (1-7-47).

156 A Manual for Courts-Martial, U.S. Army, pp.

94, 104.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 451

In her final report to the War Department, Major Craighill stated that in her

opinion the rate of WAC loss was definitely increased by the lack of healthful

recreation, the undue restriction in compounds, and the failure to treat women as

responsible adults. This opinion coincided

closely with that reached by The Surgeon

General's Office in Washington concerning the rate of loss for men in the area:

The health of troops is directly affected by

command policies and procedures governing rotation, discipline, recreation, and the

provision of incentive and motivation. It

seems probable that these are influential

factors.157

Inferior WAC Commanders

Inspectors' reports indicated that in

certain detachments the sick rate had possibly been aggravated by inferior WAC

command practices. It was known that

some company officers with low efficiency

ratings had been unloaded on early shipments by commands in the United States.

However, these were not unduly numerous, and a number of excellent company

officers were also in the theater. Unfortunately, by a combination of circumstances,

quite often the inferior officers were

placed initially in company work from

which staff directors were later unable to

get them removed, while trained company

officers were assigned to office work.

Thus, the first shipment of Wacs had

contained a number of trained company

officers, intended to staff future companies. Instead, since USAFFE headquarters

desired to set up its censorship detachment

immediately, these officers were included,

with the promise of reassignment to company work when more enlisted women arrived. However, in spite of the efforts of

the staff director, their later release was

never concurred in by the central directory.158

In several cases, officers were assigned

to company work who had already failed

at it in the United States. Possibly the

worst example cited in inspection reports

was that of the FEAF WAC detachment.

Soon after its establishment, the USAFFE

inspector general discovered improper assignments, low morale, irregularities in detachment records, undue delay of mail,

partiality and lack of interest in enlisted

women's needs, and profane language on

the part of the WAC commander, as well

as threats to enlisted women in detachment meetings.159

 Unsatisfactory conditions were attributed by the inspector general chiefly to the WAC unit commander,

who had been sent overseas by the Fourth

Service Command after being relieved of

two different WAC commands in the

United States, one with an efficiency rating of Unsatisfactory. The situation also

reflected the initial lack of a staff director.

Because of the unit's unexpectedly sudden

beginnings with borrowed personnel, the

FEAF WAC staff director, Maj. Mary L.

Kersey, did not arrive from the United

States until the unit was already in Hollandia, and was then unable to correct the

already-established situation.

At this time Brig. Gen. Harry H. Baird

informed the USAFFE chief of staff:

A recent inspection of the FEAF WAC De- tachment by the Inspector General of this

headquarters makes it clearly evident that

adequate supervision of the WAC Company

Commander and administration of the WAC

Detachment has not been exercised. ... It

157

 Memo, Dir Contl Div SGO for Gen Kirk, 12 Jul

45, with Tab A from Chief Consultant in Medicine,

Tab B from Chief Consultant in Surgery, and Tab C

from Dir Neuropsychiatric Consultants Div. SGO

Classif MEDC-701. 158

 Boyce Rpt. 159

 WAC Draft AFPAC Reply only; certified copy

of USAFFE Inspection Rpt atchd.
452 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

is apparent that full use had not been made

either of Major Kersey's abilities or her prescribed duties as WAC Staff Director. It is

the opinion of G-1 that Headquarters FEAF

should either be required to conform to War

Department and Theater policy or that the

Women's Army Corps should be withdrawn

from that command.160

As a result, in January of 1945 FEAF

headquarters belatedly required its various sections to co-ordinate with the staff

director when setting WAC policy.

Although the inspector general also recommended removal of the WAC detachment commander, General Kenney refused to effect a replacement, since he had

personally selected the officer. Instead, she

remained with the detachment until its

inactivation, was promoted to the rank of

major, and received the Bronze Star.161

In another case, the WAC commander

of a USASOS detachment had been removed from a "large" command of 500 in

the United States in the belief that she

would be "all right in a small command

overseas." Instead, she was assigned to

command almost 1,000 women at one of

the most difficult stations. As in the previous case, difficulties developed and the

inspector general recommended her removal, but she was retained and promoted.162

 In one instance, in which a commander was sent direct from a WAC

training center, she was found to know little of field life, and inspectors discovered

her women to be near collapse from keeping the floors polished, barracks shining,

shoes and clothing in basic-training spotlessness, while working long hours in hot

weather.163 In still another case, an officer without previous company experience

was assigned as commander of a large detachment, over Colonel Brown's protests.

Inspectors noted, "Many problems, which

would have been routine for an experienced company commander, arose and

had an adverse effect upon the detachment."

 164

Not all WAC units were so afflicted; in

many cases WAC commanders were outstanding. Colonel Boyce, on a visit to the

area, particularly cited the commanders

of the FEASC detachment, which, after

the end of the war, she found still suffering

from illness and a long working day.

Colonel Boyce found the unit living in tin

barracks in an area without shade or trees,

very muddy or very dusty by turns, with

the women drenched by torrential rains as

they attempted to get to mess or to the

outside latrines. Dead Japanese were

buried so close to the surface that women

had to scatter lime around the mess hall

daily to control the stench. Nevertheless,

since the unit's establishment it had had

WAC commanders who were sincerely interested in the women's welfare, and Colonel Boyce reported the unit's state of

morale and discipline at that time far better than that of more healthfully situated

units.165

However, even where good company

officers were assigned, they were frequently found under a strain caused by

overwork and shortage of assistants. The

FEASC WAC detachment had 714 en160

 Check Sheet, G-1 USAFFE to CofS USAFFE

through WAC Dir, 29 Dec 44. Folder, WAC Det

FEAF. 161

 (1) FEAF Stf Memo 4, 15 Jan 45. (2) WAC

Draft AFPAC Reply only. Records of FEAF Detachment are incomplete; files noted destroyed by authority of company officers included: WAC Disciplinary

Problems, Questionnaire Rpt to Maj Kersey, Leyte to

Manila Move. Check Sheet re AAF Policy, Conditions

of Latrine, Unauthorized Departure, Policy of Beach

and Facilities, etc. Remaining are only Commendations, PRO file, vehicular reports, etc. (Envs 1 and 2,

Folder, Correspondence, General, Drawer X-25096.

(3) Interv with Lt Col Mary L. Kersey, 23 Jul 47. 162

 Insp Rpt, atchd to WAC Draft AFPAC Reply;

Boyce Rpt. 163

 Interv cited n. 119. 164

 Boyce Rpt; Rpt cited n. 162. 165

 Boyce Rpt.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 453

listed women and only three officers, the

number commonly assigned to a unit one

fourth that size in the United States. Inspectors recommended more, since work

was heavy, but more were not assigned,

although ten other WAC officers at the

same base were assigned operational

duties. The GHQ detachment for a time

had only one officer for 386 women; eventually one more was added. The huge

AFWESPAC battalion of some 3,000

women never had more than seven officers, even when it was scattered over three

widely separated stations with the commanding officer alone in Manila attempting to prepare for reception of the women.

In all, only 15 percent of the WAC officers

in the Pacific were assigned to WAC administration, as against 32 percent in the

European theater. There was only one

troop or staff officer for approximately 100

women, as against the one per 20 believed

suitable in the United States.166

Command of Enlisted Women by Male Officers

In several detachments, although WAC

officers of proven ability were in charge,

they were considered to have no powers

other than those of providing food and

housing, command and discipline being

the prerogative of male commanders to

whose units or offices the women were assigned. The situation was parallel to that

of enlisted men assigned to one command

and merely attached for quarters and rations to another. Even the ordinary Army

unit, formally activated and with its own

grades, encountered some friction between

commander and section chief over such

matters as promotions. Most WAC units

in the area, with a few exceptions such as

those in the Air Forces, were even more

vulnerable, being gradeless and without

"assigned" personnel other than cadre.

Noting that the command of enlisted

women by male officers was in her opinion

contrary to War Department regulations,

Colonel Brown soon after her arrival recommended publication of a clarification

such as that used in the European theater

and in the Army Air Forces in the United

States, to the effect that the WAC commander had full disciplinary powers even

though her unit was gradeless or not activated. When this was refused, she attempted to send a letter through channels

to the War Department, asking clarification of its ruling under the circumstances,

and stating that she considered the current system "dangerous" in view of certain

factors involved in the command of enlisted women by male officers. This letter

was stopped by USAFFE on the grounds

"that it did not pertain to the health, wellbeing, or morale of women," and Colonel

Brown was informed by Maj. Gen. Charles

P. Stivers, "Matters of assignment of Wacs,

determination of this headquarters."

 167

Discipline in the GHQ, USAFFE WAC

detachment eventually reached a crisis.

The WAC commanding officer, although

responsible for almost 400 enlisted women,

had no "assigned" personnel except one

assistant, and had in the detachment not

only Wacs working for GHQ but personnel assigned to nine other separate detachments as well as to Air Evaluation Board

and Philippine Base Section.168 After

women guilty of disciplinary offenses in

166

 (1) Memo, WAC Stf Dir FEAF for CG FEAF,

sub: Inspection of WAC Det FEASC, 4-6 Feb 45.

WDWAC 319.1 Pacific. (2) Folder, 5200th WAC Bn,

cx-447. (3) AFPAC Reply. Griffith Account gives 5

percent of officers on WAC administration, 95 percent elsewhere. 167

 (1) WAC Sec USAFFE Hist Rpts, particularly

Dec 44 and Jan 45. (2) Check Sheets in same folder,

particularly Check Note to CofS USAFFE, 2 Feb 45,

re Stivers decision. (3) Colonel Brown's marginal note

on draft of chapter. OCMH. 168

 Folder, 5200th WAC Bn, cx-447.
454 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the detachment were promoted by their

male commanders, one only a few days

after conviction by court-martial, General

Baird informed General Stivers:

It has come to our attention that there

have been a number of instances where enlisted women have taken up matters concerning WAC detachment internal administration with section chiefs. In several cases, staff

officers have suggested that enlisted women

follow a course of action directly in opposition to the orders of their company commander. It is obvious that a complete breakdown of internal company command will

result if the above situation is allowed to

continue within this headquarters.169

USAFFE headquarters therefore published a memorandum, for its own detachment only, stating:

Enlisted women seeking advice or decision

as to internal detachment administration will

be referred to the Commanding Officer,

WAC Detachment, by the section chiefs con- cerned.170

This directive, published without co-ordination with the staff director, still was not

effective, and squabbles ensued, such as

one in which the USAFFE board informed a WAC commander:

You, as commander of the detachment

serving this, as well as other units, in an administrative capacity, have no discretion in the matter [of WAC discipline in an off-duty

offense.]

 171

In any case, the ruling was applicable to

the USAFFE unit only, and did not solve

the problem elsewhere. WAC company

commanders, asked to comment on the

causes of delinquency, noted, "Most of our

troubles arose from a divided command

which created and fostered a disregard for

authority," and "Many Army Section

Chiefs tend to encourage infraction of

rules and try to protect the enlisted

women working for them."

 172

Major Kersey, the FEAF staff director,

noted later:

The Air Force WAC Detachments, FEAF, and FEASC, had all personnel assigned to

the WAC Squadrons, and consequently the

WAC commanders did not encounter the

same problem of disciplinary control.173

Some WAC commanders of proven

ability eventually asked to be removed

from company work because of their ambiguous status. One capable officer quit

after eight months because, "I could not

do anything about the things that were being done and I could not stay there and

see what was happening to [the women]."

Another WAC commander developed a

mental condition that required a disability discharge. Still another, of previously

irreproachable character, had to be relieved of command after she formed the

habit of drinking too much and spending

the evenings on the beaches in a state of

blissful unconsciousness.174

It eventually came to be Colonel

Brown's opinion that no mere publication

concerning disciplinary authority would

correct the situation, and that the enlisted

women should be formally assigned to

WAC units, the device adopted in the

Mediterranean theater and in the Army

Ground Forces. In spite of the cumbersome bookkeeping involved, such a command system was considered more nearly

foolproof.

169

 D/F, G-1 USAFFE to DCofS, 26 Mar 45, atchd

to WAC Draft AFPAC Reply. 170

 Stf Memo 31, Hq USAFFE, sec III. Atchd to

WAC Draft AFPAC Reply. 171

 Memo, Det Comdr, USAFFE Bd, to CO 5200th

WAC Det, 1 May 45, sub: Restriction of WAC Pers,

with 4 inds. Atchd to WAC Draft AFPAC Reply. 172

 Folders, 5200th WAC Det, Drawer X-29443,

and 5205th WAC Det, Drawer X-29853. 173

 Statement on draft of chapter, incl to Ltr, Col

Kersey, WAF Stf Dir, Hq Strat Air Comd, to Chief,

Mil Hist, 21 Apr 51. OCMH. 174

 Interviews listed in Bibliographical Note.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 455

Transfer of Responsibility to WAC Section

In attempting to solve the various WAC

problems, Colonel Brown's office came to

the opinion that "in all headquarters, full

advantage was not taken of the experience and knowledge of WAC staff officers."

 175

 Her own office was, in her

opinion, handicapped not only by lack of

formal responsibility but also by its inability to secure transfer to the advanced echelon where were located higher commanders and many of the enlisted women.

Shortly before the move to Manila Colonel Brown informed a critic:

Until it is possible for me to talk to General

Richard Marshall [Deputy Chief of Staff]

personally, we shall have to do the best we

can. I have every confidence that the Gen- eral will make it possible for me to carry out

the functions of a Staff Director as listed in

the War Department Circular 462.176

In the spring of 1945, the WAC Section

finally overtook the advanced echelon in

Manila, and Colonel Brown was able to

confer with General Richard Marshall.

She noted later, "General Marshall was

more than willing to seek and act upon

the Staff Director's recommendations."

 177

However, no written directive from General Marshall proved necessary, for shortly

thereafter G-1 Division of USAFFE recommended of its own accord that "all

policy and supervision of the WAC corps

in this theater be immediately taken over

by the WAC Section." It was stated that

G-1 Division had felt it necessary to retain

control during the experimental stages of

the WAC program, which now, being

safely established, could be turned over to

WAC officers.178

This transfer was only a part of the general reorganization going forward at the

time, during which GHQ and USAFFE

were consolidated to form the new Headquarters, Army Forces in the Pacific

(AFPAC). At this time the USAFFE WAC

Detachment working for GHQ at last

found itself working for the headquarters

of assignment, AFPAC.

The powers transferred to the staff director in no case included command. G-1

Division and the adjutant general's office

retained all normal operating functions

such as promotion and assignment. Even

in policy matters it developed that not too

many of the WAC Section's recommendations were accepted.179

 Nevertheless, it

was Colonel Brown's opinion that her office was now in a position to take action

against the several probable causes of the

medical evacuation rate.180

One immediate action was the publication of a directive concerning the disciplinary power of company commanders:

Where enlisted women are assigned to a

unit or organization other than a WAC detachment, the commanding officer of the

WAC detachment to which they are attached for rations, quarters, and administration will exercise disciplinary control.181

This directive applied only to the

USAFFE GHQ detachment, its promulgation to other units being prevented by

the command policy of noninterference.

Colonel Brown was never entirely satisfied

175

 WAC Draft AFPAC Reply only. 176

 Personal ltr, CO 5205th WAC Det to Col Brown,

11 Mar 45, and reply, 14 Mar 45. Folder, 5205th

WAC Det, Drawer X-29853. 177

 Written comments on draft of chapter; also comments in seminar. 178

 Check Sheet, Hq USAFFE, G-1 for CofS

through WAC Sec, 11 Apr 45, signed H.H.B. Approved by Comment 2, CofS to G-1, 12 Apr 45. Tab

6 to WAC Draft AFPAC Reply. 179

 USAFFE Check Sheet, WAC Sec to G-1 Div, 27

May 45, sub: Critical Score, Deployment Plan, and

comment 2 from G-1. FEWAC. 180

 List of "Subjects for Discussion with the Dir

WAC." Copy in possession of Mary-Agnes Brown. 181

 Atchd to WAC Draft AFPAC Reply: (1) D/F,

WAC Stf Dir USAFFE for G-1 Div USAFFE, 8 May

45, sub: Restriction of WAC Pers. (2) Stf Memo 52,

Hq USAFFE, 18 May 45.
456 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

with the resulting situation, and in her

final recommendations proposed that, regardless of accounting difficulties, all

women be clearly assigned to WAC companies. Otherwise, War Department regulations were ignored and "the placing of

enlisted women under the immediate

command of male officers . . . had an

adverse effect upon their well-being."

 182

A second issue immediately forced by

the WAC Section was that of supply. A

memorandum to General Richard Marshall asked that the theater take decisive

action to get proper clothing, and that a

representative be sent to the United States

to trace supplies. Much activity resulted in

the spring and summer of 1945, when

General Richard Marshall personally

wrote friends in the War Department to

try to expedite shipment. The matter eventually came to be considered important

enough to merit air priority, which had to

date proved the only means by which minority supplies had any chance of reaching

their goal. In May of 1945, Colonel Brown

was ordered to return to the United States

and personally check the status of each

requisition. By these means, Manila Wacs

obtained some supplies before the end of

the war with Japan. With the end of hostilities, it was believed that a reasonably

satisfactory supply system would have

been perfected had any Wacs remained in

the theater.183

War Department Investigation

A few days after transfer of responsibility to the WAC Section, the theater was

the object of a War Department "Investigation Concerning the Morale, Health,

and Living Conditions of WAC Personnel

in the Southwest Pacific Area."

 184

 Disquieting reports on the women's health

and well-being had been reaching the

War Department since the beginning of

the move to New Guinea. While many

were obviously exaggerations—particularly those from parents alleging that all

Wacs were being eaten up by "jungle

rot"—yet the area in any case was believed to merit a visit from Director Hobby

such as the two that she had already made

to Europe and Africa.

From May of 1944, when the first Wacs

went to New Guinea, Director Hobby

therefore planned to visit the area, but

was prevented by repeated hospitalization. In October of 1944, she placed

Deputy Director Rice on orders to go in

her place. Again at the last moment the

Director's illness intervened to cancel the

trip, since during these months the Director had only a deputy and one assistant

for her entire staff.

At this time, the Director secured permission for an inspection trip by Major

Craighill of The Surgeon General's Office.

This visit proved of little immediate assistance to the women, as it became part

of a tour of all theaters.

It was not until after the end of the war

that the second WAC Director, Colonel

Boyce, reached the area. Colonel Hobby's

resignation at this time was in fact hastened by the need for the Director to visit

the Pacific and her own inability to do so.

Meanwhile, the War Department's concern was spurred by the condition of Wacs

who began to trickle back from the Pacific,

of whom it was reported, "Not only do

these women arrive without adequate

clothing and equipment, but their state of

182

 AFPAC Check Sheet, WAC Sec to CofS through

G-1, 28 May 45. FEWAC. 183

 Sources cited n. 109. 184

 (1) Ltr, TAG to CINC SWPA, 9 Jun 45, sub:

Request for Investigation Concerning Morale, Health,

and Living Conditions of Members of WAC in Pacific

Areas. AGOB-C 333 WAC (5-18-45). (2) See also n.

1(3).
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 457

mind is very low and their health below

par."

 185

 Immediate action was precipitated when similar reports reached Congress and resulted in Congressional demands for an explanation. At this, General George Marshall requested of

General MacArthur a full confidential report of the condition of Wacs in his command.186

The reply to this inquiry proved unsatisfactory to the War Department; it

consisted chiefly of a copy of a press release made by Colonel Brown, who was

then in the United States checking supplies, plus the 1944 statistics on evacuation, which indicated that Wacs were in

good health. The War Department immediately demanded a second report, stating

sharply, "A release for publicity purposes

made here in the War Department is not

considered adequate as a confidential report to the War Department. . . ," and

adding that other statements were "very

general in content and the code indicates

that it was prepared by G-1 and not by

the WAC Staff Director's office or the Inspector General."

 187

A more detailed reply was then prepared in the WAC Section of AFPAC, but

was considerably censored by G-1 Division, so that the version which reached the

War Department was rather short. The

staff director noted:

G-1 here decided to scrap my report. . . .

They had some Major who has not long been

in the theater do the principal amount of

work on the one that was sent. So far, I have

not been able to get a copy of their finished

product.188

The theater-approved version gave only

two adverse items: (1) the failure of

Christmas presents to arrive on time, and

(2) the death of eight of the Wacs in a

plane crash.189

As a result, before illness finally forced

Colonel Hobby's resignation in the summer of 1945, several decisions were

reached by the Army's highest authorities,

with her concurrence. One was a general

decision to return all Wacs from all overseas theaters as soon after the end of hostilities as they became eligible for discharge, and not to send replacements.

This measure would have been required

in any event to permit demobilization of

the Corps as required by the current legislation. To cover the period before demobilization, a second plan was prepared,

which would have permitted voluntary

rotation of Wacs after 12 months in the

Southwest Pacific, and mandatory rotation after 18 months. These decisions effectively prevented WAC employment in

the Army of Occupation in Japan. It was

the theater's verdict that it would not be

worthwhile to prepare housing and move

the units to Japan in view of the few remaining weeks. A computation of point

scores for discharge eligibility showed that

by the end of 1945 all but 500 of the

Pacific's Wacs would be eligible for return

under the Army's Adjusted Service Rating

System, and that even these 500 would be

eligible in a few more months.190

The War Department also refused to

allow the Pacific theater to keep dis185

 Memo, Lt Col Helen H. Woods, Deputy Dir

WAC, for G-1, 10 Oct 45. WDWAC 330.11. She

refers to returning Wacs of previous months. 186

 Ltr cited n. 184(1). Inclosure 1 is Congressional

request. 187

 D/F cited n. 61. Inds show: Congressional Inquiry, 18 May 45; first request to Pacific, 26 May 45;

interim Ltr to Congress from CofS, 8 Aug 45; first

SWPA Rpt, 21 Aug 45, rejected for reasons given

above. 188

 Ltr, WAC Stf Dir AFPAC to Col Boyce, 28 Dec

45. WD WAC 3 20. 189

 Rpt cited n. 1(3). All supporting documents

were omitted in theater version. 190

 (1) See Ch. XXXVI, below. (2) Memo, KKJ

(Maj Katherine Johnson, Exec WAC) for Dir WAC,

11 Jun 45, sub: Rpt of Action 6-11 Jun 45. WDWAC

319.1. (3) Boyce Rpt, draft version.
458 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

charge-eligibles who volunteered to remain. These were not many. Surveys before the defeat of Japan showed that 57

percent of WAC eligibles—80 percent of

the AFWESPAC (formerly USASOS)

group, 82 percent of FEAF—wanted to go

home; by comparison, only 5 percent in

Italy and 38 percent in England had expressed a desire to go home before the

fighting ended.191

Extensions and exceptions were later to

be given to the European and China theaters, so that their volunteer Wacs were

not forced to return; no such extension

was allowed the Pacific theater. Colonel

Brown, herself a victim of amoebic dysentery that had already required hospitalization, believed an extension should have

been granted, but was not called on to

comment in the matter and did not return to the Pacific after demobilization

began. She was awarded the Legion of

Merit and a high efficiency rating personally signed by General MacArthur.

Lt. Col. Mera Galloway, formerly

WAC Staff Director, Transportation

Corps, was sent to the theater with the assigned mission "to close WAC History in

the Southwest Pacific in an efficient and

successful manner."

 192

 Colonel Boyce also

arrived in the area as the closing-out began; until her report was received there

remained the possibility that an extension

of the return date of WAC volunteers

would be granted.

Colonel Boyce was accompanied on her

visits by the new staff director, by a War

Department representative of G-3 Division, and by Dr. Marion Kenworthy, a

prominent psychologist and member of

the National Civilian Advisory Committee. The team talked individually with

hundreds of enlisted women, and visited

remaining WAC units on Hollandia, Biak,

and Luzon.193

Their impression was not favorable.

From Manila, Colonel Boyce cabled to

the War Department: "I recommend all

enlisted women in this theater be enroute

USA for discharge or reassignment not

later than 1 January 1946."

 194

 The medical loss rate had declined only slightly and

Colonel Boyce, although a veteran of the

North African crisis, was disturbed by the

apparent poor health of members still on

duty. Most were underweight, and all

were highly fatigued. When the headquarters attempted to hold a parade formation in her honor, and delay resulted

in an hour's wait, eight women fainted.

Many were still working seven days a

week with additional evening duty. Food

was still poor, some quarters still unhealthful with beds standing in an inch of water,

while few women yet had adequate clothing and footgear for protection against the

daily rainstorms.

Colonel Boyce advised theater commanders that the women's condition

required immediate action: less overtime

office work, granting of quotas for rest

areas, and more suitable clothing, such as

that provided enlisted men for protection

from the rain. Her advice was not accepted, although a service club and a rest

camp were eventually opened to women

a few weeks before they left. Colonel

Boyce, after her encounter with theater

authorities, wrote to Colonel Brown: "I

want you to know that my observations in

the theater simply confirmed the faith I

have always had in your ability to perform

191

 "Readjustment Rating Scale Figures, Manila

Area." In possession of Mary-Agnes Brown. 192

 Boyce Rpt, draft version. 193

 Ltr, Lt Col Mera Galloway Ferrin to OCMH,

22 May 51. 194

 Cbl, CinC AFPAC Comd, Manila, Boyce for

WD, 27 Oct 45. C-19184, WDWAC 320.01.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 459

difficult assignments in a superior manner."

 195

Many section chiefs, as well as Colonel

Brown, felt that the refusal to permit

WAC volunteers to be retained was unwarranted and deprived them of needed

office help. The Commanding General,

AFWESPAC, Maj. Gen. Wilhelm D.

Styer, requested that the War Department

at least allow a short extension; he proposed to make all Wacs warrant officers if

this would allow them to remain. Colonel

Boyce replied from Washington that the

War Department was extremely sorry not

to grant the request but that the January

deadline could not be extended. Women

were extended the same privilege offered

in the European theater, that of remaining

as civilian employees if they desired, but

only about 200 elected to remain.196

Demobilization

A final problem was presented: the

shipment of the women to the United

States. Colonel Boyce while still in the

theater found the first large group already

boarding the ship Evangeline for return.

The ship appeared unsuitable—verminridden, ill ventilated, with men obliged to

walk to mess through the WAC sleeping

quarters. The women's physical condition

left much to be desired. They had no

woolen clothing, such as was issued to men

for a comparable voyage, the original

clothing in which they arrived having long

since deteriorated in distant warehouses.

Colonel Boyce, however, was unwilling

to stop the shipment in view of the

crowded state of port housing, the scarcity

of ships of any sort, and the women's

eagerness to get home. She radioed her

office that she was "extremely disturbed"

at the condition of the women, and feared

that they "will make a very poor impression upon their communities unless their

general condition can be improved upon

their arrival." Accordingly, the War Department directed that the AAF WAC

Officer and the ASF WAC Officer, Colonels Bandel and Goodwin, hurry to a west

coast port to meet the shipment. This was

accomplished, but obviously little could

be done in the few days before the women

were discharged, and the precautions did

not prevent unfavorable publicity and

headlines, such as VERMIN-RIDDEN TROOPSHIP, in both the Associated and the

United Presses. WAC authorities feared

the Corps' whole hard-won public relations victory might be jeopardized if the

entire 5,500 women returned to their

forty-eight states in a physical or mental

condition alarming to the public.197

The second WAC group was being

loaded on another ship, previously used to

transport Chinese laborers, when the commanding general of the Hollandia Base

saw it and refused to allow his Wacs to

join those already on it. Colonel Boyce

hurried to the scene and, without authority, ordered the remaining Wacs off, and

port commanders thereupon turned the

ship back to its owners as unfit for military

use.

Before she left the theater in November,

Colonel Boyce conferred with the chief of

the transportation section and secured the

assignment of a WAC officer to the office

of the port director, to co-ordinate future

shipping arrangements for Wacs and

nurses. The WAC staff director or her

assistant thereafter personally inspected

shipping space assigned to women before

195

 Ltr, Dir WAC to Mary-Agnes Brown, 12 Dec

45. Personnel Abstracts, WAC file, OCMH. 196

 (1) Ltr, Dir WAC to WAC Stf Dir, AFPAC, 11

Dec 45. WDWAC 320. (2) Ltr cited n. 193. 197

 (1) Memo cited n. 185. (2) UP Release, 23 Oct

45, with headlines such as that in the Denver, Colo.,

Rocky Mountain News.
460 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the date of loading. No further difficulties

were noted.198 On 10 January 1946, the

last major shipment of returning enlisted

women was loaded onto the West Point, the

ship that had brought the first group to

Australia, and from which the last now

waved farewell to Manila.

Conclusion

The Director WAC, when later asked

whether she would recommend that

women ever again be stationed in such

areas, was exceedingly doubtful as to the

correct reply. Some of her advisers felt that

the greater sacrifices of combat troops in

the area made it impertinent even to question whether women should be sent to any

area in which men were required to fight.

Others commented:

Men had to be there; nurses had to be

there so long as the Army had no male

nurses; but Wacs didn't have to be there; and

it seems important to discover whether a de- cision to use enlisted women in such an area

is wise and economical or not.199

Theater authorities with one exception

agreed that the WAC experiment was an

unqualified success. General MacArthur

stated to WAC leaders that he was satisfied with the results of WAC employment.

When Colonel Boyce consulted him in

Tokyo, he praised Wacs highly, calling

them "my best soldiers," and alleging that

they worked harder than men, complained less, and were better disciplined.

He informed Colonel Boyce that he would

take any number of the Wacs the War Department would give him in any future

command he might ever have.200

General Styer, commanding general of

the Army Forces in the western Pacific,

called the Wacs' service "a matter of everlasting credit to the Women's Army

Corps," and said that the Wacs were

"courageous soldiers," who from Australia

to Manila "more than carried their share

of the burden."

 201

General Kenney, commander of the

Far East Air Forces, stated that his Wacs'

work "has been of the highest caliber.

Each has better than replaced a soldier."

 202

 General McMullen of FEASC

said, "The detachment in every way upheld the fine traditions of American womanhood and their departure is a distinct

loss to the command."

 203

Colonel Ginsburgh of USASOS added,

"The Wacs did a job. We never had the

sense of frustration which a discussion of

their problems gives you; we only had a

sense of achievement."

 204

On the other hand, General Baird, G-1

of USAFFE, later wrote:

I cannot truthfully say that their contribution, great as it was, outweighed the difficulties. On the other hand, nothing I could say

would quite do justice to the loyal and efficient effort they put forth under all conditions and circumstances; to their courage and

fortitude. ... I do not believe that Wacs

should be sent outside the limits of the United

States until every general service man has

been replaced by a Wac, and until every

other available limited service man has been

replaced. . . . The hardships, isolation and

privation of jungle theaters are jobs for men. Women should be employed there only as a

last resort."

 205

198

 Ltr, WAC Stf Dir AFPAC to WAC Stf Dir

SFPOE, 8 Nov 45. 199

 Interv with Lt Col Mera Galloway, second

AFPAC Stf Dir. (See Bibliographical Note.) 200

 (1) In interv with Col Boyce, 14 Oct 45, quoted

in Rpt to Gen Marshall. Also see his statement in

booklet "The 5205th WAC Det, GHQ," published in

theater. WDWAC 000.7. Incl in Ltr, CO, 5205th

WAC Det to Dir WAC. (2) Statement by Colonel

Boyce to author and others, 19 November 1946, upon

her return from SWPA. 201

 Griffith Account, "Commendations." 202

 Ibid. 203

 Ltr, CG FEASC to Dir WAC, 3 Jan 46, sub:

Commendation. WDWAC 201.22 and 330.13. 204

 Interv, 13 Aug 47. 205

 Memo, Col Harry H. Baird for Hist Div SSUSA,

29 Jul 48. OCMH.
THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA 461

An opposite view was offered by the first

WAC staff director, Colonel Brown, who

wrote later:

The fact that the mission was successfully

performed is much more important than a

hind-sight consideration of whether it was

wise to use Wacs in SWPA. ... In my

opinion the service of WAC members was

essential to the success of Army operations in

New Guinea and the Philippines. I deplore

the failure of those immediately over the

Staff Director ... to accept my recommendations on procedures to assure the wellbeing of WAC personnel, but the WAC mission was accomplished in spite of these and

other obstacles and at not too great a sacri- fice.

Colonel Brown joined with the staff

director of the European theater in advocating a permanent WAC in the Regular

Army, and pointed out:

Colonel Hobby's recommendation to

General Marshall that Wacs be withdrawn

from SWPA was made without consulting

the Staff Director. . . . When General Mar- shall decided to send Colonel Boyce to the

theater to "put the lid on," the recommendations or opinions of the Staff Director . . . were not sought.

Colonel Brown also was of the opinion that

the heavy loss rate would have slackened

eventually with improved supply and

other provisions.206

From the War Department's Armywide viewpoint, the verdict was less positive. Even in the few brief months between

the incidence of the loss rate and the recall

of the women, heavy casualties had been

suffered, while the future usefulness of

many of the other women was questionable.

 207

 The War Department inspection

team noted, of the entire group:

It was evident that in their forced adaption they had no realization of their physical and

mental sacrifices. It is possible that not until

they return to the Zone of the Interior will

they acknowledge the changes which have

taken place within them.

 208

These were, to the War Department,

expensive losses. A skilled Wac was valuable Army property, representing a considerable investment in recruiting and

training, and was needed for assignment

in four or five jobs for every one that could

be filled. Had the same 5,500 women been

assigned to any of the other numerous

overseas or domestic commands that had

unfilled requisitions, few of these losses

would have occurred under prevailing loss

rates.

It therefore appeared to have been poor

economy to employ women in circumstances where the loss among an equal

number of men would have been only one

fourth as great. If men in the proper skills

were unavailable, the loss was obviously

required in winning the war. The question

of whether the entire Army of 7,700,000

men was not at this stage able to afford

5,500 men in clerical skills was one to be

answered by students of the world-wide

replacement system, and was a matter beyond the scope of either WAC or theater

knowledge. Operations Division's decision

to send Wacs had been made in the belief

that, in the moment of manpower shortage, there existed no such 5,500 men.

Thus, the original decision to send Wacs

needed no justification; any future decision concerning the use of women in such

an area would require consideration of the

existing manpower shortage versus the

probable loss rate.

It came to be the final opinion of most

WAC leaders that women not only should

be sent to such an area under equally desperate circumstances, but that they could

206

 Memo, Lt Col Brown for OCMH, 23 Apr 51,

and comments at seminar, 1948. 207

 All from AFPAC Reply, both versions, except

nonmedical evacuations, which are from WAC Stf

Dir's file. 208

 Boyce Rpt.
462 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

probably be employed without any comparable loss rate by application of the

principles of WAC employment used elsewhere. These included, particularly, advance planning, a definition of the place

of WAC advisers, command of women by

female company officers, specialist attention to tracing the supplies of the relatively

small group of women, and consideration

of women's psychological need for treatment as responsible adults. In her final

report to General George Marshall, Colonel Boyce summarized the WAC impression:

Women in the Army should be required

and permitted to serve wherever the Army

serves when their services are needed. How- ever, in ... New Guinea, Biak, and the

Philippines, it is apparent that essential safe- guards to the effective utilization of WAC

personnel were not applied.209

A clue to an explanation of this lack of

safeguards could be found in world-wide

WAC experience, which indicated that the

fault lay in the time factor as much as in

any human element. In both other major

theaters, a considerable shakedown period

was required after WAC arrival in order

to set up a satisfactory administrative system and specialist attention to supply and

other needs. The Fifth Army experiment

had not been attempted until eleven

months after the first Wacs' arrival; the

Normandy move, until twelve months

after arrival. In the Pacific, the worldwide norm of a WAC administrative system had also been worked out at the end

of a year. It was the theater's misfortune

that, because of the lateness of its requisitions for Wacs, the achievement of this system had coincided with the end, and not

with the beginning, of a risky experiment.

209

 Ibid.
CHAPTER XXIII

Other Overseas Theaters

In addition to being employed in the

three major overseas theaters, Wacs were

stationed in every other active theater of

war. In each case the employment was relatively minor, never exceeding a few hundred women. Nevertheless, remaining

records of the various experiments often

provided clear-cut indications of the practicability of employment of womanpower

in differing climates and administrative

situations.

Southeast Asia Command

Pioneer in the employment of American

Wacs in India was Vice-Adm. Lord Louis

Mountbatten's Southeast Asia Command.

The headquarters already employed

nurses, British servicewomen, members of

the Indian WAC, and local civilians, so

that no great venture was undertaken

when a small unit of sixty-two enlisted

Wacs and four officers was added to the

staff in October of 1943. After six months

in New Delhi, the unit was transferred in

April of 1944 to Southeast Asia Command

headquarters in Ceylon, where it remained

for the duration.1

Fourteen of the enlisted women were

assigned to Signal Corps duties, and the

remainder to routine clerical work in

offices of the headquarters, both British

and American. Officers, in addition to

company duty, were assigned operational

jobs in the same offices.

No great difficulties were encountered

by the unit in the performance of its jobs.

The two stations of assignment, while by

no means pleasure resorts, were not the

most trying in India. New Delhi, the capital, was one of India's cleaner and more

healthful cities in spite of temperatures

ranging up to 110° F. The Wacs nevertheless soon discovered the ailment theater

veterans designated as "Delhi belly." The

climate of Ceylon was tropical, without

extremes of heat but with excessive humidity during the rainy seasons. Enlisted

women were housed in barracks in the

WRNS area, which inspectors pronounced

excellent in spite of the customary bucket

latrines and absence of hot water. Both

men and women ate at a joint mess, which

lacked cold-storage facilities and thus had

only small amounts of meat and few fresh

vegetables. Drinking water was boiled and

stored in Lyster bags. The working day

generally followed the nonstrenuous British schedule, with an 8-hour day and one

day off per week.

Major Craighill, who visited the unit

after Wacs had been in India for some

1

 No records of this group were found, with the exception of Memo, Maj Craighill for The SG through

SEAC and IBT, 6 Apr 45, sub: Med and Social Conditions of Women in Mil Serv in Ceylon. SGO Hist

Div 319 Special, Ceylon, Women In. In addition,

comments on drafts of the present chapter were given

by Charles F. Romanus and Riley Sunderland, authors of Stilwell's Mission to China, UNITED STATES

ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washington, 1953).
464 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

eighteen months, stated that "the general

health of the detachment is excellent." Except for dengue fever, mild gastrointestinal

conditions, and skin infections, there had

been no notable illnesses, and especially no

amoebic or bacillary dysentery, or malaria. One serious exception was the Signal Corps women, who were on aroundthe-clock shifts, rotating every four days.

Major Craighill noted:

A high incidence of sickness among the

group working on irregular hours with the

Signal Corps is significant. Of the 58 admissions for all causes, 20 were from this group

of 14 women. This includes the hospitalization of ten of the fourteen: the other four

have all been on sick call. These conditions

are attributable to the irregularity of meals

and the loss of sleep due to constantly shift- ing hours of work.

In spite of Major Craighill's recommendations, the headquarters did not modify the

shift changes, since they were "in accordance with the present British system."

 2

No final recommendation was on record

from the headquarters concerning the success of employment of Wacs. There appeared to be no very valid reason why

women could not successfully fill many of

the jobs in any such high administrative

headquarters. On the other hand, there

was no proof that local employees could

not have done the work adequately without the importation of American women.

The China-Burma-India Theater

The intrinsic suitability of the ChinaBurma-India (CBI) theater for WAC employment was by no means identical with

that of the Southeast Asia Command.3

Principal supply installations were in Calcutta, a city noted for oppressive heat, disease, and filth, and generally considered

even more unhealthful for unacclimated

white women than the more sparsely populated New Guinea islands. However,

there were certain advantages not possessed by the Southwest Pacific Area, notably the fact that in Calcutta, a city approximately the size of Chicago, there were

available civilian shops and tailoring facilities, as well as some approved recreational

facilities. Nevertheless, the experience of

nurses and Red Cross women already in

the area was not encouraging; nurses had

previously suffered from clothing shortages, emotional strain, tension, and a

medical evacuation rate four times that of

the men.4 "Wacs in India were definitely

on trial," a later report stated, "as many

Army officials believed that women would

not be able to stand for long the climate

and diseases found in Asiatic countries."

 5

It was therefore not until July of 1944,

two years after the Corps' establishment,

that the Air Forces headquarters in Calcutta received its first Wacs. Earlier attempts to bring in Wacs had been blocked

by the theater commander, Lt. Gen.

Joseph W. Stilwell, who eventually yielded

to the Air Forces' requests only after receiving the express pledge of the Air

2

 1st Ind to Memo cited n. 1. 3

 (1) CBI WAC files, by folder number and specific

document therein. (See Bibliographical Note.) Other

important sources are: (2) Rpt, AAF, IBT to TAG,

5 Jul 45, sub: Surv of WAC Health and Living Conditions in India-Burma Theater. AG 321 WAC,

Hobby files, also in CBI WAC files. Hereafter cited as

IBT WAC Survey. (3) Rpt, Maj Craighill to The SG

through CG IBT, 30 Mar 45, sub: Med and Social

Conditions of Women in Mil Serv in IBT. SGO Hist

Div 319.1 -2, Women, India-Burma; hereafter cited as

Craighill IBT Rpt. (4) Comments on draft of present

chapter by Maj. Beryl Simpson, wartime WAC Staff

Director, China Theater, and Maj. Betty Clague,

wartime WAC Staff Director, CBI Theater. 4

 Incl 3 to Craighill IBT Rpt. 5

 Rpt, WAC Stf Dir AAF CT, 25 Oct 45, sub: Narrative Account of WAC Activities in Chungking,

China, 15 Jul-13 Oct 45. WDWAC 319.1; also in

Folder, Chungking, CBI WAC Sec files.
OTHER OVERSEAS THEATERS 465

Forces commander, Maj. Gen. George E.

Stratemeyer, that any Wacs brought in by

the AAF would never under any circumstances be assigned to other than Air

Forces headquarters.6

Scrupulously careful advance preparation was the keynote of the entire Air

Forces project. Wacs for shipment to India

were selected by the Army Air Forces

from among women proved capable and

emotionally stable by service at airfields

in the United States. The result was so

good that General Stratemeyer, upon

later checking their job performance, congratulated Director Hobby, who congratulated General Arnold, who congratulated

air commands in the United States, who

passed the commendation on to selecting

officers at airfields—the whole project

ending in a glow of mutual admiration.7

This success was the more remarkable

in that the theater, with typical overseas

optimism, asked percentages of scarce

skills never remotely approached in the

United States—one fourth stenographers,

one fourth typists, and the rest all highly

skilled in other fields.8 It was possible to

supply these satisfactorily only because

the total original request was not large,

less than 300. Selection was marred only

by seven cases in which the routine physical inspections failed to detect serious

physical disqualifications that caused the

women to be returned to the United

States. Much to the theater's chagrin, the

first report of its WAC experiment was

given to the press by one of these women,

who had never set foot in India except to

enter the comfortable port hospital but

who was described by reporters as the

heroine of a bout with jungle, heat, and

disease-bearing insects, as she personally

battled her way through Burma side by

side with General Stilwell.9

The actual reception of the Wacs was

considerably less alarming. "Never has

any WAC contingent received a more cordial welcome than this group," wrote the

WAC staff director, Maj. Betty Clague.

Everyone from the Commanding General

on down has apparently had a personal in- terest in our welfare and happiness. . . .

Everyone is impressed with the fact that they

must not let down these men who have expressed such a satisfaction in having us as an

integral part of their headquarters.10

Accommodations were unique, consisting of a section of a huge eight-acre jute

mill, which also sheltered headquarters'

offices and many of the officers' and enlisted men's quarters. Space allotment per

individual was somewhat greater than

that of the zone of the interior, and Wacs

had not only single-decked beds with

sheets and pillows, but dressers, chests of

drawers, overhead fans, and mosquito

nets. Latrines had toilets, showers, tubs,

and mirrored washbasins. For the less

than 400 enlisted women11 who eventually

lived in these quarters, there were 23

Indian sweepers and about 50 ayahs, who

6

 Ltr, CG AAF IBT to Dir WAC, 15 Nov 44, sub:

WAC Utilization, (Incl 1 to IBT WAC Survey). 7

 Ibid. Also Ltrs, Dir WAC to CG AAF and CG

AAF IBT, 18 Dec 44. WDWAC 320.2. 8

 IBT WAC Survey, p. 6. The 257 enlisted women

on duty at that date: 67 stenographers, 61 clerktypists, 69 clerks, and the rest qualified in such jobs as

key punch operator, draftsman, radar specialist, intelligence specialist, photolaboratory technicians,

classification specialist, telephone operator, medical

technician, cadre, and the like. 9

 Ibid., p. 9. See also (1) Memo, CO WAC Del for

WAC Stf Dir, 14 Feb 45; (2) Ltr, WAC Stf Dir to Air

WAC Off, 22 Feb 45. Folder IBT, CBI WAC files. 10

 Ltr, WAC Stf Dir AAF CBI to Air WAC Off, Hq

AAF, 21 Aug 44. WDWAC 320.2 CBI. 11

 IBT WAC Survey shows 257 EW as of that date.

In her comment on a draft of this chapter, Major

Simpson shows 397 as the highest number ever on

Morning Report. For final theater strength figures, see

Table 7, Appendix A.
TAJ MAHAL is seen by four women of the Southeast Asia Command on a sightseeing tour.
OTHER OVERSEAS THEATERS 467

made beds, shined shoes, washed underwear, and policed the area. There was also

provided a hairdressing shop, a dispensary in the WAC area, and a dayroom

with piano and radio. The only obvious

objection to the arrangement was, according to medical inspectors, the noise in the

big building, which made it difficult for

night workers to get any sleep. In the

future, living accommodations for not exceeding 75 in a group were recommended.

With this exception, quarters were possibly more comfortable than the average

barracks in the United States, although

members expressed a mild initial surprise

at observing large rats frisking through

the machinery overhead, and birds roosting on the beds.12

Other advance preparations had been

carefully made. The post exchange

stocked needed women's items—cosmetics, stockings, brassières, girdles, and

garter belts. Wacs were admitted to the

Red Cross club and to the enlisted men's

club, where tea was served daily. There

was a free movie theater, and free hourly

bus service to Calcutta, with its Army-approved swimming pools and dining and

dancing places. Provision was made for

Wacs to share in the theater authorization

for yearly 15-day rest leaves in mountain

resorts, with breakfast in bed and sports

such as golf, riding, and tennis.13

Wacs ate at the men's large consolidated mess, where supervision was taken

over by an experienced WAC mess officer,

Capt. Roslyn Katz, a WAC mess sergeant,

and other Wacs who supervised Indian

cooks and kitchen laborers. Some 8,000

meals a day were served at this mess,

which was later rated as "well above the

average in this theater." Food was generally considered to be as attractive and

appetizing as was possible in the absence

of salads, milk, fresh butter, and other uncooked items. Besides regular meals, a

midnight snack of hot coffee and sandwiches was available.14

Air Forces authorities believed that they

had been equally careful in making advance provision for suitable uniforms, but

immediately discovered that in fact they

had shown scarcely better foresight than

had the Southwest Pacific Area. At the

written request of the theater, each woman

had been issued six off-duty dresses for

office wear, since this, although not the

ideal dress that could have been designed

for the area, seemed the coolest garment

already stocked by quartermaster depots.

It was soon discovered that the dresses

were "washable" only by methods seldom

known to local ayahs, and "couldn't stand

beating on a rock for two or three changes

a day"; even when later reserved for dress,

they did not prove durable. Furthermore,

although malaria control restrictions required wearing of slacks after 1800, the

need for them had not been foreseen and

again the only available items were herringbone twill coveralls. These, however,

were pronounced totally impossible by

theater authorities, since the weather was

too hot to make them endurable and they

"would have increased alarmingly the incidence of skin infections."

 15

The theater was saved from consequences similar to those in the Southwest

Pacific Area by the fact that local shops

could provide the necessary items if the

Wacs had the money to purchase them.

The theater could find no Army funds for

the issue of men's slacks, but medical offi12

 (1) Craighill IBT Rpt. (2) IBT WAC Survey, pp.

1-2. (3) Intervs with CBI Wacs. 13

 IBT WAC Survey, pp. 2-5, 10 and Incl 3. 14

 Ibid.

15

 Comments of theater staff director on draft copy

of chapter, and in interview.
468 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

cers refused to let the women leave the

barracks for their evening meal until so

equipped. Therefore, most enlisted women

bought slacks tailored of an Indian mesh

cotton. Mosquito boots were also purchased, as well as cotton anklets, sandals,

and sometimes bush jackets. Also, Air

Forces headquarters proved prompt in

remedying deficiencies, and some months

later succeeded in getting shipment for

each woman of five cotton skirts and seven

short-sleeved shirts for office wear, as well

as three pairs of women's khaki slacks for

wear after 1800. For the two or three

colder months, wool clothing was provided. Eventually, CBI Wacs, by their

own and theater efforts, had about double

the amount provided for Wacs in semitropical climates in the United States, although no more than medical authorities

deemed necessary in view of the frequent

changes of perspiration-soaked garments

that were required to prevent illness.16

All of the provisions of Air Forces headquarters for its men and women, although

frequently exceeding the average for military facilities elsewhere, paid off in respect

to the health rate. At the time of Major

Craighill's inspection in March of 1945,

no Wacs had been evacuated to the

United States for medical reasons, except

the original seven, who had disqualifying

defects upon arrival. If these were counted,

the loss rate was still only about 2 percent

per year as compared with 2.1 percent for

the theater.17

Major Craighill reported, "The medical

care and condition of women is in general,

good. They seem to stand the strain of

overseas service as well as do men."

 18

Both WAC and theater authorities attributed the low loss rate to the fact that Wacs

were not only encouraged but ordered to

report to the sick bay in their barracks at

the slightest sign of any disorder, or even

for advice. As a result, as many as 10 percent of the women in winter months, and

20 percent in summer, reported each

month to the sick bay for cases not requiring hospitalization, as against 5 and 9

percent, respectively, for men. Theater

authorities urged women to patronize

medical facilities even more frequently if

necessary, and provided not only a nurse

for the well-equipped dispensary, but a

gynecologist in the local hospital.

There was every indication that, without such constant care, the health hazards

of the area would have been comparable

to those of the Southwest Pacific Area, for

illnesses included both amoebic and bacillary dysentery, impetigo, hepatitis, various

fevers, and respiratory disorders. Major

Craighill recommended that two years'

service in the area be the limit, since

"Among nurses who have been overseas

two years or more, there is an obvious increase in tension, manifested by irritability, depression, insomnia, and loss of

effective energy."

 19

An additional health problem was what

Major Craighill called the "great emotional strain" from the social demands of

"a group of isolated and lonesome men."

While Wacs were by no means the only

white women in the theater, they were

nevertheless overwhelmed upon arrival

with such numerous offers of social engagements that not all could be accepted.

In the interests of health and working efficiency, WAC commanders from time to

time prescribed dateless nights, quiet

16

 Ibid. Also (1) IBT WAC Survey, pp. 9-10. (2)

Ltr, WAC Stf Dir to Air WAC Off, 7 Oct 44. Folder

CBI, CBI WAC files. 17

 From Stat Div SGO: total over-all loss by medical evacuation in 1944 was 2.1 percent; in 1945, 2.7

percent. 18

 Craighill IBT Rpt. 19

 (1) Ibid. (2) IBT WAC Survey, pp. 10-13: Comparative statistics for men and women.
OTHER OVERSEAS THEATERS 469

hours, and other expedients. After the first

months, most Wacs were fatigued by the

constant masculine attention, and found

organized parties and mass invitations

especially tiring.20

Coupled with the theater's precautions

concerning health were, in the early days,

numerous protective restrictions which,

although not comparable to those in the

Southwest Pacific Area, the Wacs found

annoying. Wacs could not participate in

airplane flights, had bed check even

though men did not, could not accept

overnight invitations from local families,

could not spend the night away from their

quarters even in approved service centers,

could not date officers, and could not

marry.21 These restrictions caused a certain number of Wacs to inform the chaplain that they were being "treated as

children."

 22

Most of these restrictions were therefore

quickly abolished as initial misgivings

concerning the employment of Wacs subsided. Although bed check was retained

as a health safeguard, hours were usually

lenient, and Wacs were eventually allowed

to stay overnight at the women's service

center. Wacs were also soon allowed in

aircraft, and at least one technician was

placed on regular flying duty for which

she received the Legion of Merit and the

Air Medal.23 The restriction on dating officers was not removed until Wacs reached

Shanghai, and some difficulty was caused

by the fact that Air Forces Wacs were

liable to punishment while officers of theater headquarters, which had no such rule,

were immune.24

The restriction on marriage, a theater

ruling, was the most objectionable to the

women. The rule had been designed to

prevent the marriage of soldiers to noncitizens, and had been modified just before

the Wacs' arrival to permit marriage only

if a soldier was leaving the theater within

thirty days. Cases involving pregnancy

were considered individually on their

merits. At the time of Major Craighill's

visit, Wacs still had a pregnancy rate of

zero, but WAC commanders considered

the system, for obvious reasons, incredibly

shortsighted. In April of 1945, after receipt of Major Craighill's recommendations, and after the first Wac achieved

marriage by the only theater-approved

method, Lt. Gen. Daniel I. Sultan liberalized the policy to permit marriages between two United States citizens after a

three-month waiting period. With this one

case, the WAC pregnancy rate was only

one fourth of one percent, or considerably

less than the average. No cases of venereal

disease were discovered among any WAC

personnel.25

As always, factors of physical surroundings proved less important to the women

than that of job satisfaction. Initial job assignment was far from perfect, a condition

that General Stratemeyer attributed

chiefly to "a failure on the part of officers

20

 (1) Rpt cited n. 5. (2) Memo, WAC Stf Dir for all

offs, 26 Mar 45. Folder IBT, CBI WAC files. 21

 Memo, WAC Stf Dir for CO WAC Det, 16 Sep

44, sub: Policies Applicable to WAC Pers. Folder IBT,

CBI WAC files. 22

 Memo, Stf Chaplain for CG AAF IBT, 10 Jul 45,

sub: Morale of Wacs; also Memo, WAC Stf Dir for

CG, 15 Jul 45. Folder IBT, CBI WAC files. 23

 WAC citations, 7 Dec 45, Folder Shanghai II,

CBI WAC files. 24

 Entire lengthy dispute: (1) Ltr, Hq SEAC, 5322

D/U.S. Army Sec, 14 Jul 44. WDWAC 421. (2) Draft

of Statement, 23 May 45. Folder IBT; (3) Routing

Slip, Comment I, WAC Stf Dir AAF CT to AC, 28

Aug 45, Folder Chungking I; (4) Memo, WAC Stf Dir

Hq USFCT for CofS, 25 Jan 46, Folder Theater WAC

III; (5) Cir 7, Hq USAF China, 9 May 46, sec 1,

Folder Shanghai V. All in CBI WAC files. (6) Interv

with Maj Simpson, 23 Jun 47. (7) Boyce Rpt, Tabs:

India-Burma, and China. WDWAC 333.1 (1945-46). 25

 (1) Memo, Capt Chance, Exec WAC, for Col

Hobby, 3 May 45, sub: Marriage Policy. WDWAC

291.1. (2) MS History of India-Burma Theater, 25

Oct 44-23 Jun 45. OCMH.
470 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

to appreciate capabilities, and overstaffing

during the period of orientation prior to

the transfer of enlisted men replaced by

Wacs."

 26

 General Stratemeyer took immediate and vigorous action to correct the

situation.27 As a result, the expected 30-

day on-the-job training was reduced to 15

days.

A few months later General Stratemeyer directed his WAC staff director to

make a survey of job utilization. It was

found that, "with a very few exceptions,

the qualifications of Wacs were being fully

employed in jobs commensurate with their

training and experience," and the exceptions were at once corrected. Some problems still remained. The offices were not

exceptionally busy, at least not enough to

satisfy the Wacs. Also, civilian competition

was present from female citizens of Calcutta. The staff director remarked:

I believe that the biggest hindrance to- ward the proper utilization of WAC personnel in this Headquarters is the usage of

inefficient civilian help. Because of their em- ployment in the majority of stenographic

positions, the Wac is compelled to watch

someone else do a job which would ordinarily

take her one-half of the time to complete.

Because of the constant attention to the

matter of correct assignment, however,

lack of work never became a morale

problem. An Army observer confirmed

this assertion about Wacs' high morale

and its cause, stating that:

The women look well, work efficiently, are

universally cheerful and seem almost without

exception to feel that they are doing an im- portant war job. . . . The WAC personnel are

universally admired and respected by male

officers and enlisted men here. They have

made a definite contribution to the morale of

the base and the efficiency of the headquar- ters here, and I believe that their excellent

attitude reflects their pride in this fact.28

General Stratemeyer, at the time of the

separation of the China theater from the

India-Burma, reported to Generals Stilwell and Arnold:

Experience of the past several months has

proved any doubts concerning the propriety

of the experiment to be false. It is with en- thusiasm that this Headquarters reports the

substantial overall improvement in efficiency

as a result of the placement of Wacs. . . . Officers and enlisted women alike have quickly

adjusted themselves to the climate, food, and

the somewhat rugged living conditions. . . . Deportment is superior. Not one untoward

incident has occurred as a result of their

presence in this Headquarters. . . . This

Headquarters recommends without hesita- tion to other Headquarters overseas the ex- cellent benefits to be obtained through the

placement of Wacs in theaters of operations.29

The newly organized Services of Supply

headquarters in Kunming, China, immediately petitioned the commander of the

U.S. forces in the China theater, Lt. Gen.

Albert C. Wedemeyer, for permission to

bring in a WAC company almost identical

with the Air Forces' company, saying:

It is virtually impossible to obtain compe- tent civilian clerical employees in this thea- ter. . . . Male enlisted personnel trained in

typing and stenographic duties are not avail- able in sufficient numbers. . . . Where the

civilian employee is not a citizen of the

United States, as is almost invariably the

case in this theater, effective security is

largely unknown.30

26

 Ltr cited n. 6. 27

 D/F, Gen Stratemeyer to Col David Barret, 21

Sep 44. Folder IBT, CBI WAC files. 28

 (1) D/F, WAC Stf Dir to Orgn and Plng, 8 Nov

44, Comment I. Folder IBT, CBI WAC files. (2)

Statement by Maj Philip Boyer, Jr., Actg PRO. Incl

2 to IBT WAC Survey. 29

 Ltr cited n. 6. 30

 Ltr, Hq SOS, USFCT, APO 627, to CG USFCT,

APO 879, 26 Nov 44, sub: Establishment of WAC Co

at SOS Hq, 13525-322. Folder 5, Hq SOS USFCT

file, AG 322.
OTHER OVERSEAS THEATERS 471

However, theater headquarters refused

this: "The decision of the Theater Commander is that no Wacs will be brought

into the China Theater for the present."

Six months later, the SOS asked again

and was again refused on the grounds that

"we cannot quarter these people . . . including mess, toilet, and living space."

 31

There was also some objection to the

Air Forces' proposal to take Wacs to

China when its headquarters moved to

Chungking in July of 1945, but because of

General Stratemeyer's insistence, the objection was overcome. It was known that

living conditions would be far less favorable than in India, but two hundred of the

Wacs volunteered to go and about a hundred were chosen, this being all that the

reduced headquarters could employ.

Again, preparation was careful. Maj.

Beryl Simpson, who had replaced Major

Clague as staff director, visited the new

site to check on all accommodations before the order was given to send the enlisted women. The first WAC contingent

flew the Hump on 3 August 1945, closely

followed by others.32

The China Theater

As expected, living conditions in Chungking were less settled than in India.33

With much work and close sanitary supervision of native help, an attractive mess

hall was maintained, and within three

days the Wacs had set up their own laundry and trained local help to give good

personal service. The hundred women

eventually employed some sixty Chinese

servants for mess, laundry, and yard work.

Housed in dormitories similar to the civilian women's, Wacs eventually obtained a

few fans, an improved water supply, and

better electric lights. In spite of predictions, the headquarters reported that a

"low rate of sickness" prevailed among

Wacs, and that "the sweltering heat failed

to impair efficiency." As in India, Wacs

were urged to seek medical advice frequently. Records showed that in six weeks

over half of the women had been on sick

call, although much of the rate resulted

from the fact that almost all members were

getting daily treatments for prickly heat,

an annoying but nonfatal malady, which

caused little loss of work time.34

In accordance with General Wedemeyer's policies, the headquarters was

careful to allow no appearance of favoritism to women, who were trucked to work

as were men, issued supplies in the same

manner, and generally treated as other

troops. In this respect, the move to China

accomplished several goals that the WAC

staff director had never been able to attain

in India. The extreme friendliness of the

Air Forces headquarters in India had always been such that WAC staff directors

and unit officers were occasionally hard

put to maintain strict discipline and military appearance. Before the Wacs arrived,

nurses had been allowed to wear civilian

evening dress in spite of Army Regulations

and rules on malarial control, and it did

not prove easy to convince the headquarters that the WAC was best treated as a

fully military organization.35

31

 Ibid., 1st Ind, 7 Dec 44; 2d Ind, 2 Apr 45; 3d Ind,

25 Apr 45. 32

 (1) Memo, WAC Stf Dir for Col J. S. Clark, 9

May 45, sub: China Survey—WAC. CBI WAC files.

(2) Rpt cited n. 5. 33

 Account of China tour of duty is, unless otherwise specified, from: (1) Rpt cited n. 5. (2) All CBI

references. (3) Memo, Maj Craighill for The SG,

through CG CT, 11 Mar 45, sub: Conditions Affecting Women Pers in China. SGO Hist Div 319.1

China. No Wacs were in the area at the time of this

report. 34

 Ibid; also interv with Maj Simpson, 23 Jun 47. 35

 Craighill IBT Rpt.
472 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Late in 1944 the staff director discovered a move by junior WAC officers to

override the regulations on conduct and

uniform by securing from senior Army

officers contradictory statements, which

were "usually made in a spirit of conversation at mixed parties."

 36

 These attempted violations the staff director was

able to quash, but there remained the

problem that Army officers were often

"accessible and sympathetic to personal

requests."

 37

Some months later the staff director reported that "a good many enlisted women

are relaxing their efforts with regard to

their personal appearance and individual

conduct." She also called the women's attention to the fact that some Wacs were

not "promptly and properly rendering the

salute." Detachment regulations thereupon required that hair must be neater, T

shirts invisible, shirt sleeves up or down

but not halfway; no flowers or "other articles of non-military nature" could be

worn in the hair; short or tight skirts must

be let down or out. "It is essential," the

staff director informed the women, "that

the reputation thus far enjoyed by all

members be maintained, that no relaxation be permitted that might adversely

affect the generally accepted idea that

American women soldiers are welldressed, personable, and conduct themselves as ladies."

 38

A few weeks after the stricter detachment regulations had been published, they

were partially canceled by General Stratemeyer, who, on a visit to the Southwest

Pacific Area, had noted that General

MacArthur's Wacs and General Kenney's

Wacs "were wearing decorations such as

flowers and ribbons in their hair during

working hours." Being ignorant of the fact

that General MacArthur's Wacs by this

date had nothing resembling a military

uniform, General Stratemeyer was favorably impressed. Over the staff director's

protests, new official uniform regulations

contained the provision—probably unique

in the history of the Army—that "Flowers

or ribbons are authorized and encouraged

for wear in the hair."

 39

 The staff director

conceded defeat, with the notation:

There is absolutely nothing General

Stratemeyer would not do for his Wacs to

make them happier . . . we will therefore accede to his wishes, though they are contrary

to the military indoctrination we received. . . .

40

The move to China, combined with the

location of the Air Forces headquarters in

the same compound with General Wedemeyer's headquarters, caused considerable change in policies in this regard.

Corrective action was first undertaken

informally by a memorandum:

General Stratemeyer this morning expressed a personal hope that all his Wacs

would be so prompt and snappy in their

saluting that General Wedemeyer would

voluntarily say to him, "Boy! Are those Wacs

good!" He pointed out that sometimes we

get so interested in the conversation that we

fail to notice an officer, and often that very

officer is just the type to report the failure to

General Wedemeyer.41

This document having had all the effect

that might have been expected, a month

36

 D/F, Chief of Air Stf to WAC Stf Dir, 29 Dec 44,

sub: Comd Channels. Folder IBT, CBI WAC files. 37

 Ltr, WAC Stf Dir AAC CBI to Air WAC Off, 6

Aug 45. CBI WAC files. 38

 Memo, WAC Stf Dir for CO WAC Det, 17 Mar

45, Folder IBT, CBI WAC files. 39

 (1) Memo, Exec for CO WAC Det, 23 Jun 45.

(2) Mimeographed Memo, Chief of Air Stf to all Wacs,

8 Aug 43. Folder IBT, CBI WAC files. (3) Ltr cited n.

37.

40

 Ltr cited n. 37. 41

 Memo, WAC Stf Dir AAF CT for all EW of Det,

10 Aug 45. Folder Chungking I, CBI WAC files.
OTHER OVERSEAS THEATERS 473

later General Stratemeyer noted, "Saluting by enlisted women was still extremely

lax." He therefore issued more unmistakable orders that "the situation be corrected

at once." At this the staff director, expressing considerable pleasure, showed great

alacrity in informing the women that they

would be court-martialed in a most military manner if that was the only way to

get them to salute and to wear hats on the

street.

 42

Happily for all concerned, the women

reverted to their military training without

noticeable loss of efficiency or morale, and

impressed General Wedemeyer sufficiently

to cause him to request General Stratemeyer to contribute Wacs to theater headquarters. At the close of the stay in

Chungking, General Stratemeyer informed the women:

You have . . . established an enviable record of efficiency which has immeasurably

facilitated the accomplishment of the mission

of my command. . . . Your performance

stands as a worthy goal for any military unit

in the Armed Forces of the United States.43

With the defeat of Japan, the headquarters moved to Shanghai, taking the

Wacs with it. With the approaching inactivation of the Air Forces headquarters,

General Wedemeyer's headquarters took

over all of the women, including the staff

director. He later requisitioned and obtained double their number direct from

the United States.

Even in the postwar wave of demobilization fever, less than half of the Wacs

eligible for discharge desired it, and the

headquarters strongly urged them to

stay.44 In Shanghai, the Wacs were visited

by the new WAC Director, Colonel Boyce,

who had intended to direct their return to

the United States, as had been necessary

in the Pacific. Upon seeing the women,

Colonel Boyce changed her mind, pronouncing them a carefully picked, seasoned group, all volunteers, who felt that

their services were needed by the headquarters, and whose morale was correspondingly high. Most had by this time

worked their way into key positions, and

many were section chiefs, so that the headquarters was reluctant to part with them.

The women themselves stated that they

were willing to remain either as Wacs or

as civilian workers. As a result, Colonel

Boyce agreed to leave them indefinitely

and to support General Wedemeyer's

requisition for more.45

The China theater Wacs later moved

from Shanghai to Nanking and Peiping;

the group in Peiping staffed General Marshall's mission to China until its return. In

both cities, the staff director noted that

"their living arrangements and job assignments were as carefully prepared in advance as was their original entry into

China." As the American forces quit

China, some women moved to Japan and

others returned to the United States.46

The employment of Wacs in India and

China, although on a small scale, had

done much to counteract the impression

that women could not be successfully em42

 Memo, WAC Stf Dir AAF CT for CO WAC Det,

17 Sep 45, sub: Mil Customs and Courtesies of EW.

Folder Chungking I, CBI WAC files. 43

 Ltr, CG AAF CT to WAC Stf Dir, 14 Sep 45,

sub: Commendation. AAF 201.22, in WDWAC 319.1. 44

 Of 77 enlisted women, 50 were eligible for discharge, but only 23 desired it. Routing slip, Exec for

Adm Serv AAF CT, Comment 1, 31 Aug 45. Folder

Chungking I, CBI WAC files. 45

 Boyce Rpt, Tab China. WDWAC 333.1 (1945-

46).

46

 (1) Interv with Maj Simpson, 19 Jun 43. (2) Ltr,

WAC Stf Dir CT to Dir WAC, 18 Mar 46. WDGAP

320. (3) Memo, Exec, O Dir WAC for Maj Gen William E. Bergin, G-1, 25 Apr 46. WDWAC 320. (4)

Quotation from comment by Maj Simpson on draft of

chapter.
474 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ployed in a tropical or disease-ridden

area. The low medical evacuation rate,

and the willingness of the women to remain for indefinite periods, both indicated

that they were adaptable to such employment. However, all WAC advisers noted,

in conclusion, that such success was likely

to occur only in headquarters that made

careful advance preparation and maintained a constant friendly alertness to

detect developing problems.

The Middle East Theater

An example of the use of Wacs in an inactive theater was furnished, on a small

scale, in the Middle East theater.47 Here

were assigned two WAC companies, totaling slightly less than three hundred members—one located in the city of Cairo, the

other several miles outside it at Camp

Russell B. Huckstep.

The first request for Wacs in Cairo was

received in the fall of 1943 from Maj. Gen.

Ralph Royce. General Royce at this time

asked only for twelve WAC secretaries "to

prevent the constant and sometimes

serious leaks in information."

 48

The request was approved, and in

December of 1943 ten enlisted women and

two WAC officers were flown to the area.

Capt. Josephine Dyer headed the group

and later served as staff director. Other

requests followed: one for 240 women for

theater headquarters, which was approved; one for 600 women for Tehran,

which was disapproved on the grounds of

nonavailability of WAC personnel; and

two others, of 150 more Wacs for theater

headquarters and 104 for the 19th

Weather Squadron, which were disapproved by Operations Division of the War

Department on the grounds that no military vacancies existed in the command.

Before making these requisitions, the theater had entertained some hopes of on-thespot enlistment of American women living

in Cairo, but it was found that 49 out of

50 eligible civilian women refused to enlist, and the idea of local recruiting was

abandoned as it had been in Europe.49

The shipment of 240 women for the

Cairo area was accordingly organized in

the United States in February of 1944. It

reached the theater only after an exhausting four-month struggle to get shipping

space, during which the unit spent a

month at Fort Oglethorpe, a month in one

area at Camp Shanks, three weeks in another area, a week at Camp Patrick

Henry, three weeks on shipboard, and ten

days in Naples. The delay proved trying

for the women, who were so eager to get

overseas that 118 of them, 13 in the first

three grades, voluntarily relinquished

their ratings in order to comply with the

theater's requisition for unrated personnel.

The women were described as "dejected

and disillusioned" during the months of

waiting, but their morale rose rapidly as

soon as they were in transit.

 50

Arriving in Cairo on 16 June 1944, the

women were sent to Camp Huckstep,

47

 (1) Historical Data, WAC Det, Middle East SvC,

Camp Huckstep, 11 Sep 44, by Lt. Jane A. Riebesell,

WAC Hist Off, with appendixes for Jul, Aug, Sep,

and Oct 44. Hereafter cited as Unit Hist Camp Huckstep, by month. (2) Hist Review, WAC Det Cairo Mil

Dist, 28 Aug 45; last 13 pages pertain to Huckstep

unit, Sep 44-Apr 45. Hereafter cited as Unit Hist

Cairo Det. (3) Summary: WAC-AMET, prepared by

Sgt Birdie Weisbrod, Jun 45, based on file of G-2 Hist

Sec AMET. Hereafter cited as WAC AMET Summary. 48

 Memo, MPD ASF for TAG, 10 Nov 45, sub:

WAC Pers for Gen Royce per Msg JM 1814, 27 Oct

(CM-IN 16628). SPGAR 220.3 WAC, Dir Pers ASF,

DRB AGO. 49

 (1) Cbl CM-IN 3072, 4 Feb 44; Cbl 2442, 9 Feb

44. (2) Memo, Stf for Dir WAC, 31 Jan 44. WDGAP

320.2 sec 8a. (3) WAC AMET Summary. 50

 Unit Hist Cairo Det; WAC AMET Summary;

and esp Unit Hist Camp Huckstep, p. 4.
OTHER OVERSEAS THEATERS 475

where living conditions were pronounced

by detachment officers to be "far superior

to any experienced by the unit since its

inception." The brick-and-wood barracks

were clean, modern, and airy, and latrines

were in the same building. There was

plenty of hot water, and a laundry with

ironing boards and washing machines. In

this the women's barracks were superior to

those of some of the men's units, which did

not all at this time have hot water. Barracks had single-decked beds, pillows,

bedding, and shelves and hangers for

clothing; there was also a well-furnished

dayroom with recreation equipment. On

the whole, the accommodations were described as being "in striking and overwhelming contrast to the haphazard facilities encountered in the United States."

The only difficulty was a temporary one

when, on the first morning, it was announced that Maj. Gen. Benjamin L.

Giles was to review the Wacs immediately,

and 240 travel-wrinkled women descended simultaneously on ten electric

irons.51

Within a week, 126 of the women

moved to Cairo for duty with Headquarters, Africa-Middle East Theater; the remaining 114 at Camp Huckstep were

assigned to the Middle East Service Command. The unit in Cairo was billeted in

the New Hotel, two to five women to a

room. At the end of the year, after winter

rains had flooded parts of the building,

and after the arrival of more Wacs left it

overcrowded, the Wacs moved to new

quarters in a modern building with a bedroom for every three women and a complete post exchange and hairdressing

shop.52

As the women were interviewed and

assigned to duty, a fundamental problem

emerged: the theater was already at full

authorized strength and not in desperate

need of personnel. If Wacs replaced enlisted men, the men were idle, and if Wacs

were merely added as supernumeraries,

there was only part-time work for all concerned. The majority of the women were

stenographers, clerks, and typists; others

were messengers, bookkeepers, telephone

operators, and teletypists. Many were assigned as secretaries to ranking officers,

and others were placed in almost every

staff section of the two headquarters, with

the largest numbers in the adjutant general's office, the Signal Corps, and the

Censorship Section.53

While most women were well satisfied

with the type of work assigned them, the

fact that it was not full-time caused a continuing morale problem among both men

and women. At Camp Huckstep, the

WAC historian reported:

Morale was affected by the existent morale

at Camp Huckstep, which was poor and contagious. The majority of the men, and consequently of the women, felt that they were not

actually needed and that what they were

doing was not important to the war effort.

Wacs were resented by some of the men.54

Promotions could not be given to any of

the Wacs, even to a few who had replaced

master sergeants, so long as the command

remained overstrength. The Cairo report

added:

Comfortable living quarters and oppor- tunities for enjoyment seem to be secondary

in building morale . . . the important factor is the feeling that they are needed and

that individual assignments keep them

busy.55

51

 Ibid. All quotations from Unit Hist Camp Huckstep. 52

 Unit Hist Cairo Det, p. 3. 53

 Asgmts at Hq not listed; July asgmts at Camp

Huckstep given in Unit Hist. 54

 Unit Hist Camp Huckstep, p. 20. 55

 Unit Hist Cairo Det, Aug-Sep 44.
476 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

During the first summer, only 56 of the

240 Wacs replaced enlisted men. Toward

the end of this time, the theater appealed

to the War Department for authority to

return the surplus men to the United

States. By October, enough men had been

removed from the theater so that 157 promotions were made among the Wacs,

chiefly to the grades of private first class

and corporal. These were followed by

others at intervals. By the following spring

the Cairo detachment reported:

The morale for the past period has im- proved . . . due partly to the fact that most

of the women are now fairly busy, and also

to the fact that they have a feeling of being

generally accepted as a part of Headquarters.56

The theater consistently directed its efforts toward devices to maintain troop

morale, and in these the Wacs were

allowed to share fully. At Camp Huckstep, women were admitted to the excellent recreational facilities—a theater, a

service club with cafeteria, game room,

and library, and sports equipment. In

Cairo, women were allowed to join a club

with swimming, tennis, and golf facilities.

At both stations, Wacs shared athletic

programs in league baseball, volleyball,

hockey, basketball, and even touch football, although such programs appealed

only to the younger women. Women were

also admitted to off-duty classes offered by

the Armed Forces Institute in such subjects as French, Arabic, shorthand, and

photography. Social activities were also

encouraged, with organized parties and

holiday celebrations, but the Wacs reported that such activities soon became

burdensome and most women declined

unit invitations.57

Wacs likewise were given the same

amount of leaves and passes as the men,

and were provided with equal transportation and accommodations to visit various

points of interest for sightseeing or recreation. There were frequent conducted tours

of the environs of Cairo, and visits by some

of the women to Bengasi, Alexandria,

Cyprus, Palestine, and other areas.

Restrictions were seldom sufficient to

cause complaint. Marriages were permitted, suitable married quarters were provided, and women were allowed and even

encouraged to spend furloughs with husbands stationed elsewhere. Nevertheless,

WAC marriages in the theater were not

frequent.58

Considering the climate and the sanitary hazards of the surrounding cities, the

women's health remained good. A sanitary mess was maintained, and the nature

of the area caused only minor discomforts.

During the winter a water shortage was

suffered, and cold weather made the unheated buildings chilly, but kerosene

stoves were soon obtained and men's pile

jackets were issued to the women. Heavy

winter rains found a small Nile coursing

through the WAC barracks; the boiler

broke down; a high wind blew down the

reed blind fence around the WAC area

and the improved view was enjoyed by

both women and men until the fence was

put back up. None of these minor environmental difficulties had any appreciable effect on morale or health.

Major Craighill, who visited the area

late in December of 1944, found the

women's health good and illnesses "relatively less than in other units in the area."

56

 (1) WAC AMET Summary. (2) Ltr, ME to TAG,

15 Aug 44. AG 320.2, Hobby files. (3) Quotation

from Unit Hist Cairo Det, p. 7. 57

 Unit Hist Camp Huckstep, Jul and Oct 44 appendixes. 58

 WAC AMET Summary gives 10; Unit Hist

Cairo Det gives 17.
OTHER OVERSEAS THEATERS 477

In the Cairo unit, women suffered the

usual respiratory and gastrointestinal conditions, but in less degree than the men,

and there had been no cases of venereal

disease, pregnancy, malaria, or the hepatitis that was prevalent in the area. Emotional maladjustments had been minor,

only one case requiring return to the

United States.

Camp Huckstep Wacs had likewise had

no unusual medical conditions except an

incidence of appendectomies to a total of

almost 10 percent of the group. There had

been no cases of venereal disease, and only

one pregnancy, which had existed before

arrival in the theater. However, Camp

Huckstep Wacs had experienced a number of minor maladjustment problems and

two serious psychiatric cases, one of which

had to be sent back to the United States.

These cases were not more numerous than

similar cases among men and, according

to Major Craighill, "were reflections of

the enlisted men's attitude of frustration

in an area removed from the combat

zone." Improvement in this respect was

noted when surplus personnel was shipped

out. Gynecological conditions were minor

and caused no loss of time from work or

any evacuation of personnel from the

area.59

The only policy problem noted by historians was a minor version of the Pacific

and European theaters' major problem:

the question of direct commissions for enlisted women who were secretaries to ranking general officers. As soon as the news of

such commissions elsewhere reached the

theater, General Royce repeatedly applied to the War Department for permission to commission his secretary. The request, with others like it, was refused upon

the insistence of Director Hobby, who had

secured a ruling against any further such

action as a result of the bad publicity accompanying earlier cases. The Director

suggested instead that the woman, if qualified, be selected by regular board procedure and returned to officer candidate

school with promise of return to the area

upon graduation. General Royce instead

preferred to appoint the secretary a warrant officer, which he did. No further comment resulted except sharp newspaper

criticism of the commanding general's

wisdom in using public funds to make his

personal plane available to the secretary

and her husband for an extended honeymoon tour of the Mediterranean.60

As the end of the war neared, restlessness increased, and both men and women

were heard commenting that they wished

they were in Italy, France, America, or

almost any other place. Luckily the waiting period was not long, and soon after

V-J Day shipment began, with the last

Wacs returning home in October 1945.

Colonel Boyce, who stopped in Cairo

shortly afterward on her way home from

India, interviewed the chief of staff and

stated that "The Wacs were highly commended for their work and they were released only when there was no longer a

job to be done."

 61

Although recommending a two-year

limit on the tour of duty, Major Craighill

stated that the theater's experience with

the employment of Wacs and nurses had

59

 Passage on health, including quotations and statistics: (1) Memo Maj Margaret Craighill for The SG

USA through Chief Surg USAFIME, 8 Jan 45, sub:

Health Conditions of Nurses and Wacs in USAFIME.

SGO Hist Div 319.1 Spec Rpt—Middle East. (2) Incl

3 to Craighill IBT Rpt. 60

 Memo, Dir WAC for CofS USA, 14 Apr 44.

WDWAC 314.7. Approved by CofS, 18 Apr 44; forwarded to TAG, 21 Apr 44. WDWAC 210.1. 61

 Boyce Rpt of visit to WAC Pers in Overseas Theaters, 21 Sep-26 Nov 45, Tab F: AMET. Hobby files,

also OCMH.
478 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

proved that "women can adjust satisfactorily to difficult environmental problems

under proper administrative control."

Other authorities concurred, with the additional comment that employment in an

inactive theater would possibly always

present problems of full-time employment

and therefore of morale.

Other Overseas Areas

At various times requisitions and inquiries were received from other overseas

areas, all of which were disapproved or

withdrawn. In general, refusals were due

to a desire to reserve the WAC's services

for more active theaters, or to the fact that

civilian help was plentiful in the areas

concerned.

Hawaiian Department

A tentative requisition from the Hawaiian Department was received in late 1942

for one or more WAAC companies, and

was favorably considered by WAAC

Headquarters.62 However, further investigation revealed that Waacs were chiefly

wanted to replace civilian women in the

Aircraft Warning Service. With the decision to count Waacs against the Troop

Basis, such requisitions were automatically

eliminated. No Wacs served in Hawaii except those with the Air Transport Command, which employed them in military

duties.

Canada and Alaska

Requisitions were received in 1943 for

about 700 women for stations in Canada

and Alaska, including Edmonton, Whitehorse, and Dawson Creek. These were refused, not by the WAC, but by OPD and

by ASF's Military Personnel Division. At

a later date, and after arctic clothing for

women was standardized, Air Transport

Command Wacs served in both areas

without reference to the War Department

for approval.63

New Caledonia

Inquiries were received from New Caledonia in 1943 concerning the possibilities

of getting some 40 WAC telephone operators and an unspecified number of other

workers. Both were disapproved by OPD,

for the stated reason of shortage of WAC

personnel. A few WAC officers were later

stationed in the area for varying periods.64

Puerto Rico

When the WAAC was organized, the

Antilles Department rejected the idea of

employing its members, as a large Puerto

Rican labor supply was already available,

and housing would present problems.

Therefore, for the rest of World War II,

Wacs were not requisitioned or employed.

In April of 1944, the Antilles Department

recommended that a WAC recruiting

party be sent to Puerto Rico, inasmuch as

the WAVES had already been there. The

War Department accordingly sent one

WAC officer and three enlisted women,

authorized to recruit not more than 200

women for service in the United States.

There was an enthusiastic response—some

1,500 immediate applications—but many

had to be rejected for failure to pass the

aptitude test, or because of parental ob62

 1st Ind, TAG to CG Hawaiian Dept, 23 Dec 42.

AG 320.2 WAAC (11-19-42) PR-W, Folder, WAAC,

Contl Div ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO. 63

 Memo, Actg Dir WAC for CG ASF, 3 Nov 43.

SPWA 320.2 sec 6. 64

 Ibid.
OTHER OVERSEAS THEATERS 479

jections. Also, later employment was

handicapped by language difficulties.65

Independent Commands Overseas

In addition to overseas personnel under

the command of the various theaters,

there were several thousand overseas Wacs

who were not assigned to any theater but

to the numerous independent commands

authorized to send part of their personnel

overseas. Neither the allotment nor the

command of such personnel was a prerogative of the theater, but remained with

the parent organization. Such commands

included various War Department boards

and groups, the Office of Strategic Services, the AAF Weather Wing and Army

Airways Communications System, and especially the Air Transport Command.

Most such commands seldom employed

more than five to ten women at any one

station, and ordinarily attached them to

the nearest WAC unit for housing.

Just as in the United States, unit problems and schisms frequently resulted from

the presence of these privileged outsiders

with different schedules, rules, ratings,

and status in general. No particular solution was reported by the theaters, other

than to suggest that full disciplinary control was essential to the unit commander.

As a result, theaters did not encourage

most independent commands to more

widespread employment of women.66

Of the independent commands, the

ATC was by far the largest, employing

Wacs in such numbers as to make possible

establishment of its own detachments to

a total of some 1,300 women overseas. By

special War Department authorization,

ATC was empowered to determine suitable overseas stations, and select, stage,

and ship WAC personnel without reference to Air Forces headquarters or to the

War Department. By the end of the war it

had some 241 Wacs in Alaska, 236 at two

stations in Africa, 460 at five stations in

the European theater, 156 in Labrador,

and 227 in the Pacific.67

On the whole, the results of assigning

Wacs overseas in such independent and

often unsupervised situations compared

unfavorably with the experiences of those

under theater jurisdiction. While efficiency seldom was affected, morale, conduct, and the full utilization of skills suffered. Theater experiences had, with one

exception, indicated that Wacs overseas

were uniformly successful and presented

few problems, but the example of the independent commands, as well as of the

North African theater before the arrival

of its staff director, strongly suggested that

such success was by no means as inevitable

as its universality suggested, but instead

depended to some extent on close and

careful selection and supervision.68

65

 Antilles Dept Hist Studies, Sec VI: Puerto Rican

Induction Program and Use of Puerto Rican Troops,

Ch. IX, p. 70. OCMH. 66

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, p. 21. 67

 Directory of the AUS Outside Continental U.S.,

AG 461 (6-1-45) OB-I-M, gives ATC WAC strength. 68

 (1) ATC Hist Rec Rpt, West Coast Wing, 1 Jan

43-30 Jun 44, pp. 50-53. (2) ATC Hist Rec Rpt 308,

Alaskan Div, Nov 44-Sep 45. (3) Hist of 1306th AAF

Base Unit, ICD ATC, Jul-Aug 45, pp. 18-21. USAF

Hist Div. (4) Memo cited n. 59(1). (5) ETO ATC

WAC Hist.
The Office of the Director

WAC

At the top of the world-wide WAC organization was the Office of the Director

WAC—a small advisory group of from

three to five officers located in G-1 Division of the General Staff. For the eighteen

months between its establishment and the

end of the war, the office, although too

small for field inspection or supervision,

was the Corps' nerve center for policy and

information. Director Hobby later noted,

"The need for placing the Director's office

on the General Staff level cannot be emphasized too highly. It is absolutely

necessary."

 1

It was from the first obvious that the

duties of the Office of the Director could

not be crowded under the G-1 roof, in

spite of the fact that G-1 proved a co-operative host. The part of the Director's responsibilities concerning "personnel as

individuals" fitted neatly into G-1 Division—induction, transfer, discharge,

morale, uniform design, and insignia.

Left unhoused were all other responsibilities, which had to be co-ordinated not

with G-1 but with G-2, G-3, G-4, and

the Special Staff divisions. These proved a

continuing puzzle not only to G-1 Division, but to other General and Special

Staff offices, which were unaccustomed to

co-ordinating their business with a branch

of G-1.

A first attempt to solve the problem was

made by splitting the Director's Office

into two unequal parts, the larger one to

handle G-1 matters only, the other for the

rest of her responsibilities. The Director

was given two titles and two sets of procedures: as Chief, WAC Branch, G-1, she

sent papers to G-1 for approval and signature; as Director WAC she corresponded directly with all other staff divisions and the Air, Ground, and Service

Forces on matters that did not concern

G-1 Division.2

This peculiar organization lasted only

three months, and never in reality functioned as two halves. Many of the Director's projects were an indissoluble mixture

of G-1 and non-G-1 elements; her staff

debated, consulted the G-1 staff, and was

still unable to decide who should sign

which paper. Also, the volume of work

upon the Director WAC part of the office

was so much greater than that upon the

larger G-1 part that members of one had

no desire to sit idly upon their organizational charts while members of the other

worked overtime.

1

 Interv, 23 Aug 48. 2

 G-1 Office Memo, printed, 26 Feb 44. CofS 324.5

WAC.
THE OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR WAC 481

MAJ. GEN. MILLER G. WHITE

In June of 1944 the G-1 part of the

office was merged with other G-1 personnel branches, and its members moved to

other offices, in a general G-1 consolidation.3

 Remaining in the Director's office

were, for most of the following year, only

Director Hobby, Deputy Director Rice,

and Capt. Patricia Lee Chance, Executive

Officer.

This—the number assigned to run an

average WAC company—was the smallest

number of officers with which the office

was ever to attempt to operate. With the

separation of the WAC Branch, G-1, the

peculiar situation of the Office of the Director was that of having no real connection with G-1 Division, in which it was

located. In the ensuing months, some confusion was inevitable. As G-3 Division had

earlier pointed out, the Office of the Director was in nature, if not in size, actually a Special Staff division, and, while the

position in G-1 proved more suitable than

that in the Army Service Forces, it was

never as appropriate to the military organization as that of a Special Staff division. The location nevertheless lent itself

to relatively smooth operation during the

remaining months in which the position of

chief of G-1 Division was held by General

White, an officer with wide knowledge

and experience in WAC administration

dating from the Corps' earliest days. After

his departure, there was noted an increasing tendency toward activity by G-1 Division in projects more properly the concern

of other staff divisions. No final solution to

this dilemma was achieved at the War Department level, although some air commands began to place their WAC advisers on the special staff level, while the

nine service commands moved them from

G-1 to the immediate office of the commanding general.

Removal of Operating Duties

The assumption that the Office of the

Director could function with so small a

staff was based upon the belief that all operating duties could be removed and delegated to the new specialist groups in other

divisions. To some extent this hope was

justified when the WAC specialist groups

in other offices, established at General

Marshall's direction, came into full operation. For the last months of the war, a

complete and harmoniously operating network of WAC specialists covered most of

the headquarters offices, so that inquiries,

investigations, calls, and necessary studies

could be referred rapidly, and successfully, to recruiting experts, public relations

experts, The Inspector General, and other

3

 G-1 Office Memo to Div Chiefs, 25 May 44, Incl

1. WDWAC 314.7.
482 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

staff divisions, or to the major command

or overseas theater having responsibility in

a given case.

The accord and unity of action existing

among such offices were, in the opinion of

WAC staff officers, among the most important achievements of the new organization. The invariable practice of the Air

WAC Officer, the AGF WAC Officer, and

the ASF WAC Officer was to act in closest

co-ordination with one another and with

the Director and her deputy. Not only

were personal relations friendly, but advances and improvements in one command were communicated to others before being put into effect, rather than

afterward. The Director never at any time

during Colonel Hobby's tenure of that office approached individual cases or policy

concerning Wacs in the United States except through the WAC advisers to the

three major commands, thus maintaining

not only military channels but the prestige of these officers within their own

headquarters.4

Unfortunately for the high hopes of

complete delegation, the next months

were to demonstrate that—as was also discovered by the British and the WAVES—

the efficient operation of such a network

depended upon an efficient nerve center,

and that there were certain operating

duties that could never be removed from a

director's office by any amount of effort.

These duties seemed to be inherently inseparable from the head of a woman's

service in the twentieth century. In General White's opinion the office's situation

was comparable to that of his own G-1

Division, which also found itself performing many onerous operating duties required of it by the Deputy Chief of Staff

that were not, until after the end of the

war, reflected in its personnel allotments.

Few if any of these duties were military

functions of any other office. Deputy Director Rice ruthlessly swept out every duty

that could be delegated, and that any

other agency could or would accept. Out

also went routine indorsements, records,

reports from the field, and other paper

work not essential to planning, including

much useful material that no one had time

to read.

For example, reports from WAC training centers were discontinued, since the

Director no longer had any jurisdiction

over their activities in any case. Bulletins

from field units, even if sent, could no

longer be read. No more historical material could be collected, and the only

agency that could be persuaded to continue the historical file was the Bureau of

Public Relations, which added a few press

releases from time to time. When a WAC

officer wrote to ask whether material from

the field was being collected for a WAC

history, Colonel Rice replied:

The Director has now only myself and

Captain Lee assigned to her immediate office.

Naturally we cannot do anything about col- lecting such data: we can only hope it is find- ing its way into the proper files and is being

kept by the commands.

The Director constantly received communications from Wacs in the field which

indicated that they believed her to be responsible for supervising a much wider

range of activities. One asked why she did

not send out a touring group of artists

from her office to sketch WAC life in the

field; others thought she should visit every

one of the approximately 500 WAC units

every year; one requested a chart of her

4

 According to statement of three officers concerned.
THE OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR WAC 483

"headquarters," only to be told, "There

is no organizational chart . . . Colonel

Hobby and her staff of two officers are located on the War Department General

Staff, G-1, Personnel Division."

 5

However, in spite of strenuous efforts to

simplify the office's duties, certain operating duties proved impossible either to discard or to delegate. One of these was the

WAC Newsletter, a monthly 8-page pamphlet that went to all commands and units

in the field, much like that later adopted by

G-1 Division to keep field personnel officers abreast of War Department policy.

The value of the Newsletter was attested by

hundreds of letters from field units, which

pronounced it invaluable in promoting

discipline, morale, appearance, and understanding of the Corps' mission and

work in the Army. The Director therefore

asked the new WAC Group, Bureau of

Public Relations, which had twelve officers, to take over this project, but the

group refused on grounds of insufficient

personnel. Captain Chance of the Director's Office was therefore obliged to continue writing the Newsletter in addition to

her other duties.6

Another operating duty resulted from

the fact that the Director's Office was required from time to time to compile,

check, or certify special Army-wide summaries of information or policy, as requested by particular offices.7

 The second

WAC Director later noted, "some uniformity in policies has been necessary;

consequently, the Director WAC's office

has been used as the co-ordinating office

by the major commands and all staff divisions."

 8

However, the most troublesome of the

"operating" duties of which the Director's

Office was never able to rid itself did not

concern such responsibilities within the

Army, but rather liaison with outside

agencies and the public as a whole. This

type of duty, although never recognized

upon any organizational chart or in personnel allotments, in actual fact consumed

more than half of the office's time.

Liaison With Other Women's Services

One frequent liaison duty outside the

War Department was that of co-ordination with other women's services of the

United States and Allied nations. Liaison

with the WAVES, SPARS, and Women

Marines was more time-consuming than

the general public realized. The directors

of the four services formed a special subcommittee of the Joint Army-Navy Personnel Board, and met regularly. A major

disciplinary or personnel policy was seldom adopted for one service until the

other three had opportunity to consider 5

 (1) Ltr/ASF to all SvCs, 12 Aug 44. SPXPO-A

210.31 WAC, in WDWAC 300.4. (2) Memo, Dir

WAC for WDBPR, 5 May 44. WDWAC 000.7. (3)

Ltr, Lt Harriet Barr to Lt Col Jess Rice, 8 Sep 44.

WDWAC 007. (4) Chart quotation in Ltr, Lt Freddie

Boyle to Dir WAC, 5 Sep 44. WDWAC 000.7. (5)

Query on WAC hist from Ltr, Lt Virginia Smithson

to Lt Col Jess Rice, 30 May 44, and reply. WDWAC

323.3. 6

 (1) Note, 1st O Louise Goeden to 1st O Gretchen

Thorpe, re action of ASF Publications Review Bd, 22

Apr 43. (2) Memo, TAG for Dir WAAC, 26 Apr 43.

SPWA 062.1. (3) Memo, Dir WAC for Dir, Bur of

Budget, 20 Mar 44. WDWAC 000.76 Newsletter. (4)

Memo cited n. 5(2). (5) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 12

May 44, with Tab B, Gen Surles' refusal. WDWAC

000.7. (6) Memo, Dir WAC for AGO Publications

Div, 28 Jun 44. WDWAC 000.7. (7) Correspondence

in WDWAC 000.76 Newsletter, 1945-46. 7

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for I&E Div ASF, 2 May 45.

WDWAC 201.22. (2) Memo, Exec WAC for CGs

AAF, AGF, ASF, 14 Jun 44. WDWAC 000.7. (3)

Other requests in SPWA 300.3 (1943). 8

 Draft (not used), 14 Nov 45, sub: WAC Hist, with

Note, Dep Dir WAC, re intended use in speech.

WDWAC 314.7.
484 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

it. Often identical policies were arrived at

and announced jointly. The three other

services, having been established later,

were at times several months behind the

WAC in administrative detail, and often

copied almost verbatim the directives and

circulars that had been used successfully

by the WAC. Literature was regularly interchanged. The four directors were on the

friendliest of terms and met often for lunch

or informal conferences. The WAVES' assistant director later wrote to Colonel

Hobby, "We have leaned heavily on the

experience of the Wacs and we are extremely grateful for the assistance your

staff members have given us."

 9

Liaison duties with Allied women's services were somewhat less frequent, although

British and Canadian services had sizable

units in Washington. Information of common interest was regularly exchanged and

the Director WAC or her deputy was the

expected representative at many ceremonial functions of these services, and was

hostess to them in return. Arrangements

were made for British and American

women officers to be exchanged for attendance at their respective armies' highest staff courses. The Consulate General of

the Republic of Poland arranged for a

tour of Polish Wacs (called, unfortunately,

Pestkas) to WAC installations. French authorities requested full information on

WAC administration for use by their own

women's corps, as well as a supply of WAC

uniforms. The Netherlands Embassy requested and obtained permission to train

Netherlands women at WAC training centers to form the nucleus of a Netherlands

women's corps for service in the Pacific.

All such negotiations with high-ranking

Allied officials frequently required the

personal presence of the highest-ranking

WAC officer the Army was able to offer.10

Liaison With the National Civilian Advisory

Committee

Equally official in nature, and required

of the Director by War Department directive, was liaison with the WAC's National

Civilian Advisory Committee. This organization had been established, upon General Somervell's recommendation, at the

time of the Director's transfer to G-1 Division, in order to bring to bear the influence

of prominent civilian women "to advise on

WAC matters, assist in disseminating news

about the Corps, and aid in recruiting."

 11

This committee consisted of the chairman

of each service command committee, plus

twelve others selected by the Director,

representative of various occupations,

faiths, and races. These women maintained contact with the Office of the Chief

of Staff through that of the Director WAC.

It was necessary for the Director's staff to

collect information and write the committee a monthly bulletin on events in the

WAC, to receive and act on their recommendations, to call twice-yearly conventions, and in general to render appropriate

recognition to the interest and helpfulness

of these prominent women.12

Such a group, with its energies properly

directed, proved invaluable in improving

the community standing of the WAC and

thus the number and type of recruits. On

the other hand, to keep its members prop9

 (1) See Part Three, below, for instances of joint

action. (2) Ltr, SPARS to WAC, 3 Nov 44, thanking

WAC for info on Negro dels. WDWAC 080. (3) Ltr,

Dep Dir Rice to Capt Mildred McAfee, 7 Jul 44.

WDWAC 080. (4) Ltr, Asst Dir WAVES to Dir WAC,

14 May 45. WDWAC 370.01. 10

 ATS and Polish correspondents, WDWAC 080

(1944). 11

 ASF Summary, ASF Cir 101, 15 Apr 44. 12

 Ltr, Dir WAC to CG ASF, 9 Oct 44, sub: National Civilian Advisory Committee. WDWAC 334,

in SPAP 319.1 WAC.
THE OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR WAC 485

erly informed, to give proper individual

attention to their suggestions, and to keep

up the close relationship directed by the

Chief of Staff, all could well have absorbed

the entire time of one staff officer, had

liaison with this organization been reflected in personnel allotments.

Liaison With the American Red Cross

The Director's Office held a similar

responsibility in regard to liaison with the

American Red Cross. This organization

was committed to the principle of employing its funds and staff for the assistance of

military personnel regardless of the race or

sex of the persons assisted. Actually, in

most overseas theaters, the organization

had not proved sufficiently flexible to

adapt to the needs of feminine newcomers

to the armed forces, although not for lack

of effort on the part of the national headquarters, which received high War Department praise for its efforts and cooperativeness. Frequent conferences were

held by the Director's Office with national

representatives, during which a maternity

care plan was worked out and field recreational facilities for women discussed, as

well as other needs of women on Army

stations, which the local Red Cross field

director might help to meet. The Red

Cross likewise fulfilled for women certain

functions in connection with dependency

investigations which, for men, were handled by Selective Service boards. A Certificate of Appreciation was recommended

by the Director WAC for Miss Helen

Walmsley, assistant director of the Military and Naval Welfare Service, for her

effective liaison with the WAC. Again,

while certain discussions could be delegated to the Air, Ground, or Service

Forces, on an Army-wide level there remained no liaison agency able to coordinate final plans with the Red Cross

except the Director's Office.13

Liaison With Other National and Local

Organisations

A similarly unrecognized but frequent

duty of the Director's Office was that of

liaison with the many other national

organizations—civic, professional, social,

and patriotic—which desired to consult

someone in the War Department in connection with WAC affairs.

The United Service Organizations' national headquarters, in an effort to overcome the somewhat chilly initial reception

of Wacs in USO facilities, asked for lists of

all WAC locations, and in repeated conferences made plans to assist each unit.

The American Women's Voluntary Services offered assistance to Wacs, and asked

for messages for the AWVS Bulletin. The

American Association of University

Women was always a strong supporter of

the women's services, and AAUW representatives frequently consulted or wrote

the Director's staff. The same was true of

the National Federation of Business and

Professional Women's Clubs, a consistent

advocate of universal service laws for

women. The Association of Junior Leagues

of America arranged for all local Junior

League presidents to assist in recruiting,

saying, "The number of Junior League

members who are able to enlist is not very

large," but that members would be urged

to join or to help recruit nonmembers.

The WAC Mothers Association desired to

contribute parties and dayroom furniture,

and wrote for detailed information. The

13

 (1) See overseas and policy chapters for details of

Red Cross activity. (2) Memo, Exec WAC for AGO.

3 Jan 44. SPWA 001. (3) Memo, Dir WAC for Civ

Awards Bd, 16 Apr 46. WDWAC 201.
486 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Theater Wing of the Stage Door Canteen

requested WAC representatives and a

WAC band for a bond rally. The National

Press Club desired to arrange parties for

enlisted women.14

An extremely brief sampling of the list

of other organizations corresponding with

the Director's Office during this period

included the National Education Association, the National Editorial Association,

the National Council of Jewish Women,

the National Jewish Welfare Board, the

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the American

Legion and other veterans' groups, the

American Association for Health, Physical

Education, and Recreation, Zonta International, the Women's Overseas Service

League, the American Social Hygiene Association, and the National Federation of

Press Women.15 The national representatives of organizations of this stature, when

desiring an interview with the Director or

Deputy Director, obviously could not be

shunted by the Army to any other source

of information even if one had existed, nor

could their offers of assistance be rebuffed

without at least a hearing or a reply to

their correspondence.

Local civic and patriotic groups were in

a different category from national representatives; nevertheless, the Director's

Office was obliged to reply to their inquiries, even when their requests had to be

refused. For example, the Saturday Afternoon Club of Vanderbilt, Pennsylvania,

asked a statement on "What America

Means to Me"; the W.I.V.E.S., a group of

married women dedicated to urging people to donate money and blood, asked

permission to name a chapter for Colonel

Hobby; the Las Vegas Chamber of Commerce asked that a WAC hospital be

located in its city.

Still more difficult to refuse gracefully

were hundreds of requests for personal

appearances—many of them in connection

with recruiting, but the majority for nonWAC patriotic activities such as bond

drives, plant security awards, ceremonies

to recognize civilian women's volunteer

work, and other similiar festivities. These

were almost all refused "because of the

press of military activities" or "because of

previous engagements," but nevertheless

required a prompt acknowledgment.16

Liaison With Congress

Liaison with Congress was another delicate and time-consuming duty. Supposedly all such work was done by the

War Department offices that handled

Congressional liaison for the Army, but it

seemed difficult to educate Congress to

this belief. Although the WAC was a part

of the strength of the Army, the War Department required the Director personally

to prepare material for yearly budget

hearings, and to attend them at the call of

Congressional committees to justify and

explain WAC activities separately. It was

also necessary for her to answer the daily

Congressional letters and telephone calls

that asked for a full explanation of WAC

policies. These, even if properly addressed

to the Legislative and Liaison Division or

the Chief of Staff, were ordinarily routed

to her for consideration as to possible 14

 (1) Ltr, Secy Joint Army-Navy Committee on

Welfare and Recreation, to Lt Col Rice, 21 Apr 44;

(2) Ltrs from AWVS; (3) Ltrs from AAUW, 18 Jul 44,

and others; (4) Ltr, Exec Secy, Assn of Jr Leagues of

America, to Dir WAC, 16 Feb 44. WDWAC 080. 15

 WDWAC 080 (1944). The 080 files (1942-46)

are full of letters from such groups. 16

 1944 files, WDWAC 080, 000.7, and 350.001.

Also Ltr, Mrs. William Bacon, President, Veterans

Guild of Association of Army and Navy Wives, to Col

Hobby, 3 Aug 44. WDWAC 080.
THE OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR WAC 487

policy changes or explanations of existing

policy. The bulk of Congressional mail

asked for special favors for constituents,

which could not be routinely refused without a polite explanation of the policy concerned. Hundreds of these asked waivers

of entrance requirements. Dozens of congressmen asked the Director to waive the

act of Congress that barred 18-year-olds

and aliens from the WAC. Hundreds of

other letters concerned the desire of women

constituents to receive direct commissions

or to attend officer candidate school—a

favorite request. Others asked promotion,

transfer, investigation, award of contract,

and so on.17

Liaison With Private Citizens

All such calls, correspondence, and liaison with Congress, civic groups, and women's services were insignificant when compared with those involving the general

public. No Dorothy Dix was ever taken

more thoroughly into the troubled confidence of the average American than was

Director Hobby. Such attention was not

unknown to the Army's highest-ranking

leaders, who ordinarily had large staffs

equipped to handle it; but it was almost

unique in War Department history that an

officer of the grade of colonel, and in a

subordinate staff position, should be deluged with public correspondence which,

for scope and variety of subject, seemed

comparable only to that received by the

Chief of Staff and others with Army-wide

responsibility.

Parents, husbands, and other relatives

of Wacs formed the largest group of these

writers. Distraught parents accused the

Director of every station commander's

failure to protect, promote, or otherwise

care for their daughters; others feared that

harm had come to daughters overseas who

had not written recently. A heartbroken

mother could not understand her daughter's reduction in grade, and asked that

Colonel Hobby restore the rank; the father

of a prospective recruit wrote to discuss

with Colonel Hobby whether his daughter

should join.

Husbands and would-be husbands were

particular nuisances. A soldier overseas

wrote that he would probably soon be sent

into combat, and if so he would probably

be wounded, and if so he would probably

be transferred home to recuperate, and if

so he would want his wife with him; therefore, would Colonel Hobby discharge her

from the WAC immediately so that she

could be ready to rush to his bedside as

soon as all this occurred? An Army chaplain asked that a soldier's wife, who was

about to get a divorce, be transferred

within persuading distance of her husband. A husband wrote that his wife had

joined the WAC after a fight with him, but

that they had made up a few days later,

and would the Army please discharge her

at once before she had to report for training? Another husband said that he realized

that his wife was in the Army when he

married her, but that her job was "breaking up our marriage"; he asked that she

be allowed to come home and care for him

properly.18

Hundreds of letters also came from

women who had been rejected by recruiters. One woman protested, in nine pages,

that she was "thwarted by a psychiatrist"

17

 (1) Yearly Folders, Material for Budget Hearings,

WAC C1 file. (2) Ltrs in 1942, 43, 44, and 45-46

files, under 080, 032.2, 095, 330.14, and others. (3)

Ltr, Rep. Frances P. Bolton to Oveta Culp Hobby,

7 Jun 44. WDWAC 032.2. 18

 These and following personal letters unless otherwise indicated, are in 1944 files, SPWA and WDWAC

095 and 330.14. There are dozens like each case cited.
488 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

in getting into the Corps. Another, "a

honorable discharge Waac," asked, "Why

do a discharge Wac has to may a mental

test over again?" Others wrote, "Dear

President Rosevelt, I am a girl of 17 year

old and would love to joind the Wacc," or

"I am 62 years old. Please don't let my

age interfere." Many begged pitifully that

physical defects, "nervousness," and past

records not be held against them. One distracted eligible, in doubt as to whether to

enlist, bared her entire financial, emotional, and physical condition in a long

letter and asked Colonel Hobby to make

up her mind for her.

Many of the letter writers sought personal advantages—promises of commissions, promotion, or special assignments.

Most of these went on to say that, while

they preferred to enlist as ordinary privates, their special qualifications were such

that it would not be fair to the nation for

them to come in unless they were made

officers.

Some of the personal requests were

more or less matters of business. The ArmyNavy Journal, the Britannica Book of the Year,

and others asked for personal statements

or articles. Emily Post wrote to inquire

how a wedding invitation should be

worded if the bride's mother was a lieutenant and her father only a mister. Clothing manufacturers desired to know where

to write for models and materials. A New

York carnival owner asked for a WAC

band, WAC exhibits, and WAC personnel,

and, without waiting for a reply, advertised that they would be a carnival attraction. A gentleman asked that he be employed to go to Latin America and recruit

"senioritas" for the WAC. Approximately

a hundred persons sent WAC songs, such

as the man who said, "A good popular

WAC song to make the Wacs more popular would do the trick for you and step up

recruiting"; then they asked her to get

music publishers to accept their manuscripts.19

There were numbers of friendly citizens

who either asked or contributed small

gifts. A kindly housewife donated a good

recipe for scrambled eggs for WAC messes.

Others sent poems, scrapbooks, and pictures of their baby girls in miniature WAC

uniforms. A grandmother sent a square of

cloth to be autographed and returned to

her for part of a quilt. The numbers who

wanted autographs and autographed pictures were in the thousands, ranging from

private citizens to a Boy Scout museum.

Another began, "I am a Senior in High

School and all Seniors must write 7,500

words on some subject we prefer," and

asked for 7,500 words. Several museums

asked for one of Colonel Hobby's uniforms

for their collections.20

Many letters asked no favors but were

merely generally abusive. Vague charges

of immorality still were received. Many

berated the uniform; others objected to

the Army's class distinctions or other

policies. Local and long-distance calls

were received and had to be listened to;

registered letters were received and signed

for. Mentally deranged individuals were

especially threatening. Vindictive women

demanded harsh punishments for erring

Wacs, especially after each case of newspaper publicity such as the one concerning a Wac who became engaged to a German prisoner. When one of the service

commands was forced into the unpopular

role of strikebreaker, it was its command19

 (1) Tp Conv, Chief, Plng Br for WAC Rctg and

Exec WAC, 22 Jun 44. WDWAC 341. (2) 1944 files,

WDWAC 000.7, 007. and 095. Song writer quoted,

4 Sep 44, WDWAC 000.7. The Director declined to

express an opinion of any song. 20

 1944 files, WDWAC 000.7, 007, 062, and 095.
THE OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR WAC 489

ing general who put a Wac at the telephone

switchboard of a strike-bound plant, but

it was the Director WAC who received the

complaints.

Somewhat lost among the requests,

complaints, and abuse were a few lonely

letters of thanks or praise, and descriptions

from pleased parents of how their daughters had benefited by Army training.

Almost all letters betrayed a misunderstanding common to both civilian and

military personnel: that Director Hobby

was in immediate and supreme command

of all Wacs. Correspondents regularly assumed that the Director was the final

authority upon all of these matters, and

could grant any favor she pleased. They

assumed also that she had in her office

large files of information on every Wac,

and was personally responsible for all the

events that occurred to Wacs world-wide,

or was at least equipped to discover and

explain what had befallen a daughter or

wife.

Answering this public correspondence

proved to be the greatest of the semimilitary operating duties that the Director was

never able to get out of her office. Many

solutions were tried and found wanting. A

plausible one, for example, was to make

no acknowledgment to correspondence

before forwarding it to the responsible

Army command. This proved highly unsuccessful in view of the time lapse involved in the command's investigation

and reply, which required several weeks

for cases on domestic stations and months

for overseas theaters—by which time the

average distressed parent had several

times more written and telegraphed the

Director's Office, his congressman, the

President, and any other available dignitary, thus involving the office in more

negotiation than would have been required for a simple acknowledgment. Another and equally ineffective approach

was to make a brief acknowledgment by

form letter; this, particularly when a refusal was involved, also brought down

upon the office the wrath of correspondents.

Furthermore, there were some letters

that could not be forwarded to any other

command. There appeared to be no other

office that was responsible for placing the

Director's signature upon a quilt square,

resolving Emily Post's dilemmas, or writing repeatedly, "Upon behalf of the Corps,

may we express our appreciation of your

interest." Even had there been, the mere

task of sorting and forwarding communications was a formidable one, since it appeared impossible to learn the nature of a

letter or telegram without opening it, or of

a telephone call without accepting it.

The final solution, perforce adopted by

the Office of the Director, was highly unsuccessful from the standpoint of work

load, but highly successful from the public

viewpoint. Upon receipt of the daily accumulation of correspondence, it was

sorted and certain routine items were sent

directly to The Adjutant General or other

responsible agencies, without acknowledgment from the Director. Items that could

be handled in this fashion included thousands of requests from lawyers and friends

for the addresses of Wacs or women believed to be Wacs, since no litigation could

be taken against a missing woman who

might be in the Armed Forces.

Requests for recruiting information

went to the Planning Branch of The Adjutant General's Office, and requests for

stories or articles were sent to the WAC

Group of the Bureau of Public Relations.

Gifts and other expressions of interest were

acknowledged by Captain Chance with a
490 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

note of thanks, and routed to the proper

agency for storage or file. Inquiries from

distressed relatives were referred to the

Army command having jurisdiction over

the Wac concerned, but with a letter of

acknowledgment stating that this agency,

and not the Director, had command of the

Wac concerned, would investigate and

make the required reply, and should

receive any further inquiries.

There still remained, after such actions,

a formidable daily pile of correspondence

which required the drafting by Deputy

Director Rice of a carefully worded individual reply, suitable for the signature of

the Director, the Chief of Staff, the Secretary of War, or whatever office had received the request. These replies of necessity constituted formal Army policy and

required a phrasing that might subsequently appear in print without causing

embarrassment. Typical explanations required by Congress and private citizens

concerned the reasons why more WAC

officers could not be commissioned, why

some enrollment requirements could not

be waived, why the Army could not transfer or discharge all Wacs who requested it,

what spiritual or medical facilities were

available to protect ailing members, why

British or Australian civilian women had

been commissioned, and, particularly,

what the current moral, venereal, and

maternity situation was in the Corps.

The inevitable result of such voluminous

correspondence was a load of work that

was staggeringly heavy for the three staff

members. In view of the apparent relation

of the experiences of the year 1944 to the

Director's hospitalization and later retirement, and to the Deputy Director's death

a few years later,21 it was essential to understand the motives that caused the War

Department neither to increase the staff

nor to decrease the duties until shortly before the end of the war. In effect, the delay

was chiefly caused by a hope that the load

of operating duties was merely a temporary hangover from Auxiliary status, and

would diminish as soon as the public and

Congress realized that the Director was

not the women's commander.

Thus, General Somervell wrote to General Marshall, at the time of the office's

transfer, that the WAVES had no such

"operating" problem, having never gone

through an auxiliary status or been allowed much voice in their own management, and that "All that is necessary to

do is to place Colonel Hobby in approximately the same position as Captain

McAfee."

 22

 As a matter of fact, postwar

studies revealed that the WAVES had an

identical problem. The Bureau of Naval

Personnel, in a final report, stated:

Public opinion would tend to watch jealously the health, safety, and morale of women serving with the Navy, and it would naturally tend to address its inquiries to the "Di- rector." . . . This public position of responsibility had to be backed by some substance

of authority in the Bureau, else the sham would sooner or later appear, and not just

the Women's Reserve but the Navy as a

whole would suffer from the resulting lack of

confidence. Even if another war should bring

Selective Service for women, with consequent

elimination of a recruiting campaign, policy

would probably again require that a woman represent women in the Navy to the public.23

An identical conclusion was reached by

British investigators, who noted, "It may

be that parents of girls . . . like to think

that a woman is finally responsible for

21

 See Ch. XXXV, below, on resignation of Director Hobby. Deputy Director Rice died 11 September

1949 of cancer which was first detected and treated

during the months under discussion. 22

 Memo, CG ASF to CofS USA. SPAP 324.5 (3-

29-44). 23

 WAVES Hist.
THE OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR WAC 491

their well-being and not a government

department."

 24

The fact that certain duties could not

be delegated to any other existing agency

was also well known to experienced WAC

staff officers. After months of effort to rid

the office of the load, the second Director

WAC likewise noted that it was impossible

to do so. Not only was the Director's

Office, a policy agency, unable to refer

certain letters to operating agencies, but

they continued to refer to her for reply

many inquiries which had been addressed

to them.25 Colonel Boyce summarized the

experience of years as:

All efforts to route these inquiries to other

divisions or agencies for original handling

result in return to the Office of the Director,

WAC for a statement of policy, for informa- tion seemingly not available elsewhere, or in

some cases in second letters condemning the

Army for "buck passing." No amount of

effort ever succeeded in eliminating this load

of work from the Office of the Director, WAC.26

The actually intolerable nature of the

situation was masked for a time by the

concentrated activity of the Director's

staff, which until well into 1945 worked

12-, 14-, and 16-hour days of 7-day weeks.

At this time, upon Colonel Rice's departure to other duties, three officers were

eventually necessary to replace her. In the

interim, only the weight of collected carbon copies in the files made credible the

fact that any one individual could dictate

and sign in one day as many pieces of correspondence as did the Deputy Director.

Her only apparent rebellion was a brief

scribble on one particularly insulting letter

of complaint, "I guess we shan't live long

enough for this to stop."

 27

At the same time, the Director's major

official duty—her policy responsibilities to

the War Department—had not ceased to

be fulfilled, even though staff studies were

generally written by Colonel Rice in the

late evening hours after visitors and conferees had been cleared from her office.

These policy solutions, which came freely

after the office's removal from the ASF,

constituted in some respects the real history of the wartime Women's Army Corps,

and its legacy to the future. Although any

one of the major policy fields would require a separate chapter, if not a volume,

for proper discussion, the problems arising

within them did not occur separately, but

were handled simultaneously with each

other and with outside liaison duties during the last eighteen months of the war.

24

 Conditions in the Three Women's Services. 25

 For example: (1) D/F, TAG to Dir WAC, 8 Feb

44, sub: Request for Info re WAC. SPWA 095. (2)

Ltr, Mrs. M. V. Moore to TAG, 1 Feb 44, asking for

a copy of WAC regulations; TAG sent this to Dir

WAC. 26

 Draft, WAC Hist, 14 Nov 45. WDWAC 314.7. 27

 Undated handwritten note to Executive WAC

in Colonel Rice's easily identifiable handwriting.

WD WAC 421.

PART THREE

WAR DEPARTMENT POLICY

CONCERNING

THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

CHAPTER XXV

Legal, Social, and Moral

Problems

For the Corps' first two years, its policy

problems had been chiefly those of survival—the provision of clothes to wear,

places to train, officers and cadre, a recruiting campaign to beat down public

disfavor. For the last eighteen months, its

leaders were able to turn to the more complex and less tangible problems of successful integration of womanpower into an

Army. These problems, although existing

from the beginning, became increasingly

important as the exciting days of establishment gave way to the long haul of

endurance.

A common error among both WAC and

Army authorities was the optimistic assumption that the number of special rules

and regulations for women had decreased

toward the end of the war. Thus, ranking

Wacs could be found stating, "As men

have become more and more familiar with

the WAC program, there has been less and

less need for special directives."

 1 As a

matter of fact, this was an optical illusion.

By the end of the war the number of

amendments to Army rules had grown

from zero to well over two hundred, ranging from Athletic Activities through Barber and Beauty Shops and Physical Profile

down to Use of Weapons or Arms.2 The

apparent simplification of women's administration that prevailed at the end of

the war could be traced to the fact that

differences had been catalogued so well

that field agencies were no longer at a

loss on how to deal with them, and therefore were scarcely conscious of them.

Discharge

From the conversion period to the end

of the war, the enlistment standards for

women remained relatively unchanged

except for minor modifications and the

polishing of the screening process.3 On the

other hand, standards for discharge were

almost totally undeveloped. Women were

placed under the discharge rules of the

Army with only one hasty addition, apparently in the belief that the dischargeability of women would not differ from

that of men except in the matter of pregnancy. This proved a considerable oversimplification, and in the following months

1

 AAF WAC Hist. 2

 A complete list of directives pertaining to the

WAC was never published. A list compiled and

mimeographed in 1945 by the School for WAC Personnel Administration included about 225, but was

admittedly incomplete. Copy in possession of author. 3

 Only notable new requirements: (1) WD Cir

162, 1944, Re-enlistment after discharge; (2) WD

Cir 156, 1945, Enlistment over age 38 prohibited (in

accordance with new circular on discharge of men

and women over 40).
496 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

a number of other changes in Army Regulations were requested by the Director.

Minority Discharge

A male minor who misrepresented his

age in order to enter the Army was, according to Army Regulations, not discharged if discovered, provided that his

parents did not request his discharge.

Many stations thereupon decided that a

woman discovered to be under age could

also remain in the Army if her parents

concurred. However, the WAC age limit

of 20 had been set by act of Congress and

not by the War Department; it was therefore necessary to publish a change making

mandatory the discharge of a woman

found to be under age.4

Fraudulent Enlistment

Army Regulations provided that men

concealing any fact, except minority, that

would have made them ineligible for enlistment would be given a discharge other

than honorable (blue). Minority was excepted, since it was felt that the excess of

patriotism that prompted this concealment should not be stigmatized as was

concealment of previous conviction or

other major offenses. Women, unlike men,

were ineligible for enlistment if they had

children in certain age groups. The Director argued, for a time unsuccessfully,

that concealment of children was in the

same category with concealment of minority, and did not merit the blue discharge

given those who concealed criminal records. It was near the end of the war when

she finally secured partial acceptance of

this theory; authority was then written

into Army Regulations for the discharging

authority to give either a white or a blue

discharge for this offense, at his discretion.

The Secretary of War's Discharge Review

Board was then asked to review all previously issued blue discharges in this category.5

Discharge for National Health, Safety,

and Interest

Discharges to accept essential employment were given to men who could bring

proof of an offer of such employment plus

certification from a Selective Service

board that the holder of the job was

exempt from draft. There was at first some

difficulty in deciding how to get, for a

woman, certification equivalent to that of

a man's Selective Service board. Moreover, it was impossible to ensure that a

woman would take or keep an essential

job after discharge. A man who failed to

do so was at once drafted again, but there

was no way to get the woman back in the

Army; women could accept such a discharge and then enjoy perfect idleness or

a more lucrative nonessential job.

The War Department's first solution

was to forbid any women at all to be discharged for this reason. This, however,

was manifestly unfair to a few scientific

technicians and farm managers who had

enlisted from patriotic motives and now

found themselves less useful to the nation

in the Army. Finally, a new procedure was

worked out, for both men and women,

which eliminated reference to Selective

4

 (1) Memo, Actg Dir Rice for G- 1, 25 Jan 44.

SPWA 220.8 (9-20-43), in AG 320.2 WAC. (2) WD

Cir 65, 12 Feb 44, sec VI; also Cir 96, 1944, and AR

615-362. 5

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 15 Dec 43. SPWA

220.8 (E), in SPWA 220.8 (9-30-43). (2) G-2, AR

615-366, 22 Aug 45. (3) Memo, G-1 for SW Discharge Review Bd, 23 Aug 45; (4) D/F, G-1 to TAG,

23 Aug 45. WDGAP 220.8, in WDWAC 220.8.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS 497

Service boards. Nothing could of course

solve the problem of the absence of a selective service law for women; in any future

legislation it appeared desirable to provide

in some way for this contingency, possibly

by reserve specifications if selective service

was not applicable.6

Dependency Discharge

As soon as the first WAC applications

began to ask discharge because of the dependency of relatives, it became apparent

that there was one fundamental difference

in the social responsibilities of men and

women, which speedily caused difficulty

in the application of the men's rules of discharge. This difference, as expressed

briefly by Deputy Director Rice, was,

"Dependency [of relatives] on a man is

ordinarily financial; dependency on a

woman is more often dependency for

care."

 7

Thus, it was necessary for a man desiring discharge for dependency to submit

documents showing that his presence was

required for the "care or support" of a dependent, "to prevent or relieve destitution." Evidence from the field indicated

that post judge advocates ordinarily interpreted "destitution" strictly to mean only

financial destitution. Case after case

quickly accumulated in which dependency

discharge requests from enlisted women

were disapproved because financial destitution was not a factor. Many of these

concerned sick or aged parents. A parent

might have a dozen sons and one daughter

in the Army, yet when a lengthy illness set

in it was the daughter and not the sons

whose release from the Army was demanded. If the head of a family died, it

was the daughter and not the sons who

must come home to care for the younger

children. Community pressure generally

enforced these duties on a daughter. From

one small town the mayor, minister, and

other prominent citizens wired Director

Hobby asking release of a woman to care

for her aged parents. In most of these cases,

Army discharge authorities in the field refused to allow discharge of the women

concerned, since the dependency was not

financial. Many other such cases concerned children who, although of independent age or legally adopted by others,

encountered changed conditions through

the death or disability of a guardian or

through other misfortunes.8

Even more trouble than the parents and

children, as the war progressed, were husbands. One veteran wrote to the Director:

"I am asking information concerning a

discharge for her due to the seriousness of

my condition. As you know, it is imperative that I remain on a special diet."

 9 In

such cases, whether the husband was still

in an Army hospital or retired on a pension, he could not be said to be financially

dependent on his wife.

Continued reports from the field indicated that, whether parent, child, or husband was concerned, there was little uniformity in the interpretation of "care or

support" by Army discharge authorities.

Some were endeavoring to interpret "care

or support" according to the American 6

 D/F, G-1 to CG AAF, 2 Jul 45. WDGAP 220.8

WAC, in WDWAC 220.8. 7

 Memo, Col Rice for Col Richard R. Coursey, G-1

Div, 23 Aug 44. WDWAC 220.8. 8

 (1) Ibid. Also AR 615-360, sec V, later AR 615-

365. (2) Entire files SPWA 220.8, esp Ltr, WAC Stf

Dir, Eastern Flying Tng Comd, to Dir WAC, 31 Jan

44, in SPWA 220.8 (9-30-43). (3) Ltr, Mrs. T. W.

Boman to Exec WAC, 11 Sep 45. WDWAC 095

Boman. (4) Discharge files for Air WAC Div,

ACofAS Pers, AAF Hq, 1944-45, esp case from AAF

Troop Carrier Comd. 9

 Ltr, Mr. Dave Ferguson to Dir WAC, 3 Feb 45.

WDWAC 095 Ferguson.
498 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

social concept of a woman's duties to her

husband, parents, or child, but others were

applying the men's "care or support" rule

concerning financial destitution.10 The Office of the Director, after study of the problem, believed that the Army should not attempt to ignore the different social responsibilities of men and women in American

civil life, but should accept and acknowledge the difference in an amendment to

the Army Regulations. This proposed

amendment would have allowed a woman

to be discharged:

. . . when, by reason of death or disability

of a member of her family, she becomes the

person primarily responsible for the care of a

child or disabled or ill adult who is a member

of her family. . . . In such case the evidence

required need not include evidence that dis- charge is necessary to prevent or relieve financial destitution, but . . . that [it is] necessary to provide that type of care which is

normally the responsibility of a woman to

provide.11

Such a rule would have been quite similar to that used for the WAVES, who—

although making no changes in published

regulations—required such cases to be

routed to the Bureau of Naval Personnel,

which treated them more liberally on the

grounds that "it was felt that an ill parent

would typically depend more on a daughter in the house than on a son."

 12

This concept was not acceptable to G-1

Division, except as it applied to the wives

of "dependent" veterans. For all other

types of dependency—parents, children,

relatives—the rules on destitution remained unchanged. For discharged husbands the reaction was sympathetic, and

the Army Regulation on dependency was

amended to allow the wife of a disabled

veteran, or of a soldier awaiting disability

discharge, to be discharged to care for

him, provided that medical authorities

certified that her presence would aid in

his recovery. This provoked some dispute

between husbands and medical authorities; shortly before the end of the war, an

amendment provided that the wife of any

veteran, disabled or not, could be discharged upon presenting proof of her husband's discharge from the armed forces or

Merchant Marine. This policy was announced jointly by both military and

naval women's services.13

Discharge for Misconduct

The delicate problem of prescribing

WAC standards of conduct and morals

had not fully taken shape until the end of

the WAAC. In general the Auxiliary's discharge rules had been far more strict than

comparable Army Regulations. The original WAAC Code of Conduct, in addition

to the usual enjoinders against mutiny,

riot, fray, desertion, and disrespect, also

made it an offense to be found drunk in

uniform or otherwise to bring discredit

upon the Corps, either being grounds for

various punishments including discharge.14

Director Hobby later directed that

"drinking unwisely or without moderation" be considered such a violation,

10 Draft of Memo, G-1 for TAG, 5 Jun 44, in

WDWAC 220.8. Prepared by Office of Director for

G-1 signature, but not approved by G-1. See M/R. 11

 Memo cited n. 7. 12

 WAVES Hist, pp. 52 ff. 13

 (1) RR 1-1, par 12d. (2) WD Cir 146, 17 May

45. (3) Joint Army-Navy Agreement on Policies for

Separation from Service and Leave or Furlough

Status for Women in Armed Forces Whose Husbands

Are Discharged Veterans or Overseas Returnees, 24

May 45; (4) Women's Reserve Cir Ltr 4-45, Members of Women's Reserve Married to Servicemen Returning from Overseas, PERS-170-MEK. WDWAC

370.01. (5) Memo, Col Boyce, G-1 Div, for Dir WAC,

11 May 45. WDWAC 220.8. 14

 WAAC Regs 1942, sec V.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS 499

whether or not actual drunkenness could

be proved.15 It was in general considered

undesirable to drink at all while in uniform, or to buy packaged liquor, or to be

found all evening in bars even if sober.16

Other "conduct bringing discredit upon

the Corps" was not specified, but gave discharging authorities considerable latitude.

Director Hobby noted:

Particularly, we want to emphasize what

it means to be a gentlewoman and . . . interpret the Corps to the public. I want you to

impress each one that she is not one person being judged by the public, but the Corps is

being judged by the things she does.17

When the Corps came under Army

status and discharge regulations, it quickly became apparent that many Army discharge boards did not consider it just to

discharge a woman except for misconduct

and "habits and traits" for which they

would discharge a man. Some Army commanders favored the recognition of the

"single standard." One judge advocate

wrote to the Director:

For goodness' sakes treat these girls like

the enlisted men of the Army and do not try

to chaperon and shelter them in too exacting

a fashion . . . their private lives should be

more or less left to their own guiding.18

On the other hand, regardless of such

abstract arguments, one concrete fact was

soon clear—the majority of American

citizens condemned misconduct in a

woman, and the majority of Wacs also

condemned it. Statistics showed that the

WAC average still remained high as to

character, ability, and morality, and it was

found that women in the average WAC

barracks could be brought almost to open

rebellion when forced to share their

"home" with even one woman who was a

prostitute, or diseased, or given to frequent

carousing and drunken nausea, cursing,

and fighting, although none of these private activities was usually considered

grounds for discharge of an Army man,

provided that the individual fulfilled military duties in a reasonably efficient

manner.

It soon became plain from experience

that the presence in a WAC unit of one

such individual would inevitably wreck

first the morale and then the efficiency of

the majority of the women who, through

the fact of enlisted status, were forced

against their will not only to share barracks life with her, but also to face the

jokes and innuendoes of other military

and civilian personnel at the station, who

assumed that all Wacs' morals must be the

same. To keep one such woman was to inspire requests for transfer or discharge

from the others. Whatever the merits of a

theoretical single standard, the practical

fact was that at the current moment in

society, and in recruiting, the habits and

traits that rendered a woman undesirable

as an associate of enlisted women were

somewhat different from those that made

a man an undesirable associate of enlisted

men.

It came to be Director Hobby's opinion,

after study of reports from the field and

on the basis of her legal training, that the

clue to a solution lay in the Army's wellrecognized duty to protect the rights of all

individuals. The female moral offender,

in strict justice, could not be punished

more severely than a male soldier for

15

 Memo, Dir for all Stf Dirs, 9 Feb 43. SPWA

250.12. 16

 Ltr, 13th WAAC Filter Co, Richmond, Va., to

3d SvC, 2 Feb 43, and Ind. SPWA 250.12. 17

 Speech, Min, Stf Dirs Conf, 15-17 Jun 43. SPWA

337 (6-1-43). See also: (1) WAAC Regs 1943, par

63c; also WAAC Cir 9, 9 Apr 43. (2) Ltr, Dir WAAC

to CG WAAC Tng Comd, 10 Mar 43. SPWA 250.12. 18

 Ltr, Chief, JA Br 8th SvC, to Dir WAC, 15 Jul

43. SPWA 250.
500 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

identical offenses. On the other hand, the

149 other members of a WAC unit also

were entitled to protection from damage

to physical or mental health or well-being,

and the Corps, as a volunteer group, had

the right to choose its members and give

honorable discharges to the unfit.

Whether or not the standards of conduct

of twentieth-century American women

were overstrict or illogical, the fact was

that they existed and could not be converted to those of men by an Army Regulation. The Director therefore recommended that discharge boards be informed that it lay within their authority

to define "habits and traits" in line with

the right of unit members to decent surroundings as defined by American religious and social usage.

Unfortunately for its promulgation,

this policy would have deviated from

Army Regulations for men, and the Director was never able to secure its formulation in writing. She did succeed in including counsel to company officers, in

their refresher training, that they present

such cases to Army boards in terms of the

effect upon the company as a whole and

upon members' efficiency, rather than the

relative seriousness of a moral offense for

a man.19

Discharge for Inadaptability

For the type of discharge given men for

"inadaptability," or hopeless ineptitude

on Army jobs, there was a similar difficulty for women. A man was not considered eligible for discharge under this authority so long as he could perform the

work of a laborer; a woman was actually

useless to the Army if she could not do one

of the more limited duties open to women—clerical, technical, food preparation,

or other work within her physical capacity.

She could not be assigned to work such as

ditch-digging, lifting boxes and cartons,

battlefield salvage, or similar service

duties. Nevertheless, reports from the field

indicated that Army boards, in a commendable effort at strict justice, were applying to men and women the same standards of intelligence and training in this respect, and frequently refused to discharge

any woman who, had she been a man,

would have been able to dig a ditch.20

It was Director Hobby's opinion that,

as in other cases, some modification of the

Army Regulations was necessary for

women, to assure discharge boards of their

authority to apply the "inadaptability"

provision to such women and to give them

an honorable discharge. Such discharge

appeared desirable both to free Army

manpower allotments from the burden of

unassignables, and to permit the individual to find happier employment in farm or

factory. Again, the Director was not able

to secure War Department approval of

any published deviation from men's rules.

She was able only to mention the problem

in officer refresher training. Officers were

counseled to present the case to Army

boards in terms of the military duties

within a woman's strength, and not in

those of the woman's relative intelligence

and training as compared to an inadaptable man's.21

Pregnancy Discharge

The Auxiliary Corps upon its establishment encountered a situation in which,

for Army nurses, a sharp distinction had

always been made between the types of

19

 (1) AR 615-360, sec VIII, which became AR

615-368 and AR 615-369. (2) See Ch. XXXV, pp.

716-17, below. 20

 Ibid.

21

 (1) Ibid. (2) Ltr, Dir WAC to all WAC Stf Dirs,

11 Sep 46, re WD Cir 241, 10 Aug 46, sec III.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS 501

discharge for married and unmarried

pregnancy: unmarried nurses found to be

pregnant were given a dishonorable discharge, elsewhere reserved for convicted

criminals. The whole subject was in fact

of such abhorrence to the Nurse Corps

that no attrition rates were officially collected, and the word pregnancy itself was

replaced by cyesis.22 In conformity with

this tradition, the earliest WAAC Regulations, written before Director Hobby's appointment, contained the provision that

only married women would get an honorable discharge for pregnancy, others receiving the worst type within the Auxiliary's power to bestow, a summary discharge.23

It was immediately evident to the Director upon her appointment that the distinction was untenable, from a legal

standpoint. A military discharge "other

than honorable" was never decreed except for definite violations of military or

civil law, and there generally was no legal

charge that could be brought against a

pregnant unmarried woman in either

civilian or military courts if her public

conduct was not disorderly. The Army's

only legal grounds for discharging such a

woman was that she was no longer physically capable of military service. Therefore, in December of 1942, Director

Hobby secured a change in the regulation

to permit an honorable discharge by reason of "unsuitability for the service."

 24

Certain officers who still felt that only

married women should get honorable discharges were forced into hasty retreat

when the Director inquired if they were

also going to require legal proof that the

married woman's husband was the father

of the child. Where a couple had not met

for several years a wife's claim to a better

type of discharge appeared slim, yet had

the Army investigated every time lapse, it

would manifestly have been placed in a

somewhat ridiculous situation.

All subsequent WAC and Army Regulations therefore required an honorable

discharge for all pregnant women, with

the eventual entry on the discharge certificate being merely "By reason of Sec.

III AR 615-361," or other appropriate

regulation, without reference to marital

status.25 The Army Nurse Corps, after its

later entry into full Army status, likewise

authorized an honorable discharge.26

 In

the Navy women's services, pregnant enlisted women were also discharged honorably, "For the Convenience of the Government."

 27

 The War Department's official policy on the matter was formally

stated early in 1945 in a letter to Congress

concerning the Army Nurse Corps, which

applied equally to the WAC:

Pregnancy in the case of an unmarried

woman is not cognizable by the criminal

law. . . . Thus, the manner in which the

Army disposes of such cases is consistent with

the manner in which such cases are handled

in civilian society. This office is aware of no

justification for considering pregnancy of a

militarized single woman as a crime, when

civilian society does not thus consider it.28

In the United States, those cases in

which a child was born before a woman

could be discharged were ordinarily

handled, for lack of any other authority,

22

 ANC Hist, p. 407. For WAC pregnancy discharges, see Table 9, Appendix A. 23

 WAAC Regs 1942 (Tentative) par 38a. 24

 WAAC Cir 17, 29 Dec 42. 25

 WAAC Cir 10, 9 Apr 43; WAAC Reg, May 43;

WD Cir 289, 9 Nov 43, AR 615-361, 4 Nov 44, sec

III, pars 16-24, EW only; WD Cir 404, 14 Oct 44,

sec III, for offs. 26

 AR 40-20, G-5, 9 Jan 44; see also ANC Hist,

p. 407. 27

 Bupers Directive PERS-66-THT-QR 8/P19,

23 May 43. WDWAC 702 (194-5-46). 28

 Ltr, TAG to Rep Joseph C. Baldwin, 3 Feb 45.

AGCH-P 321 Nurse Corps (15 Jan 45). WDWAC

702.
502 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

by dependency discharge. If this did not

apply, either because the child died or the

mother announced her intent to give it

away, authority for discharge was, for the

duration of the war, solved only by emergency requests to headquarters, which

obligingly furnished authority to discharge

the woman "by authority of the Secretary

of War." It was not until 1947 that authority was published for "pregnancy"

discharge if a child had already been delivered, living or stillborn.29

Delay in discharge was particularly

conspicuous in overseas theaters. Director

Hobby was eventually obliged to obtain

a directive stating that, if discharge had

been delayed until pregnancy was so advanced that the mother's or unborn

child's life would be endangered by travel,

the mother might be retained in service

overseas until the infant was born, and

both returned to the United States. Authority was provided for getting the baby

past immigration officials and into Army

hospitals as a "patient," and for discharging the mother when she was no longer

pregnant. The Navy Department very

shortly published an identical circular.30

A related problem was the type of discharge, if any, that should be given for

abortion. The problem occurred very

rarely, but in early 1944 there came to Director Hobby's attention four or five recent cases in which Army commands had

given the offender a blue or "other than

honorable" discharge. It was the Director's reaction that a woman guilty of deliberate abortion, married or unmarried,

should be promptly discharged, both for

the sake of the other women in the Corps

and for the good of the individual herself,

who would ordinarily be emotionally and

physically unfitted for exacting military

duty for some months. However, a check

by legal officers revealed that abortion

was ordinarily not a civil or criminal offense for a woman, but only for the practitioner who performed it. Furthermore,

legal and medical authorities agreed that

it was ordinarily impossible, after the

event, to certify to a court whether abortion or miscarriage had actually taken

place and, if so, whether it was illegal or

accidental.31

The Army courts that had given blue

discharges to enlisted women for this action had therefore been guilty of applying

legal penalties to women who had violated no law. In accordance with her previous policy concerning pregnancy, Director Hobby sought some means of honorable discharge, which would protect the

individual's rights while preserving the

right of the Corps to choose the type of

members it desired. She found the WAVES

in an identical dilemma. That organization could find no legal basis for discharge

but had hesitated to publish this fact, fearing to appear to condone abortion, and so

had done nothing, the decision being left

to field commands. The SPARS had an

ingenious system: a woman was required

by regulation to report her possible pregnancy as soon as she suspected it, and was

29

 WD Cir 43, 15 Feb 47, sec IV. 30

 (1) ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 25, 124-25, and Vol.

III, App. 114, p. 7. (2) Ltr, ETO to Dir WAC, 10

Oct 44. WDWAC 702. (3) Ltr, AGO to all Maj

Comds, ATC, Ports, and Theaters, 20 Oct 44. AG

704.11 (9-22-44) OB-P-SPGAM-MP-M; in

WDWAC 702 (1945). (4) Ltr, Asst Dir WAVES to Dir

WAC, 14 May 45. PERS-170-MEK, in WDWAC

370.01. 31

 Folder, WAC Separation for Pregnancy, esp Ltr,

4th SvC to CO Ft Oglethorpe, 10 Feb 44, directing

"Section VIII" discharge for EW, with Ind from

JAG. WDWAC 702 (2-23-44). Comments on Colonel

Hobby's deliberations on the matter are from the

memory of Maj. Mattie E. Treadwell, Assistant Chief,

WAC Branch, G-1, who shared the conferences on

the subject.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS 503

then given an honorable discharge upon

medical confirmation; but if she failed to

report, and termination of pregnancy occurred, she was discharged for violation

of the regulation that she report her pregnancy.

 32

Director Hobby seriously considered

adopting the SPARS plan, but consultation with the Office of The Surgeon General brought forth many objections. Female medical officers maintained that,

since spontaneous abortion often occurred

even before a woman suspected pregnancy, an other-than-honorable dismissal

would be an injustice to many. Also, medical officers believed that the threat of a

blue discharge would not prevent abortion, since an estimated 700,000 were performed yearly on civilian women. Medical

officers also feared that a system like that

of the SPARS would lead to concealment

from medical officers of after-abortion

hemorrhage or infection, with possible

death of the victim resulting.33

The Director was therefore forced to

drop all attempts to make induced abortion a cause for discharge. The only published reference to the problem was a line

in Army discharge regulations which provided that pregnancy "and the direct

complications and sequelae thereof

would be considered as incurred "not in

line of duty" but with no misconduct involved. However, if the medical officer

was able to prove illegality, "illegal abortions complete or incomplete will be regarded as misconduct."

 34

Discipline

The conversion to Army status presented an equally serious policy problem

to the Army commanders now charged

with WAC discipline. Evidence from the

field soon indicated that the punishments

given Wacs by Army board procedures

varied widely for identical offenses. At one

extreme were found those commanders

who dealt out a double standard of justice,

with the result that female military personnel received heavier fines and penalties

for identical moral offenses than did male

personnel.

At the other extreme, there was evidence that more courts were too lenient

with women than too strict; many found

great difficulty in punishing a woman for

anything. A woman might be a habitual

troublemaker and insubordinate to her

commander, but if she was at all attractive and articulate, or able to shed a tear,

she could frequently convince a court that

she was the injured party and her company commander an old sourpuss. A comparable situation could have been imagined only had it been necessary for Army

company commanders to attempt to secure discipline of handsome young men

before an all-female court.

It was Director Hobby's opinion that

more uniformity might be obtained, without interference with command prerogative, by including WAC officers on boards

or courts trying WAC offenders. A provision was therefore included in the first

WAC Regulations to the effect that at

least one member of every such group

would be a Wac. Reports from the field

soon indicated that the provision was not

32

 (1) Memo, WAC Legal Off for Exec, 10 Feb 44;

(2) Memo, 23 Feb 44, SPWA 220.8. Folder, WAC

Separation for Pregnancy, WDWAC 702 (2-23-44).

(3) Memo, Maj Treadwell for Dir WAC, 25 Mar 44,

sub: Tp Convs with WAVES and SPARS Hq.

WDWAC 702 (2-23-44). 33

 Informal Memo, SGO for Col Hobby, marked

"not for record," 6 Apr 44, WDWAC 702. 34

 (1) AR 615-361, par 22. For illegal abortions,

AW 107 applied. (2) Women's Res Cir Ltr 3-45, 7

Jun 45. PERS-170-MEK-AR 8, in WDWAC 702.
504 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

uniformly effective. At times the one

WAC member was a very junior officer.

Frequently the requirement was entirely

circumvented when the defendant's counsel used his right of peremptory challenge

to remove the one woman board member,

particularly if he planned to base his

client's defense on emotional grounds.

Such practices became so common that

some Army commanders recommended

all-WAC boards for women. The commandant of the Command and General

Staff School pointed out in connection

with a local case that such boards should

not include any male officers "since men

do not seem to be able to mete out

punishment to women."

Director Hobby did not incline to such

an extreme, believing that Army officers'

greater length of service lent valuable

knowledge, that they would in time

achieve the necessary objectivity, and that

one WAC member would suffice. She

therefore requested publication of a letter

or circular inviting the attention of field

commanders, and of the Judge Advocate

General's Department, to the requirement

for a qualified WAC officer on every

board, which would necessitate provision

of alternates in the event one was challenged. However, such a publication met

with the objection of the Judge Advocate

General, and was never promulgated. The

Army Air Forces nevertheless invited the

attention of inspectors to the requirement,

and also informed them that it was considered "sound administration" to appoint

a WAC officer as the summary court to

hear charges against Wacs.35

The Navy experienced an identical

problem. The Bureau of Naval Personnel

stated:

The administration of discipline was one

respect in which it was definitely felt that the

"woman's point of view" should be repre- sented, though this worked out somewhat

differently than the men had anticipated . . .

The Women's Reserve representative who

had been provided for to guard against

injustice . . . more often than not provided

the saving element of objectivity to hold the

line. It was often the experience that com- manding officers began by manifesting a

paternal tolerance of minor infractions of

discipline and then felt somewhat helpless

when they discovered that women would

take advantage of this as readily as men. The

sex difference introduces a certain amount of

misplaced chivalry to upset the objectivity

with which one man would view the inadequacies of another. . . . The best that could

be done was to introduce the detached appraisal of Women's Reserve representatives. . . .36

Since the same problem occurred in

higher courts, the Director sent to the

Judge Advocate General a list of fortyfour Wacs who were lawyers, with the suggestion that he might wish them to attend

his school at Ann Arbor so that some

might be qualified to sit on the Army's

highest Boards of Review. The Judge Advocate General refused the offer, stating:

The Boards of Review constituted by the

Judge Advocate General, pursuant to AW

501⁄2, are statutory boards composed of mem- bers of the Judge Advocate General's De- partment. ... I do not deem it practicable

or desirable to change the membership of such a board merely for the consideration of

a particular class of cases ... to appoint

members of the Women's Army Corps to such

boards is not now contemplated.

He also refused to send WAC lawyers to

Ann Arbor, saying:

The legal fields in which a member of the

35

 (1) WD Cir 289, 9 Nov 43. (2) Quotation from

Memo, Maj Selma H. Herbert, Command and General Staff Sch, for Col Boyce, 29 Jul 46; incl is CG

opinion. (3) Memo, Actg Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF,

7 Jan 44; Memo, JAG for Dir MPD ASF, 31 Jan 44,

SPJGO. SPWA 250.4 (1945-46). (4) AAF Manual

120-2, WAC Insp, Hq AAF, 10 Apr 44. 36

 WAVES Hist, pp. 116-23.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS 505

Women's Army Corps may be used are so

limited ... it appears to me to be neither practical nor, from the standpoint of training, advantageous.37

The problem of WAC representation on

boards and courts was thus never completely solved, although the requirement

for one WAC representative remained in

effect where not locally circumvented.

The Director advised staff directors to

attempt, at every station, to make arrangements for providing WAC officers of sufficient number and experience to serve on

courts and boards if the local commander

saw fit.

Confinement

The question of WAC confinement was

difficult to discuss without any number of

puns, but insofar as it was defined as

imprisonment, it presented an immediate

problem which eventually required a

published directive to the field. The problem of where to put delinquent women

had first arisen in WAAC days, in connection with the detention of AWOL women

who were found to congregate in large

cities.

A typical field protest from Los Angeles

revealed that the local provost marshal

did not know where to house them. He

put one in the city jail and newspapers got

the story; he dumped others on a nearby

WAC company which, after four in one

week, objected vigorously. It was ordinarily necessary to house an AWOL several days or even weeks until return to her

station could be arranged. The protesting

local officers asked Director Hobby for

some place of detention for women,

saying:

Here is one of the particular cases where it

seems to us the War Department must recognize that the fundamental difference in sex, so often referred to in regulations, demands

that in big cities where Wacs will congregate

there must be adequate arrangements set up

to take care of them.38

Accordingly, Director Hobby asked for

an experiment in one city of the Western

Defense Command, which would require

one WAC officer and two enlisted women

as military police, plus some small quarters for detention. The Provost Marshal

General concurred in the proposal. For a

time it appeared that General Somervell

would approve the plan. However, it was

eventually disapproved after Military

Personnel Division, ASF, pointed out that

the plan would not permit reduction in

the number of male military police, and

that extra allotments to take care of the

WAC were not justified since Wacs formed

less than 2 percent of the Army.39

The matter of the housing of WAC

AWOL's was thus left to local arrangements—a WAC detachment if it would

take them, the city jail if it would 

until just before the end of the war, when

Director Hobby, with the backing of the

Air Forces, succeeded in getting a directive

requiring local WAC companies to accept

custody when requested to do so. This was

never particularly acceptable to the companies concerned, since it had an undesirable effect upon their personnel as well as

requiring expensive guards and separate

facilities. Nevertheless, it seemed the best

compromise in the absence of female

military police stations.40

37

 JAG Memo cited n. 35(3). 38

 (1) Tp Conv, Stf Dir 9th SvC and Stf Dir WFTC

with Dir WAC, 23 Jul 43. (2) Ltr, 1st O Helen Woods

to Dir WAC, 24 Jul 43. SPWA 320.2 (7-23-43). 39

 (1) Memo, Actg Dir WAC for G-1, 2 Aug 43,

with concurrence PMG; (2) Memo, Maj Gen Russell

B. Reynolds, Dir MPD ASF, for Dir Pers ASF, 10 Aug

43, with Director's second appeal, 25 Aug, and G-1's

final refusal, 31 Aug. SPWA 320.2 (7-23-43). 40

 D/F, G-1 to TAG, 23 Feb 45, sub: Custody of

WAC Offenders. WDGAP 250.1 WAC, in WDWAC

250.
506 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

A still more serious problem after the

integration in the Army was that of finding a place to confine Wacs who were

sentenced to long terms by Army courtmartial. Director Hobby had always

advocated that, for minor offenses, some

punishment more suitable than confinement or restriction to quarters be found,

since, she said, "no military purpose is

served by taking a woman off the job in

wartime."

 41

Since serious offenses meriting such

punishment were rare among WAC members, an entire service command covering

several states ordinarily had only one or

two women to be confined. One inspector

found a station with its one WAC offender

installed in a separate guardhouse with a

necessarily private bath, with a detail of

three able-bodied military police to guard

the door night and day. From her window

she received a stream of sympathetic military and civilian visitors, bearing gifts, so

that her sufferings seemed to be slight. In

another case the Eighth Service Command hopefully requested that a woman

just sentenced to two years confinement

be transferred to the "WAC Stockade,

Fort Des Moines"—unfortunately, a

nonexistent institution.42

A WAC disciplinary barracks at one of

the training centers was actually under

consideration at the time, since one such

centralized institution would have been

adequate to care for the few WAC prisoners from all over the nation. The Commandant, Fort Des Moines, advised Colonel Hobby in response to her inquiry:

I believe that one place under competent

administration could restore many of the

women as good Wacs. . . . With the increase

in the size of the Corps we must recognize

that a few undesirables will slip in, and make

provisions for their welfare.43

Accordingly, the Director recommended

that suitable training center facilities be

provided for the confinement of women

serving short-term sentences. For those

with longer sentences, she suggested that

arrangements be made to transfer them to

the Federal Industrial Reformatory for

Women at Alderson, West Virginia, which

she believed to be a recognized institution

with long experience in the scientific

rehabilitation of female prisoners. This

was in line with existing policy, which

provided that federal facilities might be

used for male military prisoners.44

The portion of her recommendation

concerning transfer to Alderson was approved and put into effect. Cases accepted,

however, were only those in which the

individual had committed a felony or

violated a civil law. Still undisposed of

were sentences, like the two-year sentence

in the Eighth Service Command, that

were imposed for violation of military

regulations only. The War Department

never approved Colonel Hobby's recommendation for disciplinary barracks at

WAC training centers for these women.

High-level negotiations were involved.

The Navy Department could never be

persuaded to set up a similar institution

for convicted WAVES and SPARS, whom

it preferred to discharge, and the War

Department felt that extremely unfavorable publicity and loss of recruits might

result if it was known that the WAC was

41

 Min, Stf Dirs Conf, 15-17 Jun 43. SPWA 337

(6-1-43). 42

 Ltr, Hq 8th SvC, 20 Jan 44, A-902 359. SPWA

250.3 (11-22-43). 43

 Ltr, Col Frank U. McCoskrie, Comdt 1st WAC

Tng Cen, to Dir WAC, 17 Jan 44. SPWA 250.3 (11-

22-43). 44

 Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 22 Nov 43,

sub: Places of Confinement for Members WAC, re

conf with Dir Pers, JAG, TAG, etc; two tng cens' concurrences atchd. SPWA 250.3 (11-22-43).
LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS 507

the only women's service maintaining

such an institution.

As the only alternative, a confidential

letter was sent to all commands stating

that, while courts would adjudge sentences

as usual, the reviewing authority would

direct discharge instead of confinement for

Wacs who could not be transferred to

Alderson and who did not appear to be

useful members of the Corps. Under this

policy, the Corps operated for the duration. Although confidential, this policy

came gradually to be known and occasioned some unfavorable comment from

men who felt that "nothing could be done

to Wacs who break rules." Such an impression was entirely erroneous, as all

penalties remained identical with the sole

exception of confinement over thirty days

for offenses that did not violate civilian

law. Director Hobby felt that the discrimination was in fact in the other direction—

that male offenders had an opportunity

for rehabilitation and return to service

where they could earn an eventual honorable discharge. A paragraph was inserted

in the directive admonishing reviewing

authorities against the natural tendency

to give a woman, in lieu of confinement, a

more severe type of discharge than the

case merited.45

All women's services in the United

States adopted an identical policy in this

respect. The officially approved explanation stated:

The laws creating the Women's Services

set up voluntary organizations. . . . Women

volunteering for these services are not subject

to the draft law. It is presumed that if volun- teers are no longer in a position to fill a

military mission, they should be returned to

civilian life. It is not believed that there was

any intent to place them in confinement for

such offenses as would not be punishable by civil law.46

It was also felt that there was little economic value to the armed forces in attempting to rehabilitate women offenders,

since a man who spent most of his time in

the guardhouse might eventually make a

good combat soldier, but a female habitual

offender would seldom settle down to be a

good clerk.

Maternity Care

Another of Director Hobby's first projects after her arrival in G-1 Division was

a hitherto unsuccessful plan to provide

some form of maternity and postnatal care

for Wacs discharged from the service for

pregnancy. Soldiers' wives were entitled to

maternity care in Army hospitals,47 but a

Wac was not eligible to receive it on the

basis of her own service, since upon discharge she was not a soldier but a veteran.

As for the chances of care in veterans' hospitals, the Veterans' Administration from

the beginning had refused to provide care

for women discharged for pregnancy,

maintaining that it might legally provide

only for "defect, disease, or disability

cases," and that pregnancy was not a

disability but a normal condition.48

The War Department's reluctance to

take any action apparently stemmed from

the fear that attention to the problem

might lead the public to exaggerate the

numbers involved, which actually continued to be less than comparable civilian

rates. However, the infrequency of occurrence did not, in the Director's opinion,

45

 AG Ltr, 29 May 44. AG 250.04 OB-S-M. 46

 Memo, Exec WAC for Col Hobby, 25 Apr 45.

WDWAC 250.3. 47

 WD Cir 305, 5 Oct 45, sec VII, replacing earlier

Cirs. 48

 Memo, G-1 for Exec WAC, 27 Apr 44, sub: Maternity Care for Mil Pers (describes conf with VA

representatives, 25 Apr 44). WDWAC 702.
508 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

warrant neglect of the individuals concerned.

A woman discharged for pregnancy,

and without other means of support, was

frequently obliged to wander from one

social institution to another, seeking

charity—a situation undesirable not only

for humane reasons, but for the prestige

of the Army and of the Women's Army

Corps, particularly if she did her wandering in uniform. WAC company commanders or staff directors habitually attempted to help such women find care,

but were usually unable to do so for lack

of familiarity with social agencies in the

city or state to which a woman was returning. The situation was admittedly so undesirable that the Chief of Chaplains

himself protested that "inadequate provisions are available for the care and

rehabilitation of the members of the Corps

who become pregnant."

 49

The Director did not support the extreme view held by some authorities, that

pregnant women should remain in the

Corps. One command protested the discharge of such women:

The regulation does not give to the mem- bers of the WAAC the same consideration

and care that is given the men in the Army

who become physically disqualified for active

duty. ... In a majority of pregnancy cases

the Waac so discharged will have no means

of support, no opportunity for securing medi- cal care, so will become an indigent. Dis- charge is not a proper solution to this prob- lem either from the point of view of the Waac

as an individual, the WAAC as a Corps, the

Army, or Society.50

This command proposed care in a special

confinement sanitarium, with discharge

after the child was born unless it died or

was adopted. Director Hobby objected to

this idea, partly because it seemed to

encourage a woman to give away her

baby in order to remain in the Corps, and

partly because it might appear to the

public that the Army was running government-supported baby farms after the

German model. She believed, however,

that medical care after discharge, on a

veteran's status, should be made available

to both married and unmarried women

discharged for pregnancy if they had

inadequate private means.

After a series of fruitless attempts to

convince the Veterans' Administration

that childbirth required medical care,

Director Hobby turned to the possibility

of care of discharged Wacs in Army hospitals.51

 She secured a decision from the

Judge Advocate General that it was legal

to care for such veterans in Army facilities; she also obtained concurrence from

The Surgeon General, and a plan whereby certain Army hospitals could accept

maternity cases. She then reported to G-1:

Every way I know of providing for the care

of this personnel has been explored during

the past year. We have been able to develop

no other way that is suitable and satisfactory. It is War Department policy to provide ma- ternity care for wives of soldiers. I believe it

is therefore in keeping with this policy to pro- vide maternity care for female military per- sonnel whether or not they are married to

soldiers.52

This plan was approved by G-1 and

sent to the Chief of Staffs office. Here it

incubated for approximately nine months

49

 Ltr, Chief of Chaplains, to Dir WAC, 22 May

44. WDWAC 702 (1945-46). 50

 Ltr, AAF Tng Comd to Dir WAAC, 13 Apr 43,

sub: Reconsideration of Par 38a WAAC Cir 1 7 re

Discharge of Pregnancy Cases. SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43)

sec I.

51

 Memo cited n. 48; also Memo, Maj Kathleen

McClure for Col Hobby, 18 May 44. WDWAC 702

(1945-46). 52

 Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Henry (G-1), 16 Sep

44. WDWAC 702 (1945-46). Tab X has SGO plan.

Tab Y has JAG opinion.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS 509

until finally, in late May of 1945, shortly

before the end of the war, it came to light

in the form of a War Department circular.

Whereas the recommendations of Director

Hobby and the Chief of Chaplains had

not sufficed, the War Department was

finally moved to action by the repeated

urgings of the prominent civilian women

of the National Civilian Advisory Committee. A month later the Navy Department issued an identically worded circular

permitting Navy hospitals to extend the

same type of care to Waves, SPARS,

Women Marines, and the Navy Nurse

Corps. This problem, which had existed

since the establishment of the women's

services, was thus solved only after three

years and in the last days of the war.53

Meantime, Director Hobby, while waiting for this directive, had succeeded

in getting a second and supplementary

plan: the help of the American Red Cross

in advising discharged pregnant Wacs.

Red Cross representatives were already

performing this service for the Army Nurse

Corps,54 and were agreeable to aiding

enlisted women. Without applying any

persuasion to follow a certain plan, the

female Red Cross representative at a discharged Wac's station was instructed to

talk to the woman, discover her wishes,

and within two weeks arrange for a complete plan covering temporary employment, maternity care in the community of

her choice, and later employment to enable the mother to keep her baby if she so

desired. This was accomplished by direct

communication with the Red Cross representative in the community concerned,

who was ordinarily familiar with all the

possibilities of help from available social

agencies, could arrange financial assistance if necessary, and could keep the matter confidential while sparing the pregnant

woman the ordeal of applying in person

from one agency to the other.

This plan was opposed by Personal

Affairs Division, Army Service Forces,

which felt that the Army's personal affairs

officer at the station concerned should

make the arrangements. However, the

Director, Army Emergency Relief, as well

as Director Hobby, felt that the Red Cross

could reach more communities and more

specialized service agencies; and the Red

Cross plan was eventually adopted. To

this was soon added the authorization to

use Army hospitals if the woman concerned preferred.55

In general, the combined system worked

admirably during the remaining months

of demobilization, with the Red Cross

planning all needed community services

and Army hospitals furnishing care when

necessary. To this was added a new decision by Veterans' Administration that

pregnant women were entitled to regular

unemployment compensation during confinement provided they registered with

the United States Employment Service

while still employable for light work for a

few months.56

53

 (1) D/F, G-1 to DCofS, 22 Sep 44. WDGAP 702,

in WDWAC 702 (1945-46). Concurrences: TSG,

AAF, AGF, ASF, JAG. (2) WD Cir 141, 12 May 45,

sec I. Amended by WD Cir 146, 17 May 45. WD

Cir 292, 25 Sep 45, sec II, gives servicewomen priority over other maternity and infancy cases and dependents. (3) Memo, G-1 for CofS, 13 Oct 44. CofS

324.5 WAC. (4) Min, NCAC Conf, 16-18 Feb 45.

WD Lib and Hobby files. (5) Comment 4 to Memo,

Dir Pers ASF for G-1, 28 May 45. WDWAC 720.

(6) Navy Dept Cir Ltr 45-612, 15 Jun 45. PERS170-EAN-P3-2, in WDWAC 702. 54

 Ltr cited n. 53(6). 55

 Summary Sheet and incl discussion, Dir WAC to

DCofS (co-ordination of G-1 Div), 10 Feb 45.

WDWAC 702. 56

 (1) Memo, Capt Jeanne K. Letallier, O Dir

WAC, for Col Woods, Dep Dir WAC, 10 Oct 45.

WDWAC 702. (2) See Summary Sheet cited n. 55.
510 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Marriage

Marriage, according to the Army Nurse

Corps precedent, had always been classed

in the same category as illegitimate pregnancy; married nurses were not allowed

in the Corps, and those who married while

on active duty were dishonorably discharged.57

 The WAAC chose to follow the

Army example; marriage was considered

neither disqualifying for enlistment nor

grounds for discharge. Soon after the

WAAC's establishment, the Army Nurse

Corps also permitted its members to be

married, but not to serve on the same station as their husbands.58

 The WAAC never

sanctioned any such restriction. Quite

early in Auxiliary days, it was discovered

that some station commanders and WAAC

company commanders were refusing to

permit the marriage of WAAC personnel,

or were breaking up the association of

married couples by transferring either

husband or wife if both were stationed at

the same installation.

In answer to a query as to whether a

Waac required her commanding officer's

permission to marry, the reply was, "The

Director WAAC will authorize no action

to prevent marriages of WAAC officers or

enrolled women, whether to officers,

enlisted men, or civilians."

 59

 Director

Hobby then secured the War Department's concurrence to a circular which

provided:

The marriage of a WAAC officer or en- rolled member to a member of the armed

forces will not be allowed to effect an advan- tage or a disadvantage in her assignment of

duty, nor will it be allowed to preclude the

privileges normally allowed to such personnel. WAAC officers or enrolled members will

not be transferred solely because of marriage

to persons serving at the same station.60

A provision to this effect was included in

all subsequent WAC Regulations, and was

generally well enforced in the United

States.

Only two other amendments to Army

Regulations were required concerning

marriage of Wacs. One of these provided

authority for change of name, which was

discovered to be lacking in the existing

provisions by which an enlisted man

might change his name. This action—for

females only—was made mandatory, not

optional.61

The other amendment concerned the

burial of husbands. As members of the

Army, Wacs were entitled to burial in

national cemeteries with the customary

Army honors if their relatives so desired.

The question eventually arose as to

whether or not a Wac's husband might

be buried in a national cemetery with her,

in accordance with the rule which permitted wives to be buried with Army husbands. The Quartermaster General proposed that such interment be refused to

servicewomen's husbands unless they had

been soldiers and were entitled to it in

their own right. Director Hobby appealed

the question to the Under Secretary of

War on the grounds that WAC legislation

provided for equal rights for servicewomen. The Under Secretary agreed and

directed that permission be granted, but

asked that no publicity be given to the

matter, since it was feared that it would

be harmful both to the WAC and to the

Army if the public knew that husbands

57

 ANC Hist, p. 108. 58

 Ibid., p. 317. 59

 Ltr, 2d SvC to Dir WAAC, 12 Jan 43, and Ind.

SPWA 291.12. 60

 (1) WAAC Cir 4, 5 Feb 43, sec I. Cf. WD Cir

462, 6 Dec 44. sec II, par 12b. (2) Memo, Dir WAAC

for CofAdm Serv ASF, 13 Jan 43, and approvals from

ASF and G-1. SPWA 300.3 (1-7-43) sec 1. 61

 M/R, 11 Sep 43. SPWA 201.7.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS 511

were being given the rights of wives in

this respect.62

The Social Caste System

The WAC never, in the opinion of its

members, experienced any problem comparable to that of the Army concerning

restrictions on the social association of

officer and enlisted personnel of the same

sex. Almost all WAC officers had risen

from the ranks through officer candidate

school, and for this reason WAC leaders

noted that the distinction "did not affect

the morale and well-being of female

enlisted personnel to the extent reported

for male personnel."

 63

On the other hand, where personnel of

opposite sex was concerned, the problem

was one of the Corps' most serious. The

year of the Auxiliary's existence saw the

evolution of Director Hobby's views from

an original acceptance of the Army tradition in this matter to a final advocacy of

a more liberal policy for personnel of opposite sexes. WAAC Regulations never

mentioned the matter, which was in fact

never mentioned in Army Regulations,

but trainees were informed that the WAAC

would abide by all Army traditions. This

tradition proved understandably difficult

to enforce, particularly as some male

instructors proved of little assistance in

inculcating in enrolled Waacs a respect for

the Army custom. It was, in fact, necessary for a directive to be issued saying that

enrolled Waacs in training centers were

not bound to obey "orders of a social

nature" issued by their male officers.

Trainees at General Faith's headquarters

at Daytona Beach were permitted to date

officers if they desired.64

In addition to being hard to enforce,

the caste system was bitterly resented by

many women who suddenly found themselves unable to associate with former

friends and, on leaves at home, obliged to

decline dates and stay away from parties

because of their supposed social inferiority.

Therefore, toward the end of the WAAC

period, Director Hobby placed herself on

record as opposed to the Army tradition

as between opposite sexes, at least in wartime. She said, "Most of the young people

of this country are in uniform. I do not

think you can change a social pattern in

wartime."

 65

 She stated that she believed

there should be no bar on off-duty social

engagements between officers and enlisted

personnel of opposite sexes, with the exception that an officer should not date

enrolled personnel under his supervision,

by analogy with the civilian custom by

which a good supervisor ordinarily did not

date one of his employees.

Nothing came of her objections at this

time, nor was any reference to the matter

placed in WAC Regulations; in reply to

inquiries, it was stated that "orders or

regulations of local authorities will govern

policies."

 66

Letters and reports from the field soon

after the conversion period indicated that

the unpopularity of the caste system as applied to opposite sexes was steadily increasing. Of all the reasons that civilian

62

 Memo, Dir WAC for Under SW, 25 Oct 44, with

1st Ind, Under SW to QMG, 8 Nov 44. WDWAC

293.

63

 Memo, Dir WAC for Col Whalen, Welfare Br,

G-1, 12 Apr 46. WDWAC 334 Caste System (4-12-

46).

64

 (1) Ltr, 9th SvC to Dir WAAC, 13 Apr 43, and

1st Ind. SPWA 250.1 (4-13-43). (2) Tng Memo 2, 27

Jan 43, Hq WAAC Tng Comd, Daytona Beach. Vol.

Gen Info, WAAC Hist files. (3) Ltr, Army Adm Sch

to 2d WAC Tng Cen, 8 Sep 43, and Inds from Tng

Cen to Dir WAC and Dir WAC to Tng Cen.

250 (8-21-42), 1942. 65

 Speech cited n. 17. 66

 Ltr cited n. 64(3).
512 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

women gave for refusing to enlist, this was

one of the most frequent and most plausible; of all the objections that enlisted

women felt toward military life, this was

the most bitter. Enlisted women from a

Florida airfield wrote to President Roosevelt:

In civilian life we associated with people of

our own choice, and that is one of the many

reasons why we are serving in the Army; to

preserve our rights for equality. . . . Many of

our fathers, brothers, husbands, and sweethearts are now officers in the armed forces;

according to this regulation, it is necessary

for us to have permission to be seen even with

our nearest relatives. Don't you think this is

absurd?

 67

Another enlisted woman wrote the

Director:

Thousands of the girls in the Corps have

friends that are officers, and should they

meet on the street, they can't stop and talk

without first securing a pass . . . you are sending the girls back to their home towns where

all their friends will be returning on furloughs, and how do they feel when we turn

them down for a dinner date? The girls in

civilian life have officer friends and they do

not want anything like this to happen to

them, so it is much easier to stay out of the

WAC.68

It was a new experience for American

women to be told that they were socially

inferior to anyone. Colonel Hobby added:

There exists no precedent for social distinction among the women of the nation beyond the normal relationships of employer

and employee.69

To make the situation worse, there was

no uniformity of practice in this respect

among the Allied nations, the U.S. armed

forces, and even within the Army itself.

In most Allied forces, officers were not

bound by such a custom and could not be

punished for dating an enlisted Wac. The

U.S. Navy also promptly announced,

upon the formation of the WAVES and

SPARS, that off-duty social association

was permissible. As a result, the WAC

suffered considerably by comparison, especially in recruiting publicity, and also

was faced with the problem of punishing

enlisted women for dating naval or Allied

officers who were not punishable.

The Army itself had no Army-wide rule

on the matter. The Army had always kept

its social caste system unwritten, as one of

the "customs of the service," and each

local commander was therefore entitled

to interpret the custom, or to ignore it, as

he saw fit. In the United States most commanders enforced the "custom"; a few did

not. For example, the Fourth Service

Command and the Third Air Force, covering in part the same territory, had different rules, and an Air Forces enlisted

woman was punished for being caught

dating a service command officer, who

was not punished. From every Army command, and especially from overseas theaters, there was continuous evidence that

the rule was habitually violated and that

the impossibility of enforcing it had merely

caused loss of respect for all rules.

Ranking officers such as Maj. Gen.

Charles H. Bonesteel at Fort Benning reported that it would be helpful to them for

the War Department to announce a firm

policy, but the War Department refused

to do so, pointing out that the customs of

the service were not written, and should

not be. The War Department noted that

it would be especially difficult to put in

67

 Ltr, 4 EW at Buckingham Field, Ft Myers, Fla.,

to President USA, Dec 43. SPWA 335.11 (12-25-43). 68

 Ltr, Sgt Gwendolyn Keeney, Ft Lawton, Wash.,

to Dir WAC, 12 Feb 44. SPWA 335.11 (12-24-43)

1943. 69

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 6 Jan 44. SPWA

335.11 (12-24-43).
LEGAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL PROBLEMS 513

writing the prohibition of association,

since the wives and daughters of many

Army officers were enlisted women; such

Army officers would thus be placed in the

embarrassing position of violating a written regulation instead of merely a custom

of the service.70

In January of 1944, just before her move

to G-1, Director Hobby again petitioned

the Army Service Forces to permit offduty association, adding:

Since most of the youth of the country is

in uniform . . . they are faced with the problem of dislocation by the very process of their

service. Every indication tends toward the

realization that there should be no more restrictions on those in uniform than are essential to their military mission. . . . As long as

this is a war-time Army, every allowance

should be made for a normal social life as far

as it is compatible with any stated regulations and policies governing the efficient operations of all branches of the service. In this

respect it must be recognized that this is a

people's army rather than a regular peacetime army, and traditions temporarily

waived accordingly.71

The Army Service Forces nonconcurred

in these views and General Dalton made

the suggestion "that WAC personnel at

Training Centers be apprised that literal

observance of pertinent Army custom is

recognized as being impracticable under

wartime conditions with respect to nonofficial or private social functions."

 72

 G-1

Division, War Department General Staff,

concurred in General Dalton's suggestion.73

 Colonel Hobby refused to make

any such suggestion to training center

authorities, who had at a previous meeting already stated that WAC training

centers would not teach enlisted women

anything that they would discover to be

untrue when they reached their stations

in the field.

 74

 Instead, she indorsed the

papers back, submitting as new evidence

the WAVES policy, which stated in writing:

The custom of the Service requires great

circumspection in social relationships in order to avoid any compromising of their

relative military positions. However, the

commanding officer of the WAVES has ruled

that officers and enlisted personnel of oppo- site sexes may attend social functions together

so long as they conduct themselves in accordance with the general rules of conduct

applicable to ladies and gentlemen in any

social or nonmilitary situation.75

However, the Army Service Forces refused

to let this new request reach G-1 Division, on the grounds that the War Department had already disapproved its

substance.76

It was almost four months before Director Hobby returned to the project, this

time from the vantage point of her new

office in G-1 Division. To avoid the

danger of loss of discipline if enlisted

women dated officers on the same post—

in which case they had shown some tendency to give orders to their WAC commander instead of vice versa—the

Director proposed that permission for offduty association be limited to personnel

not assigned on the same installation. In

the Army chain of command, almost any

officer at a given station might be regarded as the supervisor of any enlisted

woman, whether or not she worked in his

office. The Director therefore proposed

that the Army policy be worded:

Army officers and enlisted personnel as- signed on the same post, camp, or station will

70

 Min, Gen Council, 7 Feb 44. 71

 Memo cited n. 69. 72

 Ibid., 1st Ind, Dir Pers ASF to G-1, 15 Jan 44. 73

 Ibid., D/F, G-1 to Dir WAC, 26 Jan 44. 74

 Min cited n. 17. 75

 (1) D/F, Dir WAC to G-1, 5 Feb 44; (2) Supers

Info Bull, Jan 43. SPWA 335.11 (12-24-43). 76

 Ibid. D/F, CG ASF to Dir WAC, 9 Feb 44.
514 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

observe all established customs of the service

in their social relationship at all times. Army

officers and enlisted personnel of opposite sexes,

not assigned on the same post, camp, or sta- tion, when on leave, furlough, or off duty in

the continental United States, may have

social engagements and attend social func- tions together so long as they conduct themselves in accord with the accepted rules of

conduct.77

General White, then Assistant Chief of

Staff, G-1, postponed decision on her proposal for several months, during which

Colonel Hobby drafted several alternate

wordings, with the advice of the WAC

staff directors of the Air, Ground, and

Service Forces. General White eventually

concurred and, after private discussion

with General McNarney, Deputy Chief of

Staff, was instructed to get a directive

published. At this moment General White

was replaced by Maj. Gen. Stephen G.

Henry. Although General White personally oriented General Henry on the situation, and although General Henry at first

penciled "okay" on the proposed directive, within a week he had disapproved it,

saying "I have personally taken this matter up with General Surles [Director of

Bureau of Public Relations]. He will not

clear for release. Must be handled orally

as any other 'custom of the service.' " 78

Before her resignation, Director Hobby

was to propose her policy twice more. In

all, she had proposed seven times that the

Army's social caste system be modified for

personnel of opposite sexes not assigned

to the same station; she was seven times

refused.79

77

 Memo, Dir WAC for Gen White (G-1,) 1 May

44.SPWA 335.11 (12-24-43), 1943. See T

78

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 8 Jan 46. WDWAC

335.11 (1943). Tab A is summary of all action on the

proposal to date. 79

 Ibid.
CHAPTER XXVI

Housing, Food, and Clothing

Housing

It was the Army's policy that "standards for housing of the WAC approximate

the standards for housing of male personnel, varying only where the differences

between men and women necessitate

changes and adjustments."

 1 The modifications deemed necessary to convert Army

barracks for female use were in general of

two types: those essential to safety and

segregation from men, and those required

to adapt the plumbing and similar

facilities.

For proper segregation, it was required

that WAC barracks be at least 150 feet

from men's barracks, or with an intervening structure; in no case were women to

be housed in barracks in the midst of enlisted men's barracks. Wacs were also to

be allowed window shades, where necessary, for privacy. The WAC latrine was

required to be inside, or attached to, the

WAC barracks, for safety as well as for

privacy. For the same reasons, and to permit walking to work, it was suggested that

WAC housing be in the station-complement or headquarters area, never with

field troops.2

Modifications in the plumbing included

not only the elimination of certain fixtures, but the provision of others believed

needed for feminine hygiene, such as two

bathtubs per 150 women. British experience pointed to the advisability of partitions or curtains between showers and

toilets. Sheets were authorized for the beds

in the barracks, after The Surgeon General expressed the opinion that sanitation

problems peculiar to women would make

it easier to launder sheets than blankets.3

For laundry one tub and ironing board

were allowed for each twenty women, plus

drying racks for garments. Enlisted

women ordinarily provided their own

irons.4

Experiences of the first year gradually

dictated a few more modifications. It was

found that women in the WAC service

uniform, with its narrow skirts, had difficulty in jumping from windows to the

standard fire escape ladders, and fire stairs

were ordered substituted on two-story

barracks. After several women received

severe shocks from using electric irons

while standing on wet concrete floors in

laundry rooms, duck boards were authorized beneath ironing boards.

It was found that the Army-type mess

hall tables with benches attached were

unsuitable for individuals in skirts because

of the difficulty in climbing over the

1

 AGO Memo W-100-9-43, 15 Apr 45; superseded by WD Cir 325, 14 Dec 43. 2

 (1) Ibid.; also Ltr, AAF to CofEngrs, 16 Sep 42;

(2) Ltr, CofEngrs to WAAC Hq, 6 Jan 43, and 1st

Ind. WA 600.1 (1942). 3

 Ltr, EOC to 2d SvC, 12 Apr 43. QM 430. 1st

Ind, 2d SvC; 3d Ind, OQMG; 6th Ind, SGO, Reqmts

Div. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-42)(1) sec 3 (1942). 4

 Memo cited n. 1.
516 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

bench; it was therefore directed that the

benches in WAAC mess halls not be attached to the table, or that stools be substituted.

Also, since most women carried their

personal belongings in ordinary luggage

rather than in barracks bags when on

leave or individual travel, two square feet

of luggage storage space per enlisted

woman was authorized, provided that no

great cost was involved. Such space was

usually available, since women's units required only 330 square feet for company

supply as against 1,037 for men's supply

and combat equipment.5

Decline in Housing

Standards

With the exception of these improvements, all later modifications in housing

made during the first years were in the

nature of successive compromises with expediency, involving gradual reduction of

standards. Except at Fort Des Moines, no

training center housing conformed to

standard. Most schools were occupied

hastily and for a short time only, and had

outside latrines, uncurtained showers and

toilets, and sometimes men's plumbing

fixtures. Port and transit facilities were of

course never modified for women. The

earliest WAAC barracks on Army posts in

general were constructed according to

specification, but when Waacs began to

count against the Troop Basis, new construction became the exception rather

than the rule, being authorized only

where it was impossible to convert the

barracks of the men who had been replaced.6

At the same time, standards for Army

construction were falling rapidly as the

supply of materials became more critical.

Construction at Army camps had long

since ceased to be of a permanent type.

The "mobilization-type" construction,

which was at first substituted, permitted

a fairly substantial frame building, usually

with central heating. WAAC Headquarters immediately agreed to the Chief of

Engineers' plan for mobilization-type instead of permanent housing for Waacs,

except for his proposal to eliminate the

two bathtubs formerly installed in new

construction. Supporting WAAC Headquarters' view, The Surgeon General

again stated that tubs were necessary for

feminine personal hygiene, but Requirements Division, Army Service Forces, refused to permit further installation of

bathtubs, and later barracks had none.

WAAC Headquarters also agreed, in

the interests of economy, to abandon the

earlier plan for housing a company in

three one-story barracks for fifty women

each, in favor of a new plan for two twostory barracks of seventy-five each. This

plan, while saving one building, required

the women's beds to be double-decked

and crowded closely together, with less

space for wall and foot lockers. This type

of construction was used for many of the

Air Forces WAC barracks and for some in

other commands.7

As the war continued, the mobiliza5

 (1) Memo, Reqmts Div ASF for CofEngrs, 14

Apr 43. SPPMC 600.12, in WA 600.1 (1942). (2)

Memo, WAAC Hq for CofEngrs, 22 Jun 43.

438. (3) Memo cited n. 1. (4) Memo, Exec WAC for

Dir Plans and Opns ASF, 4 Jan 44, with 1st Ind,

ASF to CofEngrs, 15 Jan 44. SPWA 400.242. 6

 (1) Memo. WAAC Hq for CofAdm Serv, 28 Sep

42. SPWA 314.7 sec 3 Housing Sec. (2) Memo, Housing Br WAAC Hq for Opns Div WAAC Hq, 1 Jan 43.

SPWA 020 Orgn of Opns Div. (3) Memo cited n. 1. 7

 (1) Memo, WAAC Hq for CofAdm Serv, 21 Nov

42, Inds from SGO and Reqmts Div. WA 600.1. (2)

Memo cited n. 6(1). (3) New 75-woman type: Memo,

WAC Hq for Reqmts Div SOS, 23 Oct 43. WA

600.1 (1942).
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 517

tion-type housing was succeeded on many

stations by the highly temporary "theaterof-operations-type," warmed only by coal

stoves and easily penetrated by heat or

chill. Here a soldier's allotted home was

frequently an upper bunk so near the ceiling that he could not sit up, plus a coat

rack and shelf for personal possessions, in

a barracks stiflingly hot in summer and

drafty in winter, with coal dust sifting over

the sleepers.

Colonel Tasker, at that time in charge

of WAAC housing, protested to the Army

Service Forces that theater-of-operationstype housing was intended only for temporary emergency use by transient

trainees and that "permanent or semipermanent housing facilities provided for

units of the WAAC are not considered

emergency [housing]."

 8

Nevertheless, Requirements Division

directed the WAAC to use theater-of-operations-type housing, which cost only

$8,720 per unit as against $13,300 for the

sturdier mobilization type. A 74-man barracks was used for 81 women, or a 63-man

building for 74 women, which gave each

woman a space allowance of 50 square

square feet as against the previous 60 for

men. The Chief of Engineers soon informed the Director that the 50 square

feet was a miscalculation, and that only

42.5 per woman could be allowed in converted buildings, or 45 in new ones.

Although WAAC Headquarters entertained considerable doubts of the wisdom

of the decision, Director Hobby felt unable to object, and informed staff directors, "We will have to compromise. We

cannot use critical material for construction of new barracks."

 9

By the end of 1943, reports brought in

by General Faith's Field Inspection Service and other agencies indicated that the

current policy was a miscalculation of the

actual need in two directions. Wherever

the employment of WAC units paralleled

the employment of Army units, almost no

modification proved really essential. Most

Army units were merely in training for a

relatively brief time at various posts in the

United States, preparatory to overseas

shipment. Even in station-complement

units an able-bodied man was virtually

certain of overseas shipment within a year

or eighteen months. Wherever women

were similarly treated—brief periods at

various training schools, staging areas,

ports, and in overseas theaters—they

proved able to sleep in crowded doubledecked barracks, use communal showers

and outside latrines, or live in tents, hutments, trailers, or any other emergency

form of housing, without special modification for women.

Unfortunately, since 85 percent of the

WAC never got overseas, in the great

majority of cases the experience of a WAC

unit was not at all comparable to that of

Army units. Women, after a brief training

course, found themselves at the station at

which they were to remain for several

years. Under the circumstances, their

needs for housing resembled those of the

peacetime rather than the wartime

Army.10

British inspectors had come to an identical conclusion:

8

 Memo, Col Tasker for Reqmts Div SOS, 21 Nov

42, and Inds. WA 600.1 sec 1. 9

 (1) Ibid. (2) M/R, 3 Feb 43. WA 600.1 sec 2

(1942). (3) Memo, CofEngrs to Reqmts Div SOS, 31

May 43. CE-320.2, in WA 600.1 sec 2 (1942). (4)

Quotation from Min, Stf Dirs Conf, 15-17 Jun 43.

SPWA 337 (6-1-43). 10

 (1) Memo, OCofEngrs for CG ASF, 16 Aug 43,

and Inds, incl Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 30

Aug 43. WA 600.1 (7-2-42) sec 3. (2) Memo, Maj

Mary Durr for Maj M.-A. Brown, 4 Dec 43. WA

600.1.
WAC HOUSING. Exterior, above, and interior, below, of two types of quarters furnished

women at an air base in England.
WAC HOUSING. Brick barracks at Fort Des Moines, above; below, interior of mobilizationtype construction with central heating.
520 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

We do not find that hardships or rough

conditions are resented on operational sites;

on the contrary, they are willingly accepted

by women who feel, when serving guns and

balloons and radio-location, that they come

near the actual war and that they are playing their part in the struggle. It is the bore- dom of non-operational units in old-fash- ioned barracks or uncomfortable quarters

which is a more potent source of discontent

than real hardship. . . . Grumbling does

not arise over temporary conditions, how- ever hard, which the girls instinctively feel

are part and parcel of the war.11

The Navy, recognizing the permanent

nature of WAVES employment, provided

two- and four-woman rooms similar to the

dormitories of civilian women workers.

The Bureau of Naval Personnel stated:

Adequate housing was an especially ur- gent problem for the Women's Reserve in

view of the relative permanence of the wom- en's assignment to a station, compared to the

men. . . . Housing for women called for

certain features not provided in men's bar- racks: ironing boards, lounges, and the semi- privacy of a four-person cubicle (because

women spend more time in quarters than men), more stowage space (the women's uni- forms called for more space if they were to be

kept in good appearance), more laundry

facilities. These features were called for not

as special factors or coddling but because they

made the women more efficient members of

the organization.12

For the WAC, it appeared that something

resembling the peacetime Army barracks

would be adequate for permanent units,

although division into cubicles also appeared advantageous in a nonhomogeneous unit where members were on different

shifts and schedules.

As early as the summer of 1943, the Director therefore held numerous conferences with representatives of The Surgeon

General, Requirements Division, ASF,

and the Chief of Engineers. For housing

already built, it was too late to change the

standards, but addition of more space appeared possible. The Director noted that

the low ceilings in theater-of-operationstype housing, which prevented occupants

of upper bunks from sitting up to read or

write letters, made an uncomfortable offduty home for women in permanent units.

She therefore asked that the 42 square feet

per individual be increased to 60, which

would remove the need for double-decked

bunks and permit more space for clothing.13

The Army Service Forces concurred in

this request, but virtually nullified it by

stating that the provision would not be

retroactive. Since housing for 98,000

women had already been built, there was

to be little new construction to benefit by

the improved standards. After another

six months, the commanding generals of

the Air Forces and Ground Forces and the

Chief of Engineers supported the retroactivity clause, and eventually secured the

concurrence of the Service Forces.14

This decision marked the limit of wartime changes in WAC quarters. Nothing

could be done about the flimsy theater-ofoperations-type housing for permanent

units, concerning which poor reports continued to come in. Near the end of the

war, WAC inspectors found that six out of

six general hospital WAC detachments

visited had this type of barracks, heated

only by "space heaters." In no case, inspectors reported, was this the desire of

the hospitals, which felt that the maintenance cost was higher than that of central

heating, in spite of the lower initial cost.

Wards also lost in efficiency when obliged

to relieve women from their regular duties

11

 Conditions in the Three Women's Services. 12

 WAVES Hist, pp. 111-15. 13

 Memo cited n. 10(1). 14

 Ibid.; also Memo cited n. 10(2).
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 521

in order that they might stoke the coal

stoves. In one hospital, use of poor-grade

coal caused hospitalization of a large part

of the detachment for carbon monoxide

gas poisoning. An Army Air Forces study

likewise concluded that theater-of-operations-type housing was uneconomical for

permanent occupancy because of the

greater number of days of hospitalization

for respiratory disorders, and the longterm effects of inhalation of coal dust.15

All authorities also agreed that, if further construction had permitted, women's

efficiency would have been promoted by

some additional measures for privacy in

permanent quarters. Major Craighill commented, concerning nurses' housing:

The use in a few overseas areas of large

open barracks for nurses was found unsatis- factory. It seems apparent that women value

privacy more than do men, and living together under these circumstances tended to

increase tension.16

The second WAC Director also noted:

Lack of privacy in housing affects mental

and physical health of women. It is essential

that housing scales be established that will

assure more privacy. The contrast between

living conditions of WAC officers and WAC

enlisted personnel would be more equalized

if partitions are established in barracks to

provide cubicles.17

These recommendations were generally in

accord with those concerning permanent

peacetime housing for men, in which cubicle-type quarters were also deemed superior where circumstances permitted.

Dayrooms

Women had particular difficulty in

adapting Army dayrooms to the needs of

a permanent unit. The Army-issued furniture was heavy and depressing and could

seldom be made homelike by any feats of

ingenuity. While many men apparently

did not seem to mind the bleakness, WAC

company officers pointed out that for a

woman the dayroom was a substitute

home—the family parlor in which the

younger woman entertained her guests,

and the fireside which the older women

preferred to going out in the evenings. Attractively furnished dayrooms, said one

authority, "go far toward offsetting the

harmful effect of regimentation on women."

 18

 For women who did not date, there

was literally no other place to spend most

evenings except perhaps lying down in a

double-decked bunk.

The problem of contriving cheerful dayrooms was increased by the fact that not

one but two were needed. By social custom, women entertained their dates in

their "home" instead of going to the men's

home, yet a dayroom filled with dating

couples dancing to a jukebox was scarcely

a comfortable place in which older women

and nondaters might lounge about in

fatigue clothes and bathrobes. It was seldom found a wise solution to forbid daters

the use of the dayroom, since, as Major

Craighill noted:

All women personnel need a dayroom in which they can lounge informally together, as well as a recreation or reception room in which they can entertain men. If adequate

facilities are not available, the incidence of

pregnancy and venereal disease is likely to

increase.19

15

 (1) Memo, Exec WAC for Gen Henry, G-1, 13

Mar 45. WDWAC 331.1. (2) AAF WAC Hist. 16

 (1) T/S, Consultant Women's Health and Welfare SGO to Actg Dir WAC, 5 Nov 45. WDWAC

314.7. (2) Craighill SWPA Rpt. 17

 Memo, Dir WAC for Welfare Br G-1, 12 Apr

46, sub: Caste System as Affecting WAC Pers.

WDWAC 334. 18

 Memo, WFTC for Air WAC Off, 30 May 45.

WDWAC 353.1-369. 19

 Craighill SWPA Rpt.
522 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

The British had noted a similar need for

two rooms:

The gregarious are well cared for by wireless, games, concerts, and dances, but more

quiet rooms are needed by women who wish

to relax.20

Therefore, as the best possible solution

under existing circumstances, most WAC

units attempted to partition their dayroom

space into two parts, or converted the noncommissioned officers' quarters in each

barracks to tiny sitting rooms with facilities for writing or sewing. Furnishings

were bought with private funds, sent from

home, or begged, borrowed, or scrounged

from local women's clubs, sorority sisters,

churches, or charitable organizations. It

was seldom that a WAC unit in the field

any length of time did not somehow contrive a cheerful dayroom and a date room.

However, this practice was ended when

the Army, early in 1945, forbade solicitation of basic dayroom furnishings from

civilian organizations. Another circular

prevented the use of company funds for

the purchase of lamps and floor coverings.21

 For WAC units sent out after this

date, any solution appeared difficult.

Hairdressing Facilities

During the first year of the Corps' existence, the provision for women of the

equivalent of the men's barbershop was

left to local initiative. Some stations already possessed a civilian-operated hairdressing shop for nurses and civilian

employees; others did not and expressed

some uncertainty as to what if any funds

could be used to provide it. Such facilities

often appeared even more needed by

Wacs than by civilian women, because of

the regulation that hair must not touch

the coat collar. To meet this requirement,

many women needed permanent waves

every two or three months. While the

women could usually wash, set, and cut

their own hair, the home permanent was

not yet generally on the market.

Since the six-day work week left Wacs

little time to patronize city facilities, Director Hobby recommended and the Chief

of Engineers approved a directive which,

at the end of the first year, authorized partitioning off part of the Wac dayrooms and

the installation of water connections, if the

unit could equip and operate the shop.

There still remained considerable field

confusion as to the financial authorization

involved, and a year later a War Department directive defined the application by

Army Regulations. Unit beauty shops and

barbershops operated by enlisted personnel for their own use were permitted to be

defined as "minor profit-making activities

of a unit fund." Civilian-operated post

barbershops and beauty shops were specified as functions of the Army exchange,

with provision for purchasing from a unit

any equipment that it had already

bought.22

In another addition to regulations,

permanent wave operators were required

to have a state license, and authority was

published for expenditure of unit funds for

the required insurance. Director Hobby

also requested and secured permission to

include in overseas shipments some women

who possessed licenses as hairdressers in

addition to the military skill for which

they were selected.23

20

 Conditions in the Three Women's Services. 21

 WD Cir 126, 26 Apr 45, and WD Cir 168, 1943. 22

 (1) Memo cited n. 1; also Memo, Dir WAAC

for CofEngrs, 22 May 43. WA 600.1 sec 2 (1942). (2)

WD Cir 321, 3 Aug 44, sec I, defining AR 210-50,

1 Jun 44. 23

 (1) Cirs 258 and 462, 1944. (2) Memo, Dir WAC

for G-1, 18 Feb 44. WDGAP 320.2 sec 8a.
RECREATION ROOMS for enlisted personnel at Brisbane, Australia, above, and North

Africa, below.
524 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Company Officers' Quarters

For economy, WAAC Headquarters

had been forced to consent to construction

of company officers' bedrooms and latrine

in a wing of the same building that housed

the WAAC orderly room, supply room,

and recreation room. By the end of 1943,

reports from every command indicated

that the economy had the unfortunate

effect of lengthening the company commander's working day to 24 hours, since

she was accessible at any hour to visits

from company members, unless she arbitrarily denied herself. There was also a

tendency to summon her in minor accidents, emergencies, and problems that

might properly have been handled by the

first sergeant.

As a result of an inspection trip, the

Army Air Forces recommended that WAC

officers, like male company commanders,

be housed away from their units—not off

the station, but in a location that would

"remove them from the enlisted women so

that they would not be on call 24 hours a

day." Again, it was too late to correct

housing plans after buildings had been

constructed; no general relief was ever

obtained, although stations sometimes,

when other quarters were available, permitted company officers to live elsewhere.

In some cases stations went to the other

extreme and permitted company officers

to live off the post where they were not

accessible in any emergency. In the Air

Forces this practice was checked by a circular requiring one duty officer to be

quartered on the station, although not

necessarily in the unit.24

Future Housing

Elaborate plans were drawn up by G-4

Division and the Chief of Engineers for

the proposed peacetime WAC housing.25

Privates, corporals, and sergeants in field

units were to have hotel-type housing,

only two to a room, with 120 square feet

per enlisted woman (the wartime officer

allowance). Each building was to have a

kitchen, a dayroom, and a date room, and

bountiful latrine facilities, including bathtubs. Enlisted women might also look forward to even greater privacy and comfort

as they grew older and attained the first

three grades; there were to be provided

two-bedroom apartments for every four

such women, each apartment with its own

living room, kitchen, and bath. Even in

training center barracks, recruits were to

have 90 square feet per person, and window shades, hairdressing facilities, a dayroom, and a date room, a storage room,

and adequate laundry and latrine facilities.

Junior officers were not quite so well off

as top-grade enlisted women, since in accordance with the nurses' requests they

were to be given only a bedroom and bath

apiece, with a living room for each 12 to

18 officers, and a communal kitchenette.

Only the chief nurse, assistant chief nurse,

and senior WAC officer at each station

would have private apartments.

Such accommodations, which met and

surpassed most of the proven needs of

women for privacy and home comforts,

could actually, it was discovered, be provided at a lower average cost to the government than housing for Regular Army

enlisted men and officers. This surprising

24

 (1) Memo cited n. 6(1). (2) Rpts of Serv and Air

Comds. Min cited n. 9(4). (3) Direct quotation from

Ltr, AAF to Dir WAC, 11 Dec 43. SPWA 620. (4)

AAF Ltr 85-6, 3 Jul 44, superseded by AAF Ltr 35-

245, 7 Jun 45. 25

 (1) Ltr, Chief of Plans and Opns OSG to

CofEngrs, 13 Sep 46. MEDCH-CR, in WDWAC

622. (2) Memo, Dep Dir WAC for Col Galloway, 26

Sep 46. WD WAC 600.1.
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 525

saving resulted from the fact that most

career Army men were married and drew

dependents' quarters, to which women

were not entitled. The provisions for

women were designed to provide a semblance of home life for career women who

would perforce be denied children or settled married life if they remained with the

Army. Most of these plans remained on

the drawing board, since the Army would

not for years be in need of much new

construction.

Unit Messes

In most respects the WAC unit mess was

identical with similar Army messes, except for detached benches at the tables.

Many messes also had any number of

adjustments needed by women and contrived by the unit or by post carpenters.

These included duckboards to limit the

depth of sinks to a woman's reach, shelves

and wheeled carriers to minimize lifting

and bending, and similar mechanical contrivances to make it possible for women to

manage heavy equipment designed for

men. No catalog was ever made of such

local inventions, although one had been

begun by WAAC Headquarters before

operating functions were transferred to the

Army Service Forces, which discarded the

material.26

Wherever local authorities permitted,

WAC messes frequently took on an appearance quite different from that of the

average men's mess, chiefly by the use of

color, potted plants, and sometimes curtains, all either salvaged at no expense or

acquired from unit or personal funds. One

staff director recalled later, "I'll never see

a sweet potato vine without thinking of

the WAC."

 27

 At holiday seasons, decorations were generally put up, evergreens at

Christmas, autumn foliage for Thanksgiving, bunting on patriotic occasions.

Quite often a piano or phonograph was

borrowed from recreation buildings and

installed in the mess hall to provide music

with meals. The WAC unit mess invariably tended to take on something of the

function of the kitchen in pioneer homes—

a center for family life, visiting, and entertainment. Where there was no unit mess,

and Wacs ate in consolidated messes or in

city restaurants, a sense of unit solidarity

was more difficult to maintain.

Consolidation of Messes

In spite of the vital role played by unit

messes in morale and company unity,

their maintenance presented certain difficulties. The provision of kitchen police

details to staff these messes invariably

caused complaint in headquarters offices,

which lost a WAC working day once or

twice a month. For this reason, Director

Hobby for a time considered closing WAC

unit messes, and allowing Wacs to eat with

men at large consolidated messes where

these existed.28 Inquiry soon revealed that

in the few cases where Wacs did not have

separate mess, company commanders reported not only loss of esprit, but a serious

nutritional problem. In a consolidated

mess, the food was often too heavy and

fattening for women. Also, women, after

a hard day's work, were found to be going

supperless to bed rather than change to

clean uniforms, walk some distance to the

consolidated mess, and brave the attention

26

 Memo, WAAC Hq to Fld, 24 Feb 43, and replies; Memo, Lt Ryan to Plng Serv, 3 Apr 43. SPWA

400.34 sec 3a (1942). 27

 Interv with Lt Col Helen H. Woods, USAF Res,

9 Jun 50. 28

 Draft of Memo, not sent, Dir WAC for G-1, 22

Jul 43. SPWA 220.6 (1943).
526 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

of hundreds of men. Women also often

skipped breakfast for the same reason,

substituting oversweet snacks or candy

bars at the post exchange. On the other

hand, both health and morale were improved when women could enjoy a leisurely meal at their own small quiet mess,

where they did not have to dress or walk

far, but could sit and talk, read mail, or

listen to records.29

On discovering this, Colonel Hobby

dropped the idea of consolidating messes,

and instead requested that they not be

consolidated without War Department

consent to each exception. G-1 Division

concurred, and a provision to this effect

was placed in the first WAC Regulations

in November of 1943. At once the Army

Air Forces requested that authority to

make exceptions be given to its headquarters, and Director Hobby agreed that such

delegation might safely be made even further, to each general officer who had a

WAC staff director on his staff. However,

General Dalton instead decided that the

authority should be given to "local commanders," which would permit station

commanders to consolidate men's and

women's messes without consulting higher

authority. Over Director Hobby's nonconcurrence in this wording, he directed

publication of a circular to this effect.30

Upon discovering this publication, Director Hobby renewed her recommendation to the General Staff, fearing damage

to women's health if they did not eat

regularly. Finally a compromise was obtained when the Army Service Forces

agreed upon the wording "the Commanding General who is responsible for the

operation of the post, camp, or station."

While this did not necessarily bring the

decision up to the level of a command

having a WAC staff director, it prevented

most station commanders from acting

without higher consideration of the factors

involved. In view of the central role of the

WAC mess in maintaining unit morale

and efficiency, its abolition was ordinarily

regarded by WAC advisers as a last resort

where a unit had shrunk beyond any

reasonable hope of maintaining its own

mess.31

WAC Master Menu

It quickly became known to every mess

officer that Wacs did not want, and could

not eat, all of the items on the standard

master menu for men, which were issued

to each unit on a station. In general

women wanted less potatoes, bread, flour,

lard, syrup, pork, and other heavy or fattening foods, and more fresh vegetables

and salads. Even of foods popular with

both men and women, such as eggs, lean

meat, and coffee, lesser quantities were

consumed by women.

For the first years of the war, adjustment was attempted on a local level, with

the WAC mess sergeant ordinarily adept

at swapping mayonnaise for salad oil, potatoes for lettuce, and large quantities of

pork for small steaks. By the end of 1944,

research by the Office of The Quartermaster General, with control tests at

selected installations, had established a

WAC master menu that made swapping

29

 (1) Draft of Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 23 Aug

43; (2) Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 31 Aug

43. SPWA 220.6 Kitchen Police. 30

 (1) Memo, CG AAF for G-1, 2 Dec 43, with Ind,

Dir Pers ASF for G-1 WD, 10 Dec 43; Ind, Dir WAC

for G-1, 20 Dec 43, and Ind, Dir of Pers for G-1, 4

Jan 44. SPWA 331.4 (1943). (2) Memo, G-1 for Dir

WAC, 11 Jan 44. WDGAP 331.4 WAC, in SPAP

220.3 WAC. (3) WD Cir 20, 1 7 Jan 44. (4) Memo,

Dir WAC for G-1, 21 Jan 44. (5) Memo, ASF for

G-1, 2 Feb 44. SPAP 220.3 WAC. 31

 Ibid.
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 527

unnecessary, and that authorized issue of

the types and quantities of food proven by

experience to be needed by the average

WAC unit.32

Not only did such a master menu prove

useful in improving appetite and controlling weight, but considerable saving to the

Army resulted. During 1945, studies

showed that the average cost per man per

day was $0.58015, and per woman

$0.52264. This, for the WAC strength of

100,000 as compared to an equal number

of men, would result in a yearly saving to

the Army of $2,099,115.00, provided that

WAC unit messes were maintained.33

Clothing

Controversy over the main body of

WAC Regulations was mild compared to

that which accompanied the writing of

the detailed uniform regulations after the

Corps' entry into the Army, and which

soon witnessed the Air Forces in mortal

combat with the Ground Forces over lapel

insignia, and the WAC in unsisterly dissension over the disposal of the necktie.

Such commotion over articles of uniform

was not unknown to the Army, where oldline officers could not recall any item

changed without lengthy dissension. It was

therefore not until the first days of 1944

that clothing regulations could be agreed

upon,34 and frequent amendments were

necessary thereafter.

Director's Proposals

After the WAC's admission to the Army,

possibly the most frequent cause of

criticism was the continued use of the mismatched uniforms—nonmatching skirts

and jackets of chocolate brown and mustard yellow shades—which women had

received during the early days of the

expansion program. Many of these, turned

in by the 15,000 women leaving at the

conversion, had been repaired and reissued to new recruits. In late December

of 1943 Director Hobby submitted to the

Army Service Forces a plan to eliminate

them, noting that "These uniforms, which

are obviously not of authorized shades,

have had definite reflections on recruiting

and on the morale of the troops." Since

there was now a surplus of uniforms of the

authorized shade, she asked a liberal salvage policy, whereby women need not

wait until mismatched items were badly

worn before turning them in. This request

was approved by The Quartermaster

General, but disapproved by Requirements Division, ASF, since it was standard Army policy that earlier procurement

must be worn out, and reissued as long as

repairable, before new stocks were used.35

The issue of secondhand clothing to

new recruits was also a cause of criticism.

The Director informed the ASF:

Innumerable reports to this office have

indicated that the issue of used or substandard uniforms is disparaging to morale . . . and

detrimental to enlistment in competition with

other women's services.

Since other servicewomen got a clothing

allowance with which to purchase new

32

 Memos, OQMG for Dir WAC, 29 Jan 44, and 27

May 44. WDWAC 430 (1944). 33

 Memo, Dir Subsistence Div OQMG for G-1

Welfare Br, 26 Apr 46. OCMH. 34

 AR 600-39, 5 Jan 44, Prescribed Service Uniform. For discussion of detailed policy, see discussion

below. See also Erna Risch, The Quartermaster Corps:

Organisation, Supply, and Services, Volume I, UNITED

STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washington, 1953). 35

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 21 Dec 43,

with Ind, OQMG, 3 Jan 44; (2) Memo, Maj Mary

Durr for Dir WAC, 26 Jan 44. SPWA 421 (1943). (3)

Memo, Reqmts Div ASF for Contl Div ASF, 11 Feb

44. SPRMA, in SPWA 421 sec 2 (1942).
528 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

clothing, she asked that no further Class B

clothing be issued to new recruits, and

that women already in the field be given

one new skirt and jacket if their entire

issue had been secondhand. This proposal

was also rejected by Requirements Division, ASF, insofar as it concerned women

already in the field, but it was agreed that

new recruits should be issued one new

skirt and one new jacket.36

A third proposal from the Director concerned an off-duty dress similar to those

already authorized for the Army Nurse

Corps and Army physical therapy aides.

Before the conversion, Waacs had been

able to discard ill-fitting or mismatched

uniforms in favor of civilian clothing on

off-duty occasions or when on leave, but

this was no longer possible under Army

status. Even had the tailored uniforms

been adequate, there appeared, in the

opinion of all women's services, to exist

some universal psychological need of servicewomen for feminine-type attire for

social occasions. The WAVES, SPARS,

and Women Marines therefore authorized

dress uniforms for both officers and enlisted women, while Army and Navy

nurses had dress uniforms, plus summer

and winter off-duty dresses in a simple

shirtwaist style.

In consideration of the expense involved, the Director did not ask for the

issue of such items for Wacs, but only that

women be authorized to buy an approved

model if they wished. She added, "It is

considered by this office that a provision

for an off-duty dress is necessary as a matter of well-being." However, Army Service

Forces disapproved this request, stating

that the WAC was not analogous to the

Army Nurse Corps and that enlisted men

were not allowed to buy off-duty dresses.

Although Director Hobby addressed this

request to the General Staff by authority

of Circular 289, as a matter of well-being,

General Somervell's office returned it disapproved without allowing it to reach the

War Department.37

As one alternative, the Director asked

that The Quartermaster General consider

a different fabric for the stiff and heavy

summer uniform, one that would eliminate

wrinkling and improve the fit. In January

of 1944 the Quartermaster reported no

solution and recommended that "the importance of the problem be considered insufficient to warrant a change in the fabric

of the summer uniform." The retention of

the men's-weight 8.2-ounce khaki was approved by the ASF and by G-4.

Likewise bypassed was the Director's

attempt, concurred in by The Quartermaster General, to add more color to the

uniform by the addition of an inexpensive

yellow cotton scarf and gloves, similar in

effect to the Women Marines' red scarf

and the Navy women's blue or white

shirts.

A sixth proposal, which also met defeat,

was that of redesigning the WAC jacket,

summer and winter, since nothing had yet

been done to correct the inadvertent error

of the Philadelphia Depot in respacing

the jacket buttons. The Quartermaster

General concurred, recommending that

three buttons be used in future procurement instead of four. However, ASF's

Director of Materiel refused to allow the

Quartermaster to undertake developing a

new design.

A seventh refusal was that of the Director's renewed request for a garrison cap

36

 Memo, Dir WAC for Contl Div ASF, 11 Feb 44,

with atchd. SPWA 421 sec 2 (1942). 37

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1 through ASF, 16

Feb 44; (2) Memo, ACofS ASF for Dir WAC, 25 Feb

44. SPWA 421 (5-16-42) sec 2 (1942).
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 529

like the men's. She noted that men had

both dress and garrison caps and that

"The wearing of a garrison-type cap has

been found necessary for many jobs to

which WAC personnel are now assigned,"

the number of which "has been increased

to 239 different jobs." Wacs, she said, had

also been sent overseas where cleaning

and blocking facilities for the dress cap

were not available. Although the Director

addressed her request to G-1 Division of

the General Staff, as an Army-wide matter, it was disapproved by Requirements

Division, ASF, on the grounds that there

was a large supply of dress caps on hand.38

Although such surplus stocks of caps

and uniforms were allegedly on hand in

sufficient quantities to make changes impossible, in actual practice, the Director

noted, there had been little improvement

in supply. Stations reported not only that

they were unable to obtain maintenance

stocks and replacements for salvaged

items, but that women continued to be

shipped by training centers without complete clothing issue, and sent to cold climates without either caps or coats.39

Station commanders and inspectors in

the field repeatedly protested to the Director the state to which the appearance of

the WAC uniform had been reduced, in

this second winter of the Corps' existence,

by the failure to take action against existing defects. Inspector General reports

noted that the clothing of Wacs in units

inspected was of poor quality cloth, secondhand, and showing signs of much wear

even when first issued, and that "Such

clothing does not conform to AR 850-126

[for men] which states 'correctly fitted

smart uniforms are a basic factor in the

creation and maintenance of morale.'"

The report of one service command caustically recommended that each Wac get

"at least one complete outfit of outer garments suitable for appearance in public."

 40

Early in 1944 members of Congress

began publicly to criticize the WAC uniform. One senator informed the press in a

widely quoted interview that the uniform

was responsible for the lag in enlistments

and that "a woman need not look like a

man to make a good soldier."

 41

 There was

no doubt that the public sided with the

criticizing congressmen. A Gallup poll in

January of 1944 asked, "Which uniform

worn by women in the Armed Services do

you like the best?" and received replies:

 42

Percent

All Men Women

replies only only

Waves or Spars best..... . 49 40 57

Marines best........... . 26 28 24

WAC best. ............ . 15 17 13

Undecided.. .......... . 10 15 6

Soon after the Director's move to G-1

Division, she was charged by the Meek

Report with responsibility for failure to

improve the uniform. In reply, the Director presented General Marshall with a list

of her previous recommendations to the

38

 The preceding discussion is based on: (1) Memo,

OQMG for G-4, 5 Jan 44. SPRMD 421.1, in SPWA

421 (5-16-42) sec 2 (1942). (2) Tab I of Memo, Dir

WAC for CofS, 21 Mar 44. WDGAP 341, in

WDWAC 341. (3) Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Mat ASF,

16 Nov 43, and Inds. SPWA 421. (4) Memo, Dir

WAC for G-1 through CG ASF, 18 Feb 44, with comment, Dir Reqmts Div ASF for Dir MPD ASF, 1 Mar

44, and Ind, Dir Pers ASF to Dir WAC, 8 Mar 44.

WD WAC 421. 39

 (1) AGO Memo W635-22-43, 10 Sep 43,

changed by WD Cir 239, 30 Sep 43. (2) Memo,

OQMG for Dir WAC, 6 Jan 44. SPQXK 420, in

WDWAC 421. (3) Ltr, Hq Montana R&I Dist to

CG 9th SvC, 22 Jan 44, with Inds. SPWA 400.34. 40

 Ltr, Asst SC IGD to CG 8th SvC, 8 Dec 43, sub:

Action Ltr IGD . . . with Inds. SPLVI 333.1, in

SPWA 421 (5-16-43) sec (1942). 41

 Sen. Edwin C. Johnson of Colorado, in newspapers 3-7 Jan 44, from Press Release, 2 Jan 44. 42

 As reported in newspapers, January 29, 1944.
530 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ASF, from August 1942 to the current

date, all disapproved.

The Chief of Staffs problem in determining needed action was not greatly

clarified by Congressional attitude toward

the matter. Unfavorable publicity originating in Congress continued throughout

the spring of 1944. In one case a Representative from New York released to the

press a letter to Colonel Hobby—which

she had not yet received—headlined LACKLUSTER WAC UNIFORMS HELD FACTOR IN RECRUITING LAG. The Congressman alleged

that the uniform lacked "military pertness," and should be "piquant yet dignified, stern yet charming," and more

"coruscant." He urged that New York

stylists be allowed to redesign the entire

uniform, which they had assured him they

would, and as for the cost, he stated:

From a strictly military and economic

point of view, it may be argued that there is

a stock pile of half a million old WAAC uni- forms. What of it? They should be used for junk. They are utterly valueless. ... It is

worth putting this stock pile on the scrap

heap if you can appreciably recruit your full

quota of Wacs.43

The language of such press releases contrasted considerably with that of a private

letter, entitled "Senate Investigation of

the WAC," which was shortly received

from the Truman Committee, more properly known as the Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program.

This committee displayed particular interest in the stockpiles of unused material

procured in the days of hoped-for expansion of the WAAC, and requested justification of the Army's action in the "reduction in WAC enlistment program," which

had caused such surpluses. While the War

Department was easily able to convince

the committee that it had not deliberately

cut down WAC enlistments, it was obvious that remedial action could not include

any move to discard stockpiles of unsatisfactory uniforms.44

 Therefore, General

Marshall's decisions were necessarily those

which could be put into effect without

much financial expenditure.

Chief of Staff's Approvals

Among the first of the Director's proposals approved by General Marshall was

that of a chamois-colored cotton scarf and

gloves, both actually less expensive than

the leather gloves alone, but adding a becoming color to both summer and winter

uniforms. The official "chamois" color was

actually a pale yellow.

Possibly even more popular with the

women was the new garrison cap, similar

to the men's but designed to fit over

women's longer haircuts. For this item, the

ASF withdrew its disapproval before General Marshall directed adoption.45

 Although costing only about 39 cents in the

summer version, the cap was so becoming,

and so essential for many types of duties

and for overseas stations, that the WAVES

and women Marines shortly adopted a

cap of almost identical cut. The combination of new and becoming cap, scarf, and

gloves was found to add considerably to 43

 (1) Washington Post, April 22, 1944. (2) Ltr, Rep.

Emanuel Geller (N.Y.) to Dir WAC, 21 Apr 44; this

reached her after the news release; (3) Ltr, Dir WAC

to Rep. Celler, 29 Apr 44. WDWAC 421. 44

 Army reply made clear that the estimated WAC

strength used in procurement had never been more

than 162,000. (1) Ltr, Chief Counsel, Senate Sp Com

Investigating Natl Def Program, to Sp Asst to SW,

16 Jun 44, R-616-S; (2) Memo, Sp Asst to SW for

CG ASF, 17 Jun 44; (3) Memo, Dep Dir Pers ASF

for Dir WAC, 19 Jun 44. SPAP (6-17-44); (4) Memo,

Dep Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 21 Jun 44. WDWAC

319.1. (5) D/F, Dir Pers ASF for CofS, G-1, S/W,

11 Jul 44. SPWA 320.2, in SPAP 319.1 (7-11-44). 45

 Memo cited n. 38(4).
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 531

the smart appearance of the WAC uniform without the necessity for further and

more expensive changes in the design of

the uniform itself.46

Concerning the search for a nonwrinkling material for summer uniforms, it was

found that a number of tropical worsted

uniforms in the standard design were

already on hand. These had been procured in the days when uniforms were

issued to WAAC officers but had arrived

too late, just as this practice was discontinued in favor of a monetary allowance

for officers. With hasty procurement of a

few more, it proved possible to give every

WAC enlisted woman one such outfit

during the summer of 1944.

The change wrought in the appearance

of the WAC summer uniform by the difference in weight of materials was remarkable. Impartial observers now stated that

a Wac in the summer, from being the most

unbecomingly dressed of all servicewomen,

now had become the smartest looking. So

great was the difference from the stiff

men's-weight cotton that the Chief of Staff

later in the spring directed that not one

but all cotton uniforms be replaced by

tropical worsted. This was more than

Colonel Hobby had asked, and drew protest from The Quartermaster General,

who was obliged to postpone for two

months delivery to sales stores of male officers' tropical worsted uniforms. Nevertheless, the Chief of Staff did not change

his mind; the cotton uniforms were thereafter used only for training centers, the

Pacific area, and certain other climates

and duties.47

The last new item approved was the

off-duty dress, somewhat similar in design

to the approved off-duty dress of the Army

Nurse Corps. General Marshall first directed that it be procured by the Quartermaster for resale to Wacs at cost. After

learning that the dresses, although attractive and comfortable, would cost only

about $10 each, he decided that each

enlisted Wac should be issued one without

cost. A jury of enlisted and officer Wacs

shortly thereafter surprised Colonel Hobby

by rejecting a smart model by a famous

designer in favor of a more military basic

dress with a collar for insignia. The dress

was made up in a becoming beige shantung for summer, and in a gray wool shade

close to the officer's "pink" for winter. The

Quartermaster protested that immediate

procurement was impossible, but at General Marshall's urging was nevertheless

able to get the summer dresses out by

summer.48

The off-duty dress proved well-fitting,

being the first garment for which women's

instead of men's sizes had been used in

procurement. The Office of The Quartermaster General warned the field that "the

patterns from which these dresses are made

are basically different from the patterns

used for jacket and skirt issue items of

clothing; hence, the sizing will correspond

to the civilian 'ready-to-wear' sizes."

 49

In general the dress proved most successful; requests for samples came from the

Canadian joint staff and from other nations. Only in overseas areas were washing

difficulties reported. In the United States

there was much competition for issue of

the dress: first priority was given to the

Military District of Washington, where 46

 Risch, Wardrobe for Women of the Army, pp. 52-64. 47

 (1) Ibid. (2) Memo, G-1 for G-4, 20 Dec 44, with

pencil notes, WDGAP 421 WAC, in WDWAC 421. 48

 Risch, Wardrobe for Women of the Army, pp. 53-58. 49

 Ltr, OQMG to all SvCs, Air Comds, all QM and

ASF Depots, etc., 3 Jun 44. SPQXC 421 WAC Clo,

in WDWAC 421. Each enlisted woman received

issue of one beige chevron, if rated, one cap, and one

dress; each officer could buy one cap at $1.93 and

one dress at $9.97.
532 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

women were exposed to the view of the

War Department; second, to recruiters,

who were exposed to the public; third, to

the Fourth and Eighth Service Command

areas, which were exposed to the hottest

summers; all others followed in order of

receipt. The winter dress was issued, in

the last winter of the war, to all commands.50

In addition to authorizing such new

items, General Marshall also directed that

the mismatched winter uniforms be replaced by those of authorized shade already in warehouses, and that Wacs be

supplied new uniforms from the same

source and no longer issued secondhand

outer garments. The Quartermaster General welcomed this move, stating that the

Army Service Forces policy of hoarding

new uniforms had been "a shortsighted

view . . . detrimental to the further

recruitment of members."

The approval of the last of these changes

in May of 1944 left the WAC uniform program in a state satisfactory to Director

Hobby, except for specialized work garments that were to be added at a later

date. The WAC now had a wardrobe

comparable in neat appearance to those

of the other women's services.

The WAC's service uniform remained,

with a few modifications, where General

Marshall had left it at this time. Even the

many improvements did not make the

public universally happy or silence all of

the self-appointed critics. Enlisted women,

who had seemed unanimously opposed to

the stiff WAC cap, now in some cases perversely mourned its loss, saying, "I loved

those peaked hats"; "They looked so

much more military"; "Could you please

reconsider your order?"

 51

After the appearance of the new items

authorized by the Chief of Staff, Congress

also was heard from with a "Complaint

that Soldiers Receive Less Clothing than

Wacs."

 52

 In reply, the War Department

stated its final WAC clothing policy: "As

a result of two and a half years experience

with women personnel in the Armed Services, the Army has found that just as in

civilian life women require more clothes

than men."

 53

 The "more" was not, however, prohibitive in cost, amounting finally

to only about five dollars a year per person, which would have been about

$500,000 for peak WAC strength, less

than one fourth the amount women saved

the Army by eating less.54

In quantity of issue, G-1 Division noted

that there were only two real differences,

the chief being that Wacs got off-duty

dresses, unlike men but like the nurses and

all other women's services. The other difference was in the number of pairs of shoes

in the initial issue, where men got two and

women three, in order to provide different

heel heights for service and field. In this

case, G-1 noted that the Army actually

had five types of men's shoes, which were

issued as needed for special operations and

climates, as against the WAC's two types,

service and field, for all uses.

The Overcoat

The overcoat for enlisted women never

offered any great problem after the issue

of both overcoat and utility coat was restored. That of the officers was a different

50

 (1) Memo, OQMG for Dir WAC, 4 Sep 44.

SPQRD 420, in WDWAC 421. (2) Ltr, Canadian

Joint Stf to Exec WAC, 11 May 44. WDWAC 421. 51

 Ltrs, EW in fld to Dir WAC, esp 20 Jan 45 and

9 Feb 45. WD WAC 421. 52

 D/F, G-1 to Leg and Ln Div, 2 Oct 44. WDGAP

421, in WDWAC 421. 53

 Ibid.

54

 See Chart, p. 751, below.
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 533

matter, for their only authorized coat remained the rough field coat. The old

WAAC "beaver" coat of light olive drab,

comparable to the enlisted women's overcoat, was not restored because of shortages

of its particular material, and in any case

had never been authorized for nurses. As

a result, women officers began wearing

unauthorized overcoats of various designs

and colors, especially "pink" coats

modeled upon those of the men—likewise

unauthorized, but worn by many officers.

To stop this practice and standardize the

coat, both Wacs and nurses agreed upon

a coat cut exactly like the enlisted

women's, but of dark olive drab to match

the winter uniform. Its adoption came too

late to standardize field practice to any

great extent.55

Battle Jacket

The only other addition to the service

uniform after 1944 was the battle jacket,

resembling the civilian lumber jacket, first

procured in England by the European

theater. As European theater personnel,

male and female, began to bring battle

jackets to the United States, it proved impossible to stem the tide of their popularity, and it was necessary to authorize their

wear by men in the zone of the interior.

Many women officers also began to purchase them, and since the men's jacket

could not be purchased by women, The

Quartermaster General, after consultation

with prominent New York stylists, produced a design for women. This lacked

the packets of the men's version, and had

more of a bloused effect, since the men's

bepocketed jacket had an unbecoming

appearance when worn by short or plump

women. Except for those individuals who

had received them in Europe, the garment

was not issued, but purchased at the

wearer's expense.56

Necktie and Handbag

The complexity of setting up rules for a

new group in an army was well exemplified in a minor controversy over the necktie and the handbag. The shoulder strap

of the handbag had originally been worn

on the right shoulder, crossing the body

diagonally, with the handbag resting on

the left hip. This system was abandoned

in WAAC days because the diagonal strap

wrinkled the shirt and was awkward to

put on and off; when worn by women of

heavier build, it cut beneath the bust line

to produce an undesirable profile. The

rule was therefore changed to authorize

wearing of the handbag on the left shoulder, hanging straight down. This method

proved even worse; most women did not

have large enough shoulder muscles to

prevent it from slipping off, so that many

handbags were lost and police reported

an epidemic of handbag-snatching. Also,

tailors reported that Wacs hunched the

left shoulder to keep the strap on, and

were rapidly becoming deformed; the

marching gait was also uneven because

the left arm swing was restricted. The

original diagonal system was therefore restored, although later those who wished

were allowed to remove the strap and

55

 D/F, G-1 for TAG through CofS, 6 Nov 44.

WDGAP 421, copy in WDWAC 421. 56

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for Col Kessinger, G-1 Div,

4 Sep 44. WDWAC 421. (2) Memo, Dir WAC for CG

ASF, 4 Oct 44. WDWAC 421. (3) Memo, Dir Research and Development ASF to OQMG, 17 Oct 44.

SPROG, in WDWAC 421. (4) Memo, Exec WAC

for WAC Stf Dir ETO, 31 Oct 44. WDWAC 421.

(5) D/F, G-1 for TAG, 4 Jan 45. WDGAP 421 WAC,

in WDWAC 421. The design was approved by the

Directors WAC and ANC, and by G-1, G-4, and

the DCofS.
ON LEAVE IN PARIS, 1945. Note off-duty dresses, above, and battle jackets (left}, below,

worn by the women.
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 535

carry the purse in the hand when not in

formation.57

Tucking the necktie into the shirt in the

Army fashion was likewise forbidden because it added a certain undesirable bust

fullness to individuals not in need of additional fullness in that respect. This provision had also shortly to be dropped in

favor of the original system, for Wacs complained that the necktie hanging loose

flapped in their eyes, became caught in

machinery, was dipped in soup, or caused

them to be arrested by military police who

were not aware that the WAC had a different rule. The extra bust fullness was

eventually deemed the lesser evil.

Work Clothing

The WAC uniform regulations from

time to time added authorization for various types of work clothing that had been

proved essential to replace the drivers'

cotton coveralls, which from the first had

proved an extremely poor substitute for

either summer or winter work garments.

The herringbone twill cotton coveralls,

as originally issued, had been designed

only for tire-changing and emergency repairs. Both one- and two-piece models

were used at different times, but all were

ill-fitting and unbecoming garments.

They were too hot for summer and for

work in kitchens, too thin for protection

in winter, too clumsy for use in laboratories, too unsightly for chauffeurs of staff

cars, too unsanitary for hospital work. In

warm climates they scratched the women's

skin, causing rashes and infections, and

some women proved allergic to the dye

used in them. Their weight made them

difficult for women to launder in the barracks, especially when the garments were

grease-stained, and women who had only

one pair found that they would not dry

overnight.

Even in Auxiliary days, various Army

commands bombarded Director Hobby,

whom they considered responsible, with

requests for a substitute for the coveralls.

The Army Air Forces requested a different type of work garment for Waacs

engaged in aircraft maintenance, declaring that the drivers' coveralls lacked the

necessary tool-holding devices for a mechanic's efficiency and were not designed

for safety around moving machinery. The

AAF's First Mapping Group also asked

for medium-weight culottes for Waacs on

duty in photo-laboratories and darkrooms: "The culotte uniform will improve

the operating efficiency of personnel to

such an extent as to warrant its procurement."

 58

 Such early requests were all disapproved by the Army Service Forces.

By mid-1944, complaints concerning

the WAC herringbone twill coveralls had

come in from every part of the world

where Wacs were stationed, including the

four major overseas theaters. In the

United States, the most complete study of

the deficiencies of the herringbone twill

coveralls was made in the Air Forces' testing center at Wright Field. It found that

the material was too thick to allow circulation of air during physical training, long

sleeves and trousers limited free movement during formal exercises, the allowance of two per person was insufficient for

duty assignments on flight lines or in

warehouses, and the material was too hot

for wear in warehouses. The uniform was

supplied only in three sizes, and "The

woman who needs a size 10 is a very

57

 Intraoffice Memo, Well-Being Div for Dir WAC,

6 Oct 43. SPWA 300.2 (1-7-43) sec 2. 58

 Ltr, 1st Mapping Gp AAF to Dir WAC, 24 Jun

44. SPWA 400.34 (3-21-42) sec 4 (1942).
536 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

pathetic figure in this garment." Its ill-fitting cut and limited size range made the

garment an accident hazard; its poor

fit "is humiliating to the enlisted woman

and causes needless morale problems";

and the weight of the garment presented

a laundering problem. This study was,

however, rejected by G-4 of the General

Staff on the grounds that the evidence of

a single command was insufficient.59

Nevertheless, as a result of the cumulative requests, by the summer of 1944 the

Office of The Quartermaster General was

engaged in adapting the nurses' seersucker

slacks design to wool and khaki for both

Wacs and nurses. Unfortunately for speed

of action, favorable consideration was not

given to the simple request of most areas

for a slacks suit of the same weight and

general appearance as the men's. Instead,

the Quartermaster attempted to employ

the latest ideas of the Chemical Warfare

Service regarding protective clothing in

case the women should enter a gassed

area, and the latest camouflage color.

As a result, at the end of the summer of

1944 there had been developed and approved a garment in poplin, not twill, in

a muddy olive drab instead of the men's

khaki, and with various flaps, drawstrings,

and buttons for protection against gas. To

this, the Pacific theater continued to object, stating that poplin was not mosquitoproof and that there was no reason why

women's uniforms should be made unsightly with protective coloration and gasproofing when those of men in the same

area did not need these features. Eventually, a trim regulation khaki slacks suit,

resembling the Army summer uniform,

was approved, and the same design was

applied to wool trousers. However, this

action came too late in the war to be of

anything but future interest. The experiences of World War II had demonstrated

beyond doubt that Wacs and nurses in

overseas theaters, and those in active work

in the United States, would inevitably require slacks resembling men's trousers in

design and material.60

In the same months The Quartermaster

General also developed various types of

clothing for even rougher cold-weather

wear. The "layering" principle currently

employed for men's garments was also

applied to women's, particularly in a field

jacket and trousers with a windproof outer

cover and wool innerliner. For arctic

wear, pile-lined overcoats and hoods were

also developed. Except in the coldest

weather these garments were generally

less favorably regarded by overseas theaters than ordinary slacks, partially because of their bulkiness and clumsiness.

Even after suitable work clothing was

developed, stations in the United States

were able to get it only for women whose

occupational specialty number was on the

approved list of "outdoor workers," or, in

the case of winter clothing, if the station

was located in the northern part of the

United States. Many requests from field

stations indicated that certain women not

listed as outdoor workers, such as stock

clerks, nevertheless often performed active

work outdoors or in unheated buildings.

In addition, stations in the southern zones

of the United States complained that they

were unable to get WAC drivers the necessary winter trousers and warm underwear, these sometimes being needed even

more than in northern climates because

there was no authorization for vehicle

heaters in the south.

59

 Memo, Air WAC Off for Air QM, 9 Jun 44, incl

ASC Study. AFPAW, WDWAC 421. 60

 Extensive descriptions are available in Risch,

Wardrobe for Women of the Army.
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 537

In response to these requests, Director

Hobby proposed that the commanding

general of a service command be authorized to define "outdoor worker" and to

determine when the climate required

warm clothing. The Quartermaster General, fearing that this privilege might be

abused, consented only to permit the commanding generals of service commands to

declare women outdoor workers to no

more than the extent of one fourth the

company in Zone 3 and one third in Zone

2. This system was approved by Requirements Division in January of 1944, and

put into effect.61

Hospital Uniform

With the move of the Director's Office

from the Army Service Forces, the policy

of providing no work uniform for hospital

Wacs changed gradually. Soon after

Major Craighill's appointment as Medical

Department consultant, she discovered

warehouse stocks of surplus blue cotton

uniforms, now outmoded for Army nurses.

Since no cost was involved, the Army

Service Forces consented to their issue to

Wacs working in hospital wards. However,

the dresses were not available in all size

ranges, and caused Wacs to be mistaken

for the civilian employees who also wore

them. Therefore, in September of 1944,

G-4 Division authorized the wearing of

the cooks' white uniforms in hospitals.

This immediately proved unsatisfactory,

since the cooks' uniforms had been designed to be worn over other clothing, and

did not provide sufficient covering. Next,

The Quartermaster General's Office experimented with the dyeing of nurses'

white uniforms, but this also proved unworkable.

Finally, just before V-E Day, the Quartermaster General was authorized to provide green poplin dresses especially for

hospital Wacs. Upon the advice of his

civilian consultant, Miss Dorothy Shaver,

vice-president of Lord & Taylor, the material was changed to rose-beige chambray. An extremely practical and becoming dress was evolved, and issue of nine

dresses to each enlisted woman on hospital

duty was authorized, a number that permitted Wacs to make use of hospital laundries as did other employees.62

Wacs not on duty in hospitals, but

working after hours as volunteer nurses'

aides, received published authorization to

wear the usual blue and white cap and

apron of the volunteer aide.

The Service Shoe

Another reform made by the last year

of the war was in the fit of the WAC shoe.

Throughout 1943, attempts to improve

the shoe brought only complaints that

new issues were worse than the previous

one. In one "improved" type of shoe, salvage rose from 20 to 50 percent and

wearers complained that it lacked arch

support, did not fit the female foot, was

too wide, too stiff, and with too low a heel

for office wear. In 1944 the men's footmeasuring outfit proved unsatisfactory

and was replaced by a new Foot-Measuring Outfit, Women's, one for each detachment, in order to eliminate the problem of

61

 (1) Change to T/E 21, 21 Oct 43; (2) Memo,

Reqmts Div ASF for Dir WAC, with Ind from Dir

WAC, 6 Jan 44, and 3d Ind OQMG to Reqmts Div.

SPRMA421 in SPWA 400 (1942). 62

 (1) Memo, G-1 for G-4, 21 Oct 44. WDGAP

421, copy in WDWAC 421. (2) Ltr, Miss Dorothy

Shaver to Dir WAC, 4 Nov 44, and Memo, Dir WAC

for ASF Mobile Div, 10 Nov 44. WDWAC 421. (3)

Ltr, OQMG to all SvCs, 9 Apr.45. SPQXA 420, copy

in WDWAC 421.
538 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ordering wrong-sized shoes. With this improvement, and with The Quartermaster

General's decision to issue only shoes

made on government-owned lasts, most

problems in the fit of the service shoe and

the field shoe were eliminated.

The Quartermaster General concluded

that earlier troubles had not arisen from

poor shoes but from imperfect fit. Earlier

shoes had been procured on as many as

twelve different commercial lasts and,

while each was of good design and construction, attempts by field companies to

order by size were thwarted as the "result

of stocking shoes made on different lasts

under the same stock number."

 63

No similar solution was ever found to

the need for an athletic shoe, since neither

the high-laced field shoe nor the mediumheeled service shoe proved suitable for the

required physical training. Quartermaster

Corps investigators late in 1944 found that

Wacs were wearing for this purpose and

for kitchen duty what remained of the discontinued issue of tennis shoes, in "an

advanced state of disrepair," as well as

bedroom slippers, moccasins, and civilian

sports shoes, presenting a "shabby and unsightly" appearance. The issue of tennis

shoes could not be resumed, since all

available materials were needed to produce canvas rubber footwear for combat

men.

The Quartermaster General's Office

was able to devise a substitute of noncritical materials, but the Army Service

Forces and the General Staff refused to

permit procurement of this item for

women. Since WAC physical training was

seldom done in public, the item was not,

in the women's opinion, unduly important; most Wacs would have been glad to

dispense with the physical training as well

as with the shoes.64

Stockings

In tropical countries, and in semitropical areas of the United States, it proved

virtually impossible to keep the Wacs in

stockings. The five pairs of rayon stockings

per quarter—one and two thirds pairs

a month—which had by this time become

the authorized issue, deteriorated badly in

hot climates, forcing the women to buy

their own or go stockingless. In any event,

many women preferred to leave off stockings in the interests of comfort. Both the

Air Forces and the Ground Forces recommended to the War Department that

Wacs be authorized to omit stockings from

the uniform between reveille and retreat,

on the post only, at the discretion of the

commanding officer. On the other hand,

health authorities pointed out that at least

clean socks or other foot coverings were

required in the interests of health and shoe

preservation.

The socks proposal was vetoed by The

Quartermaster General's Office, which

had not procured women's cotton socks

except for use with the exercise or tennis

shoe, long since discontinued. The stockingless state, particularly off the post, was

frowned upon by both the first and second

WAC Directors, since it became only those

whose legs were shapely, well-tanned, and

well-shaved—and there were, all too obviously, many Corps members not thus

qualified. Finally, after V-J Day, a new

authorization was published for eight

pairs of stockings per quarter in tropical

countries and Zone 3 of the United

States—a provision that was supposed to 63

 (1) Ltr, WAC Stf Dir TC to QMG, 14 Dec 43.

SPWA 421. (2) Memo, Research and Development

Div ASF for OQMG, 4 Sep 44. WDWAC 421. (3)

Quotation from Risch, Wardrobe for Women of the Army,

pp. 76-78. 64

 Ibid.
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 539

end the need to go stockingless. However,

nationwide reports from numerous interested observers indicated that such was

not necessarily the result in all cases.65

Insignia

The WAAC lapel insignia of branch

had always been the Pallas Athene, but

under the WAC legislation the Corps was

designated, not a basic branch, like Infantry or Cavalry, but a component of the

Army. It thus became the only component

to have its own insignia, which was ordinarily issued to women at training centers

regardless of the branch that was their

ultimate destination. After the conversion,

the question at once arose from many field

stations whether Wacs should continue to

wear the Pallas Athene, or should change

to the insignia that men would have worn

if filling the same position vacancy—

Quartermaster Corps, Signal Corps, Medical Corps, and the like.

One strong faction, composed of the

Army Air Forces and certain of the Army

Service Forces' administrative and technical services, insisted that women should

wear the insignia that would have been

worn by a man assigned to the same job.

In fact, even in Auxiliary days WAAC

Headquarters had noted with some

amazement that The Inspector General

had ordered WAAC officers in his office to

violate War Department directives by putting on Inspector General insignia. Many

air bases and some Signal Corps stations

had unofficially been reported doing the

same thing, and it came as no surprise

that these agencies considered women entitled to wear their insignia as soon as

Army status was achieved.66

The opposing faction consisted of the

Army Ground Forces and certain headquarters agencies of the Army Service

Forces. ASF's Military Personnel Division

proposed that the women should continue

to use up stocks of the old Auxiliary buttons, cap insignia, and lapel insignia,

"thus maintaining the Corps as a separate

unit" from the Army. General Dalton

stated:

The WAC may be considered in effect as

a separate corps or another service. As such

it is appropriate that the WAC have distinc- tive lapel and collar [branch] insignia as pre- scribed for other arms and services. . . . The

wearing of the lapel insignia of the arm or

service to which WAC personnel may be de- tailed would be unsatisfactory as it would

add unnecessary administrative complica- tions concerning orders of assignment and

relief, designation on rosters, strength re- turns, and signature legend.67

The Ground Forces also reported itself

as horrified at the prospect of seeing

crossed rifles, sabers, or cannon on

women's uniforms, even though the

woman was filling a job that would entitle

a man to wear them. To the Air Forces'

proposal, the Ground Forces sent a reply

which the AAF interpreted as a deadly

insult—that it was very well for women to

wear Air Corps insignia, but not that of

"a combat arm."

 68

The only compromise that could be

reached in the first WAC uniform regula65

 Memo, G-1 for CG ASF, 10 Oct 45. WDGAP

421 WAC (7-27-45), with atchd file, incl AAF proposal 5 Jul and AGF 27 Jul. WDWAC 421. Publication was WD Cir 287, 20 Sep 45. 66

 Intraoffice Memo, Onthank for Exec WAAC, 22

Mar 43. SPWA 421 (1942). 67 Memo, OQMG for G-1, 11 Jul 43. Ind, G-1 to

MPD ASF, 12 Jul, for remark; 20 Jul MPD draft of

reply; Dir WAC's comment to MPD, 26 Jul; MPD

reply to G-1, 4 Aug; G-1 concurrence, 9 Aug 43.

SPQRD 421.4 WAAC, in SPWA 421.4 Insignia

(1942). 68

 See Ch. XVI, above.
540 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tions was a weak one: the insignia of another arm or service would be worn

during the period that a WAC was "detailed in or assigned to" that arm or service. This phrase was virtually meaningless:

detailed in or assigned to was technically

used, for officers, to describe a change in

branch which required War Department

orders "by Direction of the President."

 69

Since such orders were never used for enlisted personnel, there was extreme lack of

uniformity in field practice. The Air

Forces put its women in its own insignia,

and, to insure against misunderstandings

in this respect, secured a sweeping directive detailing all its WAC officers in the

Air Corps by direction of the President,

with provisions for change to the appropriate arm or service in the case of technicians.70

 The Ground Forces did not

authorize a change in insignia, and various other services left the matter up to

stations in the field, which were understandably confused about the whole

matter.71

This confusion eventually made some

further Army-wide clarification necessary.

Instead of simplifying strength accounting, the retention of a separate designation

by Wacs assigned to other arms and services actually forced statistical control units

to add another column to reports, with

apparent resulting discrepancies in reported personnel of Signal, Ordnance,

Medical, and other troops, which were not

really understrength but partially represented in the WAC column. The resulting

confusion could have been heightened

only if statisticians had been forced to

carry all Negroes, or all Texans, or all lefthanded men, or other minority groups, in

a separate Corps instead of in the arm or

service for which they were working.

Colonel Hobby's comments to this

effect were sent back by General Dalton

while her office remained in ASF,72 but

upon the move to G-1 Division she was in

a position to bring them to the attention

of the General Staff. Meanwhile, one

Army-wide clarification was achieved by

the action of the Air Forces, which inquired whether Wacs might wear Army

"distinctive insignia"—the metal devices

for officers' shoulder straps and enlisted

men's lower lapels, which marked certain

regiments, commands, or other units. G-1

Division ruled that assigned women not

only could but must wear these, since

wearing of a unit's distinctive insignia was

required of all members.73

On the more controversial issue of insignia of branch, for over a year the War

Department was unable to devise any

clarification of the 1944 regulations that

would suit all factions. So bitter were the

differences over this question that, in 1945,

it was necessary to publish a final circular

which permitted three different policies in

the three major commands. In the Army

Air Forces, all Wacs were permitted and

required to wear Air Corps or ASWAAF

(Arms and Services with the AAF) insignia. In the Army Service Forces, women

also assumed the insignia that a man in

the same assignment would have worn,

but with exceptions made for the Judge

69

 AR 600-39, 5 Jan 44. 70

 AAF Ltr 35-83, 21 Aug 44, sub: Insignia and

Detail of WAC Offs. 71

 Example: Ltr, Engr Sch, Ft Belvoir, to CG Ft

Belvoir, 29 Jan 44. 1st Ind to MDW, 2d to TAG, D/F

to Dir WAC and back to TAG, 3d Ind to MDW.

SPWA 421.4 Insignia (1942). 72

 Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 23 Aug 43,

returned by MPD on 27 Aug. SPWA 421.4. Insignia

(1942). 73

 (1) Memo, Maj Bandel for Dir WAC, 20 Oct 43,

sub: Wearing of Distinctive Insignia for WAC (AR

600-40, par. 5); (2) WD Cir 216, 17 Sep 43; (3)

Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 4 Nov 43; approved by

G-1, 5 Nov 43. SPWA 421.4 Insignia (1942).
HOUSING, FOOD, AND CLOTHING 541

Advocate General's Department, the

Medical Department, and the Corps of

Chaplains, none of which would concur in

wearing of their insignia by females except

when specifically detailed to their Corps

by their own action in individual cases. In

the Army Ground Forces, it was ruled that

under no circumstances, no matter how

assigned, or even if replacing men who

had worn this insignia, would women ever

wear the insignia of the Infantry, Cavalry,

Field Artillery, Coast Artillery, Tank

Destroyer, Armored Force, or any other

Army Ground Forces command.74

Clothing Depots

The size of the Corps was never great

enough to permit a system of stocking

clothing and insignia comparable to that

used for men. In the first months after the

Corps' establishment, only WAAC training centers stocked women's clothing;

later, two Army depots took over the task

of supplying all field installations. This

system proving unsatisfactory, in September of 1943 the Director's Office was informed by The Quartermaster General

that, under an improved system, five

depots would carry stocks of WAC clothing, and over 300 stations in the field

would be authorized maintenance stocks.

It was soon discovered that the list had

neglected to provide for Air Forces Wacs

and, after certain comment from that command, Air Forces stations were added.75

In spite of these improvements, field stations reported that their requisitions to

authorized depots were still returned with

the reply that no stocks were available.76

It was also noted that filling of requisitions

for women's uniforms generally required

longer than those for men, while salvage

and repair were likewise slower, presumably because of the greater distances of

shipment or unfamiliar nature of the

items. In a later effort to improve the

speed of supply, stations at which over 300

Wacs were stationed were authorized to

keep maintenance stocks to supply the

needs of smaller units in the vicinity. Obviously, however, no system as satisfactory

as that for men's garments could be

established for so small a group.

Allied Women's Services and the WAC Uniform

The whole progress of the WAC uniform and equipment program was of

considerable interest to several of the

Allied nations, which desired to equip

their newly organized women's forces by

lend-lease arrangements for American

supplies. A number of WAC uniforms had

already been shipped to the French forces

in North Africa when, early in 1944, Director Hobby succeeded in getting a War

Department directive that any further

such shipments would be of a cut distinctive from the WAC uniform, or WAC

uniforms dyed a distinctive color.

This rule did not meet with the general

approval of foreign forces. The French

Military Mission objected on the grounds

of time: 100 Frenchwomen recruited in the

United States were already awaiting shipment as soon as they could receive complete WAC uniforms, which were desired

unchanged because the uniform of the

French Feminine Volunteer Corps was

"basically the same design and color as the

WAC uniform." The Netherlands Purchasing Commission, for its women to serve

in Australia, wanted merely different but74

 D/F, G-1 to MPD ASF, 19 Mar 45. WDGAP

421, in WDWAC 421. 75

 Memos cited n. 39. 76

 Ibid.
542 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tons and sleeve patches, and objected to the

orange lapel pieces, shoulder straps, and

other distinguishing marks which Colonel

Hobby suggested. International Division,

Army Service Forces, sided with the governments concerned, since men's uniforms

were lend-leased unchanged.

It was virtually impossible, in the interests of international tact, to point out to

such nations that their female corps were

seldom fully militarized or under military

discipline, that some had no women officers and were unsupervised as to housing

or conduct, that in others women officers

were chiefly traveling secretaries of male

commanders, and that at least one corps

had practiced mass recruitment of native

women, whose unsanitary appearance and

conduct in WAC uniform had played a

part in bringing on the rumors that had

crippled recruiting. The Director's position was still further weakened when The

Quartermaster General found that the

large stocks of surplus winter uniforms,

chiefly mismatched discards, could not be

dyed successfully without wadding and

shrinking. Reports from overseas areas indicated that in most cases unchanged uniforms had been acquired by local action.

The problem appeared one not likely to

be resolved until the application of selective service to women should have made

public opinion of "WAC" conduct no

longer a factor in recruiting costs.77

77

 (1) WD Cir 32, 25 Jan 44; (2) Ltr, Netherlands

Purchasing Commission to International Div ASF,

11 Apr 44, with atchd rec of conf, 8 Apr 44; (3)

Memo, OQMG for Dir WAC, 8 May 44, SPQRD

421; (4) WD Cir 21 7, sec VII, 1 Jun 44; (5) D/F,

G-1 for G-2, 11 Aug 44, WDGAP 421. WDWAC

421.
CHAPTER XXVII

The Employment of Personnel:

Enlisted Women

In all Army commands and overseas

theaters, the experience of the war years

produced very few Army-wide policies or

restrictions on the job assignment of WAC

personnel. The very considerable freedom

that field commands had enjoyed in this

respect seemed due in part to the small

numbers of WAC personnel. Studies for

the use of a million or more Wacs all indicated that hard and fast rules would have

been required for this number, with explicit War Department directives to the

field as to exactly what categories of jobs,

or what entire organizations, would be

staffed by Wacs.1 In actual practice, with

never more than 100,000 women to assign,

a far more informal system remained possible, with women merely sent as casuals

to field commands, and with little limitation on the types of jobs or organizations

to which they might be assigned.

War Department regulations on the

WAC allowed women to be assigned to

"any suitable noncombatant overhead

positions" or even to a combat unit organized under a Table of Organization, provided that the job itself was noncombatant

and located in a "fixed administrative

headquarters or installation." No limitation was placed upon a commander's discretion, except that men must be replaced

one-for-one, that the duties must be within

the strength and endurance of "the average woman," and that the environment

and working conditions must be suitable

for women. Commanders were enjoined to

remember that "procedures for the utilization of Women's Army Corps personnel

both in their living and working conditions will vary from the procedure for

utilization of male Army personnel," especially with respect to "hours of employment . . . number of women needed to

perform heavy tasks . . . provision for

safety and security . . . general standards of discipline . . . insurance of suitable recreation, education, and morale

provisions." There was also, of course,

never any wartime relaxation of the requirement that women be assigned in

units of fifty or more, under the immediate

command of a WAC officer.2

That such a lenient system was by no

means inevitable was demonstrated by the

Navy's dissimilar system. Here, the Bureau

of Naval Personnel reported that it "kept

full control of the detail of WAVES, enlisted as well as officer," primarily because it "did not have confidence that its

1

 Whole series of memos in WAAC and WAC Planning Serv files; for example, Memo, Sp Asst for Dir

WAC, 13 Dec 43, sub: Pers Function of Dir WAC,

draft 4. 2

 WD Cir 462, 1944; also earlier regulations.
544 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

directives on housing and placement policies would be observed by the District

Commandants." Although the WAVES

director and field agencies desired to assign women to any job for which they were

qualified, the Bureau of Naval Personnel

arbitrarily limited assignments to certain

approved jobs, noting:

The Women's Reserve had originally

fought to have all rates open to women, but

the Bureau rejected this contention. . .. Field

activities, with a commendable desire to give

the enlisted women similar opportunities for

advancement to those open to men, for a

time permitted Waves to strike for a wide

variety of rates which had not been officially

opened to them; and it became necessary for the Bureau to issue firm instructions.

The Bureau also determined that certain

jobs such as control tower operator would

be largely taken over by women, and

trained and shipped personnel accordingly.3

The Army's policy, on the other hand,

began at the time of the conversion to

Army status with almost no limitation

upon the station commander's power to

determine WAC jobs, and added restrictions only as they were proved essential by

experience. By the end of the war, the

limitations that had grown up could

almost be numbered upon the fingers of

one hand.

Restrictions on Nonmilitary Assignments

Of these restrictions, the most important

grouped themselves about the alwaysuncertain distinction between military

and civilian jobs, which for women appeared to present a special problem,

particularly since assignment to civilian

vacancies had been permitted in early

Auxiliary days.

The issue did not, as it frequently did in

the Navy, concern the replacement of

Civil Service personnel, which in the

Army was absolutely forbidden, and for

which Congressional critics remained always alert even had the Army grown lax.

Paradoxically, Congress did not object to

the practice in the Navy. The Bureau of

Naval Personnel noted that it secured a

"gentleman's agreement" from the Naval

Affairs Committees that it might use

Waves when it could not get Civil Service

personnel for jobs in the Washington area.

As a result, as much as one third of the

WAVES' entire corps was assigned to

civilian work in Washington, the bureau

protecting itself by certification "that

civilians could not be found to fill any

given jobs for which Waves were requested

by a Washington office." Such assignment

did not prove wholly satisfactory, the

bureau noting later that "use of WAVES

for essentially civilian work soon became

a morale problem and a detriment to procurement. . . . Many of the women could

see that they were not directly replacing

men."

 4

For the Army, the question concerned

only the non-Civil Service jobs on field stations.5

 It was ordinarily forbidden to use

soldiers in civilian-operated laundries, as

post exchange sales clerks, as waiters in

officers' messes (except as extra paid employment), and in other more or less

3

 WAVES Hist. 4

 Ibid.

5

 For preconversion period: (1) Draft of Memo, Dir

WAC for G-1, 4 Nov 43. SPWA 320.3. (2) Rpt of

Insp, Colored Det, Ft. Knox, Ky., 6 Aug 43. SPWA

331.1. (8-20-43). (3) M/R, Faith, 8 Jul 43, sub: Rpt

of Sp Insp. SPWA (11-16-43) Utilization. (4) Memo,

Lies for Dir WAAC, 13 Jul 43, sub: Analysis of Insp

Rpts. Proj 25, WAAC Plng Serv files. For postconversion period: (5) Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Pers ASF, 25

Aug 43. SPWA 222.6 KP, in Folder 22, WAAC Plng

Serv files.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED WOMEN 545

menial tasks not essential enough to merit

military personnel. Before the conversion,

however, inspectors discovered on field

stations a common practice of assigning

Waacs to a station's nonmilitary work,

generally of menial character, to which

soldiers could not be assigned and which

civilian women could not be persuaded to

accept. In part this practice appeared to

result from the anomalous nature of the

WAAC's status under its separate T/O,

which seemed half-civilian, half-military,

in character. In part it was ascribed to

traditional ideas of the proper work for

women.

Classification survey teams noted that

while this practice was not universal, it

was exceedingly widespread. At many stations Waacs were found assigned as personal orderlies by both Army and WAAC

officers, and at several others they were

used to fill low-grade civilian jobs in laundries. At Fort Knox, school teachers and

college graduates were found assigned as

dining room orderlies, food cart pushers,

and garbage rack details. At Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, five Negro Waacs, described as "well-educated," were assigned

to sweep out warehouses, while fifteen

others worked in the service club and

thirty in a civilian-operated laundry. At

Valley Forge General Hospital, four

women were assigned as unskilled orderlies although, inspectors reported, "Two

are really clerk-typists, one a graduate

cook, and one a classification specialist

with an AGCT of 137 and college degree."

Very few stations were entirely free from

such practices. For example, in the Fourth

Service Command alone, inspectors found

Waacs waiting on officers in clubs and

messes at Camp Forrest, Forts McClellan,

Jackson, and Benning; Waacs were replacing civilians as post exchange clerks at

Fort Jackson and at the Charleston Port of

Embarkation; Waacs at Fort McClellan

were performing "menial tasks far below

their highest ability." The women so assigned included radio operators, cryptographers, dietitians, linguists, and others

with useful skills.

Soon after the conversion to Army

status, General Faith's Field Inspection

Service brought in repeated evidence to

the effect that female military personnel

was still being considered especially suitable for assignments in post exchanges,

laundries, canteens, service clubs, restaurants, and officers' clubs and messes. General Faith noted that all such assignments

which did not result in filling a military

job were "not very successful," and invariably caused resentment and low

morale.6

As a result, in August of 1943 and again

in October, Colonel Hobby recommended

publication of a regulation specifically forbidding assignment of Wacs to jobs not

authorized for soldiers. She added:

The sole source of personnel for the

Women's Army Corps is by voluntary enlistment. Applicants are informed by recruiting

officers that they will release soldiers for com- bat. The use of women, so recruited, as sales

clerks in post exchanges and as laundresses

leads not only to dissatisfaction but to re- duced numbers of recruits. No objection is

offered to the use of enlisted women in ad- ministrative [military] positions in Post

Exchanges and laundries.

Over the Army Service Forces' objections,

G-1 Division therefore placed a restriction in the first WAC Regulations against

the use of Wacs in any civilian jobs, but

with specific prohibition only of jobs in

6

 Min of Conf, WAC Classification Teams, Sep 43.

WA 201.6.
546 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

restaurants or cafeterias in service clubs,

guest houses, and officers' clubs or messes.

Shortly afterward, Director Hobby

again appealed for a more specific prohibition on jobs in laundries and post exchanges. She also asked a written definition of the basis by which Wacs might be

employed as orderlies, since "abuses in the

field" had caused her to believe that Wacs

should not be assigned as personal orderlies to male officers, even when, as rarely,

a military allotment was provided, and

that they should not even be permitted to

accept off-duty paid employment as orderlies except with female officers. Again the

Army Service Forces objected, concurring

only in specific prohibition of nonmilitary

assignment in laundries. This was published in late 1943. Nothing specific was

ever published on the subject of employment in post exchanges or as orderlies,

with the implication that such assignment

was permissible if a military allotment

could be contrived.7

Although inspection teams arriving before these publications found many

women in unmilitary work and service

commands most reluctant to remove

them, teams arriving after publication

found that many stations had just reassigned Wac waitresses and cooks from

officers' clubs and messes. Other stations

did not comply with the circulars until

they heard that the teams were coming;

still others agreed to make the corrections

on the spot while teams were at the

station.8

These prohibitions, however, did not

actually constitute restrictions on the use

of Wacs other than those already placed

on the use of soldiers; the only difference

was that the prohibitions were specifically

restated for women as a result of numerous

abuses.

Restrictions on Permanent Kitchen Police Duty

A similar problem concerned the assignment to kitchen police (KP) duty,

which was authorized for military personnel, but not as a permanent job. It was

considered unsuitable to use the duty for

punishment or to assign any soldier to perform it continuously. WAC inspectors

therefore expressed some surprise in discovering that this rule was more frequently

ignored for women than for men, with a

few Wacs at a number of stations being assigned the duty on a permanent basis.

Upon investigation, the violation was

readily understood: the number of men at

any station was ordinarily so great that

the duty could be handled on a roster

basis without falling too frequently upon

any one individual, while in a unit of 150

women the duty occurred once or twice a

month. The difficulty was redoubled when

Wacs began to receive ratings, since by

Army custom noncommissioned officers

and key office personnel were exempt

from the KP roster. In the small WAC

7

 Entire discussion is based on Memo cited n. 5(5),

and the following in AG 320.2 WAC (10-7-43) WAC

Regs, AGO Gen Rec Sec; many also in ASF Dir Pers

file SPAP 220.3 WAC (7-29-43): (1) Memo, Col

Catron for TAG through ASF and G-1, 7 Oct 43.

SPWA 320.2. (2) Memo, same, 7 Oct 43. SPWA

220.3. (3) T/S, Dir Pers ASF to G-1, 18 Oct 43.

SPGAS 210.3 WAC-64. (4) T/S, same, 22 Oct 43.

SPGAS 210.3 WAC-65. (5) D/F, G-1 for ASF, 25 Oct

43. WDGAP 220. (6) D/F, same, 25 Oct 43. WDGAP

220.3 WAC. (7) Cir 289, 9 Nov 43. (8) Memo, Dir

WAC for G-1 through Dir Pers ASF, 4 Nov 43. SPWA

320.2. (9) T/S, Dir Pers ASF for G-1, 24 Nov 43.

SPGAS 210.3 WAC. (10) D/F, G-1 for ASF. WDGAP

220.3 WAC. (11) Memo, MPD ASF for TAG, 13 Dec

43. SPGAS 210.3 WAC. (12) WD Cir 337, 28 Dec 43. 8

 For team reports see: (1) Prelim Rpt, Lt Alice

Knight to Opns Div WAC Hq, 18 Oct 43. WA

201.6 (6-18-43). (2) Rpts of teams, Tabs to Memo,

Lies for Dir WAC, 14 Apr 44. Folder, WAC Classif

Surv, WAC Plng files. (3) Memo, Chief, AGO Classif

and Repl Br for Dir WAC, 24 Apr 44. SPX-220.3

WAC (11-30-43) OC-H, in WDWAC 201.6 (1944).
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED WOMEN 547

company such exemption caused the duty

to fall even more frequently to the remainder of the women, sometimes as often

as every two or three days. The reaction

of Army section chiefs was almost unanimous. As one staff director reported, "The

Army officers said it was impossible to let

them do KP. Offices had let men go and

could not spare the girls even for a halfday."

 9 The usual field solution was to

assign a few members of the company on

a permanent basis to do KP and other

menial roster duty for the office workers.

This solution was not acceptable to

Director Hobby, who noted:

With the new standards for recruiting, it

would be unfair to have permanent kitchen

police. . . . From now on we are not going to

get the people who are suited for permanent

KP's unless there is selective service for

women.

Even if low-grade personnel was accidentally admitted, it was her opinion that

American citizens who were induced to

volunteer for military work should not

find themselves forced to perform menial

nonmilitary services for other volunteers.

The Director stated:

We are in danger of building up a caste

system in the WAC, whether we like it or not.

. . . [It] is undemocratic and unfair to the

women.

This view was supported by Deputy Director Rice:

We need to build in the company a spirit

of respect for the job no matter what the job

is. Everyone should take her turn at KP.10

The Navy reported an identical problem among the WAVES, and attempted to

solve it by recruiting women as seamen

(utility) expressly for this work, but this

failed when "morale was chronically poor

. . . too few would volunteer to enlist

therein and those who did became dissatisfied when they discovered the nature

of the work." Finally the seaman rating

had to be dropped, and the work returned

to a roster basis.11

As the only remaining solution, Director Hobby therefore asked publication of

a circular requiring WAC noncommissioned officers, who were ordinarily

exempt, to share KP with the other

women in order that no woman would be

too frequently absent on this duty. This

recommendation was not favorably considered by Military Personnel Division,

ASF, since "The privates cease to regard

the noncoms with the respect which they

are due if the noncoms are forced to work

in the kitchen side by side with them."

 12

General Dalton's opinion was not concurred in by the Director, who held the

view that, except for the few command

cadre positions, there was no reason why

a truck driver should regard a stenographer with respect, or one member of the

company be afforded more privileges than

another on the grounds of superior education or skills. British services had entertained the same opinion, and had gone so

far as to make a training film in which a

rated office worker was reprimanded by

9

 Stf Dir MDW, at Jun 43 Conf. Min, Stf Dirs Conf,

15-17 Jun 43. SPWA 337 (6-1-43). Also opinions of

all other reporting officers. 10

 All quotations from Min cited n. 9. 11

 (1) Memo, Gen Faith for Dir WAC, 14 Aug 43,

also draft of Memo, 17 Aug 43; (2) Memo, Dir Pers

ASF for G-1, 14 Sep 43. SPWA 220.6 KP. (3) WAVES

Hist. 12

 (1) Memo, Col Catron for TAG through ASF and

G-1, 7 Oct 43. SPWA 320.2. (2) T/S, Dir Pers ASF

for G-1, 22 Oct 43. SPGAS 210.3 WAC-65. (3) D/F,

G-1 for ASF, 25 Oct 43. WDGAP 220.3 WAC. (4)

Memo, Dir WAC for G-1 through ASF, 4 Nov 43.

SPWA 320.2. (5) WD Cir 289, 9 Nov 43. (6) T/S,

ASF for G-1, 24 Nov 43. SPGAS 210.3. WAC. (7)

D/F, G-1 for ASF, 29 Nov 43. WDGAP 220.3 WAC.

All in AG 320.2 WAC (10-7-43) WAC Regs, and

most are also in SPAP 220.3 WAC.
548 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

her company commander for a snobbish

attitude toward a scrubwoman, and was

informed that in winning the war the contribution of every member was equally

important.

Director Hobby therefore made a third

appeal for a written prohibition on permanent KP for Wacs, which would force

station commanders to set up the work on

a roster basis. Again General Dalton objected, stating that men were never used

on permanent kitchen police and that

there was no need to restate the prohibition for women. However, the General

Staff supported the Director's request in

view of reports of numerous violations of

the rule, and the policy was published in

the first and all later WAC Regulations.13

From the standpoint of the physical

well-being of women, the solution to the

KP problem achieved by many field stations, even on a roster basis, was doubtful.

Desiring to cut absences from the office to

a minimum, station authorities frequently

elected to put women on one long detail,

from before dawn until late at night,

rather than to permit two shorter absences

which disrupted work on two days instead

of one.

In 1944 Director Hobby requested the

major commands to check on this practice, since "letters to this office, some of

them Congressional inquiries, have indicated that there has been an increasing

tendency in WAC units to make schedules

for KP duty so that individuals draw long

hours and sometimes arduous continuous

details."

 14

 Investigations revealed some

cases of 14-hour details without rotation

from heavier to lighter tasks. Many Wacs

were found to prefer one long day of KP

rather than several partial ones, although

admitting that the resulting aches, pains,

and strains caused additional loss of time

from the office. Inspectors at every opportunity questioned the practice, but it was

difficult to alter.

Even selective service for women did

not appear to offer a solution to the problem, since under this system the Army did

not sanction permanent kitchen police for

a soldier. In overseas theaters, a solution

was achieved by the use of civilian labor,

thus permitting key office personnel to

work as steadily as section chiefs desired.

Since funds did not permit this practice

in the United States, some stations gave

thought to the use of prisoners of war—a

system which was informally discouraged

after the first Wac was court-martialed

and discharged for becoming engaged to

one.15 Under the circumstances, it could

only be hoped that section chiefs would

eventually cease to protest at allowing

Wacs to fulfill their military roster duties

as did other military personnel.

Restrictions on Food Service Assignments

While the WAC always ran its own

messes, it never attempted to take over

those of men's units. This system had not

been the Corps' original intent. Women's

civilian monopoly in the fields of cooking

and home economics strongly suggested

that the Army's entire food supply and

service system, with the exception of combat units, might eventually benefit by

acquiring a feminine staff. WAC advisers

reported that many Army men felt that

"there is nothing that the WAC might do

13

 Ibid. Also (1) British film, We Serve, 528-285,

Verity Films Ltd., July 1942. (2) WD Cir 289, 9 Nov

43, and 486, 29 Dec 44. 14

 Memo, Exec WAC for CG AAF, ASF, AGF, 29

Jun 44. WDWAC 720. 15

 (1) Memo, ASF for Exec WAC, 23 May 45; (2)

Memo, ACof AS Pers for Dir WAC, 26 May 45.

WDWAC 220.4.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED WOMEN 549

that would give it greater popularity with

the Army or make itself more useful in the

war effort."

 16

 This conjecture was supported by the precedent of the British

women's services, which entirely staffed

most officers' messes and many general

messes.

For the American WAAC's first year,

Director Hobby and her advisers therefore

contemplated the eventual formation of

mess companies, although deferring these

in order to meet the shipment schedule for

the standard Table of Organization companies. As late as June of 1943 WAAC

Headquarters went on record as approving the establishment of WAC mess companies to operate men's messes. The action

in fact appeared essential at this time,

since the collapse of recruiting plans had

left the WAC with a surplus of cooks,

trained to staff WAC companies that had

failed to materialize. However, before this

personnel could be organized into mess

companies, a requisition was received

from the Army Air Forces to assign the

cooks to its hospital diet kitchens to prepare food for patients. Since the need of

the sick appeared worthy of priority, the

women—some 700 in all—were assigned

to the Air Forces and, under its flexible

assignment system, added to existing

WAC units at stations having hospitals

large enough to require them.17

With the establishment of higher recruiting standards, no such surplus of

cooks ever again accumulated. The number of recruits skilled as cooks and home

economics specialists was never greater

than could be employed in WAC units

and hospital diet kitchens. At the same

time, several developments convinced the

War Department that no steps should be

taken to stimulate the enlistment of WAC

mess personnel. One important consideration was the working environment, which

appeared unsuitable except in the larger

messes where an all-WAC mess company

could be employed.18

Also, many duties in an Army mess

proved to be beyond a woman's strength.

Even in the small WAC unit messes, some

assistance from men was often required in

unloading hundred-pound cartons or in

lifting garbage and grease containers. In

the larger messes the kettles and other

cooking utensils, when filled, were sometimes too heavy for women to lift, while

few women could for many months sustain

even such duties as large-scale meat-cutting and baking. Obviously even an allWAC mess company would necessarily be

confined to skilled cooks and mess sergeants, unless troop allotments could be

expanded to allow two women for one

man in heavier work. Under the circumstances, Colonel Catron informed the War

Department at the time of the conversion

that priority would be given to WAC

messes and hospital messes, and consideration of running enlisted men's messes

postponed until these needs were satisfied.19

This priority was never to be reversed.

Not only were recruits too few to fill more

urgent needs in offices, but the results of

recruiting surveys indicated that any public awareness of the use of Wacs in cooking

duties constituted a severe drag upon the

recruiting of skilled and capable women.

Even the limited use already undertaken

had shown adverse effects, and after a

receipt of one Gallup report to this effect,

16

 Ltr, Capt Ruth Woodworth, 6th SvC, to Dir

WAC, 9 Oct 43. SPWA 331.4. 17

 (1) Min cited n. 9. (2) Memo, WAAC Hq for

G-1, 23 Jun 43. SPWA 331.4. (3) AAF WAC Hist. 18

 Memo, G-1 for CofS, 16 Jun 43. CofS 219.9. 19

 Memo, Col Catron for Dir Opng Div WAC, 6 Jul

43. Plng Proj 22, WAAC Plng Serv file, 1943.
550 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Director Hobby urged staff directors to

"discourage as much as possible" pictures

of women in the kitchen, particularly since

these usually showed a background of

oversized ladles, monumental cooking

pots, and wholesale quantities of food.20

There was never to be any conclusive

explanation of why the expectation of

cooking duties should drive recruits away

by the thousands, as it was well known to

do. Classification experts were of the opinion that women with other skills feared, in

spite of all job guarantees, that they would

be forced into kitchens. Psychiatrists noted

that many recruits wanted to do a man's

job, and felt that kitchen duty was not

particularly military. Possibly the best explanation came from civilian social

analysts, who noted that domestic service

had been steadily dropping in popularity,

with "reluctance of workers, in the face of

growing opportunities in factories and

shops, to enter a field with low standards

of work and wages and inferior social

status."

 21

This hypothesis was confirmed by the

example of the British women's services,

which indicated not only that well-qualified women would not enlist for mess

work, but that they would not enlist in,

and wear the uniform of, a corps that

earned a reputation for specializing in

mess management.22 In the WAC, it was

noted that "those in charge of recruiting

found that it was almost impossible to recruit office workers so long as the general

public believed that women in the armed

forces were used largely as cooks, waitresses, etc."

 23

 Only selective service had

ever enabled any women's service to get

numbers of skilled "white-collar" workers

and mess personnel in the same corps.

For this reason, no recruiting campaign

to organize WAC mess companies was

ever sponsored. Early in 1945, Director

Hobby obtained publication of a War Department circular forbidding the assignment of Wacs to men's messes, except in

hospitals and except when Wacs ate in

consolidated messes and furnished a proportionate share of personnel.24

Other Questions of Proper Employment

Thus, the only two major policies on

WAC jobs ever to be adopted by the Army

centered around the decision that Wacs

would perform only military duties, and

that the Corps would continue to specialize in office work rather than food service.

Of all other questions concerning proper

employment, most were satisfactorily

settled at a field level; only a few ever received War Department attention.

In the field there seemed to be some impression that a list of other prohibited

duties did exist, or should, and in its early

days WAAC Headquarters constantly received queries concerning the maximum

size of the trucks women might drive, the

weights they might lift, and similar matters. Such inquiries continued to be so frequent that WAAC representatives worked

long and painfully with Military Personnel Division, ASF, to compile a list of prohibited duties, which would have included

some 150 occupations such as blacksmith,

boilermaker, and bath attendant. The attempt seemed more amusing than useful,

and was finally abandoned, as it appeared

20

 Min, WAC Stf Dirs Conf, New York, 1-3 Dec 43.

SPWA 337 (11-10-43). 21

 U.S. Dept of Labor, Women's Occupations Through

Seven Decades, Women's Bureau Bull 218. 1947, p. 141. 22

 Gen. Sir Frederick Pile, Ack-Ack (London: Geo.

Harrap & Co., Ltd., 1949). 23

 AAF WAC Hist, pp. 2 n. 2, 36, 37. 24

 WD Cir 76, 9 Mar 45.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED WOMEN 551

somewhat unlikely that anyone would assign women to such work in any case.25

Furnace Firing

One minor question, which arose at

many stations lacking central heating in

barracks, was whether the women could

fire their own barracks furnace on roster

duty as did most men's units. Since the

answer varied according to the size and

nature of both the furnace and the Wacs,

the Director believed that the matter

should be left to the discretion of Army

stations.

For example, the Second Service Command reported to the Director an "acute

problem" at Camp Upton, New York: the

women's health was affected because they

had to fire furnaces, while Waacs at nearby Fort Dix had such work done for them.

The service command asked that the Director set a uniform policy. In reply,

WAAC Headquarters refused to try to set

a policy, stating that the matter was one

of command, and that its only policy was

that Waacs should not do work that overtaxed their strength. Colonel Clark write:

If the work of manning furnaces at Camp

Upton is reasonably beyond the physical

capacity of women, manifestly they should

not be required to do it. It is believed to be

purely a matter within the province of the

Post Commander, who will undoubtedly take

such action as is deemed necessary, upon the

request of the WAAC Company Com- mander.26

In most instances local commanders

solved the problem with considerable

common sense. Where one post service detail did this job for men's barracks, the

Waacs' could easily be included. If each

barracks did its own, the WAC commander was usually able to arrange for

the duty to be assumed by women of suitable strength, who often preferred it to

kitchen police. If the unit contained no

such strong women, or if section chiefs refused to release office workers for the task,

civilians or male service troops were given

the detail without causing any great

comment.

This local-option view was not shared

by the Chief of Engineers' office, which informed the field, without consulting the

Director WAAC:

With proper training, the members of the

WAAC can operate furnaces and water heaters in the same manner as enlisted men. No

change is contemplated in the established

policy that such equipment be operated by

the personnel occupying the quarters in

which it is installed.27

When it was discovered that the commandant at Fort Oglethorpe was using

labor troops to fire furnaces and heaters

for the whole post, rather than drawing

details from Wacs for this purpose, ASF

headquarters took these men from his

allotment and stated, "War Department

policy does not contemplate the use of station complement personnel to fire small

heating units."

 28

 During the following

winter, Fort Oglethorpe was subject to

severe Congressional and public criticism

for repeated cases in which recruits reported to cold barracks, and spent much

of their so-called basic training period in

firing furnaces, with a resulting high rate

25

 (1) Memo, Lt Ruth Spivak for Col Clark, 11 Jun

43; (2) Draft of Memo, 18 Jun 43. Folders 21 and 22,

Plng Serv file. 26

 Ltr, 2d SvC to Dir WAAC, 8 Mar 43; 1st Ind, 19

Mar 43. SPWA 220.8. 27

 Ind, CofEngrs to CG 1st SvC, to Inquiry, 19 Mar

43, with notation. SPWA 320.2. 28

 Ltr, Post Comdt Ft Oglethorpe to 4th SvC, 22 Jul

43, with 3d Ind, MPD ASF to 4th SvC. SPWA 320.2.
552 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

of hospitalization and disability discharge.29

The WAC was not in a position to argue

with Army-wide policies on furnace firing,

but field inspectors found in some cases

that any economy resulting from Wacs

doing the work was indeed doubtful.

WAC office and hospital workers suffering

from sprained backs were frequently hospitalized and absent from their duties following furnace-firing detail. A large-scale

study by the Army Air Forces showed that

respiratory disorders were increased by

the duty, with corresponding loss of time

from work. Furthermore, at several stations the heating equipment suffered expensive damage from the unskilled

ministrations of the Wacs. At one station

steam instead of water emerged from certain fixtures in the WAC latrines, and

geysers erupted on the post grounds. At

one training center, women in the latrine

were quite seriously scalded in a way that

made desk work impossible for weeks.

The Army Air Forces achieved a partial

solution to this problem by rescinding

directives that required unit personnel to

fire their own furnaces, thus leaving the

post commander free to take any steps

deemed necessary to prevent the absence

of key office personnel, male or female. No

similar Army-wide solution was ever

promulgated.30

Use of Weapons

Another minor job-assignment question

was that of the use of weapons. Although

Wacs were clearly labeled noncombatants,

and thus supposedly not concerned with

the use of weapons, it soon developed that

in their private lives a few were good

marksmen, and that Army men took a

friendly interest in instructing them and

allowing them to qualify on firing ranges.

The War Department judged the matter

unimportant because of the few cases concerned. However, in this it reckoned without the newspapers, which shortly spread

one or two pictured instances nationwide.

There resulted what WAC advisers called

"a serious public relations problem," with

semihysterical accusations from many citizens (1) that the country was in such bad

shape that women were about to be sent

into combat, or (2) that Wacs were not

needed and were obliged to while away

their time in this manner, or (3) that Wacs

were wasting the powder which munitions

workers sat up nights to manufacture.

Even a case in which Wacs were photographed drilling with wooden guns provoked condemnation when published in a

blurred newspaper version.

Accordingly, Director Hobby requested

and secured a stringent prohibition on the

use of weapons, which stated sweepingly

that "no weapon or arm, nor any replica

or imitation thereof, will be used or carried by any member of the WAC, nor will

any training in the use or firing of any

weapon be afforded any member."

Almost immediately the regulation

proved hampering to field commanders

charged with assigning Wacs. Certain Air

Forces women instructors had been accustomed to use gun-shaped training devices. Fiscal authorities protested that the

ruling would require the removal of WAC

officers from duty as disbursing officers.

WAC officers attending the Army Finance

School were unable to receive the same

training as male students. Certain emi29

 See Ch. XXXII, below. 30

 AF Ltr 85-15, 26 Dec 44, Pers for Operating

Heater and Boiler Plants.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED WOMEN 553

nently suitable signal and communications duties were also jeopardized, since

regulations required that a revolver be

kept in the code room. In overseas areas

there were also usually regulations which

prevented taking out any vehicle without

arms.

Director Hobby admitted that her original recommendation had been overstringent, and asked that the prohibition

be reworded to permit women to carry

such weapons as were required by their

specific assignment, if the assignment was

otherwise suitable and noncombatant, and

if the women had suitable training. This

request was refused by the Director of Personnel, Army Service Forces: "Not favorably considered in view of War Department policy that members of noncombatant branches will not be trained in the use

of weapons."

Since the WAC was the only noncombatant branch assigned to duties in fiscal

and other work requiring firearms, this

restriction continued to prove most unpopular with the field, and Director

Hobby, after her move to G-1 Division,

continued to ask that it be rescinded. As a

result, G-1 Division soon published what

was believed to be a discreetly worded circular which allowed commanding generals to grant exceptions, for specifically

named individuals only, provided that the

duties were suitable and the women

properly qualified.

Within six months, this authority was so

extensively abused by field commands

that G-1 Division rescinded it, stating

that, with the circular as an excuse,

"WAC personnel are being required to

drill in the use of arms and at some localities there is wholesale participation by

WAC personnel in familiarization courses

in the use of weapons and arms." Since

Colonel Hobby did not wish to impose

another absolute prohibition on such field

assignments, G-1 merely rescinded the

authorization, thus leaving neither approval or disapproval in the regulations,

except for a passage which stated that "the

wearing of badges representing qualification in arms by Women's Army Corps

personnel is prohibited." This also did not

prove too popular with Wacs, who felt it

peculiar that they should be allowed to

qualify but not to receive the badge.

British precedent indicated an eventual

solution of the problem only if future

emergencies should make home defense as

acceptable a female occupation as it had

once been in pioneer days.31

Use in Public Theatricals

A more serious and frequent question

was that which concerned the duty assignment of Wacs to theatrical performances

designed for public entertainment. This

question was entirely apart from that of

participation in camp and company shows

and skits, which had always been encouraged, although requests for Special Services material for this purpose were refused

by the ASF for two years. Not until July of

1945 was there published a booklet of allgirl skits and other entertainment material

suitable for WAC company parties. Such

camp shows were done on the individual's

31

 Entire section based on: (1) AAF WAC Hist, pp.

18, 41, and n. 2. (2) WDAGO Memo W635-19-43.

(3) Memo, Maj Rice for Dir WAC, 22 Dec 43. SPWA

620. (4) Memo, O Dir WAC for G-1, 13 Jan 44; Inds,

20 Jan 43, Dir of Pers ASF, and by G-1, 27 Jan.

SPWA 620 (1943). (5) D/F, G-1 for TAG, 23 Apr 44.

WDGAP 385.2 WAC, in AG 320.2 WAC (10-7-43)

WAC Regs. (6) WD Cir 163, 26 Apr 44. (7) D/F, G-1

for TAG, 29 Aug 44. WDGAP 385.2 WAC. (8) WD

Cir 354, 1 Sep 44.
554 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

own time and offered no question concerning duty assignment.32

On the other hand, many talented

Wacs—writers, musicians, actresses, singers—had obviously hoped to use their

talents on a full-time basis in the war

effort, with Army sponsorship. The question of whether or not they would be

allowed to do so first arose at Daytona

Beach, where Waacs wrote and produced

a show called On the Double, with dances

directed by a former Broadway teacher

and costumes by a former professional

theatrical costumer. The production was

such a success that firemen had to be

called to turn away hundreds of curious

civilians. Posts in the surrounding area

requested that the show go on tour, and its

WAAC sponsor wrote the Director, "We

feel that this show would definitely be one

of the greatest recruiting factors that the

WAAC could have if it were possible for

us to put it on in other places than Daytona

Beach."

 33

After some consideration, Director

Hobby disapproved the idea of a tour, and

asked ASF to inform the service commands that it was improper to use Wacs

for "singing and dancing in connection

with any presentation put on for the public

on behalf of recruiting."

 34

 There was considerable indication that the value of such

expensive productions to recruiting was

small, and at times actually negative.

Thus, the successful Daytona production

received newspaper "praise" calling it

"the Amazon's answer" and stating,

"Hold your hats, fellows—there's a striptease act so good the MP's have to break

it up."

 35

 Even if such publicity was considered desirable, there remained the

problem of expense. In one case in which

the First Service Command tried such an

experiment on its own authority, it was

soon obliged to report that recruits obtained by this means cost $1,200 more

apiece than ordinary recruits.36

Therefore, although members of the

press applied some pressure on behalf of

talented WAC friends, informing the Director that she was making a "great mistake," she nevertheless proposed and

secured publication of a War Department

policy against the use of Wacs in theatricals for the civilian public. Wacs were

allowed to appear only in those shows

performed at home stations for soldiers

and their families, which did not take

them off their jobs and for which no admission was charged except to defray costs.

This rule was published in July 1943, and

with minor modifications remained the

WAC's policy for the rest of its career.37

This prohibition often appeared unreasonable to stations in the field, since

male military personnel were frequently

used in traveling productions such as This

Is the Army. There was every evidence that

the regulation was frequently violated.

Nevertheless, no change in ruling was ever

made by the War Department. The distinction in such assignments for men and

32

 (1) Memo, WAC Hq to DCofS for SvCs ASF, 8

Oct 43, and refusal, 21 Oct 43, atchd. SPWA 353.8.

(2) WD Pamphlet 38-13-A, Blackouts, Crossovers

and Parodies for WAC Variety Nights. AG 461

(7-21-45). Copy in OCMH. 33

 Entire discussion in SPWA 353.8 (5-29-43) 1943,

incl: (1) Ltr, Sp Serv Br 2d Tng Cen to Recreation Br

WAAC Hq, 2 Jun 43. (2) Clippings from unnamed

Daytona Beach newspapers, 12-13 Jun 43. (3) Ltr,

PRO Ft Benning to WAAC Hq, 23 Jun 43. (4) Ltr,

Henry Pringle to Capt Ruth F. Fowler, 26 Jun 43. 34

 Memo, WAAC Hq for DCofS for SvCs ASF, no

date, sub: Directive to SvCs. SPAP 341 WAAC

(2-26-43). 35

 Sources cited n. 33. 36

 Memo, Dir WAC for Chief, Plng Br for WAC

Recreation, 1 Apr 44, sub: WAC Theatricals. SPWA

353.8 (1943). 37

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 3 Jul 43. SPWA 353.8,

in WD AGO Memo W635-15-43, 1 Aug 43.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED WOMEN 555

for women was based partly upon the

opinion that

. . . members of the public, not yet con- vinced of the advisability of having women in the military service, were prone to think, if

they saw women in theatrical performances, that the Army had no real need for them.38

For men, especially where returned combat heroes were used, there seemed to be a

more favorable public impression that

singing and dancing assignments were

only a brief interlude in combat. Eventually even this tolerance was at times

overstrained, and the Director's staff noted

that "the Bureau is having the same type

of trouble with men participating in theatricals."

 39

 A great many such projects for

men came to be refused, "because of the

critical manpower situation and the present need for all available military personnel."

 40

For the WAC, the problem continued

to be one not merely of economy but of

public acceptance. Director Hobby stated,

as one of the Corps' major principles:

It is contrary to policy to ... sanction

appearance in public where this might give

the impression of frivolity or lack of serious

purpose or occupation. ... It is also contrary to policy to move WAC units over considerable distances except for necessary and

official purposes.41

As the Army's practice of fostering

home-talent post shows grew, the War Department, at the request of field stations,

permitted Wacs to appear in such shows

even when they journeyed to nearby stations, provided that their absence from

home stations was not more than twelve

hours and that they were accompanied by

a WAC officer. Later, at the request of

Miss Sarah Blanding of the Secretary of

War's Recreational Committee, this ruling

was extended so that commanding generals might authorize a longer period of

absence from duty for performances

before audiences composed entirely of

patients in Army hospitals.42

There was no equally successful solution

to the demand for WAC units to appear in

civic parades and other celebrations. Military posts were accustomed to contributing

a company to grace patriotic occasions in

nearby communities, but could ordinarily

divide the honor among a number of companies. Since the WAC ordinarily had only

one company at a station, and was in

great demand as a curiosity, its members

were frequently forced to augment their

military schedule with long marches in

local parades, often with the loss of most

of a working day. Colonel Hobby stated

forcibly to WAC staff officers her opinion

that "they must not be pulled off their jobs

because somebody wants to see a parade."

 43

Post commanders ordinarily agreed

heartily and did what they could to check

the practice. Unfortunately, civilian patriotic groups were numerous and their requests not only incessant but difficult to

refuse diplomatically. For example, in one

brief period in one city, Masonic and

Eastern Star groups asked for "from 60 to

100 Wacs to participate in a pageant"; the

Confederate Memorial Committee asked

38

 AAF WAC Hist. 39

 Ltr, WAC Stf Dir AAF WFTC to Exec WAC, 23

Dec 43, and reply. SPWA 353.8. 40

 Ltr, Chief Ord Info, New York, Ord Dist, to Dir

WAC, 29 Dec 43, and answer, 4 Jan 44. SPWA 353.8. 41

 10th Ind, Dir WAC to Dir Contl Div ASF, 27 Oct

43, to Bsc Ltr, Air IG to CG AAF CTTC, sub: Alleged Discrimination Against Negro Soldiers at Sioux

Falls, S. D., SPWA 291.2. 42

 (1) D/F, G-1 to TAG, 31 Jan 45, sub: Revision of

WD Memo W635-15-43, 1 Aug 43. WDGAP 353.8,

in WDWAC 353.8 (1945-46). (2) D/F, G-1 for TAG,

28 Jun 45. WDGAP 353.8 WAC, in WDWAC 353.8

(1945-46). 43

 Min cited n. 9.
556 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

for members to "display a banner in our

procession"; and the American Legion

asked for "such units as may be available"

for their annual convention parade.44

Refusals of such requests were frequently appealed from a post commander

to a service commander and even higher.

Thus, Colonel Hobby on one occasion

received a telephoned request—which she

was of course unable to grant—that she

"force" the Commanding General, Second

Service Command, to ship his WAC band

from New York to Philadelphia, at Army

expense, for the bond parade sponsored by

the Philadelphia War Finance Committee.

In other cases, civilian groups, refused by

the commanding general of a service command, appealed to Congressmen who

forced the commanding general to yield.

No reasonable compromise solution to the

problem was ever discovered.45

Travel Orders

Only one restriction was necessitated

concerning transportation orders for

women. Conditions of shipment were the

same for men and women—troop trains

for whole units, and travel of individuals

or smaller groups by coach for short trips

and Pullman for overnight travel. In

practice such standards were of course

seldom met for either men or women.

WAC training centers were finally authorized to use coaches regularly for trips

up to 36 hours, with a WAC officer in

charge of each WAC shipment.

As unit shipment declined and individual shipment as casuals increased, disturbing reports were received concerning the

shipment of mixed groups of men and

women—particularly in one case in which

seven enlisted women were sent on an

overnight trip in a coach with enlisted

men, with only a male corporal in charge.

At this, the Director asked that shipments

of men and women not be consolidated.

The Army Service Forces did not approve

or publish this request, but after the Director's move to G-1 Division a War Department circular was published which required that, if it was necessary to ship

enlisted men and women in the same car,

a ranking member of each group would be

in charge.46

Legal Restrictions on WAC Jobs

In order not to conflict with the prerogatives of the Army Nurse Corps, the WAC

was forbidden by act of Congress to perform nursing duties. Nurses who had

joined the WAAC could transfer to the

Army Nurse Corps if eligible, but as the

top age limit was 45 for nurses and 50 for

Wacs, a number were not eligible and

chose to continue in the WAC. Many

registered nurses in this age group apparently failed to understand that they could

not employ their skills under these circumstances, and some complaints were received. There was, however, no authority

for discharge of such enlisted women, who

ordinarily were employed as orderlies or

technicians under the supervision of

younger Nurse Corps officers. The same

44

 File of D. C. area requests to Dir WAC, all forwarded to MDW as matter under its jurisdiction,

WDWAC 370.7 (1945-46). 45

 (1) Tp Conv, Mrs. Gruber, Dir WAC, and Mr.

Lee, War Finance Committee, 9 Jun 44. WDWAC

000.7. (2) Min cited n. 20. 46

 All in WA 513 (11-26-42) Trans of WAAC

Units: (1) Ltr, 3d SvC to WAAC Hq, 26 Nov 42;

reply by 1st Ind. (2) Ltr, 2d SvC to WAAC Hq, 1 Dec

42, and 3 Inds. (3) Memo, WAAC Hq for CofTrans,

21 Dec 42, and reply. (4) Ltr, 8th SvC to OCT, 16

Apr 43, 4th Ind, Dir WAC, 21 May 43. (5) TWX, 3d

TC to Dir WAC, 8 Jul 43; reply 12 July. (6) Memo,

Dir WAC for CG ASF, 7 Dec 43. (7) WD Cir 154, 18

Apr 43.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED WOMEN 557

prohibition applied to doctors, but as

none of these were reported as remaining

in the WAC, the problem of their assignment as enlisted women did not arise.47

There was likewise no authority for

transfer of members of the WAC to the

U.S. Cadet Nurse Corps for training. The

Cadet Nurse Corps was a civilian organization organized by the U.S. Public

Health Service to give free nurses' training

to "cadets" who received their keep, allowances, and attractive uniforms. It possessed

considerable attraction for members of

the WAC, especially those in hospitals who

were performing the duties of orderlies

and receiving little or no useful training

for the future.

Unfortunately, an early bulletin of the

Public Health Service gave the impression

that qualified members of the WAC might

be released by the Army to take cadet

nurse training. This was soon corrected at

the request of WAC authorities, but meanwhile a number of requests for transfer

had been received, accompanied by Congressional backing. To these the WAC was

obliged to reply that there was no existing

authority to transfer members from military service to civilian groups, since this

would in effect have required discharge of

all soldiers who could do better for themselves in civilian life. Nevertheless, it was

months before such inquiries ceased to

come in from Wacs who felt that they were

being penalized for their early enlistment

before cadet training was offered by the

government. In general, the problem remained merely one small facet of the

larger question of national versus voluntary service for women.48

A similar refusal was received by WAC

officers and enlisted women who were

qualified as pilots or as pilot trainees

and who desired to transfer to the WASP

(Women Air Service Pilots). Since this

organization was a civilian group, there

existed no authority for release of military

personnel to accept flying duties. While it

would have been possible to accomplish

the same result by placing the WASP in

the WAC, a solution agreeable to WAC

leaders, this step was rejected by the director of the WASP. Again, the problem

appeared part of the larger need for a

clearer line of distinction between military

and civilian duties and status.49

Restrictions on Assignment

to Washington, D. C.

One other restriction on WAC assignments, which soon proved so unpopular as

to be unenforceable, was General Somervell's early order barring assignments in

the District of Columbia. Although replacement of Civil Service workers in this

or any other location was forbidden, there

was a limited number of fully military jobs

in Washington, in which enlisted men

were employed. In the Corps' first month

the Chief of Staff approved the use of the

first group of enlisted Waacs in the Pentagon, to monitor telephone calls for G-2

Division, but any further use was strictly

prohibited.50

In view of the stringency of these orders,

the General Council was surprised at the

end of the Corps' first year when General

McNarney demanded an explanation of

47

 See overage nurses' ltrs in SPWA and WDWAC

330.14 (1944). 48

 (1) Ltr, U.S. Public Health Serv to Exec WAC,

3 Apr 44. WDWAC 080. (2) Ltr, Rep. Frances P.

Bolton to Dir WAC, 15 Nov 44. WDWAC 032.2. 49

 For full discussion, see Ch. XVI. Also Hist Recs

Rpt 319, History of Air Transport Command: Women

Pilots in Air Transport Command, by Hist Br ATC.

USAF Hist Div. 50

 Memo, Dir WAAC for CG ASF, 21 Sep 42,

Folder, WAC Rctg, ASF Sp Coll DRB AGO.
558 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

why "a number of them have infiltrated

into jobs here."

 51

 Upon investigating,

General Dalton was startled to discover

that the ASF had 259 Waacs in Washington. He requested explanation of how they

got there, since, he said, "General S. still

does not want Waacs assigned to ASF

activities in Washington."

 52

 Actually, all

proved to be properly authorized personnel who had been approved by the Chief

of Staff from time to time, particularly in

G-2, WAC Headquarters, and later as

staff directors for the administrative and

technical services.53

In spite of all resolutions, Wacs continued to filter into Washington. Almost

immediately after his protest, the manpower shortage forced General McNarney

to approve an exception for the classified

message center of his own office, and for

Operations Division of the General Staff.

At the same time a request from Military

Intelligence Service for Wacs to man its

message center was disapproved. Military

Intelligence Service persisted, and in September of 1943 the Chief of Staff finally

authorized 77 Wacs for this work; a little

later it was necessary to add 22 more.54

This concession marked the beginning

of the end of the policy. In November of

1943, the ban on WAC officers in the ASF

in the District was removed, with the precaution that a report of the total be sent to

the Deputy Chief of Staff every two

months. By May of 1944, a large percentage of the enlisted personnel being brought

to Washington was female, for service at

the secret Signal Corps installation at

Arlington Hall, or with the Air Forces at

Boiling Field and the Air Transport Command at Gravelly Point. By August of

1944 there were 2,045 enlisted women in

the Military District of Washington alone,

and the ceiling was raised to 3,202 to permit more to enter. Just before the end of

the war, the last opponent to Wacs in

Washington—the Army Ground Forces—

yielded to the manpower shortage and

asked permission to bring in 55 women for

military jobs in Headquarters, AGF.55

By this time the War Department's

policy had been entirely reversed; not

only did it permit Wacs to work in the

General Staff in Washington, but it

awarded itself top priority. It was directed

that War Department needs would be

filled from surplus personnel, if possible,

but if not, it would receive Wacs regardless of the branch that had been promised

them when recruited. If this was inadequate, the Air, Ground, and Service

Forces would be called upon to supply

Washington's demands from field stations.56

Since all General Staff requisitions

called for highly qualified personnel, they

remained unpopular with field commands,

as well as with many of the enlisted

women, who preferred the more military

atmosphere of an Army post. On the other

hand, since allotments often permitted top

ratings, the requisitions were more easily

51

 Min, Gen Council, 3 May 43. 52

 Pencil note, "JND" for Col Wood. SPAP 320.2

WAAC (5-17-43). 53

 Memo, Dir MPD ASF for Gen Dalton, 19 Jul 43.

SPAP 320.2 WAAC. 54

 (1) Memo, Secy GS for Gen McNarney, 2 Aug

43. WDCSA 291.9. (2) Memo, G-1 through CofS for

G-2, 2 Aug 43. WDGAP 320.2 WAC, in WDCSA

291.9. (3) D/F, G-1 for CofS, 3 Sep 43, WDGAP

320.2 WAC; and later D/F, G-2 for DCofS, 1 Dec

43. MID 320.2, in CofS 291.9 WAC. 55

 (1) Memo, G-1 for ASF through DCofS, 16 Nov

43. WDGAP 320.2 WAC (10-15-43), in OCS 291.9.

(2) Min, Gen Council, 15 May 44. (3) D/F, G-1 for

MPD ASF, 14 Aug 44. WDGAP 320.22 WAC. (4)

Memo, AGF for Dir WAC, 5 Aug 45. WDWAC

220.8. 56

 (1) Memo, MDW for DCofS, 14 Mar 44,

SPWPM 341 WAC. (2) D/F, DCofS for TAG, 15

Mar 44. WDCSA 324.5 WAC.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED WOMEN 559

filled than those of overseas theaters. Only

military vacancies continued to be filled;

as a result the total employment in the

Washington area remained only about a

fifth of that achieved by the Navy Department. Thus, the War Department priority

never became the problem that was reported by the Navy, where, it was stated,

"the over-riding priority given . . . cut

across and upset all principles of equitable

apportionment."

 57

Results of Enlisted Personnel Policies

With the removal of restrictions on assignment in Washington, there remained

no type of fixed installation to which WAC

assignment was forbidden. There was,

likewise, with the possible exception of

"entertainer," no noncombatant MOS to

which field commanders were forbidden

to assign enlisted women, although some,

like food service, were restricted to WAC

administration. The result of these lenient

assignment policies was, as might have

been expected, a rapid multiplication of

the number of WAC enlisted jobs from the

time of the conversion onward, limited

only by the civilian skills that women were

found to possess.

Records in the Corps' second year

showed that already women had been

recruited in more than 300 different civilian occupations, from gunsmith to electrical engineer, and from psychiatric social

worker to horsebreaker. Almost every

language skill was represented, including

Chinese, Finnish, Lithuanian, and Swahili. While obviously not all of these skills

could be used by the Army, by the summer

of 1943 the number of military occupational specialities held by enlisted women

was estimated at 155; by early 1944, at

239; by May of 1944, at 274. No final

count was ever reported. It did not appear

likely that the estimated possible total of

408 suitable Army jobs had been reached,

but it had undoubtedly been approached

within all reasonable expectation under a

voluntary recruitment system.58

Under the informal assignment system,

about half of the assignments were to

administrative and office work, in which

women predominated in civilian life. Toward the end of the war a mild trend had

set in away from such work in favor of increased technical and professional assignments—at least in the United States—but

office work still took first place.59

Percent

Type of work 1943 30 Sep 44

Administrative and Office ....... . 53 45

Technical and Professional....... . 13 18

Motor vehicle................. . 10 9

Foods........................ . 8 9

Supply and Stock.............. . 7 8

Mechanical and Trade.......... . 5 4

Communications............... . 2 5

Radio and Electrical............ . 2 2

As might have been predicted from the

higher WAC enlistment standards, the

average enlisted woman was found to be

somewhat ahead of the average enlisted

man in aptitude as measured by the Army

General Classification Test.60

Percent

AGCT EW EM

Group I ................... . 4.90 6.34

Group II ................... . 37.07 31.00

Group III .................... . 39.89 30.68

Group IV .................... . 17.87 25.12

Group V .................... . 0.27 6.86

57

 WAVES Hist. 58

 (1) D/F, TAG for Dir WAC, 27 Apr 44. Folder,

Rpt of Unusual Qualifications, WAC Plng file. (2)

List, copy in Plng Proj 4, WAAC Plng Serv files

(1943). (3) Table, Utilization of EW in 274 ASF and

AFF Jobs, 2 May 44. Folder, Statistics, WAC files,

OCMH. 59

 Memo, G-1 Stat Br for Dir WAC, 26 Feb 45.

WDWAC 201.6. 60

 William C. Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled

World (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1948).
SUITABLE ARMY JOBS FOR WOMEN. Above, Wac laboratory technician conducts an

experiment at Fort Jackson Station Hospital, South Carolina. Below, two women work at a

trailer repair unit, Fort McPherson, Georgia.
SUITABLE ARMY JOBS FOR WOMEN. Above, a Wac is at work in the Ordnance Section at Camp Campbell, Kentucky. Below, women pack a parachute, part of their duties as

riggers, Fort Benning, Georgia.
562 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

For the same reason, in educational level

enlisted women appeared even more noticeably superior to the enlisted men of the

Army, with 62 percent of enlisted women

having a high school education or better

as compared to 39 percent of enlisted

men.61

Percent

Educational Level EW EM

Grammar school only........... . 8.99 28.6

1, 2, 3 years high school.......... . 28.62 32.6

High school graduate. ........... . 42.21 27.6

1, 2, 3 years college. ............ . 13.76 8.2

College graduate............... . 5.36 2.1

Postgraduate................... . 1.06 .9

In ratings the enlisted women were

nevertheless considerably behind the men

of the Army. Obviously, under the decentralized system of control, women had not

received the ratings that would have gone

with their skills under a more formal

system.62

Percent

Grade EW EM

Master and 1st Sgt............... . 0.6 1.5

Technical Sgt................... . 0.6 2.9

Staff Sgt and Tec/3 .............. . 3.5 8.1

Sgt or Tec/4. ................... . 11.8 14.1

Corporal or Tec/5 ............... . 19.6 21.0

Pvt 1st Class. ................... . 25.4 28.1

Private. ........................ . 38.5 24.3

The relative success of the decentralized

and flexible system of enlisted assignments,

as contrasted with the Navy's more formalized one, was difficult to determine.

There were indications that the Navy

suffered some wastage of civilian skills by

arbitrary denial to women of certain categories of jobs, as well as what it called

"misplacement and under-utilization of

women, which were to have far-reaching

consequences on morale and procurement."

 63

 However, in the Army also there

was evidence that, while outright violations of regulations were few, the standard

of utilization of skills was not high.

In late 1944 a War Department personnel auditing team surveyed a large sample

of the Army's enlisted women and discovered that, of women who had specialized

civilian skills urgently needed by the

Army, 23 percent were not using them. If

this sample ratio held true, almost one

fourth of the Corps' skilled workers were

being underutilized through poor personnel practices. It was also found that 22

percent of graduates of service schools

were assigned to duties unrelated to their

schooling, thus indicating that almost one

fourth of the Army's specialized training

of women was being wasted.64

Various inspection teams at different

times also detected a notable trend toward

underutilization of the higher skills. In the

Air Forces, college women were pronounced "usually well-assigned," but in

the Army Service Forces, only about 20

percent of enlisted college graduates were

in jobs requiring their training, and 4 percent were actually in menial jobs. One

team captain reported:

Women with degrees in home economics

and one to fifteen years experience in food

planning were working as Second and Third

cooks. Women with years of photographic experience were working on one simple phase

of that job. Expert linguists—German,

Polish, Spanish, French, Chinese—some of

whom could take dictation in the language—

were not using their language skill.65

61

 Data as of 31 May 44 for EW and 30 Jun 44 for

EM; Memo, G-1 Stat Br for HD SSUSA, 14 Mar 46,

sub: Stat Mat for WAC Hist. WDGAP 314.7 WAC. 62

 As of March 1945. From George R. Powell,

Chief, Statistical Advisory Sec, HD SSUSA. 63

 WAVES Hist, p. 58. 64

 Hist of Dir of Pers ASF. OCMH. Rpt of Team, 8

Nov 44, Southern Area. Sample: 28 WAC units of

3,742 EW. 65

 This and following discussion is based on team

reports cited n. 8.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: ENLISTED WOMEN 563

Skilled stenographers were especially

liable to malassignment, as civilians often

occupied an office's only stenographic job.

Malassignments also were found among

telephone operators, typists, clerks, chauffers, key-punch operators, dietitians, and

other specialists.

Everywhere women were conscious of

the lack of ratings. Surveyors noted that

"in some instances, promotions have been

given to enlisted men rather than Wacs

when an opening occurs, even though the

Wac may have filled the opening. . . . Enlisted men resent Wacs being given ratings

rather than themselves."

Survey team captains reported that the

Army Air Forces generally showed a more

favorable attitude toward WAC classification. Various teams stated: "Wacs are very

well received in the AAF, not only by section chiefs but also by enlisted men"; "The

type of jobs open to Wacs was more varied

in the AAF"; "AAF jobs were far more in

agreement with WAC Regulations than

ASF."

There was no indication that the wastage of skills of enlisted women was worse

than that among enlisted men, with two

exceptions: there was a general tendency

to use women in nonmilitary work or

lower-rated jobs, and there was also a

tendency to accept as normal among

women a percentage of malassignment

which, for men, resulted from the necessity

for combat assignments. All inspectors

continued to note that failure to use their

skills had a proportionately greater effect

upon women than upon men, who expected eventual combat. One team captain noted, "Morale and classification

seem to be almost synonymous as far as

Wacs are concerned."

There was every evidence that both the

Army and the Navy had pursued the correct policy in limiting their women's corps

to skilled personnel who could fill skilled

jobs. Survey teams reported that women

with less than two years of high school

education had seldom progressed well in

the Army, and those who had no essential

skill, particularly in the older age group,

had especial difficulty in adjusting to military life. Women's lesser physical strength

effectively prevented success of such

women on those Army jobs within their

mental capacities.

In the last winter of the war, ASF's

Military Personnel Division reported itself

still unable to find suitable assignments for

such women, after a series of futile attempts to train them as ward orderlies,

shoemakers, and sewing machine operators. It therefore recommended that the

women be discharged and no more recruited. This decision obviously represented a major reversal of the ideas of a

decade before—or even a year before—

concerning lowering of standards for

women recruits. Both Army and Navy experience indicated that in future planning,

and particularly if selective service was

applied to women, the armed forces had

good grounds for accepting only women

of a skill and aptitude somewhat above

that of drafted men and of the population

as a whole.66

66

 (1) Hist cited n. 64. (2) Memo, MTD ASF for Dir

Pers ASF, 16 Nov 44, sub: Tng for Grade IV and V

WAC Pers, and 1st Ind, MPD to MTD, 25 Nov 44.

SPTRP 353 WAC, in SPAP 353.
CHAPTER XXVIII

The Employment of Personnel:

Officers

Few if any of Director Hobby's recommended policy changes concerned the

well-being of WAC officers, whom she believed to be in a position to solve their own

problems. She stated, "The WAC is an enlisted women's Army component. . . . The

enlisted woman is the Corps. We, the

officers, exist for the prime purpose of insuring her welfare. . . ."

 1 For this reason,

most of the provisions made for the employment of officers were concerned only

with insuring adequate numbers for troop

duty, proper selection, and suitable training. In other matters it was assumed that

WAC officers—as had nurses for decades—had the pay and the freedom to

provide for themselves without much special provision on the part of the Army.

Officer job assignments included not

only Corps administration, which had

existed since WAAC days, but also jobs in

replacement of an Army officer, which

were dubbed "operational." Some attempt was made, when WAC officers first

became eligible for this latter duty, to

analyze all Army officer jobs and list those

suitable for women, as had already been

done in the case of enlisted jobs. In this

process, The Adjutant General's Office

listed only those officer assignments that

were noncombatant, suitable in environment, and within a woman's strength.

Automatically eliminated were all duties

requiring unusual civilian experience or

long training time, all usually held by

senior officers, and all dealing exclusively

with men. Such analyses, like those of enlisted jobs, proved fruitless under the

actual assignment system, because various

Army commands to which WAC officers

were assigned determined their assignment without reference to The Adjutant

General.2

Restrictions on Officer Assignment

Only two restrictions were ever placed

upon this power of local commanders to

determine WAC officer assignment, and

neither was committed to a formal War

Department publication. One of these, as

in the case of enlisted women, concerned

nonmilitary assignment. In late 1944 the

director of ASF's Control Division noted:

The attention of this office has been called

recently to instances in which it appears that

WAC officers are not being assigned to jobs

which are commensurate with their grades,

1

 WAC Newsletter, Vol. I, No. 6, 15 Nov 43. 2

 (1) Office Memo, Lies for Dir WAAC, 1 Jul 43.

Proj 18, Plng Serv files. (2) Office Memo, Dolores

Christy for Studdeford, 9 Jul 43. (3) Memo, Lies for

Tng Off, 2 Feb 44. Papers of Dep Dir WAC, DRB

AGO.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OFFICERS 565

or which could not be performed by civilian

clerks.3

The tendency to assign WAC officers to

such work appeared related to misunderstandings as to status, dating from Auxiliary days. The Army Air Forces, as soon as

it received WAC officers, therefore published instructions pointing out that they

must fill bona fide officer allotments.4

The Service Forces did not publish instructions on the subject, but attempted

to correct individual cases wherever they

were discovered by inspectors.

A second and somewhat related restriction concerned the assignment of WAC

officers as aides, secretaries, and sometimes chauffeurs to general officers. Even

if an officer grade was provided, the assigned duties seldom sounded like those

of officers. One such Wac upon her return

to the United States gave reporters a description of her duties which got national

publicity:

I took all the dictation and did the typing.

... I did the filing and answered the tele- phone. ... I always saw to it that he had his

eyeglasses and his wallet. ... I kept a check

on clean shirts. I laid out clean clothes and I

would pack his bags for trips. I also sewed on

ribbons and buttons. ... I always had so

much to do, with my office in my bedroom.5

She also, she added, served as hostess at

parties. For these duties, she was promoted

to the rank of major and received the

Legion of Merit.

In spite of the danger of poor publicity

on these assignments, they eventually became so prevalent that the War Department acted to forbid them. At Director

Hobby's request, the Deputy Chief of

Staff, General McNarney, wrote personal

letters to the commanding generals of all

major domestic commands and all overseas theaters, saying:

It has recently been brought to the attention of the Chief of Staff that commissioned

officers of the Women's Army Corps have

sometimes been assigned or utilized as aides

to general officers, as chauffeurs, and for

routine stenographic duty normally performed by enlisted or civilian personnel. While such assignments of female officers

are considered inappropriate and inadvis- able, it is not desired to issue any formal War Department regulation on this subject, nor is it desired that your headquarters issue any

formal instructions. On the other hand, if instances of such improper use . . . occur in any

activity under your command, you should

take appropriate corrective action.

It is particularly desired that there be no

publicity on this subject.6

Commanders in the field frequently

failed to comply with the provisions of this

letter, especially overseas where such War

Department opinion was at best deemed

merely advisory. In the European theater,

by the end of the war, no less than fortyfive WAC officers—14 percent of the

total—were serving as personal assistants

to ranking officers. In almost every such

case, unwarranted criticism was incurred

by both employer and subordinate, and

the impression sometimes created that officers of the Women's Army Corps received promotions and awards for duties

that were not essentially those of an officer. Inasmuch as male officers were also

at times employed in the same duties of

aide and handy-man, the problem could

not be considered entirely a WAC one,

although newspaper innuendoes were pos3

 Memo, Dir Contl Div ASF for Dir Pers ASF, 5

Oct 44. SPAP 210.3 WAC. The above-cited survey

resulted. 4

 AAF Hq Office Instructions 35-25, 25 Sep 43. 5

 "Missouri Girl Went Through War Overseas,"

Kansas City Star, September 23, 1945. 6

 Ltr, DCofS USA to CGs of AAF, AGF, ASF, EDC,

WDC, ETO, NATO, POEs, USAFIME, SWPA,

CBI, 11 Aug 44. WDGAP 210.31 WAC, in WDWAC

210.31.
566 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

sible that were usually not applied to male

aides.

Limitations on Further WAC Commissions

Almost all other War Department directives on WAC officers concerned the

numbers and skills needed properly to administer enlisted personnel.7

 Soon after

the conversion, Director Hobby recommended to the War Department that the

WAC ratio of officers to enlisted be the

same as that of the Army, or about 1 to 11.

The WAAC ratio had been somewhat

lower, 1 to 14, in view of the fact that officers of the Auxiliary had not been eligible for other than troop duty. After discussion, General White of G-1 Division

agreed to issue the necessary directives to

set the ratio of 1 to 11.8

A nonconcurrence to the proposed action was offered by ASF's Military Personnel Division. In view of the current

overstrength of male officers, Military

Personnel Division proposed that the

WAC officer-enlisted ratio be set at 1 to

20, stating:

It is believed that the ratio of 1 to 20 will

provide adequate numbers of officers for all

known needs. It will not provide officers for

wholesale replacement of AUS [male] officers

in installations in which either AUS or WAC

officers could be utilized. Until the present

overstrength of AUS officers is absorbed, it

is not believed advantageous to commission,

train, and utilize large numbers of WAC of- ficers in positions which these AUS officers

can fill.9

To bring the Corps down to this ratio,

ASF proposed that the WAC officer candidate school be cut to the lowest possible

amount that would permit its continued

operation—100 every 3 months. These

proposals were approved by the War Department, and the Director's Office was so

advised.10

This move was not satisfactory to the

Office of the Director, particularly since

the output of male officer candidate

schools for troop duty was not similarly

curtailed in spite of the overstrength of

male officers.11 Also, WAVES recruiters

still continued able to offer 250 monthly

commissions to prospects, although the

WAVES already had a higher proportion

of officers than the WAC.12

A short time later, the War Department

Manpower Board recommended that the

WAC officer candidate school be entirely

suspended. Director Hobby objected,

pointing out, "Such action would be demoralizing to morale within the Corps

and would be a serious deterrent to recruiting."

 13

 The Army Service Forces

agreed that "the effect of such action on

recruiting would not only result in a decrease in the number of women recruited

but also in the caliber of women recruited."

 14

 At ASF's recommendation,

the WAC officer candidate school was

7

 Minor exceptions: (1) Limited Service: Memo,

Dir WAC for G-1, 11 Feb 44. SPWA 220.4. (2) Request by Name: Personal ltr, Dir WAC to Maj Gen

Carter B. Magruder, G-4 USFET, 10 Jan 46.

WDWAC 210.31. (3) Age Requirements: Memo, Dir

WAC for CG ASF, 17 Sep 43, re AG Memo W605-

35-43, 4 Sep 43. SPWA 210.31. 8

 Draft of Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 6 Aug 43,

with pencil note. SPWA 314.7 sec 4. See Table 10,

Appendix A. 9

 Memo, Gen Reynolds, MPD ASF, for G-1, 1

Oct 43. SPGAS 320.2 WAC (9-29-43), in SPAP

320.2. 10

 Memo, MPD ASF for TAG, 20 Oct 43. SPGAP

320.2 WAC (9-29-43), in SPAP 320.2. See M/R.

OCS was lengthened from 8 to 12 weeks. 11

 ASF Hist of OCT, Fig. 7. OCMH. 12

 Memo, Dir Pers ASF for G-1, 8 Apr 44. SPAP

352 WAC. 13

 Memo, Dir Contl Div ASF for Dir WAC, 9 Feb

44, Incl, Bd Rpt, 12 Jan 44. SPWA 319.1. 14

 Memo, MPD ASF for CofS ASF, 25 Feb 44.

SPAP 210.3 WAC.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OFFICERS 567

therefore not abolished, but its capacity

was further reduced, this time to only 50

every three months, or 200 a year. This

was a token enrollment that would not

make up officer attrition, and that would

allow each WAC company on the average

to send only one candidate every two

years.15

The Officers' Pool

Director Hobby's office was not at the

moment in a position to offer strong objections to these decisions, in view of the current numbers of unassigned WAC officers.

Although requisitions for enlisted women

were plentiful, most Army commands had

not, as of this date, shown any similar enthusiasm for WAC officers.

The officers' pool began its existence

soon after the collapse of the short-lived

WAAC expansion program. As training

centers and specialists' schools closed, most

of their officer cadre was assigned to an officers' pool. To this group was added each

week the graduates of the large officer

candidate classes which had been enrolled

to administer the expected recruits. By the

time of the conversion to Army status, the

WAC officers' pool included over 1,000

officers, almost one fifth of the Corps' total

officer strength.16

The seriousness of the situation was not

immediately realized, since it was expected that, under the newly acquired

Army status, jobs would be immediately

forthcoming. In the Auxiliary Corps,

women officers had been eligible for troop

duty only, but Army membership opened

to them the whole range of technical, professional, and administrative officer duties.

Immediately upon the effective date of

the WAC legislation, the Army Air Forces

requisitioned and successfully assigned 800

of these officers. However, with the closing

of further training centers, the officers'

pool quickly refilled itself. The Army Service Forces, which assumed control of the

pool at the conversion, proved unable to

assign any number of these women. In attempting to do so, ASF first informally directed its service commands to submit

requisitions. The response was not enthusiastic, since too many noncombat men had

been commissioned and were in some cases

being relieved of active duty for lack of assignments. Eventually, ASF was forced to

direct service commands to take 800 WAC

officers on temporary duty, with the

understanding that the women would be

permanently assigned if they proved able

to take over the duties of male officers

gradually being sent overseas. This move

was not a success either, as officers did not

move overseas in sufficient numbers.17

By the end of the WAC's first six months

in the Army, the situation was critical.

The WAC officers' pool now contained

about 1500 members, or about one fourth

of all WAC officers, and was incurring

15

 (1) Memo, MPD ASF through G-1 WD for

TAG, 16 Feb 44. SPAP 210.3 WAC. Approved 29

Mar 44 by G-1. Supported by Memo, Gen Styer,

CofS ASF, for G-1 WD, 18 Feb 44. SPGAP 352

OCS (2-14-44) 245, in SPAP 352 WAC. (2) Attrition

was later estimated at 360 per year. D/F, G-1 for

TAG, 6 Mar 45, approved by DCofS, 7 Mar 45, with

atchd stf study by Maj K. McClure, and Tabs A-F.

Folder Statistics WDGAP 352 OCS. 16

 (1) M/R, 20 May 43. SPWA 300.6 (3-30-42)

sec 2 (1942). (2) Memo, Col Catron for Dirs, Opns

Div, Tng Div, Rctg Contl, 21 May 43. SPWA 341

(5-21-43)E, in SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43). 17

 (1) Memo, Lies for Dir WAC, 8 Feb 44. Folder

13, WAC Plng Serv files. (2) Memo, Dir Pers ASF for

CofS ASF, 25 Feb 44. SPGAC 210.3 WAC (2-14-44).

(3) AAF WAC Hist, p. 49. (4) Personal ltr, Chief,

Strength Authorization Br ASF to Dir Pers in each

SvC, 15 Jul 43. SPWA 314.7. (5) Memo, G-1, for Dir

WDBPR, 18 Apr 44. WAC C1 file. (6) Memo, Dep

Dir WAC for CofS, 21 Jul 44. CofS 324.5 WAC. (7)

AGO Ltr, 12 Jan 44. AG 210.85 (12-30-43) POA-A.
568 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

severe public and Congressional censure

and causing internal morale problems.

Had the idle members been inanimate

objects, no problem would have existed,

since all would be needed within the next

two years to staff new companies, but it

was increasingly apparent that they could

not be kept indefinitely, like so many coldstorage eggs, without spoilage.

The unhappy officers were formed in

companies and commanded like enlisted

women. As weeks passed in inactivity,

there was afforded again an example of

the reaction of women to idleness—or, as

some psychiatrists termed it, the "volunteer" reaction. The unassigned officers'

morale quickly vanished, and their attitudes plumbed the extremes of despair,

anger, and disillusionment. Years later, no

officer who had spent months in the

officers' pool could be found who did not

denounce the experience, and it appeared

to many authorities that if WAC leadership had not already been ruined by poor

selection, many potential leaders were

now permanently warped beyond restoration. Officers in the pool, instead of aiding

in WAC recruiting in order to secure

themselves companies, were frequently

found to have been advising friends that

"it was a horrible mistake to join the

WAC."

 18

When, six months after the ASF took it

over, the officers' pool was not reduced,

Maj. Katherine R. Goodwin, soon to be

designated ASF WAC Officer, went personally to General Robinson of Control

Division, ASF, to ask decisive action.19

This also produced no discernible results.

Reclassification Proposals

To assist the ASF in fulfilling its assignment responsibilities for these officers, the

Director proposed measures to reclassify

and relieve from service all WAC officers,

wherever located, whose performance had

been unsatisfactory, thus leaving vacancies

for more capable ones. A committee of the

Director's staff, including General Faith

before his reassignment, informed her that

it was "common knowledge within the

corps" that there were some WAC officers

whose ability and behavior did not merit

commissioned status and whose commanders repeatedly asked to transfer them

to a training center or pool but, upon

being told to reclassify them under Army

Regulations, could not bring themselves

to do so.20

Upon General Faith's advice, the Director proposed to the War Department

that, to stimulate reclassification, commanders in all major commands be

allowed to send such women for 90 days to

a review board at Fort Des Moines, which,

after medical examination and on-the-job

observation in different duties, would return them with a recommendation for appropriate action by the command. The

Director noted, "Commanders in the field

are loath to apply the same standards of

efficiency to WAC officers which they require of male officers."

 21

 However, this

proposal for reducing the number of unassigned officers was refused by ASF on

grounds that it might usurp the prerogatives of field commanders by preventing

them from reclassifying an officer without

first sending her to Des Moines.22

18

 Speech by Comdt, Sch of WAC Pers Adm, "Development of WAC." Notes in OCMH. 19

 Memo, KRG, then Pers Off, O Dir WAC, to Dir

WAC, no date (about Feb 44). WDWAC 201.6. 20

 Memo, Faith for Dir WAC, 5 Nov 43. SPWA

201.6. 21

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 15 Nov 43. SPWA

201.6 (11-5-43). 22

 Ibid., 1st Ind, MPD ASF for G-1, 12 Jan 44.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OFFICERS 569

Until after the Director's move to G-1

Division, no solution to the problem could

be found. However, within two weeks of

the move, a dramatically sudden solution

occurred, creditable to General Somervell.

At a meeting of the commanding generals

of service commands in March, General

Somervell called for a vigorous drive to assign WAC officers to permanent jobs

which would release male troop age

officers needed for overseas shipments. So

emphatic was his language that within a

few weeks all but 250 of the 1,515 officers

in the WAC officers' pool had been permanently assigned.23

Shortage of WAC Troop Officers

Within a few months a sudden reversal

of the situation took place, and there was a

shortage rather than a surplus of WAC

officers. Had it been possible to hold the

pool officers idle for another year or six

months, troop assignments would have

been eventually forthcoming. New recruits

required officers; training centers needed

to rotate fatigued senior officers to the

field; field companies needed new junior

officers to permit normal upward progress

among troop officers; overseas theaters

needed junior officers for the same purpose. In all of these jobs, WAC officers

were essential, since men could not be substituted on WAC administration.

Director Hobby therefore, with the support of ASF's Director of Personnel, proposed that the WAC officer candidate

school output be raised to meet minimum

needs. It was pointed out that if even the

l-to-20 ratio, and not the Army ratio, was

applied to the 4,000 new recruits entering

monthly, the WAC would be entitled to

200 officer candidates a month instead of

the current 200 a year.24

This request was refused by the General

Staff "owing to the present officer strength

of the Army."

 25

 Instead, it was suggested

that some of the almost 2,000 WAC

officers recently forced on service commands for non-WAC duties be retrieved

and reassigned to troop duty. No great

difficulty was anticipated, since the pool

officers had been in fact a shotgun allotment. A survey was therefore launched,

with each Army command required to

state how many WAC officers it was not

using on WAC administration, and how

many of these could be released for assignment to duty with WAC troops.

Unfortunately for this project, it was

found that the Wacs could no more be recovered than water from sand. Domestic

Army commands admitted that, of their

5,038 Wac officers, only 1,626 were being

used on troop work, and the remaining

3,412 were in staff jobs that could b

by a male officer. Of these 3,412, commands alleged that all but 63 were now in

work too essential to permit them to be released and replaced by a man, even

though some had been unwillingly accepted only six months before. Only 63

unsatisfactory officers were offered for

transfer to WAC troop duty.26

At this there began an undignified

scramble for the acquisition of the 200-

yearly output of officer candidate school,

punctuated by frequent allegations of unsportsmanlike methods by contenders.

The ASF, which controlled the training

centers, directed that all graduates be as23

 Memo, ASF for TAG, 13 Mar 44. SPGAC 210.3

WAC (3-13-44)-129. 24

 Memo, Dir Pers ASF for G-1, 8 Apr 44. SPAP

352 WAC (4-8-44). 25

 Memo, G-1 for ASF, 27 May 44. WDGAP 352

OCS. 26

 Memo, "KM" for Col C. F. Collier, Br Chief,

G-1, 23 Aug 44. WDWAC 320.2.
570 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

signed to training centers to permit rotation of tired training officers to the field.27

Training authorities felt that the efficiency

of training centers was the primary consideration; that a new officer needed such

assignment "to become used to her

bars";28 and that seasoned training center

officers "are the best source of officers for

field company duty."

 29

 The AAF nonconcurred when it discovered this action,

since it contributed 42 percent of the

officer candidates and expected 42 percent of the graduates, preferably the same

individuals it had sent. Newly commissioned second lieutenants were badly

needed to permit promotion in field companies; fatigued captains with training

center experience were useless because of

their rank and sometimes because they

had acquired a training center concept of

discipline and daily routine that proved

unworkable in the field. Still a third viewpoint was offered by some of the technical

services concerning new graduates who

had signal, scientific, or other specialized

skills desired by these services, which

would be wasted in troop duty.

G-1 Division, from which Director

Hobby was now operating, agreed with

the Air Forces that the welfare of WAC detachments in the field took precedence,

and ordered The Adjutant General to give

first priority to company duty, with all

graduates returned to the major commands with which they had served as enlisted women. The Adjutant General by

August of 1944 was in the position of having 650 urgent requisitions for WAC troop

officers and only 182 available from all

sources to fill them.30

This competition, while gratifying to

those who previously had found a WAC

officer unassignable, resulted from an

absence of normal officer candidate graduation that proved unfortunate for the

leadership for WAC troops. Of some

70,000 new recruits obtained after the

virtual cessation of officer candidate training, very few ever had opportunity to be

commissioned, although many of these

women appeared far superior in leadership

potentialities to those so hastily commissioned earlier.

Among those women already commissioned, troop duty, which was intended to

be their primary interest, became a matter

of abhorrence and was abandoned by

many of the most capable officers. In the

absence of a supply of second lieutenants,

troop officers were frozen in their jobs and

company duty became a dead-end street,

with no chance of progress for junior officers or relief for tired commanders. On the

other hand, WAC officers in Army staff

jobs progressed normally and soon had too

much rank to be rotated to junior company jobs even if the branches that had

given them specialist training would have

released them. Non-WAC staff jobs offered

not only more progress but also less strenuous hours. The tired and unpromoted

company commander, hurrying from dinner back to company conferences of an

evening, was obliged to behold less capable but higher-ranking desk officers enjoying their afteroffice leisure at the

officers' club.

Over a period of time, many of even the

most devoted troop officers requested relief from troop duty; and the cause of

WAC leadership, far from attracting the

27

 Memo, MPD ASF for TAG, 30 Jun 44. SPAP

210.3 WAC (8-30-43). 28

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 294. 29

 Memo, MPD ASF for G-1, 17 Jul 44. SPAP

210.3 WAC. 30

 Ibid.; cites 5 Jul G-1 directive to TAG and 13

Jul TAG report of contradiction. See also Memo cited

n. 26.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OFFICERS 571

best officers, gradually fell more and more

to those unable to qualify for staff jobs or

unable because of inferior ability to rise

above the grade of lieutenant.31

The War Department was never willing

to interfere in the command prerogative

of Army commands by directing them to

release WAC officers to company duty,

and all efforts to get any number released

by milder methods failed completely. In

the case of officers who had not yet been

trained as specialists and who were obviously malassigned, individual requests for

release to troop duty were made.

For example, in one case in Army Service Force Headquarters, General Dalton's

request noted:

The stenographic work performed by the

incumbent does not warrant the services of

an officer. . . . In view of the acute shortage

of company officers and Lt. F's demonstrated

ability as a company officer, it is recommended she be made available for transfer.

This was refused by the office of assignment, and almost without exception other

offices refused to release such women for

company work.32

Proposals for an A Corps

The solution proposed by Director

Hobby was the same that certain British

services had previously been forced to

adopt: a formal division between administrators of female troops and those detailed

to other corps. British women officers who

were specialists in female administration

proudly wore the "A" (for Administrative) lapel insignia to mark the distinction.

Under Colonel Hobby's plan, an officerenlisted ratio would be set for WAC administrators only, and might well be even

less than 1 to 20. The WAC officer candidate school would be reserved for these

women; selection and training methods

would be beamed toward production of a

leader; separate allotments of grades and

career management plans would insure

rotation and progress; advanced leadership training would be given as WAC

administrators were rotated to recruiting,

training, staff, and company work, and

progressed upwards from junior officers to

commanders to staff directorships; and a

special insignia would mark what would

thus become the proudest instead of the

most scorned branch of service for a

woman officer.

The WAC would, in effect, become an

arm or service like any other, training its

own officer and enlisted specialists in its

own limited field, the leadership of

women, but not all women would belong

to this service. All other officers and enlisted women, perhaps 90 percent of the

Corps, would be cut loose from WAC designation and quotas, and become part of

the arm or service in which they were

detailed, attending its schools under its

own quota.

Under this plan, the WAC would have

exercised no more control over the selection of a female signal officer than a male.

Since the Signal Corps at this time had a

yearly quota of 2,600 officer candidates to

meet its needs,33 the new plan proposed

that the enlisted woman specialist appear

before the Signal Corps officer candidate

board, not the WAC board. If she qualified in competition with male applicants,

she would attend the Signal Corps officer

candidate school or any desired combination of WAC and Signal Corps schools, be

31

 See Ch. XXXIII, below. 32

 Tab A, Memo, ASF WAC Off for Dir Pers ASF,

9 Dec 44. SPAP 210.3 WAC (10-5-44). 33

 Ibid., atchd Ltr to all offices from Gen Dalton,

21 Dec 44, and their replies.
572 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

commissioned in the Signal Corps under

its quota and not in the WAC, and thereafter be entirely under Signal Corps control. She actually would not be a Wac, but

a Signal Corps officer, and could not be

arbitrarily removed by the WAC, or returned to the WAC if she failed in Signal

Corps work. WAC staff officers believed

that women could successfully attend the

officer candidate school of any noncombat

arm or service, with only minor modifications in physical training and similar

courses, just as enlisted women were

already successfully graduating from the

corresponding Army enlisted specialist

courses on a coed basis.

The general outlines of such a plan

were arrived at simultaneously by so many

agencies that it appeared an inevitable

development. The Army Air Forces had

repeatedly objected to the discrimination

against its enlisted women. AAF enlisted

men could be sent to the Air Forces administrative officer candidate school, while

equally qualified women could not be

commissioned except by attendance at the

WAC school, for which the AAF got a

quota of only 12 a month for 40,000

women. The Air Forces first attempted to

raise this quota; it pointed out that it had

700 accepted WAC officer candidates,

and an urgent need for 300 of them to fill

officer vacancies, and asked for special

large Air WAC classes to be scheduled at

WAC officer candidate school.34 This was

refused by the War Department, with

what the AAF believed to be consequent

detriment to the leadership of its WAC

squadrons. The Air WAC Officer later expressed a belief that the refusal resulted in

a waste of training and loss of woman specialists, "who should have been used in

their specialties rather than as company

officers," and was not in accordance with

"everything that had been done in the

WAC program during the previous three

years [which] pointed to greater integration of WAC personnel into all commands

and organizations of the Army. . . ."

 35

ASF training center authorities also

independently arrived at this view:

Many officers have proven totally unsuited

by reason of ability, personality, or past

training and experience to serve as company

officers. This has proved true to a point that

it would seem desirable to commission as

WAC officers only those individuals regarded

as qualified to serve as company officers with

WAC units. If it is necessary to commission

female individuals for specialized assignments not connected with WAC administration, it would be best to ... commission

them in the branch in which they would be

classified in such a manner as to avoid their subsequent assignment to WAC administration.36

This principle was never to be accepted

during World War II, chiefly because

arms and services such as the Signal Corps

refused to share their officer candidate

school quota with women, and, while still

requisitioning qualified women officers,

continued to insist that these come from

the small WAC quota.

By the end of the war, with the continued refusal either to expand the WAC

officer candidate school or to admit

women to other schools, the WAC ratio of

officers to enlisted had shrunk to approximately the intended 1 to 20, as against

about 1 to 10 for the Army. Reports from

various commands indicated that as high

as 85 percent of these in some areas had

been removed from WAC administration.

34

 Quota given as 7,710 for 1943, 2,640 for 1944.

Fig. 1, of ASF Hist of Mil Tng: OCS Tng, by MTD

ASF.

35

 AAF WAC Hist, pp. 85, 86, and 94. 36

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 112.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OFFICERS 573

The precarious state to which the leadership of WAC companies had thus been reduced indicated that, had the war

continued, some War Department decision would have been required, either to

restore the WAC to the Army ratio of officers, or to give the Office of the Director

power to withdraw women specialists from

the arms and services over their nonconcurrence, to staff WAC companies.

Just before the end of the war, the General Staff authorized an emergency WAC

officer candidate class of 200 for the

month of May 1945, with increased classes

intended thereafter. None of these officers

reached the field in time to benefit the

Corps before demobilization began, nor

would these small numbers have offered

any final solution to the basic dilemma

had the war continued.37

Integration of Specialist Officers

Although other officer candidate schools

were not yet open to them, the process of

integrating women officer specialists into

the arms and services had begun in a

small way before the end of the war.

When the Sanitary Corps requested that

certain enlisted women with the necessary

scientific training be commissioned and

assigned to it, Director Hobby concurred,

provided that the women did not count

against the WAC officer candidate quota

and would, if later found unsatisfactory as

laboratory officers, be reclassified by the

Sanitary Corps and not returned to the

WAC for troop duty. When the Bureau of

Public Relations requested that twenty

enlisted women with civilian public relations experience be commissioned as public relations officers to fill existing shortages, a special WAC officer candidate

class was set up which did not reduce the

regular quota for troop officers. The Medical Department already had authority to

commission women directly under its own

quotas, and qualified enlisted women were

commissioned as hospital dietitians, physiotherapists, or nurses without counting

against WAC officer candidate quotas or

even, in this case, against the WAC's 1-to20 ratio.38

In time, Director Hobby departed from

her rule against direct commissions insofar

as to ask that enlisted women be given

equal rights under any Army procurement objectives for commissioning of technical specialists. Thus, when direct commissions in The Adjutant General's Office

were offered to enlisted men qualified as

clinical psychologists, she asked and obtained an amendment to include equally

qualified enlisted women. Finally, in 1945,

G-1 Division authorized direct appointment of enlisted women under any suitable authorized procurement objectives

for male officers. These, at this date, were

very few, chiefly Japanese linguists, acoustic technicians, and similar specialties, for

which it was known that only a handful of

women would be eligible. All of these

women, with the exception of some in the

Medical Department, had to be commissioned in the WAC and detailed in The

Adjutant General's Department or other

service, since the WAC was still not designated an arm or service for female admin37

 Except as otherwise cited, above section is based

on D/F cited n. 15(2). 38

 (1) Memo, Dep Dir WAC for Maj McClure,

G-1, 26 Aug 44. WDWAC 210.14. (2) WDWAC 352

OCS and WDWAC 352 Special OCS Class, 1944.

(3) Memo, Dir MPD ASF for TSG, 27 Jan 44.

SPGAM 210 Taylor, Jan F, in WDWAC 210.1. (4)

Bound file, SPWA 231.23 Med Dept Dietitians (8

Jan 44) 1944. (5) Memo, Dep Dir WAC for Col

Coursey, G-1, 22 Sep 44. WDWAC 220.33. (6) Draft

of Memo, SGO for CofS, 8 Apr 44. WDWAC 211.
574 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

istrators only, but remained a catch-all

title for anything in skirts.39

The Question of Direct Commissions

In none of the foregoing cases were

direct commissions offered to civilian

women but only to qualified enlisted

women. The decision to hold this line

against direct commissions for civilian

women was not easy, since the Director's

office was still assaulted by undiminished

numbers of would-be leaders. The number of letters on file from members of Congress and from prominent military and

civilian figures, all seeking direct commissions for proteges, indicated that the character of WAC leadership would have been

entirely altered had this bar fallen. Many

wanted not only commissions but promises

of choice assignments. For example, one

senator asked Colonel Hobby's assistance

in getting a direct commission for a young

woman who, although without college

education or responsible experience, was

"much interested in obtaining a commission and especially desirous of being assigned to overseas duty."

 40

 In view of the

fact that thousands of better qualified enlisted women were denied officer candidate training under current quotas, such

applications received scant attention.

Only in four cases—one in Europe and

three in the Southwest Pacific Area—did

Colonel Hobby fail to maintain her policy

on the direct commissioning of civilian

women. Although unable to secure revocation of the four appointments, the Director did succeed in blocking the numerous other requests that immediately

followed. At her request, and after much

bad publicity, the War Department established the policy that women recommended in this way could be commissioned only through the usual channel of

competitive selection by officer candidate

boards and attendance at officer candidate school. No exceptions to this policy

were permitted during the remainder of

Colonel Hobby's tenure.41

Promotion of Officers

Considerable interservice friction was

habitually caused by the differing policies

of the Air and Service Forces in officer

promotion. No Wacs had, by the end of

the Corps' first eighteen months, been

made lieutenant colonels, although most

staff directors had occupied position

vacancies of this grade since their assignment. Recommendations had been received from the Second and Third Service

Commands for promotion of their staff directors to this grade, but these had been

refused by the Army Service Forces.

In November of 1943, a request was received from the Army Air Forces for the

promotion of Major Bandel, with the

notation that she had been in grade eight

months, was responsible for recommendations pertaining to 25,000 Air Wacs, and,

if an Army officer, would have been made

at least a colonel under Air Corps promotion policies. This was refused by the

39

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 10 Jan 45.

WDWAC 210.14. (2) D/F, G-1 for TAG, 6 Mar 45.

WDGAP 210.1. See D/F cited n. 15(2), Tab B. 40

 See all WAC files, especially 1944, under SPWA

and WDWAC 095. 41

 See Chs. XXI and XXII, above. Also: (1)

Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 25 Feb 44. SPWA 320.2,

in SPWA 314.7 (l-7-43)(1) sec 5. (2) D/F, G-1 to Dir

WAC, 21 Mar 44. WDGAP 210.1 WAC. (3) D/F,

G-1 to TAG, 21 Apr 44, WDGAP 210.1 WAC (4-17-

44), with atchd Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 14 Apr 44,

WDWAC 314.7, approved 18 Apr 44. WDWAC

210.1.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OFFICERS 575

GENERAL MARSHALL confers with Capt. Florence T. Newsome in his office at the

Pentagon.

Army Service Forces without being sent

to the Chief of Staff.

In the following week, General Marshall, in a personal conversation with the

Director, informed her that, in his opinion,

it was time to bridge the gap between her

own rank and that of key WAC officers.

Accordingly, the Director recommended

to G-1 Division the promotion of the two

WAC majors in her office who had replaced General Faith and Colonel Catron.

She also informed the commanding generals of the Air, Ground, and Service

Forces of the Chief of Staffs decision in

the event that they wished to submit—or,

in the case of the Air Forces, resubmit—

any promotion recommendations.42

42

 Entire discussion from: (1) Memo, Dir WAC

for G-1, 27 Nov 43. SPWA 210.2, in SPAP 210.2

WAC. (2) Memo, Dir WAC for DCofS ASF for SvCs,

26 Feb 44. SPWA 210.31. (3) Entire file on this controversy is also in CofS 324.5 WAC, and in SPWA

210.2 WAC Promotions (1943). (4) Ltr, TAG to AAF,

18 Nov 43. AG 210.2 WAC (11-16-43) PR-WWDGAP, in SPWA 210.2.
576 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

The Air Forces promptly resubmitted

its recommendation concerning Major

Bandel. With the Director and Major

Bandel both overseas, the Army Service

Forces again recommended rejection and

the War Department Personnel Board

again rejected the AAF request without

reference to the Chief of Staff.

The Air Forces immediately demanded

an explanation of Acting Director Rice,

who informed the Personnel Board that

the action it had refused had been directed by "The Chief of Staff, United

States Army." Further delay resulted

when the Personnel Board refused to

credit the Chief of Staff's approval, and

sought to reach him for confirmation.

Meanwhile, General Somervell sent General Marshall a memo saying, "I do not

concur . . . ," and stating that no exceptions for Wacs should be made to the timein-grade requirements, which were waived

only for men in Air Corps positions or in

"meritorious cases." However, General

Somervell called the Chief of Staffs office

and withdrew his comment before it was

shown to General Marshall. On the next

day the Chief of Staff directed that until

further notice the Personnel Board be

lenient with time-in-grade requirements

on promotions of certain cases submitted

by the commanders concerned and approved by the Director WAC. Accordingly, Major Bandel was promoted at

once, becoming the first WAC lieutenant

colonel. On the following day General

Marshall promoted to the same rank a

Wac in his own office, Maj. Florence T

Newsome, who, as Assistant Secretary to

the General Staff, filled a position vacancy

calling for that grade,

On her return in late January, Director

Hobby followed these with the promotions

of Maj. Jessie P. Rice, Deputy Director,

and Maj. Mary-Agnes Brown, Executive.

She also secured the recommendation of

the Commanding General, Fourth Service

Command, to the promotion of Maj.

Elizabeth H. Strayhorn, senior WAC officer at Fort Oglethorpe. A short time

later the Commanding General, Army

Ground Forces, reversed his original decision and promoted the AGF WAC Officer,

Maj. Emily E. Davis. These six promotions were followed shortly by one more,

that of Maj. Westray B. Boyce of the

North African theater, at which time the

exceptions to time-in-grade were ended.

Future WAC promotions to the grade of

lieutenant colonel were, with two exceptions, to wait for the regular time-in-grade.

These exceptions were for Maj. Katherine

R. Goodwin upon her assignment as ASF

WAC Officer, and Maj. Anna W. Wilson

in the European theater.43

Under the circumstances, although the

grade of lieutenant colonel had been declared appropriate for staff directors since

the establishment of the Corps, very few

staff directors of subordinate field commands had attained it by the end of the

war: two of the Army Service Forces' fourteen, three of the Air Forces' fifteen,

neither of the Ground Forces' two, and

three of the overseas theaters' six.44 As a

result, at the end of three years of existence, and at its peak strength in the spring

of 1945, the WAC was far from approaching the percentages of field grade officers

to which its strength would have entitled

it under a policy of direct commissions or

equal ratios.45

43

 Ibid.

44

 Approximate totals; numbers varied at different times. 45

 From Statistical Sec, OCMH.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OFFICERS 577

Actual Officer Strength Entitled by

May 1945 Army Ratio

General officers........ . 0 20

Colonels. ............. . 1 129

Lieutenant colonels. ... . 16 336

Majors .............. . 14 6 33 1

Captains ............. . 1,024 2,325

First lieutenants. ...... . 3,646 3,849

Second lieutenants. .... . 975 2,483

5,808 9,973

The absence of top grades was of course

due to legislative restrictions; the deficiencies in company grades, and in the two

lower field grades, had been of more

actual significance in troop administration.

Officer Education

Final tallies on WAC officers showed

"unusually high intellectual caliber."

 46

The educational level of WAC officers

slightly surpassed that of male officers.47

Percent

WAC Male

Educational Level Officers Officers

Grammar school................ . .26 1.5

1, 2, 3 years high school. ......... . 4.01 12.0

High school graduate. ........... . 27.84 22.2

1, 2, 3 years college .............. . 26.98 26.2

College graduate. ............... . 26.23 21.7

Postgraduate .................. . 14.68 16.4

Army observers considered the high educational level of WAC officers to be "even

more remarkable in that they were not

chosen as specialists, [while] the male officers included all the professional workers

who came into the Army as specialists,

such as physicians, engineers, lawyers,

teachers, and chaplains."

 48

Possibly even more surprising was the

fact that, while the Army had a high percentage of success in finding officers who

rose from the ranks to develop into acceptable WAC staff directors, the Navy reported less satisfaction with directly commissioned women serving in the comparable position of Women's Reserve Representative in naval districts. It noted the

"unsatisfactory quality of the officers

placed in these billets in some districts in

the early haste of organization."

 49

Warrant Officers

For some time there existed a question

as to whether or not Wacs might be appointed warrant officers if they held posts

such as band leader, which, for a man,

carried the grade. The WAC legislation

did not mention the matter, but the Judge

Advocate General ruled that appointment

of women was illegal because the law did

not specify that it was legal. Within a few

months the question was brought to the

War Department's attention by the North

African, European and China-BurmaIndia theaters, which wished to appoint to

that grade women who were filling warrant officer jobs. At this time the Judge

Advocate General was overruled. G-1

Division held that such appointment was

legal under the general authority to admit women to full Army status, and the

Chief of Staff upheld this opinion. However, by the end of the war only 42 women

had been reported in this grade.50

46

 Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World. This

and subsequent quotations used with the permission

of The Macmillan Company, the publisher. 47

 D/F, P&A Contl Gp, WD, for HD WDSS, 14

Mar 46, WDGAP 314.7 WAC, in Folder, Statistics,

WAC files, OCMH. Only available comparisons are

of summer, 1944. 48

 Ibid.

49

 WAVES Hist, p. 132ff. 50

 Memo, G-1 for CofS, 26 Jan 44. OCS 324.5

WAC. Approved by DCofS, 29 Jan 44. Also ETO

Bd Rpt, pp. 25, 46. See Table 2, Appendix A.
CHAPTER XXIX

The Employment of Personnel:

Overseas Shipment

For both officers and enlisted women,

a special group of personnel regulations

centered around selection and assignment

to overseas duty. The Auxiliary system of

overseas assignment had not in many ways

borne any resemblance to the Army's

wartime system for men. Fearing that

women overseas would be in an extremely

conspicuous and demanding position, the

Director's Office had issued orders:

. . . that WAAC officers selected for all over- seas units be especially chosen for experience,

strength of character, firmness of discipline;

that auxiliaries be of a mature age and emo- tional stability and well-suited to perform the

duties assigned.1

Candidates for shipment were habitually

rejected for such causes as "fully qualified

but emotionally unstable and too immature for overseas service"; "fully qualified

but evinces very poor attitude."

 2

Since WAAC units for overseas shipment were made up at training centers

from new recruits, and were completely

trained and processed on the spot, it was

easy to achieve a thorough screening, with

physical and mental examinations as well

as job classification tests. Final movement

orders were arranged by WAAC Headquarters only after personal examination

of the records of each officer and auxiliary

chosen.3

This system proved deficient in only one

respect: while the women thus selected

were on the whole highly qualified, they

were only a few weeks removed from civilian life and had only a theoretical knowledge of Army terminology and procedures.

Valuable time had to be spent in active

theaters in giving this experience. Also,

field experience often revealed unsuspected physical or emotional difficulties.

Company officers just out of officer candidate school were under an especial handicap in taking a company into field

conditions. While WAC personnel possibly did not require the year or eighteen

months ordinarily required for men before

shipment, some on-the-job training was

obviously needed.4

The problem of lack of experience was

intensified when the system of shipping

Waacs in Table of Organization units was

abandoned in favor of shipment as casuals.

Shipment as casuals meant that unit

training was omitted and that women

could be sent overseas after only four

weeks of basic training, or even less if a

shipment was waiting.

1

 Ltr, Exec WAAC to Comdt 5th WAAC Tng Cen,

2 Apr 43. SPWA 320.2 sec 4a. 2

 Ltr, WAAC Hq to Comdt, 1st WAAC Tng Cen,

7 Jun 43, and 1st Ind, 14 Jun 43. SPWA 320.2 sec 4a. 3

 Office Memo, Opn Div WAAC for Exec WAC,

14 Apr 43. SPWAO, in SPWA 320.2 sec 4a. 4

 AAF WAC Hist.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OVERSEAS SHIPMENT 579

To solve this problem, WAAC Headquarters adopted a system by which all

new recruits, after training, were assigned

to Army stations in the United States to

gain experience, and were sent overseas

only after proven successful on Army jobs

in the field. A requisition from an overseas theater was filled by calling upon

each unit in the field to give up one or

more of its most successful women; these

women were assembled at a central point,

processed, and shipped.

A further refinement to the system was

soon added by drawing women from the

appropriate major command. Women

destined to serve with the Air Forces overseas were taken only from air stations in

the United States; hence they were familiar with the necessary terminology, regulations, and clerical forms. Similarly,

women for overseas service with Ground

Forces, Service Forces, Transportation

Corps, and other such organizations were,

insofar as possible, drawn from those

organizations in the United States. This

system pleased the theaters; it was also

enthusiastically received by Wacs in the

United States. The hope of selection for

overseas service was always to remain one

of the greatest morale factors in sedentary

WAC units.5

Before this system was well begun, the

conversion to Army status abruptly ended

all special rules of selection for women.

The necessary operating procedures to

select and ship women were transferred

from WAAC Headquarters to the Army

Service Forces, which now called upon

Army commands and stations, not upon

WAC company commanders, to select the

women. The central assembly point at a

WAC training center was retained for

convenience in processing, but the training center itself was also now under ASF

direction.6

Informal reports from many commands

indicated that quite often the difference

in systems was not very great, since most

station commanders, while now allowing

station personnel officers to choose women

as they did men, also continued to allow

WAC company commanders and staff directors to comment. Formal reports from

overseas, on the other hand, soon indicated that not all stations did so, and that

the previous problem was in many cases

being reversed: instead of receiving personnel of excellent qualifications and no

field experience, theaters were receiving

women with plenty of experience and no

qualifications.

Protests from overseas theaters soon

testified to the receipt of women with records of previous court-martial offenses,

those who were habitual troublemakers,

sexual offenders, and neurotics, as well as

some who were merely ill, unskilled, or

morons. Such theaters claimed to be at a

disadvantage in that they had no time,

especially during rapid forward movement, to collect evidence for board action

to discharge an individual. Only one theater, the India-Burma, solved this problem

to its satisfaction by merely authorizing

the staff director to ship improperly

selected women home with the Army

board recommendation "that they be returned to the continental limits of the U.S.

for reassignment to duty without stigma

and that they not be reassigned to the

India-Burma theater."

 7

5

 (1) AG Memo W635-11-43, 8 Jul 43. (2) Memo,

Dir WAC for Gen White, G-1, 3 Jun 44. WDWAC

320.2. 6

 D/F, MPD ASF for TAG, 18 Feb 44. SPAP 320.2

WAC (2-10-44). Rescinds AG Memo 210.31 (12-14-

43) 23 Dec 43. See M/R. 7

 (1) Ltr, Asst AG USFOR CT, to CG AAF CT,

12 Aug 45, 322 WAC. (2) Ltr, WAC Stf Dir AAF

CT to Air WAC Off, Hq AAF, 22 Feb 45. CBI WAC

files.
580 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

In recommending corrective action, Director Hobby pointed out that in her

opinion conditions of overseas service were

not identical for men and women. For an

able-bodied man, overseas duty was an

almost inevitable requirement, whereas

less than one out of five Wacs could expect

to go overseas, and the assignment tended

to become a prize. For a man, overseas

shipment meant probable combat service,

but for a woman, merely the excitement of

proximity to action. Misbehavior in a

male soldier overseas was not as conspicuous as in a female one, since a female

could not be sent to the front lines. Male

soldiers looked upon shipment as a duty

which a man should not be allowed to

escape through malingering or misconduct, whereas Wacs considered the assignment a reward of merit.

A few months after the transfer of her

office to G-1 Division, the Director secured publication of the requirement that

WAC company commanders must certify

the character of any enlisted woman

shipped overseas, and that staff directors

must certify WAC officers. The circular

was approved by the War Department

only after being carefully worded to indicate that the choice of Wacs for overseas

service would still be made by male commanders in accordance with their command prerogative; the station commander's choice was merely limited to those

women whose conduct was good according to WAC standards. This certification

was generally effective, and overseas theaters shortly reported a noticeable improvement in the qualifications of new arrivals.8

Medical Screening

The character-screening powers of

WAC officers could not be stretched to

veto the shipment of any woman whose

behavior record was good, even if her

physical stamina or stability appeared

dubious. Army doctors and psychiatrists

believed that there were many women

physically and emotionally capable of

service in the United States who would

crack up overseas, and recommended

careful physical examinations before shipment. In Auxiliary days, the European

theater also requested that women get a

complete physical examination before

shipment, as the arrival of large numbers

who had to be immediately returned for

any cause, but especially for pregnancy

which had existed before shipment,

"would present an embarrassing situation."

 9 The War Department accordingly

directed that Waacs going overseas be

given a complete physical examination

that would detect pregnancy and any disease or defect.10

 This thorough WAAC examination was a departure from the Army

system, since men going overseas merely

got a superficial inspection.

Incorporation of the WAAC in the

Army ended the authority for a physical

examination for women, but, by some

oversight, WAC training centers, in assembling shipments, continued to give

complete overseas physical examinations

under the old WAAC system for seven

months after the ASF assumed control. In

March of 1944, The Surgeon General's

Office discovered that women were being

given such an examination and ordered it

8

 (1) D/F cited n. 6. (2) WD Cir 291, 11 Jul 44. (3)

See ASF WAC Officer's file of acceptances and rejections in SPAP 210.3 WAC; also WD Cir 362, 6

Dec 44. 9

 Rad 982, USFOR London to WAR, 17 May 43.

SPWA 320.2 sec 4b. 10

 D/F, G-1 for CG ASF, 3 Jul 43. WDGAP 201.5

WAC, in SPWA 320.2 sec 4b.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OVERSEAS SHIPMENT 581

stopped, saying that men received no such

examination and that

. . . it is the opinion of this office that routine mental and physical examination of

every individual prior to departure for overseas duty is not essential or practicable and

that the amount of work involved would not

be justified, particularly in view of the shortage of medical officers.11

Director Hobby had also requested, for

WAC shipments already at a port, that

The Surgeon General's Office authorize a

pelvic examination immediately before

departure, followed, if there was any indication of pregnancy or venereal disease, by

the proper specialized tests. However, it

was the opinion of representatives of The

Surgeon General's Office that such a system would not detect early pregnancies

and that

. . . even with any means we would adopt

we would be bound to have some cases of

pregnancy after they get overseas. Wouldn't

it be better to accept that as one of the costs

of war?

 12

Thereafter, the physical check given

women before overseas shipment was the

same in all respects as that given men,

although most overseas theaters were

under the later impression that it had not

been equally satisfactory. Some women arrived with obvious disqualifications that

necessitated immediate return, including

advanced pregnancies, which resulted in

headlines such as one from the Associated

Press: WAC GIVES BIRTH TO BOY IN DUTCH

NEW GUINEA. 1 3 Major Craighill, The Surgeon General's consultant on women's

health, stated, "Medical Officers in all

overseas theaters commented on the inadequacy of screening of women for overseas duty."

 14

 Major Craighill noted that

she considered the overseas screening system unsatisfactory but that "repeated

efforts to change the policy were unsuccessful." The Director's Office therefore

replied to all complaints that The Surgeon General believed the cost of returning the women to be less than the cost of

physical examinations for all women sent

overseas, especially since men in the Army

did not receive overseas examinations.

Psychiatric Screening

Major Craighill likewise never succeeded in getting a psychiatric examination for women going overseas, although

Army psychiatrists reported that female

mental and moral crack-ups overseas could

have been almost eliminated by such an

examination.15 No such examination was

given for men, where the problem of

screening would have been extremely

complicated because of the combat factor.

Although Wacs did not face the mental

strain of entry into combat with the

enemy, Major Craighill believed that they

faced a type of combat which men did not,

the defense of their character structure

and their double standard of morality.

She stated:

Women overseas were subjected to more

tension than men by reason of their scarcity,

which resulted in more emotional pressure,

and because there was a more radical change

in the pattern of their lives.16

11

 1st Ind, SGO to Dir MPD, ASF, 30 Mar 44,

SPMGB 322.5-1. Folder, Capt Berlien notes, SGO

Hist Div. 12

 Tp Conv, Capt Strayhorn and Col Freer, 9 Jul

43. G-1 WAC 312-312.9, Drawer 6, DRB AGO. 13

 Denver Post, July 4, 1945. 14

 History of Women's Medical Unit (rough draft,

only one ever filed) by Lt Col Margaret D. Craighill,

MG, 23 Jul 46. SGO Hist Div 314.72. 15

 All references to opinions of psychiatrists, unless

otherwise stated, are from History of Psychiatry in

the Women's Army Corps, 1946, by Maj. Albert

Preston, Jr., MG. SGO and Hobby files. 16

 Hist cited n. 14.
582 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Women who showed marked emotional

disorders on the eve of shipment were

sometimes referred to the training center

psychiatrist, and some were eliminated on

his recommendation, but regulations did

not permit him to interview every woman.

Maj. Albert Preston, Jr., the Army psychiatrist at Fort Des Moines, felt that a

reasonably accurate screening process

would have been possible, but in the absence of a similar requirement for men, no

such system was authorized.

For psychiatric screening, as for medical, the dilemma was identical. The WAC,

because of its small size, could probably

with existing facilities have achieved better screening than was possible for the

Army as a whole. On the one hand, the

efficiency of overseas theaters would have

been improved and female crack-ups prevented, but on the other, the principle of

"identical" treatment would have been

jeopardized by giving women more complete examinations. It was the decision of

The Surgeon General's Office in both

cases that improvements in screening

would not be made for women until they

could be made for men.

Shipment of Nonvolunteers

One point on which psychiatrists disagreed with Director Hobby was as to

whether women who did not volunteer to

go overseas should be forced to go if

needed. It was soon proven that such

women were more apt to develop psychiatric disorders which eventually forced

their return to the United States. Thus, a

rough psychiatric screening would have

been accomplished merely by elimination

of all nonvolunteers.

During the first months of the Corps'

existence, there were so many volunteers

that the problem never arose. As overseas

shipments increased, and as overseas theaters persisted in requesting women in

scarce skills, a choice was more and more

often necessary between sending nonvolunteers in the desired skill or not filling

the shipment. In a typical case, one company commander protested to Colonel

Hobby that the station had only four

WAC stenographers, none of whom

wanted to go overseas because of objections from their families, yet the unit had

been directed to ship two. The commander

added:

The fact that we are soldiers cannot be offset in their minds by the fact that they were not drafted but came in voluntarily and on

the basis that they would not be sent overseas against their wishes. Many families

would never have consented had overseas

duty been anything but optional.17

Congressional protests in this vein were

also received, although as a matter of fact

no authorized publicity and no regulation

had ever promised WAC recruits that they

would not go overseas if needed. Even the

station-job recruiting campaign was careful to state that only initial assignment to

a given station was promised, with transfer

not precluded.

It was the belief of Army Service Forces'

Military Personnel Division that women

should not be required to follow the men's

rules in this case:

This distinction between male and female

personnel of the Army can have no detrimental effect upon the efficiency of the WAC nor

the morale of the male personnel.

However, Director Hobby recommended

against any such differentiation and G-1

17

 Ltr, CO WAC Det 1, Camp Butner, N. C.,

through Camp Comdr to Dir WAC, 11 Aug 44, with

Inds. WDWAC 220.3.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OVERSEAS SHIPMENT 583

Division upheld her, pointing out that

volunteers in scarce skills would become

fewer as the war continued.18 In writing

and conferences, Colonel Hobby several

times stated emphatically her position:

They're soldiers now, and we have never,

as you know, given out any promises of any

kind. . . . They're in the Army and they're

soldiers and if they are needed they are

going.19

However, the Director authorized a circular which stated that volunteers would

be chosen "to the maximum extent possible." Her office also suggested that stations

not having volunteers should so inform

their command headquarters, so that attempts might be made to get volunteers

from other stations. The Army Air Forces

devised and published an authorization

for a process of quick reference to other

stations in order that no nonvolunteer

might be sent if there were any volunteer

Wacs in the Air Forces in the same skill. In

June of 1945, The Adjutant General directed all commands to survey and report

the number of eligible volunteers in various skills, but V-J Day intervened to nullify

the usefulness of the results.20

Objections to Filling Requisitions

The system of selecting experienced

personnel from field companies, while

highly popular with the enlisted women

themselves and with overseas theaters, met

with increasing objections from commands

in the United States as the war continued.

A typical objection was that offered by

General Gross of the Transportation

Corps, in a telephone conversation with

Colonel Hobby:

General Gross: I just want to tell you of my

difficulties with women. . . . We have of

course great enthusiasm for their use and we

replaced enlisted men with them and released

the enlisted men because we thought we had

something stable. Now, we are forced to fill

allotments for overseas. ... I think your

organization should have its own replacement

center.

Colonel Hobby: . . . You think we should

take them directly from the training center

and send them overseas without proving

them in any way at all?

General Gross: Well, at least not prove them

in the Transportation Corps.

Colonel Hobby: Maybe everybody feels that

way. The War Department—and I want you

to get that clear when you say my office—the

War Department has approved the requisitions for the personnel where they are fighting the battles. . . . We try to cause as little

dislocation as possible but we can't pull them

out of thin air.21

There seemed to be no very ready solution to the problem. It appeared to be as

unwise to ship Wacs without field experience as it would have been to ship men

after four weeks, yet to maintain a replacement training center for the sole purpose

of giving Wacs six months or more of field

experience also appeared prohibitively expensive. The Adjutant General's assignment authorities attempted insofar as

possible to co-ordinate assignment of new

recruits to the field with simultaneous 18

 Memo, MPD ASF for G-1, 24 Nov 43. SPGAP

322.5 WAC (11-24-43). Incl is WAC objection. Disapproved by G-1 on 13 Dec 43, appealed by MPD

on 17 Dec, and refused again by G-1 on 1 Jan 44.

All in SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43). 19

 (1) Tp Conv, Col Hobby and Maj Galloway, 22

Mar 44. Tp Transcripts, G-1 WAC 312-312.9,

Drawer 6, DRB AGO. (2) Min of all WAC Stf Dir

Confs. SPWA 337. 20

 Memo cited n. 18. In same file: (1) Ltr, Dir WAC

to Rep. Edith Nourse Rogers, 25 Aug 44. (2) Ltr, Stf

Dir WFTC AAF to Dep Dir Rice, 11 Aug 43; reply

26 Aug 43. (3) WD Cir 61, 10 Feb 44; Cir 462, 1944,

Sec II, par 14d. (4) See also AAF Ltr 35-175a, 6 May

45; and Hist of O Dir Pers ASF. OCMH. 21

 Tp Conv, Gen Gross and Col Hobby, 24 Mar 44.

Tp Transcripts, cited n. 19.
584 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

withdrawal of experienced personnel for

shipment, but such action was seldom possible when overseas shipments were made

in large increments while replacements

arrived in an uncertain trickle, and often

in skills less essential than those withdrawn for overseas theaters.

Furthermore, The Adjutant General's

allotments of new recruits were made to

the major command concerned and not to

the station level, so that it had no means

of forcing a command headquarters to

send replacements to any given station,

regardless of the indignation of the station

commander, if some other station had a

higher priority on personnel. In any case,

since only some 15 percent of the total

WAC personnel ever served overseas, it

did not appear that the problem of their

loss had been a major one. The War Department therefore made no change in the

system of shipment.

Processing for Shipment

To process overseas shipments, the Army

Service Forces set up a unit called the Extended Field Service (EFS) Training Battalion. This unit, commanded by Maj.

Frances M. Lathrope, operated at Fort

Oglethorpe until just before that training

center closed, when the unit moved to Fort

Des Moines. The battalion fulfilled the

functions of an overseas replacement depot for women, and in addition furnished

the women's clothing and supplies that

local stations and ports did not stock. No

exactly comparable organization existed

for men, who could ordinarily be processed locally. The unit was responsible for

receiving the women, checking on their

classification, forming them into casual

detachments, providing clothing and

equipment as specified in overseas orders,

completing immunization, and administering necessary training. Women found

unqualified during this time were removed

and replaced from training center overhead or from a special overstrength

allotted for this purpose.22

Whatever the merits of the idea, the

battalion operated under such considerable handicaps as not to come into most

efficient performance during the period of

heaviest shipment. Enlisted women staged

here wrote, "We have never, from Sidney

to Port Moresby to the Philippines, found

any quarters that remotely resembled

them in discomfort."

 23

For most of its existence the area was

classified as "temporary," which by Army

Regulations meant that very little construction or repair work was permitted.

Buildings had been unoccupied for some

time and previously had been used by a

men's reception center. They were not in

the best of repair, one section being known

as "Bedbug Row." In trying to eliminate

this appellation, it was found that the post

engineer acted upon the corpus delicti

principle; even when the necessary evidence was finally caught it was discovered

that fumigating materials were on the

critical list and took some weeks to secure.

Before improvements could be effected,

the battalion had been the subject of derogatory reports from escort officers of all

of the first shipments to be processed.

Transportation difficulties caused women

to be retained until 2,500 were housed in

space for 1,000. Through some failure of

co-ordination in the first months, clothing

supplies were inadequate; the Atlanta

Depot refused requisitions on grounds that

22

 (1) ASF Hist of WAC Tng. (2) ASF Cir 35, sec

VI, WAC Pers, 31 Jan 44. (3) Memo, MPD ASF

for CofS ASF, 10 Feb 44, SPGAA 320.2 WAC, in

SPAP. 23

 Extract, Mil Censorship WAC Det Bull, 4 Star

Final, p. 19, Tab 1 to AFPAC Reply. See also Unit

Hist Camp Huckstep.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OVERSEAS SHIPMENT 585

it had never heard of the organization,

and several shipments went to port before

the situation was remedied. As a result,

ports of embarkation rendered unsatisfactory reports on the first women who

reached them, who were said to be poorly

trained, untidy, furnished with improper

equipment and ill-fitting clothing.24

Within several months, the situation

was greatly improved by the efforts of

inspectors from Washington, who put considerable pressure on Fourth Service Command agencies, as well as by those of the

cadre, who at times worked as long as

eight weeks without a day off. Removal to

Fort Des Moines also made available better facilities for such small groups as remained to be processed in the final days

of the war.25

Since the training center was not officially informed as to unit destination, except as the designated port gave some

clue, it was not always able to prepare

individuals specifically for the proper

overseas area. Also, none of the cadre or

instructors had ever been overseas, and

attempts to get Wacs returned from overseas met with the reply that there were, at

this date, none who had completed the

prescribed tour.

The ASF training course, which the

EFS Battalion had no power to alter, was

patterned on men's combat courses, without much consideration of the ways in

which women's overseas service differed

from men's. Wacs were toughened, and

incidentally given head colds, by long

hikes in the rain in unsuitable clothing;

they swarmed up and down cargo nets;

they crept up on the enemy in the field,

adjusting their gas masks as gas bombs

exploded around them; and practiced dispersion and seeking cover. They studied

first aid, map reading, defense against

chemical attack and air attack, malaria

control; they got practical experience in

using a compass, messing in the field, and

extended kitchen police duty; they were,

as one shipment said, "given endless lectures designed to confuse us about our destination."

 26

 Their training films included

such unlikely items as First Aid for Chemical

Casualties, Rations in the Combat Zone, Combat Counterintelligence, and First Aid for Battle

Injuries—probably as good a selection as

was possible in view of the fact that there

were no films to prepare women for their

specific overseas problems.27

In the opinion of the Army psychiatrist

at Fort Des Moines, Major Preston,

women should have been prepared, not

for combat first aid or map reading, but

for the peculiar social environment of a

woman overseas; the certainty of an exaggerated popularity and the danger of an

overemphasis on social life; the tendency

of unfamiliar surroundings or homesickness to cause quick friendships, overdependency on other women, or liaisons

with married men; the probable effect of

lack of privacy, lack of customary conventions, and the opportunity for excessive

drinking; and especially the psychological

effect of danger and restrictions.

In the last year of the war, there arose

some question of the economy of the system: women already stationed on the west

coast and destined for the Pacific had to

be shipped to Georgia or Iowa and back

for two weeks' processing, and the same

was true of women in the New York area

24

 (1) 1st Ind, WAC Stf Dir, TC. to Dir WAC, 4 Jul

44, with incls. SPTPM 220.3 WAC, in WDWAC

320.2. (2) ASF WAC Off to Dir Mil Tng ASF, 22 Jul

44, with 1st Ind. SPAP 210.3 WAC. (3) Buck slip,

WAC Br G-1 to Dir WAC, atchd to rpt 25 Mar 44.

WDWAC 330.14. 25

 EFS passage, except as otherwise stated, from

written statement by Maj Lathrope, and interv with

Maj Lathrope, 6 Apr 48. 26

 Sources cited n. 23. 27

 For subjects taught, see ASF Hist of WAC Tng.
OVERSEAS TRAINING. Women practice going down a cargo net at Fort Des Moines.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: OVERSEAS SHIPMENT 587

destined for Europe. After a training inspection, G-3 Division of the General Staff

recommended that EFS be abolished and

that two processing centers, under the control of the Chief of Transportation, be set

up at ports on the east and west coasts.

This recommendation was concurred in

by the Air Forces and by Director Hobby.

However, Military Training Division,

ASF, objected to removal of the unit from

its authority, saying that it would be costly

to maintain stocks of WAC clothing and

equipment at two places instead of one. As

a result, and because of the imminent cessation of overseas shipment, no action was

taken, although the subject remained open

for consideration in the event of future

resumption of heavier shipments from one

or both coasts.28

Rotation

By the end of the war there had begun

to be considerable evidence that female

personnel could not sustain as long a

period of overseas assignment as could

noncombat men. As early as the summer

of 1944 Director Hobby had given some

consideration to formulation of a rotation

policy, and informed Maj. Gen. Stephen

G. Henry, the new G-1 of the War Department, that in her opinion it might be

necessary to have a policy for Army

women as a separate group, "provided it

can be done without detriment to the

morale of enlisted men."

She recommended that a small quota of

one half of one percent a month be set for

those with 18 months' service. This would

affect very few individuals, yet might improve the morale both of those in need of

return and of those still eager to go overseas. The Director added, "I do not want

to make overseas service for women so long

that they will crack under it or come back

abnormal in any way."

 29

Meanwhile, Major Craighill, after a

tour of all theaters, informed The Surgeon

General that in her opinion a 2-year tour

should be the maximum for women. Major

Craighill diagnosed the lesser endurance

of women overseas as partly emotional:

Women overseas, because of their scarcity, are subject to great emotional strain. . . .

There tends to be a change in standards and

sense of values in both sexes. Their previous

and future lives become vague and unreal so

that only the present is of importance. . . . Men are apparently better able to partition

off their lives adequately so that they do not

as readily become deeply or permanently involved emotionally. They are, therefore, less

liable to lasting psychic trauma from transient

attachments.30

The recommendation of the second WAC

Director, Col. Westray Battle Boyce, upon

return from a postwar overseas tour, was

that the maximum tour of duty for female

personnel should be not more than 18

months, since "Statistics indicate that

medical evacuations increase sharply for

female personnel with longer service."

 31

While no such wartime policy was ever

adopted, these opinions were reflected in

the first postwar directives, which set a

maximum tour for men of 30 months with

a possible 6-month extension, and for

Wacs, nurses, physiotherapists, and dietitians of 24 months with a possible 3-month

extension. Colonel Boyce noted that this

shorter tour for women was made possible

28

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 4 Jul 44; (2)

Memo, MTD ASF for G-1, 1 Aug 44, SPTRP 353

WAC; (3) Memo, MTD ASF for G-3, 9 Sep 44,

SPTRP 353 WAC (8-24-44). WDWAC 353. 29

 Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Henry, 21 Aug 44.

WDWAC 320.2.(C). 30

 Craighill IBT Rpt. 31

 Rpt, undated, sub: Final Rpt of Dir WAC on

Return from World Tour, Tab B: General Observations in All Theaters. WDWAC 333.1 (1945-46).
588 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

only by the high percentage of Wacs who

had never been overseas and were eager to

go, as against lesser percentages of men,

and that "it was agreed that a two-year

tour of duty for all was advisable, but

present conditions would not permit it for

men."

 32

Shipment in T/O Units

It was Colonel Boyce's opinion that the

system of shipment of Wacs as casuals had

been hard on morale and should be abandoned in favor of shipment as Table of

Organization units. When shipped as

casuals for assignment to vacancies in

men's groups, Wacs found others already

promoted to the grades to which their

skills would have entitled them, and were

often given the least desirable or responsible duties, or malassigned to work that did

not use their highest skills. In a T/O unit

organized in the United States, women

would be assigned in accordance with real

skills and would receive the grade their

position was allotted. Also, in such units

the WAC company commander was recognized as being in command, and thus

avoided possible disciplinary complications.

Unfortunately, as its sponsors recognized, the T/O proposal had serious limitations. It would be effective only if a

women's force existed in the earliest days

of a mobilization period, before most of

the T/O units had been organized and

shipped and the need became merely that

for casuals as replacements. Even if employed so early, the plan would limit

women to units in which they could perform all duties, such as signal or postal. In

view of the near-disastrous experience

with T/O units in the United States, it

would be inapplicable to large-scale use of

Wacs in theater headquarters and overhead, and would prevent the overseas employment of women with unusual skills not

included in a standard T/O. On the other

hand, if the overseas program of the WAC

remained, as in World War II, a minor

part of its whole program, it appeared that

serious problems of assignment would not

be caused by use of the T/O system for all

WAC overseas units wherever practicable.33

Effectiveness of Shipment Program

While all evidence indicated that the

program of overseas shipment of Wacs

could have been more effective than it

was, and while deficiencies were habitually

distressing to WAC personnel, there was

no indication that difficulties had been as

serious as those encountered by the Army

in selecting, training, and shipping male

personnel, especially combat troops, whose

problems were considerably multiplied.

The chief peculiar difficulty remained that

of sending overseas only women of highly

selected moral character and stability, in

which respect lapses were criticized by

overseas theaters considerably more than

similar lapses in shipment of men. In spite

of occasional perfectionist complaints from

overseas theaters, the final outcome of the

WAC effort to put its best personnel overseas could only be evaluated as highly successful. On a statistical average, Wacs in

all overseas theaters had been the best

educated, the most intelligent, and the

most highly skilled of the Corps.34

32

 Remarks of Dir WAC, Conf of Overseas Theater

G-1's, 15 Oct 46. WDWAC 337 A-S. 33

 Rpt cited n. 31. 34

 All available reports indicate that at least 55

percent of all women shipped overseas were in AGCT

Groups I and II. See Chs. XX-XXIII, above; also

ETO Bd Rpt, p. 129. A list of the Overseas WAC

Units as of June 1945 may be found in Directory of

the AUS Outside Continental United States, AG

461 (6-1-45) OB-I-M pp. 269-270.
CHAPTER XXX

The Employment of Personnel:

Minority Groups

The only sizable racial minority group

in the WAC was that of the Negro, although a few women of Puerto Rican,

Chinese, Japanese, and American Indian

descent were also enlisted. Members of

most of these groups, except the Negro,

were very rarely recruited, and were not

segregated, but scattered through ordinary

WAC units according to skills.

One exception was the group of Puerto

Rican Wacs, who were enlisted, trained,

and assigned as a unit. It had been intended to integrate them into other WAC

units, but language difficulties made this

step impractical. The women presented

no notable problems except that of language, which possibly prevented them

from receiving assignments commensurate

with their intelligence.1

Considerable numbers of nisei recruits

had been expected when, in 1943, the

Army began to admit Americans of Japanese descent. In this hope, the Director's

staff went to some pains to publish the

necessary waivers on height and to request

small-sized uniforms. Some five hundred

nisei recruits were wanted for employment

as translators, but in spite of visits of WAC

recruiters to relocation centers, only thirteen could be obtained in the first six

months of enlistment, and negligible numbers thereafter. Parental opposition to

military service for women was believed to

have been the chief deterrent, as well as

the fact that the women were by this time

permitted to leave the relocation centers

for other employment.2 Somewhat later,

the Military Intelligence Language School

was able to locate and enlist a few more

women who agreed to enter specifically

for service at the school. Four more such

women, especially enlisted in Hawaii for

the language school, were appropriated

by the Office of Strategic Services in

Washington. There was sometimes a tendency to expect that all nisei Wacs could be

assigned as translators, although in actual

fact some of them proved to know no more

of the Japanese language than any other

American.3

Negro Personnel

Even before the passage of the first

WAAC legislation, the War Department

1

 See Chs. XVIII, p. 332, and XXIII, above. 2

 (1) Tp Conv, Mr. John J. McCloy and Col Hobby,

13 Jan 43; (2) D/F, G-1 to Dir WAC, 26 Feb 43, with

atchd, WDGAP 291.2 WAAC; (3) Ltr, TAG to all

SvCs, 20 Jul 43, AG 291.1 (7-23-43) PR-I; (4)

Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 17 Feb 44. All in Enrollment of Japanese-American Women, SPWA 291.2

(1-13-43). 3

 (1) Memo, MIS for TAG, 16 Jul 45; (2) Memo,

Tng Br MIS for Pers Br, 15 May 45, MID 908. G-2

MID 324.5 WAC (3-8-43).
590 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

announced that the new Corps would follow Army policy by admitting Negroes to

basic and officer candidate training, and

that two of the first eight companies sent

to the field would be composed of Negroes.

Forty of the WAAC's first 440 officer candidate vacancies were allotted to Negro

women.4

Equality of treatment was also required

by the confidential official policy which

was formulated and approved shortly

afterward and which stated:

On posts where these companies are stationed it should be fundamental that their

reception and treatment should be an exemplification of the rights and privileges accorded officers and soldiers of the United

States Army. .. . There will be no discrimination in the type of duties to which Negro

women in the WAAC may be assigned. . . .

Every effort will be made through intensive

recruiting to obtain the class of colored

women desired, in order that there may be no lowering of the standard in order to meet

ratio requirements.5

The WAC, like the Army, was directed to

accept 10.6 percent of its strength in

Negro recruits. In accordance with the

policy for men, it was deemed most desirable for adjustment to assign units to posts

where a number of Negro troops were stationed, or where there was a large Negro

population in nearby cities. Assignment

overseas was also approved, contingent

upon the request of the overseas commander.6

Reports from the first Negro trainees

indicated that these prohibitions against

discrimination were being upheld to the

satisfaction of national Negro organizations. At the request of Dr. Mary McLeod

Bethune of the Federal Security Agency, a

Negro lawyer in the city of Des Moines

questioned the Negro officer candidates

closely to see if they could not recall some

evidence of discrimination, and found

none:

Question: Are Negro girls made to feel that

a special concession is being made to them in

permitting them to attend this school?

Answer: Yes. The white girls are made to

feel the same.7

General Marshall himself watched

closely for compliance with these directives, and reported with satisfaction to the

War Council that a reporter from the

Pittsburgh Courier had inspected the Negro

candidates and after urging them to make

complaints could find none. All Negro

Waacs assured the investigators that no

school subjects were denied them, or jokes

or sly remarks made. Some discrimination

was noted in the city of Des Moines, but

none among the other women, particularly those from the South, of whom Secretary Walter White of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored

People (NAACP) asked, "When is Des

Moines in general going to become as

democratic as the white Waacs from the

South?"

 8

4

 (1) Min, Gen Council, 4, 12, and 19 May 42. (2)

Senate Com on Mil Affairs, 77th Cong, 2d sess, Hearings on HR 6293, 1 and 4 May 42, p. 1. (3) Draft of Ltr,

SW for President, U.S., 14 May 42. WDGAP 320

WAAC, in WDGAP 291.2. (4) Intervs with Maj

Ulysses Lee, OCMH, author of The Employment of

Negro Troops, a forthcoming volume in this series. (5)

See Table 11, Appendix A. 5

 (1) Memo, Tasker for Hobby, 14 May 42. G-1

291.21 WAC. (2) D/F, G-1 for MPD SOS, 24 Aug 42.

WDGAP 322.99 WAAC, in CofS 291.9. (3) Memo,

MPD SOS for G-1, 12 Sep 42. SPGAM 322.5

WAAC, in G-1 291.21 WAC. 6

 Ibid. Also Memo, Opns Div SOS for G-1, 4 Sep

42. SPAOO WAAC (9-3-42), in SPWA 291.9. 7

 (1) Ltr, Dr. Mary M. Bethune to Civ Aide to SW,

2 Sep 42. SPWA 291.21. (2) Rpt, Charles Howard to

Dr. Bethune, Aug 42. CofS 291.9 WAAC. 8

 (1) Min of War Council, 16 Sep 42, remarks of

Gen Marshall. (2) PM, Daily Picture Mag, undated

copy in Folder, Negroes — Morale, WDBPR, file,

OCMH.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: MINORITY GROUPS 591

Segregation

While thus approving other provisions,

Negro organizations and investigators

without exception objected to the segregation of Negro personnel, in which the

WAAC had been directed to follow the

Army policy. During the Corps' first

months, numbers of Negro and white investigators arrived at Des Moines to

search for bad results of segregation. The

NAACP, after a visit by its representatives,

wrote both the Secretary of War and the

Director to protest the restriction of Negroes to separate barracks, separate tables

in mess halls, and different swimming pool

hours. Secretary White of the NAACP

also repeatedly called at WAAC Headquarters in person to protest the Corps'

action in following the Army policy on

segregation. The National Board of the

YWCA also investigated and wrote the

Director to protest segregation. The Boston Urban League did the same. The

Julius Rosenwald Fund sent a committee

to Des Moines and concluded that segregation in housing would cause a falling off

in Negro applications for enlistment.9

This concentrated activity within the

space of a few weeks caused considerable

concern to the WAAC staff. However, it

was finally concluded that any new

agency would probably receive similar

visits, and that Negro organizations, like

almost everyone else, did not realize that

the WAAC was not an independent command in policy matters. One adviser reported to the Director:

The War Department, WAAC included, is

gradually being maneuvered into the position of being forced to make decisions relative

to racial matters which the government and/

or the citizens should have made long ago, by

legislation and the establishment of a different policy. . . . The Director is going to be in

a better position if she allows the Army to

care for the things that they normally do.

Housing is one of them and it is the camp

commanders' problem.10

All requests to the WAAC for independent action were necessarily referred to the

War Department for consideration, as part

of the Army policy. In November of 1942,

officers' housing and messing at Fort Des

Moines were merged, and also service

club facilities, and officer candidate companies became nonsegregated, there being

precedent for these steps at some men's

schools. On the average Army station, no

change in the Army policy was deemed

possible, since there was ordinarily only

one WAAC unit on a station and its housing was of course segregated regardless of

the race of its members.11

In attempting even a limited relaxation

of segregation at Des Moines, a women's

corps dependent upon voluntary recruiting proved to be in a less advantageous

position than the rest of the Army. There

was some evidence that WAC recruiting

soon suffered by comparison with that of

the Navy women's services, which did not

at this time accept Negro women. One

congressman objected to the situation at

Des Moines, stating of a constituent, "This

fine girl along with others is now forced to

share the same living quarters, bathroom

facilities, restrooms, and reception rooms

with Negroes."

 12

 Some Louisiana radio

stations refused to aid WAC recruiting be- 9

 (1) Ltrs, Walter White to SW and to Dir WAAC,

28 Oct 42, with M/R atchd; (2) Ltr, Natl Bd YWCA

to Dir WAAC, 14 Oct 42; (3) Ltr, Julius Rosenwald

Fund to Dir WAAC, 23 Sep 42. SPWA 291.2. 10

 Intraoffice Memo. SPWA 291.21 (1942). 11

 M/Rs, 4 and 19 Nov 42, of mtgs with Secy

NAACP; also Rpt of Investigation by Lt West. SPWA

291.2. 12

 Ltr, Rep. George H. Mahon to Dir WAAC, 22

Apr 43. SPWA 291.21.
592 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

cause a local woman, while housed on a

separate floor of the Chamberlain Hotel

in Des Moines, had to eat and do kitchen

police with Negro women on the next

floors.13 An Army officer reported:

I am hearing constant rumors as to a relaxing of segregation of Negroes at Fort Des

Moines. Such rumors are horrifying to people

in this section and I know are interfering

seriously with recruiting.14

In any attempts to change the Army policy, a newly established volunteer corps,

under orders to attempt an expansion program unsupported by selective service, obviously offered the least promising point

for a beginning. Only Director Hobby's

personal convictions prevented the wiping

out of the steps already taken at Fort Des

Moines.

Recruiting

Most Negro organizations alleged that

the policy of segregation would deter the

best-qualified Negro women from enlistment, and this possibility was recognized

and provided for in the original War Department policy concerning Negro Waacs,

which stated:

There is a definite reluctance on the part

of the best qualified colored women to volunteer in the WAAC. This is brought about by

an impression on their part that they will not

be well received or treated on posts where

they may be stationed. This could be overcome by an intensive recruiting campaign

with the idea in view of interesting the desired class of colored women in this project

and arriving at a thorough understanding of

their rights and privileges while in the service. . . . An eminently qualified person,

preferably a Negro recruiter, will be sent out

to colored colleges in order to secure the

proper class of applicants.15

Definite instructions requiring the acceptance of Negro applicants were sent

out to recruiting stations. Noncompliance

was discovered in only five cities and was

corrected by telegraph in the WAAC's first

week of recruiting.16 One of these cases, in

Pittsburgh, caused the editor of the Pittsburgh Courier to demand that a woman

from his staff be assigned to the Director's

Office, since "We wouldn't want the public to deceive itself with the notion that

what happened in Pittsburgh was due to

the fact that the Director of the WAAC is

a white woman from Texas."

 17

 The demand for such an adviser became a

nationwide campaign with as many as

thirty-five mimeographed letters being received from one small Virginia city.18

However, the work of checking on such

complaints was instead given to one of the

first Negro officer candidates, Lt. Harriet

West of the Director's staff, a former assistant to Dr. Bethune. Later charges of

recruiting discrimination were investigated by Lieutenant West. In most cases

records revealed that identical recruiting

standards had been used, although rejected Negro applicants sometimes tended

to blame discrimination rather than their

own failure to pass aptitude or physical

tests.19

13

 Ltr, Manager KWKH and KTBS, Shreveport,

La., 17 Apr 43. SPWA 291.21. 14

 Ltr, Comdt 5th Tng Cen to Exec WAAC, 3 May

43. SPWA 319.1. 15

 Memos and D/F cited n. 5. 16

 Cities were Pittsburgh, Winston-Salem, Columbia, S. C., Dallas, and St. Paul. File of action is WA

291.21 (5-27-42), 1942. See large file in SPWA 201.2

(1942). 17

 Ltr, Percival L. Prattis, Exec Bd, The Pittsburgh

Courier, to Dir WAAC, 28 May 42. WA 291.9. 18

 (1) Mimeo Ltrs, from Lynchburg, Va., 21 May

42. WA 291.21. (2) Memo, G-1 for Exec WAC, 7 Aug

43. WD WAC 291.2. 19

 (1) Ltr, Walter White, Secy NAACP, to Dir

WAAC, 8 Jun 42, and reply. SPWA 291.2. (2) Ltr,

Maj Harriet West to Frances L. Munson, 1 Sep 43.

SPWA 29 1.2.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: MINORITY GROUPS 593

Although Negro WAAC recruiting officers were sent to the field as soon as the

first class graduated, Negro recruits from

the first months failed to come up to expectations in either quantity or quality.

An early check made by the Recruiting

Service indicated that there were plenty of

Negro applicants but that in some localities as many as 85 percent failed the various tests. Also, skills were scarce, and the

whole Second Service Command reported

that in several months it had been able to

secure only one qualified typist and one

clerk against its quota.20

During the first months of 1943, when

standards for all recruits were unwisely

lowered to meet expansion quotas, Negro

recruits quickly presented a special problem, in that most of those who met enlistment standards tended to meet only

the minimum requirements. As soon as

educational standards were restored, in

April of 1943, this condition became less

common, but meanwhile the assignment

problem for Negro women had become

acute. A Negro training company in this

month contained 225 members of whom

192 had no usable military skill. In the

same month, the pool of unassignable

women contained 180 whites and 776

Negroes.21 The only available comparison

of test scores showed that, of a May 1943

sample, 66 percent of Negro recruits were

in the two lowest AGCT groups, IV and V,

as against only 15 percent of white recruits;

only 6 percent of Negro Wacs were in the

two upper brackets, I and II, as against 43

percent of white Wacs.22 The WAAC Control Division commented that the problem

was one of the Corps' most serious, and

would become worse when the women

reached the field.23

Attempts were made to discharge the

most hopeless cases, and it was believed

that the higher enrollment standards just

adopted would prevent similar future difficulty. As for women who could not be

discharged, Capt. Harriet West, after an

inspection, recommended that they be

formed into companies for unskilled work

in hospitals, messes, and salvage depots.

However, this could not be done because

of the War Department policy that

Negroes would be assigned to the same

type of units as whites, and because most

allotments for such jobs were civilian. To

ease the situation at Des Moines, a number of the women were shipped to the

Fourth Training Center at Fort Devens for

general use about the post and for training

in motor transport. After about three

months, Fort Devens closed out and they

were shipped back to Des Moines.24

The situation quickly became highly

embarrassing to the War Department. Although white women with equal lack of

qualifications were equally unassignable,

it frequently appeared to Negro organizations that race rather than ability was the

determining factor in Army job assignments for Negro women. Every possible

solution appeared tinged with discrimination. The WAAC Table of Organization

unit had only seventeen vacancies for unskilled women, so that to form such companies of the Negro women was impossible, yet to devise a different T/O for

Negroes, entirely composed of menial

workers, would have been actual instead

of apparent discrimination. Attempts at

20

 Ltr, 2d SvC to TAG, 11 Sep 42. SPWA 291.21. 21

 Memo, Col Howard Clark, Chief, WAAC Operating Serv, for Dir, 21 Apr 43. SPWA 291.2 (1942). 22

 Plng Proj 5, May 43, Sample of 1400 of each

race. WAAC Plng Serv files. 23

 Memo, Maj Martin, Dir Contl Div WAAC, for

Dir WAAC, 24 May 43. SPWA 291.2 (1942). 24

 (1) Tab I, Memo, Col Branch, Chief WAAC Plng

Serv, for Dir WAAC, 15 Apr 43. SPWA 600.914. (2)

Memo, same, 31 Mar 43. SPWA 291.2 (1942).
594 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

specialist training were equally futile. For

Negroes only, the requirements for motor

transport school were waived, and technical subjects removed from the course,

but even with this assistance very few

qualified drivers could be produced.25

In April of 1943, the Secretary of War's

civilian aide, Truman Gibson, sent the

War Department a complaint that the

failure to give Negro women radio and

other specialist training represented

manipulation of test scores rather than the

women's inaptitude; this was formally denied by training authorities. In May, representatives of the NAACP called on

Colonel McCoskrie at Des Moines with

the same and other complaints, and were

again informed that women's alleged

qualifications for radio and other training

did not show up on tests.

In September of 1943 the civilian aide

to the Secretary of War again complained

that Negroes were being sent only to cooks

and bakers school instead of to higher

technical schools, and that white women

were being assigned to field jobs while

Negro women were not. The Director replied that Negroes could and did go to

every specialist school upon the same basis

as other women, and in fact had received

more educational attention than white

women in an effort to make up their

deficiencies and permit their assignment

to military jobs. The Secretary of War's

civilian aide also objected to the fact that

Negro women in the pool of unassignables

had been allowed to go home on furlough

while assignments for them were being

sought; this, he charged, was also discrimination, in that white women did not get

such furloughs.26

Especial protests concerned the recruiting situation, in which it was felt that the

Army was not making every effort to recruit more Negro women. The basis for

such complaints was the fact that, in July

of 1943, Negro WAC officers were withdrawn from recruiting duty and returned

to training centers, in what was announced

as a move to provide instructors for unassigned Negro women in order to get

them assigned to the field as quickly as

possible. Under the circumstances, it appeared to the Negro press that the Negro

recruiters were being blamed for the lowgrade women admitted, or that the move

was a prelude to refusal to admit Negro

recruits. In spite of this protest, the Negro

recruiters were not returned to duty, since

a check revealed that their absence had

caused no decline in the numbers of Negro

recruits.27 It was known that the presence

of Negro recruiters had caused situations

prejudicial to white recruiting; in Sacramento, California, intelligence operatives

reported a serious situation caused by

Negro WAC recruiters who "appeared in

public places giving public speeches."

 28

With the end of the T/O system, it

became possible to ship to the field a unit

chiefly composed of unskilled personnel,

and the pool of unassigned women gradually diminished. The difficulty was, however, merely shifted to Army posts. An

Army inspector reported that station commanders were quite at a loss as to how to

assign the women without putting them

into civilian jobs in laundries and service

clubs. For example, one Negro unit in the

field complained to an inspector of wom25

 See Ch. XXXII, below. 26

 (1) Ltr, Comdt Ft Des Moines to Exec WAAC, 13

May 43. SPWA 319.1. (2) Ltr, Detroit NAACP to SW,

29 Sep 43, with Inds. SPWA 291.2. 27

 Ltr, Dallas Negro Chamber of Commerce to Dir

WAC, 2 Jul 43, and atchd correspondence. SPWA

291.2. 28

 Ltr, MID to MIS, 30 Mar 43. MID 291.2/7490-

WAAC, in SPWA 291.2.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: MINORITY GROUPS 595

en's assignments, but it was found that

only three women of the 135 were above

Grade III on AGCT score, while 108 were

in Grades IV and V. Their average civilian salary was $13.16 per week, and in

civilian life they had been maids, waitresses, laundresses, and housewives. Nevertheless, they said that recruiters had told

them that they would be trained to do

skilled jobs and promoted at once to the

grade of sergeant. Three in the company

were described as "agitators," who threatened the other women for refusing to strike

against their jobs.29

All attempts to place such low-grade

women in Army jobs met with opposition.

In 1943 and again in 1944 The Surgeon

General's Office refused to accept them

even as ward orderlies, saying:

No suitable assignments exist for such personnel upon completion of training and further accumulation of surplus colored WAC

enlisted women thus trained would constitute

an increasing embarrassment to the service.30

At the same time The Surgeon General's

Office also refused to accept Grades IV

and V white women.

The unassignability of unskilled Negro

recruits merely served to reinforce a discovery that hardly needed reinforcement:

that the Army had few jobs for unskilled

and untrainable women of any race, and

that to recruit them was invariably illadvised. For skilled Negro recruits, the

situation was considerably different. Negro

women who met the intelligence requirements were successfully given specialist

training including that of medical and

surgical technicians, as well as laboratory,

X-ray, and dental technicians; these women proved able to complete the regular

course on the same terms as other Wacs.31

Army posts and air bases where Negro

troops were stationed expressed a consistent eagerness to obtain Negro WAC

units containing stenographers, typists,

and other office workers.

Skilled Work Done by Negro Wacs

Scattered reports from Negro WAC

units at Army stations showed successful

performance by Negro Wacs of a wide

variety of administrative and technical

work. At Fort Jackson, a Wac sergeant

was medical stenographer to the chief of

general surgery. At Fort Bragg, a Wac T/5

taught arts and crafts to soldiers in the

recreational therapy shop. At Fort

McClellan, fifteen Wac clerks staffed the

locator section of the post office, forwarding wrongly addressed mail and packages

and keeping locator card files for the post.

At Fort Riley, members served not only as

ward orderlies but in the more skilled jobs

of physical therapy aids, laboratory technicians, X-ray technicians, and dental

technicians. At Fort Sheridan, Illinois, the

women worked at graphotype machines,

processing soldiers' records. At Camp

Knight, California, 105 Negro Wacs performed clerical work in the overseas supply

division.

In the Army Air Forces, whole units,

such as that at the Walla Walla air base,

were reported as succeeding in the same

type of clerical and other duties performed

by white Wacs. At the Sioux City Army

air base, Negro Wacs worked in the tech29

 Rpt of Insp, WAC Det Ft Knox, Ky., 6 Aug 43.

SPWA 333.1. 30

 (1) D/F, Opns Serv SGO for MTD ASF, 17 Aug

44. SPMCT, in SGO Hist Div SPMCM 322.5-1

WAC. (2) Draft of Memo, Dir WAC for SvCs, 11 Aug

43. SPWA 220.3. 31

 (1) Memo, Tng Div SGO for MTD ASF, 19 Oct

43, and 1st Ind; (2) Memo, Tng Div SGO for MTD

ASF, 25 Apr 44. MDETS, SGO 353.1 Ft Huachuca.
596 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

nical inspector's office. At Douglas Army

Airfield, the women were assigned to aircraft maintenance, the flight line, and

laboratory work; one also served as photographer in the post public relations

office. In the Air Service Command at

Fresno, two women served in map and

editing work in the war room.

Other duties noted at different stations

were those of teletype operators, motion

picture projectionists, parachute packers,

drivers, cooks, chaplains' assistants, and

librarians.32 The commanding officer of

Fort Huachuca wrote, "These young

women are showing marked ability in

taking over essential jobs. . . . The performance of the Wacs has been very satisfactory in every respect."

 33

 The commanding officer of Douglas Army Airfield stated, "I've found them cooperative

at all times, and their enthusiasm, industry, attention to duty and conduct

make them a real asset to this post." "In

several cases," Colonel Bandel reported

later, "their efficiency and spirit were

highly praised by airbase commanders."

 34

Negro WAC officers served not only as

troop officers and instructors but in operational jobs, a number also being graduates of the Army's Quartermaster School

at Camp Lee.

With the higher enrollment standards,

recruiters experienced increased success

in obtaining qualified women. A survey

of skills in 1944 showed that about one

fourth of Negro recruits had clerical and

professional skills, as against one half of

white recruits. In addition, about 30 percent of the Negro recruits, as compared to

34 percent of the whites, had experience

in skilled or unskilled trades.35 Although

thus not as good as the WAC average, the

Negro Wacs appeared to be considerably

superior in skills to the average for Negro

civilian women workers in the United

States. Here, more than 64 percent of

civilian women were reported to be in

service occupations, as against only 35 percent of Negro Wacs with this background.36

In employing higher skill and aptitude

standards, recruiters were never able to

reach the desired goal of 10 percent of the

Corps' strength.37 The peak strength of

Negro WAC troops was reached early in

1945 and totaled approximately 4,000 or

about 4 percent of the Corps.38 These

women were assigned to some twenty stations in the Army Service Forces and ten

stations in the Army Air Forces. The Army

Ground Forces employed no Negro Wacs,

32

 (1) R&R, Air WAC Off to PRO, 26 Sep 43. AAF

291.2. (2) Mason City, Globe-Gazette, Iowa, January 16,

1945. (3) Atlanta, Ga., Daily World, February 15,

1945. (4) Story, "Locator Wacs," by Mary F. Green

in undated, unmarked clipping. Folder, Negroes—

Field Installations, WDBPR files. (5) Kansas City Call,

January 26, 1945. (6) Study, Facts About Negro

Women in the WAC. Folder, Negroes—Field Installations, WDBPR files. (7) Detroit Chronicle, November

25, 1944. 33

 (1) File, Ft Huachuca, SPWA 291.21. (2) Extract

from Army Fact Sheet, Women in Uniform, 10 May

43, Radio Br BPR. Folder, Negroes—Facts, WDBPR

files.

34

 (1) WFTC News Release, undated. Folder

Negroes—AAF, WDBPR files. (2) WAC AAF Hist,

pp. 14,40. 35

 Study made by SGO (incidental to determining

factors in health record) of 22,000 accepted applicants, Oct 43-Mar 44. SGO Med Stat Div. 36

 Janet M. Hooks, Women's Occupations Through

Seven Decades, U.S. Dept of Labor, Women's Bureau

Bull 218, pp. 143-44. The 64 percent applies to "nonwhite" women and does not include charwomen, and

the like, who were apparently included in the WAC's

35 percent. 37

 See breakdowns of rejection rates by race,

printed by Stat Analysis Br Med Stat Div SGO,

Feb-Mar 43, and Med Rejections, Nov 42-Dec 44.

Med Stat Div SGO. 38

 (1) As of 31 Mar 45. See also Memo, Dir WAC

for G-1, 14 Mar 45. Folder, Material, 10 Apr 45, for

Cong Appropriations Mtg for Year 1945-46, Tab 7.

(2) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 14 Mar 45. Hobby files.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: MINORITY GROUPS 597

since most of its troops trained on stations

administered by the Service Forces.39

Problems of Negro Units

There was little indication that, with a

few exceptions, the problems experienced

by these Negro WAC units in the field

were greatly different in nature from those

of other WAC units, but in some cases the

normal difficulties of women in the Army

were apparently intensified. Unskilled

women of any race had been found harder

to assign and harder to discipline. Thus,

the Negro company officer frequently

faced a more difficult command situation

than did the average WAC company commander, in proportion as her unit contained more than the average of such

women. The post commander at Fort

Huachuca noted that the enlisted women

were prone to develop "jealousies and

cliques" and "bickerings which seem to

date back to school days at Des Moines

. . . with various kinds of personal gossip

about each other."

 40

Unit members also showed a tendency

to complain to inspectors about the education and ability of Negro company commanders, who were in fact as well educated and trained as the average WAC

commander. To deal with such units frequently required a skill and a degree of

leadership highly taxing to the company

officer. Some Negro WAC company commanders were reported to have met the

challenge with an ingenuity, energy, and

sense of humor seldom equaled among

other WAC commanders. On the other

hand, some were found to share their

women's deficiencies; an intelligence report from Fort Des Moines found that

jealousy and rivalry had arisen among

Negro WAC officers, resulting in a

"heated argument" and "emotional display" in the presence of the commandant.

Negro WAC officers also had an especial problem of loneliness on many stations; the WAC policy was to have Negro

company officers for Negro troops, but

many male Negro units had white officers,

so that the WAC officers were apt to be the

only Negro officers on a station.41

While all WAC units had at first encountered some degree of skepticism concerning their mission in life, this difficulty

was apparently intensified for Negro Wacs.

The first requisition from the European

theater, rejected by Colonel Hobby at the

time of the Corps' formation, had been so

plainly for "morale purposes" that the

Secretary of War's civilian aide, William

H. Hastie, protested that "the assignment

of units of the WAAC to afford companionship for soldiers would discredit

that organization" and was "contrary to

its whole plan and purpose."

 42

The first units at Fort Huachuca encountered an exceptionally difficult situation in this respect during the early

weeks.43 While such impressions on stations of assignment could be remedied only

by time and demonstrated military behavior, every effort was made to avoid exposing the women unnecessarily to situations that encouraged the misapprehension. Thus, when the inspector general at

Sioux Falls suggested that large groups of

Negro Wacs be brought by truck from

Des Moines to make up for the recrea- 39 Ibid.

40

 File, Fort Huachuca, SPWA 291.21. 41

 (1) TIA Rpt, 1 Sep 43, Ft Dix, N. J. (2) Statement to author by Stf Dir 5th SvC. (3) Memo, CI Br

ASF for Chief, Opns Div WAC Hq, 15 Sep 43.

SPWA 291.2. (4) Min, Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17

Jun 43. SPWA 337 (6-1-43). 42

 Memo, SW's Civ Aide for USW, 17 Aug 42. AG

291.2 Race, Negroes. 43

 File cited n. 40.
598 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tional deficiencies of Negro men at that

air base, Colonel Hobby replied with some

emphasis that one of the War Department's invariable policies was that Wacs,

regardless of race, would not be removed

from their jobs to be "social companions."

 44

Negro WAC units also experienced a

special problem outside their control in

that in some cases a serious race problem

had already arisen in certain areas before

their arrival, including what was described

as "race riots," "unrest," "inflammatory

gossip," and "rumor of a nature to incite

the men."

 45

 Not only did such emotions

prove contagious, but the sentiment in

neighboring civilian communities was also

sometimes anything but favorable toward

the women's arrival. When it was planned

to send a unit to Gardiner General Hospital in Chicago, where a strained situation already existed, protests were received

by the Army from four suburban civic

groups, to the effect that stationing the

women in a restricted white residential

area, near a white bathing beach, might

cause "incidents" and race riots. Although

the Army ignored these protests and successfully stationed the unit at Gardiner

General Hospital, such a community reaction obviously presented an adjustment

problem to unit members.46

The women's adjustment to the Army

situation was also rendered more difficult

by well-meaning civilian groups in their

constant watchfulness for discrimination.

It was not surprising that many of the experiences that had been encountered by

white Wacs everywhere, and attributed to

their sex, should be interpreted by Negro

Wacs as racial discrimination: these included the early malassignments, clothing

shortages, malicious gossip, and other

common difficulties. Possibly the most

serious report investigated was one of

"terrorization and mistreatment," which

actually proved to be the common experience of many WAC units—a chilly initial

reception, rude remarks by civilian employees, lack of enthusiasm about Wacs on

the part of USO hostesses, and pranks by

soldiers. The unit, except for three complaining members, was actually found to

be in good morale, satisfied with its recreational facilities, and satisfactory in its

duties.47

A similar situation arose when, in the

last days of the war, both white and Negro

units were recruited for general hospitals.

Shortly afterward, Congressman Adam C.

Powell informed the War Department that

"Trouble is brewing at Fort Oglethorpe."

Upon investigation it was found that

Negro civilian employees were being given

better hospital jobs than Negro Wacs; that

Negro Wacs worked in hospitals 12 hours

a day and civilians only 8; that Negro Wac

orderlies had to take orders from civilian

nurses.48 These were exactly the problems

currently reported from white hospital

units.

An almost identical and widely publicized case of alleged discrimination concerned the court-martial of four Negro

Wacs at Lovell General Hospital in Massachusetts. A summary of their grievances

was endorsed by white medical technician

recruits everywhere:

44

 Ltr, Air IG to CG AAF CTTC, with 10th Ind,

Dir WAC to Contl Div ASF, 27 Oct 43. SPWA 291.2. 45

 Ltr, CofS to AAF, AGF, ASF, with 1st Ind, 13 Jul

43. SPWA 291.2. 46

 (1) Memo, Col John Nash for Dir Pers ASF,

6 Apr 45. SPDC, in SPAP 220. (2) Memo, Exec to CG

ASF for TSG, 3 May 45. SPDC, in SGO 330.14

Gardiner GH. 47

 Ltr, Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt to Dir WAC, 25 Oct

44, and reply, 16 Jan 45. WD WAC 330.14. 48

 D/F, G-1 for Leg and Ln Div, 3 May 45.

WDWAC 291.2.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: MINORITY GROUPS 599

They don't want to scrub. . . . They

want a future, i. e., training . . . they don't

like the civilians because the civilians are

late, lazy, and mean . . . they said they

knew they weren't wanted in the beginning . . . they want promised ratings.

The conviction that racial discrimination

was involved led a part of this Negro unit

to refuse to report for duty even after personal pleas from the WAC staff director,

two colonels, a judge advocate, an inspector general, and the commanding general of the service command, which finally

caused all but four members to return to

work. The court-martial of these four was

declared proper even by the NAACP,

which issued a statement that "We recognize that there is no right to strike in the

Armed Services." Although the commanding general upheld the court-martial

proceedings, the conviction was reversed

by the Judge Advocate General, and the

women restored to duty on the technicality

that the court was improperly convened.49

Negro Wacs Overseas

The European theater was the only

overseas theater to employ Negro Wacs.

ETO policy vacillated. Negroes were

requisitioned in 1942 with the declaration

that "in time of war it is the privilege of all

American citizens regardless of race or sex

to serve in and with the Armed Forces."

However, when Director Hobby refused to

let the women be scattered in uncontrolled small field units near male Negro

troops, the theater hastily canceled the

requisition and stated that "colored Wacs

will not be requisitioned until such time as

the War Department announces that their

shipment to theaters of operation is a

necessity."

 50

Pressure of Negro groups finally forced

the War Department to direct the European theater to accept Negro Wacs. As

directed, the European theater submitted

a requisition for approximately 800 Negro

women to set up half of a central postal

directory. Declaring that these women

would not fill any existing military jobs,

the theater asked and expected an additional allotment of grades, but none was

received.

The unit, the 6888th Central Postal

Battalion, was selected from both the Air

Forces and the Service Forces in order to

give all women a chance at overseas service, but sufficient volunteers to fill the unit

could not be found. One Negro editor had

alleged that "they are heartbroken because they cannot serve overseas like their

white GI sisters,"

 51

 but this opinion apparently did not accurately reflect the

sentiments of all of the women, one of

whom suggested to an inspector that they

ship the NAACP instead.52

The battalion arrived in Europe in

February of 1945, under the command of

Maj. Charity Adams, later promoted to

lieutenant colonel. The unit contained 40

percent unskilled workers, as against 1

percent for white Wacs in this theater, and

40 percent in the two lowest AGCT grades,

as against 10 percent for white Wacs.

As a separate T/O unit, the battalion

49

 (1) Ltr, CG 1st SvC to CG ASF, 13 Mar 45, with

incls. SPBVG. (2) Memo Slip, Int Div ASF for Dir

Pers ASF, 21 Mar 45, with atchd; and another, 3 Apr

45. (3) Clippings in same file. (4) Weekly Int Summary 164, Hq 1st SvC, 31 Mar 45. SPBIB 350.09,

Racial Situation Annex. 50

 Following, unless indicated, based on ETO Bd

Rpt, Vol. I, pp. 126-29 and Vol III, Apps. 85d and

125.

51

 Ltr, Malvina Thompson to Dir WAC, 1 Nov 44,

incl Ltr from city editor of AFRO-American, 26 Oct 44,

and reply, 4 Nov 44. WDWAC 330.14. 52

 Interv with Maj Marjorie Ludwigsen, Hq AAF,

inspector of unit for AAF.
600 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

naturally had segregated housing and

working quarters, but there was no segregation in the use of Red Cross clubs, leave

areas, and schools. No particular difficulties were reported in discipline and

administration. The unit was congratulated by the theater on its "exceptionally

fine" Special Services program. Its observance of military courtesies was also

pronounced exemplary, as were the grooming and appearance of members and the

maintenance of quarters.

Unit efficiency was difficult to evaluate.

Before the women's arrival, the central

directory operated with enlisted men and

civilians and reported itself "swamped by

mail" and with an undelivered backlog of

over three million pieces; it also faced the

necessity of a move to France, where

English-speaking civilians would be more

difficult to find.53 The Wacs' performance

was not entirely satisfactory to inspectors,

who stated that "production appeared to

be low" and that "the girls relax on their

jobs while mail accumulates." The women

in turn believed that too much pressure

was being brought to bear to increase mail

output, and that they had not been

awarded a well-deserved unit citation.

Some 11 percent of the detachment also

had cause for considering themselves malassigned; about 10 percent were typists,

and 1 percent were stenographers, and

these were admittedly underutilized in a

postal directory. Had not the segregation

policy prevented, these could have been

scattered through other WAC detachments where their skills could have been

employed. The other 89 percent appeared

to be properly assigned but, like most

newly arrived personnel, had difficulty

with respiratory disorders; they also reported considerable fatigue.

Some six months after the end of the

war in Europe, with the departure of discharge-eligibles, the battalion had shrunk

to about 300 members, and its morale and

efficiency were pronounced so "exceptionally low" by a WAC inspector from the

War Department that she recommended

its immediate return to the United States.54

The theater preferred not to return the

unit under circumstances implying failure,

which was believed unwarranted, but

eventually, with the reduction in size of

the theater, there was little work remaining for the women, and they were returned

to the United States as a unit. The theater's conclusion was that the problems experienced by Negro Wacs in the European

theater were similar to those experienced

by other Negro troops and were not peculiar to women, and that the War Department's eventual solution should apply to

both.

As soon as shipment was made to the

European theater, Negro groups turned

toward efforts to get Negro Wacs sent to

the Southwest Pacific Area.55 Such action

was never directed by the War Department, since they were not requisitioned by

the theater, and since the end of the war

intervened. Also, the difficulties currently

being encountered by white Wacs in the

Pacific would have been difficult to explain to Negro organizations. In any case,

the percentage of Negro Wacs overseas

was, on the strength of the European battalion, as high as that of all Wacs, or about

20 percent.

53

 Rpt on Postal System in ETO 10 Jan 45-15 Feb

45 Rpt 30, Hq ETO Gen Inspectorate Sec. Copy in

WDWAC 333.5. 54

 Rpt, Maj Frances Clements, G-3, Visit to 6888th

Cen Post Bn. WDWAC 333.1 (1945-46). 55

 (1) Undated Q, and A Series. SPWA 291.2

(1943). (2) Ltr, Editor, Amsterdam News, N. Y., to WD

BPR, 23 Jul 45, and reply. WDWAC 000.7.
EMPLOYMENT OF PERSONNEL: MINORITY GROUPS 601

Conclusions

It proved difficult to evaluate the success of the program of employment of

Negro Wacs. The second WAC Director,

Colonel Boyce, when asked to comment,

replied, "The Negro women in the Army

are a part of the WAC. The record of

achievement of the Corps cannot be attributed to any individual or to any group

but to the whole Corps."

 56

 Training center

authorities were inclined to wonder if the

nuisance value of the constant civilian

searching parties had not outweighed the

military contribution by the women.57 In

the field, comments of post commanders

applied to ability rather than race: every

skilled Wac was assignable regardless of

race, and unskilled ones were never

wanted. When the WAVES, near the end

of the war, were considering admitting

Negroes, a WAC authority advised them,

To speak very frankly, the problems are

fundamental ones—charges of segregation, discrimination, not giving them clerical jobs. . . . Success depends in the main on (1) the

caliber of officers . . . (2) intelligent as- signment and utilization.58

It appeared that in some respects the

Navy policy had been more successful

than that of the Army. The WAVES had

not admitted any Negro women until

1945, by which time the Navy had announced an end of segregation for men.

At this time the WAVES accepted only 70

Negro enlisted women and no company

officers. By virtue of the small numbers,

enlistment was highly selective, and only

women of high aptitude and skill and good

personal appearance were chosen. For this

reason, the WAVES were able to abolish

segregation from the beginning, and to incorporate the few skilled specialists into

existing units. The approval with which

the Navy policy was received by Negro

organizations strongly suggested that, had

the WAC never set a 10 percent quota,

and instead limited Negro enlistment to a

few women who met the highest standards, it might not only have avoided the

burden of unassignable low-grade personnel, but also have successfully abolished

segregation. However, the WAC could

hardly have adopted this policy in the absence of a change in Army policy.59

There was some indication that, as compared to the relative problems of Negro

men in all services, the WAC had experienced lesser problems and been more

highly regarded by the Negro civilian

population. When asked in a nationwide

survey "What are your chances in the different services?" more Negro women answered "Good" concerning the WAC than

did Negro men concerning any of the

armed services.60 It appeared that the

armed forces' eventual decisions concerning male Negro troops would apply

equally well to female troops, with the exception—which applied to women of all

races—that higher-grade female personnel

would continue to be required in view of

the fact that women could not perform

combat and heavy service duties. 56

 Series cited n. 55(1). 57

 Ltr, Comdt 1st Tng Cen to WAAC Ex, 19 Aug

43. SPWA 291.2. 58

 Ltr, ASF WAC Off to Dir WAVES, 4 Nov 44.

SPAP 220.3 WAC. 59

 (1) Ltr, Headlines and Picture Editor to Dir

WAC, 31 Jul 45. SPWA 291.2 (1943). (2) Navy Press

Release. (3) WAVES Hist, pp. 78-79. 60

 Study, 8 Jul 43, sub: The Negroes' Role in the

War, OWI Memo 59, pp. 9-10. SPWA 291.2.
CHAPTER XXXI

Health and Medical Care

Responsibility for providing medical

care for the 160,000 Wacs and nurses of

the Army was placed upon the Office of

The Surgeon General, both in Auxiliary

days and after the change to Army status.

As directed by The Surgeon General, any

inquiries received by Director Hobby concerning medical problems of members

were sent to his office for reply.1 The

Surgeon General's responsibilities were

threefold: setting medical standards for

enlistment, providing suitable medical

care after enlistment, and recommending

hygiene courses and other preventive

measures to maintain women's health.

For the year of the Auxiliary's existence,

these responsibilities toward Waacs were

handled as part-time duty by a Medical

Corps officer. Shortly before the conversion, the responsibility was delegated to

the first woman Medical Corps officer,

Maj. Margaret D. Craighill, former dean

of a woman's medical college in Pennsylvania.2

 Major Craighill gradually acquired an assistant and two secretaries,

and undertook visits to training and field

installations and overseas theaters.

Her unit was, she reported, handicapped from time to time not only by its

small size but by lack of sufficient authority or delineation of responsibilities within

The Surgeon General's Office.3 There also

existed a divided responsibility with Military Training Division, Army Service

Forces, which sometimes issued directives

on medical training for Wacs without coordination with either Major Craighill or

Director Hobby.4

By the end of 1943, Major Craighill was

nevertheless embarked on plans for a coordinated health program for women. If it

had taken a year for The Surgeon General

to recognize that "there are problems of

health peculiar to women,"

 5 it was to take

the rest of the war to solve most of them.

Medical Standards for Enlistment

One of Major Craighill's first actions

after her appointment was a tour of Army

induction stations to seek the cause of

medical examiners' errors, which had seriously affected the early recruiting program. The cause, she discovered, was

simple: most stations were not giving any

1

 Memo, Consultant for Women's Health and Welfare to Dir WAC, 4 Jul 44. SPMC DD-DW 322.5, in

WDWAC 220. 2

 References to Craighill opinions, unless otherwise

cited, are from: (1) History of Women's Medical Unit,

rough draft narrative by Lt Col Margaret D. Craighill, MC, 23 Jul 46. SGO Hist Div 314.72. (2) Rpt,

Maj Craighill to Hist Div SGO, 26 Sep 45, sub: Logistics of World War II. SPMDF-W, in WDWAC 314.7. 3

 For development of unit, see history cited n. 2(1). 4

 (1) Memo, WAC Well-Being Off for Dir WAC, 6

Jan 44. SPWA 211. (2) Memo, ASF Pub Contl Off for

Maj Craighill, 4 May 44. WDWAC 300.6. 5

 (1) WAAC Regs 1942, par 21-25. (2) AR 40-100,

Change 5, 27 Sep 43. (3) Rpt, Enlistment, Health, and

Discharge of the WAC, by Med Stat Div SGO, in

Army MD Bull, Vol. VI, No. 3, Sep 46. (4) Memo,

SGO for Dir WAC, 14 Aug 44. SPMC/DD-DW

322.5.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 603

MAJOR CRAIGHILL, the first Consultant for Women's Health and Welfare in the Office

of The Surgeon General (right). Dr. Elizabeth Garber (left), a member of the WAAC on the

hospital staff at Fort Des Moines, later sworn into the Medical Corps of the U.S. Army.

pelvic or gynecological examination at all;

neither were many giving a psychiatric examination. Instead, the prescribed examination for men was being used, which

made it understandable why the rejectable

gynecologic defects were overlooked.6

Upon her return to headquarters,

Major Craighill at once secured a directive that gynecological and psychiatric

examinations would be given every WAC

applicant. Instead of leaving exact gynecologic standards to the medical examiner's imagination, as formerly, she

secured appointment of a board of Army

doctors to set standards of acceptability,

and these were shortly published. Exact

directions were given for administering a

suitable pelvic examination, the list of disqualifying gynecologic defects was ex6

 See Ch. X. Also Rpt 3-W, WAAC Enrollment

Data, SGO Med Stat Div Bull, 17 Aug 43.
604 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

panded, and it was required that the menstrual history be recorded.7

In spite of the publication of standards,

the circumstances of WAC enlistment did

not lend themselves to sudden improvement. Wacs were enlisted at many widely

scattered stations, where the relatively

small numbers of women processed made

it necessary to use the medical staff that

processed inducted men; it was impossible

to provide every small station with a gynecologist. Also, medical examiners were

generally uninformed about the work the

WAC would do, and admitted a tendency

to underrate the physical and mental

strain of military life. In addition, examining officers pointed out that they were frequently urged by recruiters to overlook

"minor" disqualifications, particularly in

matters involving personal judgment,

such as stamina and personality defects.

Doctors were also hurried by recruiters

who wished to swear in an applicant before she changed her mind, without waiting for a full check on her records of civilian hospitalization.

As a result, while the number of psychiatric and gynecological rejections increased, 1944—and the beginning of the

Corps' third year—found the situation still

unsatisfactory. Almost 75 percent of WAC

disability discharges continued to be for

psychiatric and gynecological reasons,

most of them occurring within a few

months of enlistment, and rates from different service commands still varied

widely.8 Training centers continued to

send reports of causes for which new recruits had to be discharged at once: dementia praecox, schizophrenia, manicdepressive psychosis, epilepsy, fibroids of

the uterus, tumor of the ovary, and advanced pregnancy, as well as other matters such as diabetes, arthritis, goiter, peptic ulcer, tertiary syphilis, and tuberculosis.9

By February of 1944, all responsible officers were seriously concerned about the

situation. The Surgeon General, Maj. Gen.

Norman T. Kirk, informed General Somervell at this time that "the physical examination of Wacs at induction stations and

other stations is not being conducted satisfactorily and is not sufficiently thorough."

 10

 The Director's staff noted that

"the enlistment of unqualified women continues to create serious problems for recruiting, for the Corps, and for the individuals concerned."

 11

 Reports from service commands noted that among the

"worst deterrents to recruiting" was faulty

psychiatric screening. It appeared to be

equally bad to accept an applicant known

to her community to be "queer" or seriously delinquent, or to select one well

thought of in the community who immediately broke down and had to be discharged.12

The Administrator of Veterans' Affairs,

Brig. Gen. Charles Hines, wrote to the

Secretary of War concerning cases in

which women had been discharged for

neuropsychiatric disorders immediately

after enlistment, and thrown upon veter7

 Change 5, AR 40-100, 27 Sep 43. See also D/F,

Dir WAC for SGO, 20 Dec 43, incl 1st Ind from SGO,

SG 322.5 (1st SC) AA. SPWA 220.8 (9-30-43). 8

 Bull, SGO Med Stat Div, WAC Enlistment Data, 6

Mar 44, Rpt 5-W, Contl Symbol SPMCS-96. 9

 (1) Memo, Craighill for Gen Bliss, SGO, 28 Apr

44. SGO Hist Div folder. (2) Ltr, Post Surg to Comdt

Ft Oglethorpe, 11 Nov 43, and Inds; (3) Ltr, Post Surg

Ft Oglethorpe to SGO, 21 Jan 44. SGO Hist Div

322.5-1. 10

 Memo, The SG to CG ASF, 7 Feb 44. SPAP 341

WAC (11-6-43). 11

 M/R, O Dir WAC, 29 Feb 44. WDWAC 326

(1945-46). 12

 (1) Speech of Dir WAC, Recruiters Conf, Chicago, Feb 44. WDWAC 337. (2) Memo, Sp Asst Elizabeth DeSchweinitz for Dir WAC, 12 Feb 44. WAC

files, OCMH.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 605

ans' hospitals for what appeared to be indefinite future care.13

 Brig. Gen. William

C. Menninger reported that the need for

good psychiatric examinations was even

greater for women than for men, because

of the greater number of peculiarly motivated individuals who applied for a volunteer corps as contrasted to those called up

in a nationwide draft, and also because of

the higher age limits for acceptance of

women.14

During these months every possible

means of improving the situation was explored, with disappointing results. At The

Surgeon General's request, the National

Committee for Mental Hygiene made a

study of neuropsychiatric induction procedures for both men and women. The

committee recommended that women psychiatrists examine women—a suggestion

that could not be adopted for lack of

women psychiatrists at the hundreds of recruiting stations enlisting Wacs.15

 The

committee also recommended an elaborate system of investigation of each applicant's medical and social history, which

was found to be too time-consuming to be

practical.

Director Hobby next proposed that Selective Service boards assist the WAC "in

securing medical history on prospective

WAC recruits." For men, such histories

were compiled by Selective Service boards

and their medical field agencies in the

home locality. They included verification

of identification, education, medical and

social history, and other material of much

assistance to induction examiners, who

could not otherwise have detected certain

traits in one interview. However, General

Hershey refused to allow his local boards

to extend this service to Wacs, stating:

The gathering of information in connection with WAC recruiting would not appear

to be part of the duties for which they are appointed or compensated ... it is not

deemed advisable that the agencies assume

the additional work.16

As an alternative, Director Hobby proposed a "New England Plan," used successfully by WAC recruiters in New England, with information derived from both

local Selective Service boards and from

social agencies. Typical of cases thus detected were that of a woman who had "a

call from God" to enlist but many home

anxieties; a well-educated and presentable

woman found to be unable to hold a job

because of fits of depression and hysterical

blindness; a woman whose father wept and

begged that she be taken away from association with his younger children. However, this plan was frowned upon by ASF's

Military Personnel Division, which feared

it might give outside agencies undue control of acceptances.17

The Surgeon General's Office next

turned to an attempt to get WAC enlistments limited to the few large stations

where qualified gynecologists and women

psychiatrists could be stationed.18 To this

end, Major Craighill worked for some

weeks with The Adjutant General's recruiting staff, preparing lists of stations

and plans for detailed instruction. Unfortunately for this idea, it came at a time of

manpower shortage, when the Army was

13

 Memo, Dir Pers ASF for G-1, CofS, and SW, 15

Jan 45. SPGAP 710 Gen, in CofS 324.5 WAC. 14

 Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World, p. 112. 15

 (1) Memo, SG for Dir WAC, 4 Oct 43. WDWAC

702. (2) M/R, 3 Feb 44. SPWA 080 (9-9-43), copy in

OCMH. 16

 Memo, Dir WAC to G-1 WD through CG ASF,

6 Jan 44, and atchd reply. WDWAC 341. 17

 (1) M/R, sub: Memo on WAC Screening in New

York City. WDWAC 201.6 (1944). (2) Memo, MPD

ASF for Dir Pers ASF, 2 Feb 44. SPGAP 342 Gen, in

SPAP 320-340 WAC. 18

 Memo, The SG for CG ASF, 7 Feb 44. SPAP 341

WAC (11-6-43).
606 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

redoubling efforts to get WAC recruits,

and when posts and air bases were contributing additional teams. Recruiters,

from a study of the reactions of hesitant

prospects, felt that it was difficult enough

to secure an enlistment when the applicant

could be rushed through processing in her

own home town and sworn in before she

repented her decision. It was deemed impossible to persuade most applicants to

take leave from their jobs and travel several hundred miles for an examination

which, if unsuccessful, would leave a

woman in the embarrassing position of

having publicly announced her intentions

and then having been publicly rejected.

Therefore, the whole plan of centralized

screening was dropped, and the number of

enlistment stations was actually increased

instead of decreased.

Finally, in March of 1944, a conference

of all interested agencies adopted a plan

proposed by Director Hobby's representatives. This solution, similar to that which

had proved successful in The Surgeon

General's Office and in other agencies,

called for centralizing responsibility in a

WAC specialist. Accordingly, a highly

qualified WAC officer was appointed in

each service command to improve screening procedures as best she might. She was

responsible for giving medical examiners

the proper background material for an

understanding of Corps jobs, and for obtaining for them such reports on doubtful

candidates as would assist their judgment,

such as case histories and hospitalization

records. If qualified psychiatrists were unavailable locally, she was authorized to

pay $2.50 per doubtful applicant to recognized social agencies for a full investigation—a small investment compared to

mustering-out pay and veterans' benefits,

and one that left the final decision in the

hands of military personnel. It was also required that a qualified WAC officer be

placed in each recruiting station where

WAC enlistments were processed, to

render much the same assistance and to

assume responsibility for a final review of

acceptances.19

The Surgeon General called the attention of service command surgeons to these

measures and directed that they assist the

WAC liaison officer in every possible way.

A conference was also called in May of

1944, of one member from each service

command, to clarify procedures. In August of 1944, a more forceful directive to

recruiting stations reiterated the requirement that the neuropsychiatric examination must be made by a qualified neuropsychiatrist, and that the gynecological

examination must not be omitted. It was

stated that "experience has shown unequivocally" that there was an undue discharge rate of women accepted by stations

where such examinations were "omitted

or inferior." Finally, in the fall of 1944, a

medical technical bulletin gave an extremely clear statement, in medical language, of the conditions of WAC life that

medical officers must consider in approving an applicant.20

This last combined effort seemed to be

moderately successful. The rejection rate

rose markedly and the disability discharge

rate dropped.21 It appeared that the work

of educating medical examiners to WAC

19

 M/R cited n. 11. 20

 (1) Ltrs, AGO to all SvCs, 1 Apr 44, AG 341

WAC PR-I; 19 May 44, SPX 341 WAC PR-I; 10

Jun 44, AG 341 WAC PR-I. (2) Ltr, SGO to all

SvCs, 13 May 44. SGO Hist Div folder. (3) Memo,

MPD ASF for Dir Pers ASF, 3 May 44. SPGAP 342

Gen-123, in SPAP 341 WAAC. (4) Memo, Actg Dir

WAC to SGO, 3 Mar 44. SPWA 330.14 R. (5) Direct

quotation from Memo, MPD ASF for TAG, 19 Aug

44. SPGAP 342 Gen-141, in SPAP 342 WAC. 21

 Rpt cited n. 2(2). Also Chart by Med Stat Div

SGO, 12 Mar 45, sub: Trend of Med Rejections, WAC

Candidates, Nov 42-Dec 44. Copy in WAC files,

OCMH.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 607

enlistment requirements had been done as

well as possible under the voluntary enlistment system where recruits of any sort

were at a premium. As Major Craighill

pointed out, these results were not

achieved until the main WAC recruiting

effort was over, but the system remained

on record for later use.

Rejection and Discharge Rates

Toward the end of the war, The Surgeon General's Medical Statistical Division completed a study of the factors

affecting enlistment. It was now confirmed

that applicants over 40 had only one

chance in three of passing the entrance

physical examination, while those under

25 had an even chance; also, that Wacs

over 40 were three times as apt to get a

disability discharge. Less easily explicable

was the fact that married applicants also

had less chance than single women of

passing the physical examination, and

married Wacs were almost three times as

likely to get a disability discharge. Disability, in all these cases, did not include

pregnancy rates, so that there was no easy

explanation of the poorer health of married women.

Also unexpected was the factor of education. Women who had not completed high

school got four times as many disability

discharges as did those who had completed high school or better. There were

three times as many psychiatric discharges

and six times as many gynecological discharges among the less educated group.

Grammar school graduates received seventeen times as many disability discharges as

did college graduates.

There was a similarly unexpected relationship to previous employment. Wacs

who had never held a paying job, including housewives, got three times as many

disability discharges as those who had held

clerical or professional jobs. Domestic and

service workers were almost as bad a risk

as the unemployed and housewives. Those

never gainfully employed had three times

as many psychiatric discharges as selfsupporting women, and four times as

many gynecological discharges. These

"unemployed and housewives" were not a

large group, however: 95 percent of married Wacs and 96 percent of single ones

had held paying jobs outside the home

before enlistment.22

According to this analysis, the lowest

possible disability discharge rates would

be achieved by the WAC if it were possible

to restrict its membership to young women

who had never been married, whose

schooling included at least high school

graduation, and who were previously employed in paying jobs as other than service

workers or housekeepers.

It was always emphasized by The Surgeon General's Office that medical rejection rates for WAC applicants should not

be compared to the higher rejection rates

among males, which might have given the

impression that the nation's women were

22

 Study, Trend of Med Rejections in WAC, and A

Sample Study of Med Defects . . . , 147 pages, 30

charts. SGO Med Stat Div. The Certificate of Disability Discharge rate per 1,000 for the year October

1943 to October 1944 was:

Age:

20-39................................. . 18

40-50................................. . 5 9

Marital Status:

Married............................... . 7 3

Divorced or widowed .................... . 68

Single.... ............................. . 2 7

Education:

4-7 years. ............................. . 189

8 years. ............................... . 185

1-3 yrs high school...................... . 73

High school graduate .................... . 26

1-3 yrs college .......................... . 24

College graduate........................ . 11

Post graduate........................... . 11

Skill:

Employed in skilled work................. . 36

Unemployed........................... . 115
608 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

healthier than its men. The rates were not,

in The Surgeon General's opinion, strictly

comparable, since the WAC was a selfselected group, in which only those women

applied who had reason to believe that

they could meet the requirements, and

who desired to do so.23

Monthly Physical Inspection

After passing the medical enlistment

examination, a normally healthy Wac

next encountered the Medical Department at the monthly physical "inspection"

required for all Army personnel. By Army

Regulations, this included, for men, inspection of the feet, mouth, and teeth;

investigation for venereal disease and vermin infestation; and observation for

chronic diseases.24 When the Auxiliary

was organized, no indication was given

the field as to whether or not the requirement applied to women.

In October of 1942, the post surgeon at

Fort Des Moines called this omission to

the attention of The Surgeon General. He

pointed out that venereal disease in

women could not be detected by inspection, as in men, and suggested that the

more complicated pelvic examination required to detect it be given only every six

months, since it called for hospital facilities. In reply, The Surgeon General

refused to set a policy, recommending that

the training center determine for itself

"such special examinations as may, in the

opinion of the Surgeon, be required for the

prevention and spread of communicable

disease."

 25

This information was given only to

training centers, and field stations shortly

began to inquire about the same problem.

At one, the post surgeon refused to fill out

the necessary monthly venereal disease

reports for the company unless he could

give a complete pelvic examination to each

woman each month. Such inquiries were

answered to the effect that, pending publication of instructions, stations should

hold the inspection but omit the venereal

disease check. Since this information was

given only to the stations that inquired,

Director Hobby's office in December of

1942 requested The Surgeon General to

amend the Army Regulation to make the

matter clear to all, and to forbid routine

pelvic examinations.26

By the time of establishment of the

WAC, some seven months later, no such

action had been taken, and reports from

the field indicated that at some stations

pelvic examinations were given monthly.

Such practices invariably called forth

protests from the women, since the examination was often a painful business which

most women were willing to undergo once

or twice in a lifetime, but scarcely every

month. As the public pointed out to Mrs.

Roosevelt, who pointed it out to Director

Hobby, a woman might suffer pain for a

week after a rough or inexpert examination.27

Therefore, one of Major Craighill's first

acts after her appointment was to secure

23

 (1) Inquiry from U.S. Office of Education, and

reply, with M/R, SPWA 353.8 (1943). (2) Chicago

World Herald June 30, 1945. (3) Memo, Stat Br G-1

for Dir WAC, 3 Mar 45. WDWAC 720, 1945-46. 24

 AR 615-250. 25

 Ltr, Post Surg 1st Tng Cen to TSG, 20 Oct 42,

with Inds. SPWA 201.6. 26

 (1) Ltr, 6th WAAC Opns Co, Boston, to 1st SvC,

7 Nov 42, and Inds. SPWA 201.6. (2) Memo, Col Karl

R. Lundeberg, MC, for The SG, 2 Dec 42. SPMCM

322.5-1 WAC, in SGO Hist Div. (3) Memo, WAAC

Hq for SGO, 5 Dec 42. SPWA 201.6. A monthly

physical inspection was directed by WAAC Circular

1, 23 January 1943, which, however, had no power

to prescribe procedure, and did not. 27

 Ltr, Secy to Mrs. Roosevelt to Dir WAC, 30 Dec

44. WD WAC 330.14.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 609

publication, in the summer of 1943, of a

medical circular giving detailed directions

as to the proper procedure for conduct of

the monthly physical inspection for female

troops. This definitely made it clear that

a pelvic examination would not be given

routinely; if it seemed indicated by other

symptoms, it might be made in a dispensary or hospital. It was also specified that

the pelvic examination would be made

rectally "where indicated"; this provision

met the objections of young unmarried

women to enlistment. It was required that

the monthly inspection be simple and private, preferably in the WAC barracks,

with the subject suitably draped; inspections in the nude were forbidden.28

Even after this action, objections continued to come in. Company commanders

pointed out that their women were of excellent moral character and found the

monthly inspection embarrassing. Women

also frequently questioned the necessity for

any examination at all, since it could not

detect venereal disease and was so brief—

15 seconds in one training center—that in

their opinion it served no purpose but to

waste time and require undressing and

dressing. Major Craighill in reply urged

WAC commanders to educate their

women to the purposes of the examination,

which was not intended to imply a suspicion that they had contracted venereal

disease, but rather to detect any deterioration in physical condition before it became

serious, and to promote a friendly doctorpatient acquaintance that would make

medical care easier in the event of illness.29

To this end, another Surgeon General

letter was sent out, advising doctors that

more care should be taken to consider the

modesty of the individual and to explain

the purpose of the examination. It was

added that a female company officer

should be present at all times, that personnel would wear underwear in addition to

being covered with a sheet or blanket, and

that an inspection of the pubic hair would

not be made routinely. This last requirement alone did much to end the nearrebellion with which many women had

regarded the monthly inspection.30

Women's higher degree of modesty in

physical matters obviously posed a continuing problem for examiners, and one

which, in the opinion of medical authorities, was not likely to be changed in the

current century. General Menninger

noted, "Girls are raised in a manner entirely different from boys in relation to the

emphasis on modesty and privacy in dressing, bathing, and toilet."

 31

 Equally

important was the fact that examining

physicians were of the opposite sex in all

but the very few installations that employed women doctors. It appeared that

male personnel likewise might have

offered some objections to monthly nude

examination by women doctors. Well toward the end of the war, The Surgeon

General's Office continued to receive objections based on this factor, and to find

evidence that some medical officers were

still unfamiliar with the precautions prescribed in medical directives, particularly

that concerning the presence of the female

commanding officer.32

28

 SGO Cir Ltr 135, 27 Jul 43, in SPWA 314.7

sec 3. 29

 Memo, Craighill for Gen Bliss, 25 Mar 44, sub:

Visit to Ft Des Moines and Chicago. Folder Capt Berlien, SGO Hist Div. 30

 (1) Ltr to 3d SvC, 4 Dec 43, with 1st Ind, SGO to

Dir WAC, 25 Jan 44; (2) Ltr, SG to all SvCs, 9 Feb

44, incl Change to SGO Cir 1, 1 Jan 44; amends SGO

Cir Ltr 135, 27 Jul 43. SPWA 702 (12-4-43), 1943. 31

 Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled WorId. 32

 (1) Memo, Asst Consultant on Women's Health

for Col Freer, SGO, 27 Sep 44. SGO CI 321 WAC. (2)

D/F, G-1 to SGO, 29 Sep 45. WDGAP 201.5 WAC,

in WDWAC 201.5.
610 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Sick Call, Dispensary Care, and Hospitalization

In every type of medical facility, the

necessary segregation of the WAC minority

presented a problem to medical officers.

The easiest solution was possible to the

larger hospitals, that of merely designating

one or more wards for female patients,

including Wacs, nurses, and soldiers' dependents. Smaller hospitals could ordinarily designate several rooms for the

same purpose. Even at best, Major Craighill noted that the small number of women

involved made it inevitable that types of

personnel and of cases were not always

segregated in the manner customary for

hospitals. Sick call and dispensary care

presented the greatest problem. Separate

dispensaries were provided only where

large groups were handled; otherwise different hours were set for women. A practice generally objectionable to WAC

commanders was that of having Wacs report to sick call in the orderly room of

men's units, which frequently required a

sick woman to walk for some distance, or

made her unwilling to report at all.33

A particular problem for the WAC company commander, because of the nonactivated nature of her unit, was sometimes that of securing reports, which were

frequently sent instead to the commander

of the men's unit or section to which the

Wac was formally assigned. Some WAC

commanders were able to make local

arrangements by which they were allowed

to keep the women's sick book entries,

these being relayed by telephone from the

various units of assignment; others had

more difficulty in checking on the women's

status.

In either case there was noted a certain

difficulty in maintaining the confidential

character of medical records. In fact, evidence from all overseas theaters indicated

that, whether reasonably or not, women

objected so strongly to having records on

their gynecological disorders handled by

male cadre and civilians that the efficiency

of medical care was lowered by the

women's failure to reveal difficulties. Objections especially centered around such

practices as writing the diagnosis on the

passenger list for Wacs returning from

overseas, or on the card attached to the

Wac's coat. Major Craighill noted:

Privacy in regard to medical conditions is

deplorably lacking in Army hospitals, as was

pointed out in War Department Circular

310 ... "Maintenance of Ethical Standards

by non-Professional Personnel." The practice

of passing the records through numerous

hands . . . quickly makes a diagnosis common

knowledge and a topic of conversation. This

is particularly embarrassing to women . . . and leads to hesitation about seeking medical

advice.34

Partial local solutions to this problem

were sometimes achieved by using WAC

medical technicians in dispensaries during

hours of service to women, or by special

precautions in handling records.35

WAC Morbidity Rate

A complicating factor in medical care

for women was the higher WAC rate of

morbidity, a term used to indicate the frequency of reporting to sick call. Industrial

surveys had indicated that civilian women

sought medical advice twice as frequently

as did men, but that as a result the average duration of an illness was less for

women. The British women's services had 33

 (1) Sources cited n. 2. (2) Memos, Civ Consultant

for Dir WAAC, 6 and 17 May 43. Folders 6 and 15,

Miss Lies' file, 1943 WAAC Plng Serv file. 34

 Craighill IBT Rpt. 35

 (1) Memo cited n. 1. (2) ETO Bd Rpt, App. 121,

p. 5.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 611

noted an identical effect. Industry found

that the excess of medical visits by women

was not due to female disorders but to the

common cold and other minor respiratory

disorders and digestive upsets. Men, when

they finally sought advice, were more apt

to have pneumonia, heart disease, or other

more serious illnesses requiring longer absence from work.36

When the WAC began to note an identical phenomenon, Director Hobby was at

first distressed and, in company with many

medical officers on posts and stations, felt

that the women were perhaps "goldbricking" or malingering. She therefore consulted The Surgeon General's Office as to

whether steps should be taken to indoctrinate WAC company commanders to discourage women from reporting to sick call

for minor ailments. Major Craighill and

The Surgeon General's Office strongly advised her to take no such action, since the

tendency was considered a desirable preventive medicine practice.

Army medical statistics soon confirmed

this fact. While the WAC sick call rate was

found to run about 36 percent above that

of the rest of the Army, some 30 percent of

WAC cases could be treated in quarters,

as contrasted to 8 percent for men. As a

result, the rate of admission to the hospital

was about the same for women as for nonbattle cases among men, and the length of

stay was less. Wacs actually lost less time

from work because of hospitalization than

did men, a fact attributed by The Surgeon

General to the less serious character of the

illnesses common among women. Thus,

while women reported about 70 percent

more colds than did men, and twice the

amount of dysentery, men had about twice

the WAC rate of pneumonia, measles,

mumps, scarlet fever, rheumatic fever, and

other more serious diseases.37

These statistics seemed to confirm The

Surgeon General's belief that a higher sick

call rate was good preventive medicine.

Therefore, in order to eliminate the resentment of medical officers against enlisted

women appearing on sick call, The Surgeon General's Office published a summary of the findings in several of its

progress reports, stating, "The higher

morbidity of the WAC need occasion no

concern. ..."

 38

Gynecological Care

The WAC's smaller loss of time by hospitalization could not be attributed to

especially efficient gynecological care,

which in Major Craighill's opinion was

largely nonexistent in Army hospitals.

Such hospitals, naturally enough, were not

originally set up with a view to caring for

female patients. Even after the Army

ceased to be exclusively male in composition, Major Craighill noted:

Gynecological and obstetrical conditions

have not been given the recognition which

the size of the problem warrants when it is

considered that over 156,000 women were

in the military service at one time, and that

there were approximately 31,000 deliveries

occurring in dependent civilian wives during

1944 in Army hospitals.

An exactly parallel situation had been

found by inspectors of British women's

services, who recommended the appointment of more gynecologists, preferably

women.39 In late 1943 The Surgeon Gen36

 (1) Baetjer, Women in Industry, pp. 39 ff. (2) Conditions in the Three Women's Services. 37

 (1) ASF Monthly Progress Rpts, Sec 7, "Health,"

for 31 Jul 44, 31 Oct 44, and 31 May 46. (2) Rpt cited

n. 5(3). (3) WD Press Release, 18 Oct 46. (4) Annual

Rpt of The SG for Fiscal Year 1945. 38

 Rpts cited n. 37(1). 39

 Conditions in the Three Women's Services.
612 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

eral's Office made surveys of the locations

of Army doctors who had been civilian

specialists in gynecology,40 but Major

Craighill noted that it was not until after

the victory over Japan that a systematic

effort was made to place such specialists in

hospitals serving the largest numbers of

women. She also reported:

Equipment and supplies for use in these

conditions have not been readily available in

many places because these items were not in- cluded in the early equipment and medical

supply lists.

It did not appear that, while the WAC

remained a tiny group in the Army, the

Medical Department would find it possible to fulfill its responsibilities to women

soldiers as well as it did to men on all of

the scattered stations employing a few

Wacs. Major Craighill was of the opinion

that at least one consultant in gynecology

and obstetrics could reasonably be appointed in the Office of The Surgeon General, but this was not done, these specialties

instead being handled by the Surgical

Service.

For this reason, very little information

was collected on the extent of gynecological problems among Wacs and nurses.

Only scattered reports were made on the

causes and cures of the various disorders

in menstruation and menopause, or the

extent to which they were influenced by

military service or were a handicap to it.

Menstrual Disorders

In 1943, a brief and sensible discussion

of the anatomy and physiology of menstruation was included in WAC training

courses. This was supplemented in 1945

by a general hygiene film, brief sequences

of which mentioned menstruation by way

of exploding popular superstitions and fallacies on the subject and teaching women

a sensible health regime.41 No further attention was given the matter. However, it

was ordinarily apparent to a woman, even

before completion of basic training, that

one of the most frequent effects of military

service upon her physical condition was

some change in menstruation. Some

women noted considerable improvement,

with less painful and more regular periods.

A few experienced an increased and often

debilitating loss of blood (menorrhagia),

or the absence of one or more periods with

consequent gain in weight and general

sluggishness (amenorrhea), or increased

pain and disability for a day or more each

month (dysmenorrhea).

Incidental notes made on the subject by

medical officers were frequently contradictory. Thus, British reports indicated

that "the best menstrual health prevails

among women doing strenuous and active

work," and that the worst disorders were

found among clerical, medical, and communications personnel and waitresses.42

This view was supported by Major Preston of the Fort Des Moines consultation

service, who noted a complete lack of

serious menstrual difficulties among

student drivers, as contrasted with higher

rates among cooks and clerks.43 On the

other hand, a survey made near the end of

the war noted that drivers and women

who had been long in other strenuous outdoor work suffered from menorrhagia to

an extent that was a distinct occupational

hazard, although they experienced less

40

 Rpts by Paul Titus, MD, Consultant to SG, in

Hist Div SGO 210.01; info from Mr. Clarence Smith,

SGO Hist Div. 41

 WD Pamphlet 35-1, Sex Hygiene Course, 27

May 43, and later edition, May 45. WDWAC 720

(1945). 42

 Conditions in the Three Women's Services. 43

 Ch. XXXII, below.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL GARE 613

pain than other workers.44 In the absence

of any more specific studies on the subject,

the validity of these observations appeared

difficult to determine.

The only agency to undertake any serious research on the problem was the Army

Air Forces, which reported that numbers

of women at certain stations in the Florida

swamps were all but disabled by menorrhagia. Some study was made of the effect

of climate upon menstruation, and of the

relative effectiveness of different treatments, but with little conclusion except

that the sufferer usually recovered if transferred to a climate or duty to which she

was accustomed.45

Unfortunately for this solution, previous regulations of The Surgeon General

provided that a soldier who was a noneffective at any station would not be transferred to another to secure his recovery,

but would be discharged. This regulation

had been designed for male patients with

asthma and similar complaints, and was

intended to prevent the Army from becoming immobilized by too many members who could work only in certain

climates or situations. WAC authorities

protested its application to menstrual disorders, since badly needed WAC typists

and clerks who could have given good permanent service were discharged because

of it. Nevertheless, no change was made in

the ruling, since The Surgeon General

considered it impractical to amend Army

Regulations for one type of case.

Another amendment thought desirable

by WAC advisers, but never granted by

The Surgeon General, was one to allow

post surgeons to authorize two hours or a

half day in quarters for women with menstrual cramps. These ordinarily abated in

the time required for aspirin to take effect,

but meanwhile, under Army Regulations,

a medical officer was required to commit

the woman to a hospital if she was unable

immediately to return to work. Since several days were ordinarily required to

secure release from a hospital, increased

loss of work time resulted. Industrial

advisers noted an identical problem:

Industries can reduce the time lost due to

dysmenorrhea by providing a place for the

women to rest, hot drinks, local heat, and

simple medication. ... If such provisions

are made, many women will be able to return

to work after a short period, whereas otherwise they would leave the plant.46

The Surgeon General was never willing to

authorize any such solution, although

reports indicated that some stations had

solved this and similar problems by maintaining dispensaries in which any patient

might be allowed to rest for a brief period.

Such dispensaries, if locally devised, had

to be managed through unofficial reallotment of grades, since they were never

authorized on any Tables of Organization.

Even without the recommended amendments, the efficiency of the Corps as a

whole was not perceptibly affected by

menstrual problems. This fact appeared

the more remarkable in view of expressed

opinions before the war that woman's

menstrual function rendered her so "abnormal, unstable," and so on, as entirely

to disqualify her for military service. Instead, while individual women had been

disqualified for certain duties or for military service, there was no instance in

which the sex as a whole had been disqualified for this reason from serving in

any particular Army job or in any station,

44

 Memo, SGO for G-1, 19 Dec 45. SPMG/DF-W,

in WD WAC 201.6. 45

 Health files (unnumbered) of Air WAC Div,

ACofAS Pers, Hq AAF, 1943-45. 46

 Baetjer, Women in Industry.
614 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

climate, or area. Industrial surveys similarly concluded that "it would appear that

the ability of women to perform mental or

muscular tasks is not essentially altered by

the menstrual cycle."

 47

A strictly parallel conclusion was indicated by the more complete records kept

for civilian women pilots by the Army Air

Forces. Here, the Ferrying Division had at

first forbidden women to fly from one day

before the beginning of the menstrual

period until two days after it, since the

Civil Aeronautics Board handbook stated

that "many women pilots have fainted

while flying during this period with fatal

results." This statement, the Ferrying Division noted with interest, seemed to have

no foundation; many women flew steadily

without fatal results, and the rule could

not be enforced because

Actually, without the rather intimate cooperation of the women pilots concerned, it

is difficult to understand just how the Group

Commander could tell when a Waf was in a

period. . . . There was little anyone could

do if a Waf denied being in that condition.

Even among those women who observed

the rule, it was noted that few were forced

"to take to their beds," but instead used

this time for the required paper work and

ground school and therefore lost no more

flying time than men.48

Menopause

Menstrual disorders tended to merge

into menopausal difficulties in a few older

women or in younger women suffering

from surgical menopause. These disturbances were ordinarily more distressing

than those of menstruation, and Director

Hobby, soon after the formation of the first

WAAC companies, called the problem to

The Surgeon General's attention, asking

whether medical examiners could not

reject women who would be problems

because of menopausal difficulties. The

Surgeon General replied that there was no

way in which the approach of menopausal

difficulties could be foretold, and believed

it unnecessary to take any specific action.49

No provision was made for treatment or

discharge of such cases. Upon her appointment, Major Craighill reported the

policies regarding menopause to be in "a

most confused state."

Throughout the next two years, WAC

inspectors were informed by company

commanders in the field that the problem

was more important than the number of

affected individuals would indicate. A

company ordinarily had only one or two

sufferers, yet the morale of an entire barracks could be affected by one such individual's constant complaints and chronic

depression. Such women, although no

asset to the Army, could not be discharged

under any existing Army Regulations

unless their difficulties became disabling

or their conduct punishable, which was

usually not the case.

Because of the number of such inspection reports, the Army Air Forces recommended to The Surgeon General that

there be authorized a separate type of

honorable menopause discharge for women "for the convenience of the government," similar to the special pregnancy

discharge. However, this was refused by

The Surgeon General on the grounds that

menopause was a normal condition and

not cause for discharge unless it became so 47

 Ibid., p. 196. 48

 Hist Recs Rpt 319, History of the ATC: Women

Pilots in the Air Transport Command, by Hist Br, Hq

ATC (1946). USAF Hist Div. 49

 Memo, WAAC Hq for SGO, 23 Jan 43, and reply 26 Jan. SPWA 210.13 and SPMCM 322.5-1

WAC, SGO Hist Div.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 615

disabling that a disability discharge was

appropriate.50

The Surgeon General in return repeatedly proposed that the maximum age

for enlistment in the WAC be lowered

from 50 to 38, to avoid admitting women

liable to menopausal difficulties. Statistics

revealed that the disability discharge rate

for women over 40 was almost three times

the average rate. Director Hobby and The

Adjutant General's Office refused this suggestion, pointing out that the WAC badly

needed recruits. Even under the higher

discharge rate, 9 out of every 10 older

women remained, and many of the most

valuable skills were in this group. It was

therefore believed undesirable to bar

many useful mature women in order to

avoid finding some means of discharging

the few who had difficulty.51

Medical supply catalogs, which originally authorized only those items needed

for the treatment of men, were belatedly

amended to add the drugs and hormones

needed for women. However, many medical officers, according to inspectors, were

unaware of this, and required enlisted

women to buy necessary supplies if they

wished treatment.52

Major Craighill therefore in 1944 proposed to The Surgeon General that some

definitive policy concerning treatment and

discharge be established by headquarters.

She reported that discharge of menopause

cases was often refused to genuine but not

"disabled" sufferers, while elsewhere disability discharge was "being used loosely,

especially to avoid the stigma of psychiatric conditions, or to get rid of people who

had undesirable traits of character or

could not adjust." About a year later, a

policy was published in a technical bulletin; the type and length of treatment was

specified, and discharge was authorized if

a patient showed no improvement after six

months.53 By this time, as Major Craighill

noted, the advice was not greatly needed,

since, with V-E Day past, the Army had

already authorized the discharge of any

man or woman over the age of 38.

Social Hygiene

By the guarded title of Social Hygiene,

WAC authorities usually avoided potentially sensational terms such as sex hygiene

and venereal disease control, believing

that they would affect recruiting adversely

if they appeared in the public press. The

Surgeon General's Office, however, although silent on the innocent problems of

menstruation and menopause, had a large

and active program for combating venereal disease, headed by an officer with the

title of Director of Venereal Disease. This

office, where dormancy would have been

welcomed by WAC recruiters, promptly

sprang into activity at the prospect of setting up a thorough venereal disease control program for women. In its efforts to

devise a program comparable to that for

men, this office was always to feel itself

hampered by the Director WAC, and

Director, Army Nurse Corps, because of

their belief in different moral standards

for women.

Thus, in the initial and all wartime admission standards, venereal disease was

made a cause for rejection of women,

although The Surgeon General's specialists

believed that from a public health stand50

 Memo, Exec WAC for Air WAC Off, 16 Jun 44.

WDWAC 720. 51

 (1) Memo, SG for CG ASF, 7 Feb 44, SMPDA

322.5-1, with remarks of MPD ASF, 15 Feb, SPGAP

342 Gen, and Dir WAC, 3 Mar, WDWAC 341. All in

SPWA 341 (1942). (2) Rpt cited n. 5(3), p. 285. 52

 Memo cited n. 32(1). 53

 T. B. Med 158, May 1945.
616 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

point it would be better to take such women off the community's hands and treat

them, as was done with men.54

In August of 1942, there occurred a

clash over what Director Hobby described

as

. . . the calling of a meeting of civilians, at

the request of the Surgeon General, to discuss

the details and scope of the sex hygiene instruction to be given by the WAAC, without

reference to the Director WAAC either as to

the necessity for or the advisability of such a

meeting . . . to the serious jeopardy of the

military and civilian acceptance of the whole

idea of the Corps.55

The civilians thus consulted were scientists

of the National Research Council, who

were accustomed to advise The Surgeon

General on venereal disease control among

men, and who emerged with a proposed

venereal control program for women so

thorough as to disconcert even The Surgeon General. The scientists proposed that

Waacs, like men, be taught all of the facts

of life concerning sex and how to prevent

venereal disease and that, since unmarried

women would be too modest to request issue of prophylactics as men did, these be

dispensed from slot machines in WAAC

latrines.

WAAC Headquarters, shocked but not

speechless, denounced this idea, and The

Surgeon General hastily rejected it. This

apparently Victorian reaction was not so

exaggerated as it appeared to disciples of

pure science, since the decline of WAAC

recruiting a year later was in fact closely

connected with the unfounded public

charges, possibly based on this incident,

that the Army issued Waacs prophylactics

which it expected them to put to good use

for "morale purposes" among the soldiers.56

 Director Hobby stated that The

Surgeon General, in calling such a meeting without her approval, might have

wrecked the whole WAAC program had

news of the meeting reached the newspapers. To this The Surgeon General replied, "It has never been considered necessary to request the permission of the

Chiefs of the various Arms and Services to

discuss health problems."

 57

The problems of preventing and treating venereal disease in women were admittedly more complex than those for men,

partly because of social taboos and the

double standard of morality, and partly

because the physical organs involved were

less easily protected from infection and less

accessible to treatment. Medical officers

gave fleeting consideration to setting up

prophylaxis stations for women such as

those for men, and to providing women

with suitable prophylactics comparable to

those given to men. Chemical agents, however, were known to offer little protection

to women. Mechanical means were not

much more reliable, and had an associated

contraceptive use that made their issuance

even more dangerous from a recruiting

standpoint. Also, it was realized that

women, unlike men, would not spontaneously avail themselves of such a station's

facilities.

In any case, the whole idea was never

remotely considered by the directors of the

women's services. Early medical meetings

concluded that, because of the high type

of woman expected in the Corps, no control measures would be needed except a

good training course in physiology and hy54

 Sources cited n. 5. 55

 Memo, Dir WAAC for CofS, 4 Aug 42, sub:

Status of WAAC Hq in WD Consideration of WAAC

Matters. Copies in SGO Classif SPMC 322.5-1, and

Adm Serv ASF, DRB AGO. 56

 See Ch. XI, above. 57

 1st Ind, SGO for CofAdm Serv, 8 Aug 42, to

Memo cited n. 55.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 617

giene such as was given in some women's

colleges. In December of 1942 Director

Hobby requested that The Surgeon General's Office prepare such a course for

WAAC officers to use in instructing women

in health and hygiene.58

This pamphlet,59 after a rewriting by

Director Hobby's office, sounded more like

a moral than a medical discourse. "We all

desire the Corps to be the finest organization in the world," officer candidates were

taught. "Every member must insist that

the conduct of the Corps be irreproachable. . . . It is difficult for one person to

realize the damage she can do the Corps

by her conduct alone."

After further pages in this key, a certain

amount of medical information was given:

woman's physiology and the proper functioning of her reproductive organs in menstruation, childbearing, and menopause;

the frightful effects of venereal disease

upon herself and her children; the difficulty of protection and treatment. Prospective WAAC officers were taught that

war traditionally placed many stresses

upon standards of conduct, and that their

women must be protected against these

and should be encouraged to bring all

such questions to the WAAC officer. Officers were cautioned to avoid letting their

women be led into injudicious conduct because of boredom, poor recreational facilities, lack of appreciation and praise of

their work, or ignorance of the facts regarding sex and of how to control their

own desires.

All references were in moral terms:

venereal disease was "a national menace";

illegitimate pregnancy "a personal tragedy

as well as a loss in womanpower"; and as

for abortion, "no woman should resort to

this." There was absolutely no reference

to prophylaxis except to say that, for

women, all means were "neither effective

or practicable." There was no discussion

of the various chemical and mechanical

means of avoiding infection and pregnancy, nor were women told where to get

these prophylactics, or how to use them.

In the opinion of annoyed medical officers,

a more Victorian approach to the facts of

life could scarcely have been contrived.

Nevertheless, it was shortly after the restricted publication of this course of instruction that there ensued the newspaper

attacks of the slander campaign, which

charged that a "secret document" directed

that contraceptives be issued to Wacs.

The training course was not withdrawn,

although the Navy Department delayed

from 1943 to 1944 in distributing the

WAVES' sex hygiene pamphlets and films

because of the "publication of erroneous

and distorted information regarding a

similar program of the WAC."

The Surgeon General's Office desired to

follow the pamphlet with a letter to Army

medical officers in the field, directing them

to assume the same responsibility for venereal disease control that they had for men,

but this was discouraged by WAAC Headquarters. Instead, selected WAAC instructors were sent to a meeting discreetly titled

A Conference on Preventive Medicine,

and thence to a tour of the field to lecture

to those company officers who had not had

the new course in basic training. This

avoided the possibility that some field

medical officer, uninstructed in the explosive possibilities of the subject, would say

something in his lecture to Wacs that the

American public could consider immoral.

The Surgeon General's Office also made

repeated recommendations that training

58

 Memo, WAAC Hq for SG, 5 Dec 42, sub: AR

615-250. SPWA 201.6 R. 59

 Pamphlet cited n. 41.
618 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

material and films on disease control be

sent to the field, as well as pamphlets and

posters. These ideas were all rejected by

the War Department for almost another

year. Finally, in 1944, permission was

granted to show certain Public Health

Service and Canadian films especially designed to avoid shocking the public. A

carefully rewritten pamphlet was also approved, and finally a second one for

women overseas, although, as Major

Craighill pointed out, this appeared just as

most women were nearing the end of their

overseas service. All of these training aids

continued to have a moral tone and gave

no instruction in prophylaxis.60

Director Hobby's chief fear during this

period was that, in the hundreds of stations to which Wacs were now assigned,

some medical officer would erroneously

apply the regulations governing men, and

thus supply enemies of the Corps with

grounds for stating that Wacs were urged

to use contraceptives. The danger was redoubled in that the Medical Department

and Military Training Division, like

almost all other headquarters agencies, occasionally forgot that all Army Regulations were applicable to the WAC unless

otherwise specified, and published directives that made no exceptions for women.

Thus, in April of 1944 the circular on

Training in Basic Medical Subjects was

already cleared for publication by Military Training Division before Colonel

Hobby discovered, from an information

copy, that it prescribed instruction in "individual methods of preventing venereal

disease" for "all military personnel."

 61

 To

prevent such accidents in the future, Director Hobby secured publication of a

War Department circular stating plainly:

It is contrary to War Department policy

either to provide instruction in venereal disease prophylaxis for female personnel of the

Army of the United States, or to issue venereal disease prophylaxis materials to such

personnel. The provisions of Army Regulations and directives concerning these matters

are intended for male personnel only and are

not applicable to female personnel.62

The Director also secured publication of a

circular stating that WAC unit commanders would give or arrange the periodic instruction in social hygiene that was

required by Army Regulations.63

These precautions proved useful, for as

late as 1945 an Army Regulation declared

that "Commanding Officers will make

readily available to all military personnel

such venereal disease prophylactic items

as are prescribed and furnished by the

Surgeon General," and that instructions

would include "routine use of prophylactic

methods during and following possible exposure."

 64

 In such cases it could only be

hoped that field authorities were aware of

the earlier circular and would not interpret "all military personnel" as including

women.

If any danger to women's health resulted from a disease control program

based on recruiting considerations rather

than medical ones, such danger was not

apparent in the rates of infection. In fact,

it quickly became clear that among Wacs

venereal disease was so rare as to be a neg60

 (1) Pub Health Serv Films: Fight Syphilis and

The Magic Bullet; Canadian film: For Your Information;

American film: Our Job to Know. (2) Pamphlet: You'd

Better Know, printed by V. D. Education Institute,

Raleigh, N. C. (3) WD Pamphlet 35-4, 1945, For

Women Overseas. AG 461 (3-13-45), in WDWAC 720. 61

 Memo Routing Slip, MTD ASF to Dep Dir

WAC, 7 Apr 44, re Draft of Change to Cir 48, 3 Feb

44, with atchd note. 62

 WD Cir 172, 2 May 44, sec IV. 63

 WD Cir 6, 4 Jan 44, amended by WD Cir 163,

26 Apr 44. 64

 AR 40-210, 25 Apr 45.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 619

ligible health problem. Although the rate

for civilian women in the United States

was only slightly lower than that for

men—87 to 90 percent of the men's rate in

1945—the WAC rate was in all reports

considerably below the men's rate, being

estimated finally by Major Craighill as

only about 18 percent of the men's rate. It

was especially noted that, in overseas areas

designated as "epidemic," where men's

rates considerably exceeded the rates for

the United States, the WAC rates showed

no notable difference.65

The lower WAC ratio seemed partially

due to the fact that the WAC excluded

women infected at the time of application

or with a history of venereal disease. While

infections existing before enlistment were

also not counted in the yearly incidence

rates for men, the WAC system tended to

prevent admission of "repeaters." Another

factor was the smaller number of Negroes

in the WAC, which had only 4 percent of

Negro personnel as against 10 percent for

the Army. Since rates for both men and

women were higher in the Negro race, an

additional 6 percent of Negroes might

have raised the WAC rate somewhat. Also,

the moralizing approach used by the

WAC was later tried in several postwar

groups of men, with some indication that,

at least for younger men, it appeared to result in lower infection rates.66

These statistics were repeatedly made

available to investigating groups, but were

never fully credited by the general public.

Thus, toward the end of the war, a Congresswoman received a letter complaining,

"The rate of venereal disease among the

women in our forces is increasing at an

alarming speed." Director Hobby again

called at the Capitol in person with the

statistics, and again secured written Congressional assurance that "the matter has

been answered wholly to my satisfaction.

I think you should feel exceedingly proud

of the Wacs."

 67

At only one early period was the Corps'

ability to maintain this high standard in

doubt. This occurred during the Auxiliary

period just before control of recruiting was

taken over by WAAC Headquarters, when

lowered entrance requirements caused an

influx of diseased women into training centers in such numbers as, in a few units, to

equal or surpass the men's rates.68 This

trend was checked before it produced any

notable fluctuation in the over-all rate, but

gave evidence that a women's corps was

by no means exempt from the Army problem, and that of civilian society, except by

strict maintenance of enlistment standards.

The Surgeon General ruled that women

with venereal disease, although barred

from enlistment, could not be discharged

if admitted by faulty examinations.

The diagnosis and treatment of syphilis

in women presented no particular problem for medical officers, since it was similar to that in men. The diagnosis of gonor65

 WAC rate is from Major Craighill's final report.

Her sources were regular monthly reports from all

service commands, received throughout the war.

Civilian comparison is from: (1) Office Memo, U.S.

Pub Health Serv VD Div for OCMH 13 Jul 50, sub:

Morbidity Rates by Sex and Color. OCMH. (2) Telephone conversations with Dr. Johannes Stuart and

J. Wallace Rion of that division. The Public Health

Service stated that, due to differing methods of determining rates, no exactly comparable figure could be

given for civilian women, but that the ratio of male to

female rates should hold true under any method of collection of data, and that studies indicated that incidence for men was about the same whether in or out

of Army. 66

 Notably at Universal Military Training test

groups at Fort Knox, visited by the author. 67

 Ltr, Rep. Frances P. Bolton (Ohio) to Dir WAC,

5 Dec 44, incl Ltr from constituent, and another, 16

Dec 44. WDWAC 720. 68

 Ltr, Post Surg to Comdt 4th WAAC Tng Cen, 14

May 43; 3d Ind, SGO to Dir WAAC. SGO Hist Div

322.5-1.
620 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

rhea in women was more difficult, as

smears were found unreliable and cultures

required expert laboratory technique

which was available in few places. The

Medical Department expressed an interest

in experimenting with the hitherto-unproved penicillin treatment for gonorrhea

and salpingitis in women. A treatment

center was established, but, said the disappointed authorities, "Unfortunately for

study, very few cases were discovered for

this treatment," and the test had to be

completed by civilian agencies with civilian women. Effective standards for this

and other treatments were eventually developed and published.

Pregnancy

The WAC pregnancy rate, like that of

venereal disease, was never great enough

to require any special studies or recommendations from the Office of The Surgeon General. The total rate varied from 0

to 7 per 1,000 per month at different times.

Toward the end of the war a noticeable increase occurred, which was attributed to

the return of husbands from overseas, their

wives' desire to get out of the Army, or "a

family was desired before becoming too

old." Even so, the final average of 4 per

1,000 per month or 48 per 1,000 per year

was considerably less than the rate of 117

per 1,000 per year for civilian women in

comparable age groups.69 Since the WAC

rate was computed on the basis of pregnancies, and the civilian rate on actual

births, the gap was obviously even greater.

Medical authorities were of the opinion

that the lower WAC rate did not indicate

that military service was damaging to the

fertility of women. It was in fact reported

that many married women who had never

before been able to become pregnant now

did so, perhaps because of "a routine

healthy life, plus the temporary separation

from the husband . . . [or] high emotional states while on leave."

 70

As for the necessary medical considerations for treatment of pregnant servicewomen, the Office of The Surgeon General found that these differed from existing

provisions for nurses and soldiers' wives

only in that most Wacs were enlisted personnel with certain service records to be

kept. Thus, soon after the Corps' organization, inquiries were frequent from station hospitals as to whether pregnancy

should be entered in the individual's records as incurred "Not in line of duty," and

if so, whether time lost should be required

to be made good, as it was for certain other

"NLD" cases, and also how these decisions

would apply to the complications and sequelae of pregnancy, such as hemorrhages,

toxemias, abortions, and miscarriages.71

In 1944, the Army Regulations were

amended to make clear that, while pregnancy would be recorded as "not in line of

duty," the individual would not be required to make good lost time, and neither

AR 35-1440 nor AW 107 would apply.

The same ruling was applied to the sequelae of pregnancy, except for illegal

abortions.72

A particular problem for medical officers was that of quick and accurate certification of pregnancy in order to expedite

discharge. Where delay occurred, protests

were frequently received from husband or

69

 Med Stat Div SGO analysis. Also see Table 9,

Appendix A. Civilian rate for 1944 is from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United

States: 1948, Table 69, p. 67; rate for each age group

of civilian women has been weighted according to the

percent of Wacs who were in that age group. 70

 Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World, p. 114. 71

 Ltr cited n. 68. 72

 AR 615-361, 4 Nov 44, sec 22.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 621

parents that miscarriage had been caused

by work assigned during that period. One,

for example, charged that loss of a muchdesired heir was "due entirely to the long

hours and constant work, and the fact that

as soon as her condition was known she

was not discharged."

 73

 Legal action

against the responsible medical or company officers was sometimes threatened.

Also, delay was highly undesirable from

the public relations viewpoint, since

women whose condition had become obvious were seen by the public in near-outgrown uniforms and were invariably assumed to be unmarried.74

In Auxiliary days, WAAC Headquarters had requested The Surgeon General's

Office to work out a means for applying a

laboratory test to ensure very early diagnosis. However, the request was rejected

by The Surgeon General as "not practical" because it required a large supply of

nonpregnant rabbits and quarters for the

same, both being difficult to find.75 Late in

1944, an addition to Army discharge regulations required that "the diagnosis will be

certified as early as possible in pregnancy.

. . . This does not preclude observation

for a reasonable period of time in which to

make certain that the diagnosis is correct."

 76

 At this time, medical officers were

also authorized to use any biological or

other tests that they desired, without cost

to the patient.

The only further step that Director

Hobby was able to obtain to expedite discharge was an administrative one, which

prevented transfer of a woman to another

station or overseas before a medical officer

had completed his observation: "No transfer will be effected if there is reason to suspect the existence of pregnancy until clearance has been obtained from the medical

officer responsible for the care of such personnel."

 77

 Even with this safeguard,

Major Craighill noted that in overseas

theaters, "Cases of pregnancy which were

reported as likely prior to overseas shipment have been sent overseas, even against

the protest of the unit commander."

 78

While the incidence of unmarried pregnancy was not regarded as great enough to

merit any special studies, Major Craighill

and her staff on field visits made incidental

notes of the factors that seemed to them to

lead unmarried women into misconduct

and resulting pregnancy. It was noted that

the rate varied surprisingly in detachments within the same area—from only 1

pregnancy in 15 months in one detachment, to 7 times that many in a neighboring one. Several factors were isolated that

appeared to have some relationship:

Detachments with a good company commander had low pregnancy rates.

Most pregnancies occurred, oddly enough,

where women were subject to the most restrictions, bed check, etc. Detachments with the least recreation

facilities had the most pregnancies. Length of service was a positive factor, and

possibly length of assignment to one station,

with resulting fatigue and boredom.

Women a long distance from home were

more susceptible. None of the cases occurred in women who

were accustomed to drinking.79

73

 Ltr, Mrs. M. T. Kramer to Dir WAC, 2 Jun 44.

WD WAC 330.14. 74

 D/F, Dir WAC for ASF Com on Awards, 12 Jun

44, sub: Amendment of AR 615-40. WDWAC 300.3

(6-8-44). 75

 Memo, SGO for Col Catron (Exec WAAC), 24

Mar 43, sub: Test for Pregnancy. WDWAC 702,

Hobby file. 76

 AR 615-361, 4 Nov 44. 77

 Ltr, TAG to AAF, AGF, ASF, 7 Oct 44. AGPEA-WDGAP 200.3 WAC (10-2-44), as printed for

AAF fld stations by AAF Ltr 35-148, 20 Oct 44. 78

 Craighill SWPA Rpt. 79

 Memo, Maj Margaret Janeway, MC, Asst Consultant for Women's Health and Welfare, to Col Freer,

SGO, 27 Sep 44. SGO CI 321 WAC.
622 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Psychiatric Problems

Major Craighill upon her appointment

found that no action had yet been taken

toward the study or analysis of women's

psychiatric disorders. Upon visiting training center hospitals, she noted that they

"were being filled with inadequate persons

whose cases presented a major problem in

disposition." At recruiting stations, she

found that all types of psychiatric examinations, or none, were being given, with

psychiatric rejection rates varying from 3

per 1,000 examined to 89 per 1,000. It was

evident that the first figure was too low,

since four out of five of all discharges for

neuropsychiatric reasons followed quickly

after enlistment.80

In an attempt to meet the problem,

Colonel Hobby requested that psychiatric

examiners be given better instructions and

that mental hygiene units be set up in

WAC training centers, to screen out the

worst of the examiners' mistakes before

they reached the field, and to salvage recruits with minor difficulties.81

 Little action was taken on the request until the

spring of 1944, when Col. William C.

Menninger was appointed to head The

Surgeon General's Neuropsychiatric Division. Colonel Menninger's attitude toward

the problem was expressed in a memorandum to his staff:

I raised quite a little hell about the fact

that psychiatrists in the field who were supposed to examine Wacs didn't know about

the WAC program in many instances. . . .

What did you ever do about it? Let's get go- ing.82

By the end of 1944 Colonel Menninger

had secured explicit directions to medical

examiners, and had also established a pioneer mental hygiene unit at Fort Des

Moines under the direction of a Menninger-trained psychiatrist, Maj. Albert Preston, Jr. During the eighteen months of its

existence the unit compiled, from 18,000

interviews, extensive statistics on the psychiatric problems of women in military

service and the differences of such problems from those of men.83

Much of the success of the project was

attributed by Major Preston and by the

commandant of the training center to the

fact that the unit, called the Consultation

Service, was not attached to the hospital

but worked closely with classification and

assignment officers. According to these authorities, women would seldom voluntarily

seek out a psychiatrist at a hospital, knowing that his duty was to use their disclosures against them in obtaining their discharge, but when a psychiatrist was available in a separate office, to give advice and

counsel on job difficulties and adjustment,

women would and did flock to see him.84

Such a unit was also found more suitable than the Auxiliary's earlier system of

employing a civilian resident counselor,

similar to the British system of traveling

counselors called The Twelve Elder Sisters. Such counselors, while badly needed

in the absence of any others, were found to

be handicapped by the danger that their

80

 Memo cited n. 29. 81

 (1) Rpt cited n. 2(2). (2) Ltr, Dir WAC to CG

4th SvC, 12 Nov 43, and 3d Ind, SGO to Dir WAC, 8

Mar 44. WDWAC 211 (1944). 82

 (1) Memo, Col Menninger for Maj Berlien, 26

Jun 44. SPMDU, Capt Berlien folder, SGO Hist Div.

(2) Memo, Col Menninger to Maj McClure, O Dir

WAC, 10 Mar 44. WDWAC 000.7. 83

 All references to psychiatrists' opinions, unless

otherwise specified, are from: (1) Preston, History of

Psychiatry in the Women's Army Corps, 1946. Copy

in SGO and O Dir WAC. (2) Menninger, Psychiatry in

a Troubled World. Used with the permission of The

Macmillan Company, publishers. 84

 Interv with Col Frank U. McCoskrie, Comdt 1st

WAC Tng Cen.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 623

advice might be regarded as civilian interference.85

The Consultation Service rendered

"psychiatric first aid" to Wacs, advised

commanding officers and classification officers, and gave mental hygiene lectures.

It was discovered that women showed less

resentment than men to psychiatric referrals, which Major Preston attributed to

"the fact that in women the socially acknowledged and permitted emotionalism

is accepted and not judged as a conflict,

stigma, or weakness, as in men." About 25

percent of the women treated by the Consultation Service were discharged; the remainder were salvaged with some degree

of success.

The success of the unit prompted the

WAC's National Civilian Advisory Committee to recommend, at its meetings in

October of 1944 and again in February of

1945, that more mental hygiene facilities

of the same type be provided, with mobile

units to reach those companies too small

to merit permanent consultation service.

This measure was believed impracticable

for either men or women by The Surgeon

General, who reported that "this office is

unable to see clearly the need for mobile

mental hygiene units."

 86

Material collected by the Des Moines

unit convinced psychiatrists that "women

faced definite psychological factors of significance" in attempting to adjust to military life, where they must "subordinate

traditional feminine attitudes and functions." By the "adoption of a severely masculine and identical style of dress," women

were believed to have lost one traditional

feminine means of "individuality, competition, and gratification," a problem not

experienced to a like degree by men, who

were customarily more regimented in

dress and expressed their individuality by

other means. Because of their early training, women were also believed to require

a greater effort at adjustment to the lack of

privacy in bathing, dressing, and other living arrangements.

Most important, General Menninger

believed, was the conflict with public

opinion. Inconsistently enough, the approved feminine role was "a passive and

dependent one . . . even in our own

democracy," while at the same time "the

modern girl child in America is not taught

to be the passive, dependent individual

our culture has conceived of as the normal

of adult femininity." This conflict,

although existing for all American women,

was intensified for Wacs, even as contrasted with the Army Nurse Corps, whose

military status might meet public disapproval but whose profession was at least

"universally regarded and accepted as a

feminine function." On the other hand,

military service was believed to offer some

psychological compensation through an

opportunity for women to release many

feminine frustrations and become active,

independent individuals.

Psychiatrists also noted that the Corps

as a whole faced one special problem because of its volunteer nature. Volunteers,

as contrasted to draftees, included more

"unsuitable individuals such as the maladjusted and those seeking glamour."

They were also apt to feel "some inherent

right to have some choice in their assignments, duties, and locations." If improperly assigned they were more likely to be

85

 Memo, Well-Being Off for Dir WAC, 3 Jan 44,

and atchd file. Personal papers of Dep Dir WAC, in

OCMH. 86

 (1) Memo, G-1 for CofS, 13 Oct 44. WDGAP

334, in CofS 324.5 WAC. (2) Min, Conf, 16-18 Feb

45. WD Lib and Hobby files. (3) Comment 4, to

memo not found, Dir Per ASF to G-1, 28 May 45.

WDWAC 720.
624 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

"wondering if they were contributing

enough," or contrasting Army jobs with

those for which they might more wisely

have volunteered elsewhere.87

The control group of 18,000, which

Colonel Menninger called "a cross-section

of WAC's," contained 10,000 patients and

only 8,000 normal women interviewed for

other purposes. It was therefore not surprising that, as expressed in psychiatric

language, almost all volunteers' motives

appeared alarming to the layman: those

who wished to play an active part in the

war effort were displaying signs of "masculine identification"; those who wished to

share war's sufferings with the men were

termed "masochists," while those who

thought the WAC would be enjoyable

were "escapists"; and even those carried

away by patriotic emotions were probably

"hysterical."

Major Preston observed, "It was found

that neither emotional, practical, or intellectual motivation was a guarantee for

success in the WAC. . . . The greater the

opportunity given for fulfillment of the

motivation for enlistment, the greater were

the gains both personal and military."

Thus, a former file clerk who enlisted because of a desire to do outdoor work appeared to be more useful if allowed to

work in that capacity than if forced into a

sedentary or "feminine" field.

Among patients of the Consultation

Service, as contrasted to Wacs generally,

Major Preston found "selfishness predominant . . . the hoping to gain something

from the Army. They are much more anxious to gain than to give." Many had also

hoped that the Army would be more

pleasant than their homes, would "make

them well," or "make a woman of them."

Others hoped that they would be treated

harshly, desiring to punish themselves for

some reason. One candid individual observed that "her husband was such a good

man and spent so much on her and her

family, that she was so happy, that she felt

she didn't have the right to be so happy, so

she enlisted in the WAC."

 88

A composite picture of "the maladjusted

WAC" was compiled by Major Preston as

an example to recruiters of a type which

could easily be detected and avoided:

She is 26 years of age; she is careless and

untidy in her personal appearance. . . . She

has completed the tenth grade at an advanced age, stopping school after several failures because she was embarrassed at being

older, or was tired of it. After leaving school

she usually stayed around home doing nothing, being dependent upon her family financially and emotionally, and then is apt to

have had multiple periods of brief employ- ment of an unsatisfactory type, clerking in 5

and 10 stores, being an elevator operator, waitress, grocery clerk, or some similar occupation.

She has had several abdominal operations,

perhaps even a complete hysterectomy in her

early twenties, or if she has not had such a

history, the patient describes several episodes

of what she terms as a "nervous breakdown."

. . . Most frequently she comes from a broken home and had poor relationships with

her step-parents . . . one or more of whom

have been in some difficulty, legal or psychiatric. She married impulsively at 18 or 19

and chose a man whom she had known for

only a brief period of time. Her first marriage

usually ended in divorce and again she married impulsively. She has had a life of constant conflict between herself and her environment. . . . Finally and again impulsively

she enlisted in the WAC as an escape from an

intolerable home situation, often leaving a

dependent child at home to be cared for by

her parents. She states that when she was re87

 See also Dr. Marion Kenworthy, in Rpt of Dir

WAC, sub: Gen in All Theaters. WDWAC 333.1

(1945-46). 88

 Min, Conf of NCAC and WAC Stf Dirs, Ft Des

Moines, 16-18 Feb 45, pp. 11-18. OCMH.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 625

cruited, she was promised a good job, early

promotion, a furlough . . . that her lack of

education did not matter and that she would

not have to do physical training, drill, classwork. . . . When this Utopia has finally exploded, she comes to us again seeking an escape from an environment which is too rigid

for her quotient of adaptability.89

As compared to a well-adjusted group

of women whom he approved for leadership school, Major Preston noted that the

disturbed group had twice as many cases

of broken homes as did the normal group,

four times as many divorces, five times as

many abdominal operations, seven times

as many "nervous breakdowns." It also

had at least twice as many married

women.

If any material was collected by the

Consultation Service concerning the technical manifestations of neurotic and

psychotic traits in women, or the treatment of the same, this did not remain in

War Department files.90 The only exception was the subject of homosexuality,

which was investigated briefly because of

the apparent public impression that a

women's corps was the ideal breeding

ground for it. One accuser stated that Fort

Oglethorpe was "full of homosexuals and

sex maniacs."

 91

 Director Hobby upon receipt of this allegation at once requested

the Army's Inspector General to determine the true situation. The Inspector

General complied, but was able to find

very little evidence of homosexual practices; the incidence seemed no greater and

probably less than in the civilian population.92

The only explanation that could be

found for such accusations appeared to be

the vague and erroneous nature of popular

ideas on the subject: any woman who was

masculine in appearance or dress, or who

did not enjoy men's company, was apt to

be singled out for suspicion. Medical

authorities pointed out that the true female homosexual was only occasionally of

this type, and more often just the opposite.

WAC company commanders were especially cautioned to avoid witch-hunting

based on such amateur impressions.

The problem was complicated by the

fact that emotional demonstrativeness was

an accepted trait among women, who

thought nothing of kissing or embracing

female friends or walking arm-in-arm

with them, while medical officers sometimes viewed these traits with the alarm

that would have been attached to identical

behavior among men. It was also true that

the nation, where masculine comradeship

was commonplace, had few traditions of

friendship between women; a woman who

was capable of liking other women was

popularly regarded as slightly peculiar. In

actual fact, many members of the women's

services noted that there was possible a

comradeship among women quite similar

to that which men had traditionally enjoyed, and which for honesty, loyalty, and

freedom from tension and selfish motives

often surpassed the average man-woman

relationship. Army psychologists encouraged this loyalty of woman to woman, as

an aid to growth in maturity and leadership.93

Because the problem of homosexuality

89

 Ibid. 90

 It is understood, from an interview with Major

Preston, that he retained these records upon return

to civilian employment in the Menninger clinic, and

intended to write a book concerning psychiatric problems of women. 91

 Ltr to Dir WAC in WDWAC 330.14 (1944). 92

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, Att MTD, 26 Aug

44, sub: Course of Instruction on Homosexuality, with

2d Ind, SGO to Dir WAC; IG investigation is described. SGO Cl SPMC 330.14 Ft Oglethorpe. 93

 Pamphlet cited n. 41.
626 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

occurred so rarely in the WAC, The Surgeon General believed that no course of

instruction in the problem was needed,

but merely a reference to it in lectures by

the psychiatrist. There were some indications that in a peacetime career service the

problem might require more specific

action, but that a wartime "citizen's

Army" would present no more problem

than did the rest of the nation.

Accidents and Injuries

All evidence indicated that the rates of

accidents and nonbattle injuries were almost identical for enlisted men and

women in the Army. The rates as recorded

for a six-month period in 1944 showed 72

injured per 5,000 strength each year for

women and 70 for men, while an eighteenmonth survey near the end of the war corrected this figure to show a slightly lower

rate for women—about 50 per 1,000 per

year for women against about 55 for men.

No studies were made by The Surgeon

General's Office that would have indicated

the nature and causes of the accident rate

for women.94

The only detailed study in this respect

was made by the Army Air Forces, which

employed a WAC officer in its Ground

Safety Division. There was found to be

considerable difference in the type, place,

and cause of injury for men and women,

according to the Air Forces statistics in a

limited survey. It appeared that women

had less than half as many motor vehicle

accidents as men, either on or off the post.

When assigned to perform technical work,

women also had less than half as many

accidents on the job. In mess hall work

and kitchen police, women might have

more strained backs but had fewer other

injuries, so that total rates were much the

same for men and women.

On the other hand, the advantage of

women in driving and technical work was

evened in the total rate by the fact that

when a Wac was placed on some level or

generally harmless area she would, a third

again as often as men, fall down and acquire a sprain or strain. The Air Forces

noted with curiosity that most of women's

injuries had no relation to their jobs and

that "one of the most common types is

falls—falling on stairways and curbings,

falls on ice, or stumbling while simply

walking on the post. . . . About one half of

all the injuries studied thus far are stumbling, tripping, and falling on the same

level."

Recurring frequently in reports were

falls while entering and alighting from

vehicles or jumping from the backs of

trucks; falls due to running in barracks,

especially on stairways; falls due to jumping off porches or down stairs; slips and

falls on freshly mopped floors; back

sprains due to improper lifting; slips while

climbing on boxes and chairs to reach high

places; and tripping, sliding, slipping, or

colliding in games and sports. Surveyors

were unable fully to account for this Wac

propensity, noting only that "the question

of why women have such accidents is complicated."

There appeared to be some relation to

the fact that a wholly satisfactory women's

military shoe had never reached some stations, and that in any case a woman's

medium-heeled oxford was obviously less

suitable for action than a man's shoe.

Even if the proper footgear for sports had

been issued, it appeared highly probable

that the average woman was also less ac94

 Rpts cited n. 37(1). Figures are given in a chart

that cannot be interpreted exactly.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 627

customed to baseball, football, and other

active sports and athletics for which an

Army station had facilities.

While the total rates for both men and

women appeared relatively tiny, the Air

Forces made every effort to lower them,

pointing out that the rate showed one injury per 28 women each year, with about

8,000 workdays lost. Women's injuries

appeared to be slightly less serious than

those for men; for each injury, women remained hospitalized a total of 15.59 days

as against 18.19 for men.

Some commanders reported good results from warning signs or posters at spots

in halls, stairways, and porches where

members were particularly prone to run

or jump. On the other hand, civilian

studies indicated that such an approach

might actually increase accidents by implanting unconscious ideas of a fall in such

locations, and that the best preventive

measures required psychological assistance

to those "accident-prone" individuals who

ordinarily accounted for a disproportionate share of accident rates. If any later

emergency should require large-scale use

of women in more active physical work,

some further evaluation of preventive

measures seemed useful.95

Weight and Diet

The WAC master menu, published by

The Quartermaster General in 1944, came

too late to prevent what appeared to observers to be a widespread condition of

overweight among Wacs, who for two

years had eaten Army menus while performing chiefly sedentary jobs. A somewhat inconclusive sample of Wacs in

training indicated that 82 percent gained

weight, to an average gain of 6 pounds,

during the six weeks of basic training, at

the end of which period some 45 percent

were overweight; some 42 percent had

gained an inch in waist measurement and

59 percent of them in hip measurement.96

The Director, perceiving the trend, consulted The Surgeon General's Office in

1944 as to the best means of bringing to

Wacs' attention the relationship of weight

to health. The result was a War Department circular appearing late in 1944, entitled Weight Control in the WAC.

Unfortunately, its chief result, insofar as

could be determined, was to bring down

on Wacs in the field an unmerciful ribbing

from male personnel who found the circular enjoyable reading matter. Any more

beneficial results, although possible, had

not been reported by the end of the war.97

Fatigue and Health Impairment

As the war neared its end, one of the

more important medical problems began

to be the onset of fatigue, with corresponding adverse effects upon health and efficiency. As distinguished from combat

fatigue in men, the problem for women

appeared to be just the opposite, caused by

unrelieved sedentary work that had long

since lost any visible closeness to the war

effort.

In order to define the problem, and

counteract it if possible, Director Hobby

95

 Memo, AAF Ground Safety Div for Air WAC

Div, 5 May 45, sub: Study of Injury Experience of

AAF Military Women, AFPGS. The survey covered

women in six different Air Commands for a 10-month

period, May 1944 through February 1945. 96

 Memo, Capt Donna Niles for Dir Tng Div SGO,

12 Apr 44. Folder, Berlien—Reports on Weight, SGO

Hist Div. 97

 (1) Memo, Exec WAC to SG, 13 Jun 44.

WDWAC 702, 1944. (2) Memo, SGO for G-1, 23 Oct

44. SPMC/DF-W, in WDWAC 720.
628 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

in April of 1945 requested The Surgeon

General to make a survey of the Factors of

Fatigue Influencing the Effectiveness of

WAC Personnel.98 Little was known on

the subject. Industrial surveys recognized

that there existed "a decreased capacity to

work as a result of previous work or activity," but were unable to state exactly what

caused it, except that it did not appear to

be related to strength, health, injuries, or

blood cell count.99

Returns from The Surgeon General's

survey indicated, as hoped, that the situation had not yet caused any noticeable

diminution of WAC efficiency, in the

opinion of Army commanders. When

asked to what extent their Wacs' efficiency

had declined since the beginning of the

war, section chiefs replied overwhelmingly

that it had not declined but increased. It

was estimated by these section chiefs that

they would have rated 74 percent of the

women excellent or superior when they

first began their jobs, and that by the end

of the war 85 percent were considered excellent or superior.

On the other hand, the opinion of medical officers and of the women themselves

was that fatigue and health impairment

were rapidly mounting with each month

of service. Almost one half of the women

were found to be more nervous than before

they enlisted, about one fourth suffered

from increased mental depression, and one

fourth had more colds. Only negligible

numbers were found to be in better health,

less nervous, or less depressed, and less

than one percent had fewer colds. A startling 40 percent were diagnosed as suffering from "true fatigue," defined as decline

in efficiency, loss of interest in outside

activity, and listlessness, accompanied by

"the weariness which does not respond to

the usual form and amount of relaxation."

Medical surveyors did not count as

"fatigue" the mere weariness that vanished after proper sleep or recreation.

It was found difficult to isolate the factors that had caused this fatigue. It appeared that some factors which had no

perceptible effect in six months or a year

began later to exert influence. Thus, it was

found that 50- and 60-hour work weeks

were the rule, and that many Wacs

worked more than 60 hours a week, but

these showed no more fatigue than those

on an easier schedule. Similarly, the type

of messing facilities seemed to make little

difference, and the availability of recreation facilities made only slight difference.

However, length of service was an important factor, with fatigue growing in direct proportion to months served, until in

those with over two years' service, half

were fatigued. This factor was puzzling,

since the duties were not greatly different

from those of which civilian women made

lifetime careers without any such adverse

results.

The type of housing proved to have a

direct relationship to fatigue, with those

who slept in rooms being considerably less

fatigued than those who were in barracks.

The Surgeon General's Office noted, "The

rooms [for two to four women] were wellventilated; the women had similar working hours and were able to choose their

own room-mates. This led to similar sleeping habits and congeniality."

The effect of age was the opposite of

that expected, as older women were less

98

 Following, unless otherwise indicated, is from

Memo, Exec SGO for G-1, 19 Dec 45, in compliance

with directive 30 Apr 45. SPMC/DF-W, in WDWAC

201.6. 99

 Baetjer, Women in Industry.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE 629

tired than the younger ones. Women with

family responsibilities, particularly those

worried about their parents, were slightly

more tired. The number of months a

woman had gone without a promotion also

had some influence, but slight.

One single factor appeared to have

more influence on fatigue than all the

others combined, and this was occupation—the woman's job and her interest in

it. The group of women not interested in

their work showed almost twice as much

fatigue as those with keen interest. Medical surveyors reported:

The women felt that they had entered the

service to do a job; they expected many

changes in their lives and many inconveniences, but if they had work they liked and

felt was worthwhile, the unpleasant things

paled to insignificance.

In every occupational group, this held

true. Cooks, who were fatigued in spite of

little actual damage to health, were revealed to have least interest in their jobs;

drivers were very little fatigued, in spite of

heavy work, because they thought their

jobs interesting. Greatest fatigue was found

among shift workers whose sleeping, eating, and recreational habits were necessarily irregular.

Medical surveyors also attempted to

judge the impairment of health by military service, and the causes of damage. As

in industry, it was found that poor health

and fatigue had no necessary connection,

since some women in perfect health were

suffering from fatigue and decline in efficiency, whereas others whose service had

actually damaged their health still enjoyed

their work and felt no fatigue or loss of efficiency. About 20 percent of the Wacs

appeared to have suffered some loss of

health through military service, including

more days of illness, more visits to sick call,

more respiratory and menstrual disorders,

and more headaches and nervousness.

Again, a woman's job appeared to be

the greatest factor influencing her health.

Clerical workers showed the greatest

health impairment, due largely to frequent

respiratory infection, headaches and nervousness attributable to poor office ventilation, unbroken sedentary work, and

eye-straining jobs. Drivers were second in

health impairment. Surveyors noted, "The

very factor of constant driving which gave

drivers a variety of scenes and associates

and was functional in decreasing their

fatigue was resultant in their menstrual

difficulties." Cooks were well below other

groups in respiratory infections and sick

call visits.

Although the survey came too near the

end of the war to effect changes in current

personnel, housing, or medical practices,

it appeared significant that military service in the type of work of which civilian

women made lifelong careers should, after

a mere two or three years of military service, produce "true fatigue" in 40 percent

and health impairment in 20 percent.

Reconditioning

There was no provision for women in

the physical and occupational reconditioning programs provided for men. There

were no accommodations for women at

convalescent centers. In the last year of the

war, the WAC's National Civilian Advisory Committee recommended to The Surgeon General that women be included in

the Army's physical and mental reconditioning programs, but the recommendation was never favorably considered, for

unspecified reasons presumably related to
630 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the expense of facilities for such a small

group.100

Separation

When WAC demobilization began, the

Office of The Surgeon General succeeded

in getting the system of a few centralized

stations for medical examinations of

women, which it had never been possible

to get in recruiting. Although men were

demobilized through dozens and later

hundreds of points, women were processed

through only six, where women medical

officers made certain that adequate gynecological examinations were given. Major

Craighill felt that the process was "a most

interesting and valuable medical procedure in indicating the health of large

groups of women of varied social, economic, and age distribution"—a cross

section more varied and therefore more

valuable than a similar number of examinations of more homogeneous groups in

industry and colleges. She recommended,

"This mass of information should be more

carefully studied by analysts for the future

welfare of civilian women."

100 See n. 2; also Memo, G-1 for CofS, 13 Oct 44,

sub: NCAC. WDGAP 334, in CofS 324.5 WAC.
CHAPTER XXXII

Training

The fact that Wacs received military

training at all was a departure from the

precedent of the Army Nurse Corps,

which at the time of the WAAC's establishment did not give any such orientation

to new members.1 In Director Hobby's

opinion, the training needs of Wacs were

simple: a brief basic military course to inculcate Army customs and discipline more

quickly and efficiently than these could be

acquired on the job, plus specialist training only for those few women who could

not fill an Army job without it. The majority of Wacs, like nurses, possessed a

civilian skill that required little modification to be of use to the Army.2

General Marshall's original decision to

employ womanpower had been strongly

influenced by this factor, since a woman

with civilian clerical skill could be trained

and placed on the job within a month, as

against the six months or more required to

train a man lacking this civilian skill. This

departure from the Army's length of training was affirmed in the WAAC legislation,

which stated the Corps' intent to make

available to the Army the already-existing

"knowledge, skills, and special training of

the women of the nation."

From the time of the disbandment of

General Faith's Training Command,

shortly after the conversion period, responsibility for WAC training rested with the

Director of Military Training, Army Service Forces. The WAC representative in this

office was Maj. Elizabeth C. Smith, formerly a member of General Faith's staff.

Military Training Division's responsibilities to the WAC extended to three major

fields: the supervision of WAC training

centers, the arrangements for coeducational specialist training at Army schools,

and the training of units in the field.3

WAC Training Centers

Of these, the largest responsibility concerned the WAC training system. Even

after the bestowal of Army status, recruits

for Air, Ground, and Service Forces continued to be trained on ASF installations,

although some division of this authority

had been contemplated by the AAF had

the number of trainees warranted. Instead,

the failure of expansion plans made further reduction a necessity. At the peak of

the expansion plans there were five training centers, six separate administrative

schools, and two radio schools. These, with

the failure of expansion plans, had four

times as much cadre as trainees; the WAC

at one time had 148 percent overhead as

against the average of 30 percent in male

replacement training centers. 1

 ANC Hist, p. 321. 2

 (1) Memo, Dir WAAC for CG ASF, 6 Apr 43.

Folder, Planning Serv Notes, WAC Plng Serv file. (2)

Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Mil Tng ASF, 21 Dec 43.

SPWA 353. 3

 Unless otherwise stated, all references are to ASF

Hist of WAC Tng.
632 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Reluctantly, steps were taken to close

out the additional training centers and

specialist schools, which had just been so

painfully established. One staff member

reported, "At first we were frantic because

we didn't have enough cadre to take care

of the trainees, and now we didn't know

what to do with the cadre."

 4 For a time

the schools were held intact, and instructors and cadre sat idle, while still-hopeful

planners informed them, "If we send overhead personnel to the field, when recruiting picks up again we will have to start all

over in the Training Centers."

 5

The first to go was the Fifth WAAC

Training Center, with its three prisoner-ofwar camps in Arkansas and Louisiana. By

June of 1943 the Army in North Africa

had taken sufficient prisoners to require

the housing. When the Provost Marshal

General requested the return of this establishment, the WAAC relinquished it without reluctance. The Fifth Training Center

had lasted for three months.6

Next to close was the Fourth WAAC

Training Center, at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, which had opened in March of

1943. After a hectic six months during

which it had four different Army commandants, it was ordered to close in midAugust.7

Next, the various separate specialist

schools—administrative, radio, and signal—faded from the scene. The three remaining training centers were able to train

all specialists except for small numbers in

radio and other highly technical training,

who could be accommodated in Army

schools on a coeducational basis.

When the last proposals for draft legislation were shelved, Director Hobby recommended to General Somervell that the

remains of the Second WAC Training Center, at Daytona, be closed, that all remaining specialist schools be closed and their

functions consolidated at training centers,

and that all leased buildings at Des

Moines be given up. This view was endorsed, with some emphasis, by General

Gasser of the War Department Manpower

Board.8

By March of 1944 only the First and

Third WAC Training Centers survived, at

Fort Des Moines and Fort Oglethorpe respectively. Until after the victory over

Japan, the First WAC Training Center

was commanded by Col. Frank U.

McCoskrie. The Third had a succession

of Army commandants, replaced in April

of 1944 by Lt. Col. Elizabeth H. Strayhorn, the only woman officer to serve in the

capacity of training center commandant.

As Class I installations of a service command, these centers were under the Seventh and Fourth Service Commands respectively. All matters of command, supply, and personnel were prerogatives of the

service command and did not come to the

attention of Washington agencies except

upon inspection or investigation of complaints. Neither the training centers nor

their service commands had any control

over the content of the course of study,

which was prescribed by Military Training

Division of the Army Service Forces. Gen4

 Rpt of 4th WAAC Tng Cen, Ft Devens, in Min,

Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun 43. SPWA 337 (6-

1-43). 5

 1st O Florence Jepson, Ibid. 6

 Memo, WAAC Hq for Dir Pers ASF, 18 Jun 43,

sub: Abandonment of 5th WAAC Tng Cen. SPWA

291.9 (6-18-43) O-O, in SPAP 353 WAC. Release

was effective 30 Jun 43. 7

 Hist of 4th WAAC Tng Cen. Looseleaf vol, WAAC

Hist files. 8

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 16 Nov 43. SPWA

353. Also: (1) Memo, WD Manpower Bd for CofS,

9 Dec 43, WDMB 324.5 WAC; (2) Ltr, DCofS to CG

ASF, 11 Dec 43, (incl to above); (3) Ltr, ASF to

DCofS, 16 Dec 43, SPTRR 354.1 WAC (12-11-43).

OCS 291.9 WAC.
PROCESSING AT TRAINING CENTERS. Trainees receive a throat check at Fort Des

Moines, above. Below, new recruits are given a clothing issue at the warehouse, Daytona Beach.
634 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

eral policy supervision in training matters

was exercised by G-3 Division of the General Staff, but since courses of study were

considered routine operating matters, they

did not often come to the attention of that

level, or require the approval of either

G-3 or the Director WAC.9

Basic Military Training Courses

WAC training centers had at various

times from four to six weeks in which to accomplish their mission of transforming a

civilian woman into "a physically fit, psychologically well-adjusted, well-disciplined

soldier who was informed of the duties, responsibilities, and privileges of women in

the Army."

 10

 This was of course a shorter

time than that required to train a man,

who had to be prepared also for combat.

The WAC recruit upon arrival at a

WAC training center was met by Army

trucks, to and from which she carried her

own luggage like other recruits. Most

commandants insisted upon personally

meeting as many incoming shipments as

possible, or later talked informally to each

company. Recruits straggled in all week

from recruiting stations all over the nation, and were grouped into basic classes

that began weekly.

WAC training centers, unlike men's,

faced the problem of processing these

women, issuing clothing, accomplishing

immunization, and providing orientation.

For men, these functions were generally

performed at reception centers, of which

there were none for women because of the

Corps' small size. After a few hectic classes

in which the entire basic course was disrupted by such matters as uniform fittings,

illness from shots, and visits to classification offices, the training centers solved the

problem by activating reception and staging companies or battalions, which received the women and completed their

processing in the first week, before turning

them over to a basic company. Colonel

McCoskrie, later noted, "Nearly every

Personnel Board visiting this station demanded justification of this organization.

Few realized that all of the normal Reception Center processing had to be done

somewhere."

 11

For a time the women waiting in the reception battalion appeared to authorities

to be ideal candidates for the omnipresent

classroom-scrubbing and kitchen police

duties, but it was eventually realized that

such an abrupt greeting paid poor dividends in the individual's attitude toward

the Army, and in the public's opinion.

Thereafter such duties were instead given

so far as possible to those who had completed training and were awaiting shipment. The weekly strain of receiving new,

bewildered, and questioning recruits soon

told upon most reception company cadre,

and Colonel McCoskrie insisted that insofar as possible "only personnel genuinely

interested in people, who have patience

and sympathy, tempered with good judgment, should ever be used in connection

with either Receiving or Staging."

 12

Although basic companies at times were

housed in everything from hotels to tents,

the average and the most effective housing

proved to be the standard company unit

with a central building for orderly room,

supply, and dayroom, and a separate barracks for each of the three platoons. Most

training authorities agreed that it was better for morale and scheduling to avoid

9

 Ltr, CO 3d WAC Tng Cen to Dir WAC, 15 Apr

44, with incl. 10

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 62-63. 11

 Ibid., pp. 66-69. 12

 Ibid., pp. 68-70.
TRAINING 635

huge consolidated facilities and to have

separate buildings assigned to each company, and a small separate mess to each

one or two companies.13

Basic Course Content

There was never any division of opinion

among WAC authorities as to the proper

minimum course content in basic training,

as all agreed that noncombat courses exactly like those used in the first weeks of

men's training most quickly oriented

women to the Army situation and gave

them a common background of experience, even though having little connection

with most WAC jobs. The first WAAC

basic training program, as devised in Auxiliary days by Colonel Faith, followed quite

closely the first four weeks of the men's

basic course. The usual subjects were included: military courtesy, Articles of War,

Army organization, drill, and so on. Waacs

had a somewhat easier training day: for

some 91 hours of combat courses there

were substituted 20 hours of the necessary

reception and processing, plus courses in

current events, map reading, and property responsibility. After completion of the

first four weeks, men went on to further

basic training prescribed by the different

chiefs of services, but women, unless they

went to specialist school, were at once assigned to the field.14

In Auxiliary days, minor changes were

continually made in the basic program. At

Director Hobby's instigation, there began

a major trend in the direction of the adaptation of the course to feminine needs. It

was directed that Colonel Faith "keep and

stress those subjects which make a definite

contribution to the production of women

soldiers [and] make all courses deal with

practical problems to the greatest possible

extent."

 15

This trend continued for the next ten

months, until the end of the WAAC. General Faith, while retaining all noncombat

courses given to men, was able under a

heavier work week to add a number of

courses expected to be of interest to

women: Army Administration, dealing

with required reports and correspondence;

Army Mess, dealing with mess supplies

and reports; and Explanation of the Allied

Cause. Also, the unfortunate drop in the

AGCT level of WAAC recruits early in

1943 for a time required a longer initial indoctrination course to explain Army rules

and procedures and the importance of

personal hygiene. By August of 1943 these

various additions forced extension of the

course from four to five weeks.16

The trend toward addition of practical

courses was abruptly arrested with the end

of the WAAC, when control of the training

program passed from General Faith to

Military Training Division. At this time

Director Hobby forwarded to the Director

of Military Training a summary of General Faith's conclusions, notably that

WAC basic training might be accomplished in four weeks for normal individuals if it consisted primarily of

. . . those developments essential to the performance of military duty, which women may

be called upon to perform, and those soldierly

qualities that distinguish the trained from the

untrained enlisted woman. . . . The true

objectives of training are factors of growth

13

 Ibid., pp. 106-07. 14

 Ibid., p. 64. Also Memo, 28 Aug 42, SPTRU

353.01 (8-27-42), cited in Unit and Replacement

Training, by MTD ASF, p. 16. OCMH. See Appendix E, Course Content, for the various courses discussed in this chapter. 15

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 65, 71, 72. 16

 Ibid., pp. 74-75, 87.
636 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

and development rather than bodies of subject matter to be mastered.17

Some six months later the basic course

was revised by Military Training Division,

and a copy sent to Colonel Hobby with the

note that it was now "in conformity with

basic training of male personnel."

 18

 To

achieve this conformity, the WAC basic

training period was extended to six weeks,

or 288 hours, the exact equal of the men's

course, in "an effort to insure that WAC

personnel had training comparable to that

given enlisted men."

 19

Since 153 of the men's 288 hours were

devoted to combat subjects, retention of

the WAC basics for an equal six weeks allowed a considerable increase in available

time. To utilize this time, most courses

were increased in length. Wacs now received about five times as much instruction as men in the organization of the

Army, four times as much in military courtesy and the Articles of War, three times as

much in safety measures, sanitation, social

hygiene, first aid, and inspections. Women

also got one third again as much drill and

physical training as men.20

This additional two weeks' extension of

the course was never generally agreeable

to Army personnel officers. Inasmuch as

the educational and aptitude level of enlisted women remained considerably above

that of the Army as a whole, their need for

more training in basic subjects than men

received was questioned. Although the

number of weeks involved appeared insignificant, it amounted to a perceptible

number of workdays lost to Army stations

in the field. Thus, for each WAC unit so

detained, the loss caused by the new policy

was 4,500 man-days of work; for the Wacs

trained from this time onward, the loss was

about 1,000,000 man-days.

However, training center medical officers expressed a belief that the extra two

weeks would have been justified if the

hours that men spent on combat subjects

had been used for new courses of comparable value to women, particularly those

concerned with mental health, conduct,

character, and adjustment to military life.

Major Preston of the Consultation Service

noted, "The chief defect in the training of

women was that . . . apparently no effort was made to adapt the training to

their probable needs in the Army."

 21

 Finally, at the insistence of medical officers,

two hours of mental hygiene were included "to assist women in their adjustment to Army life and to relieve tension

caused by uncertainty in the beginning of

the training period."

 22

 This two-hour

course was the only one, among the 288

basic hours, ever added by Military Training Division to the usual subjects for men.

Although most other courses were, on

paper, identical for men and women, it

was the Army practice to give different

practical application in the different

branches of service. Surviving studies did

not indicate to what extent, if any, such

practical application was found possible

for women. The only course that appeared

to be materially altered was that on social

hygiene, variously called personal hygiene,

sex hygiene, and preventive hygiene. Here,

the Army Service Forces approved continuation of the WAAC course, and like17

 Memo cited n. 2(2). 18

 Memo, MTD ASF for Dir WAC, 2 Jul 44.

SPTRP 353 WAC, in WDWAC 353. Course was

MTP 35-10, WD Mobilization Tng Program for

WAC Enl Pers of ASF, 1 Jul 44. 19

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 77. 20

 Men: MTP 21-3, 1 May 44, cited in Unit and

Replacement Training, MTD ASF, p. 38. OCMH.

WAC: ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 77-78. 21

 Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC, p 14. See

also Memos cited n. 2. 22

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 99.
CHEMICAL WARFARE TRAINING. Women remove their gas masks before leaving the

chamber, as ordered, thus experiencing the effects of tear gas.
638 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

wise sponsored one of the only two training films produced especially for Wacs—

Strictly Personal—which was not issued until 1945.23

In the subject of military courtesy, Director Hobby recommended development

of lectures on "manners for military

women," which would give Wacs detailed

instructions on how to make the best impression in many specific places where female conduct was the subject of particular

comment—trains, hotels, clubs, and public dining places. However, Military Training Division, after a study, concluded that

"differences [from men] were so slight that

the establishment of new doctrine was unnecessary."

 24

 Colonel Hobby also requested that this course devote more time

to explanation of officer-enlisted relationships, which were a source of particular

annoyance to Army commands where

they concerned personnel of opposite

sexes. Military Training Division replied

that such training was not needed and

that the regular men's course, concerning

the relationships between members of

the same sex, "is considered to be

sufficient."

 25

The course on care of clothing and

equipment was of necessity different concerning some of the items to be arranged

and cared for, but otherwise was the same

except that "instruction in hair dressing

and proper application of cosmetics was

presented by demonstrations." The course

on interior guard duty differed only in that

Wacs were not armed and were required

to perform tours of daylight guard duty

only. Close order drill likewise differed

only in that Wacs were not armed.26

For all other courses, basic instructors

were without the advantage of being able

to pretend that the courses had any practical future usefulness for women. Instructors in map reading could preface courses

with "Now, if you were ever separated

from your companions in an enemy-occupied area, and had a map and a compass

. . . ," but it was well known that no

Wacs during the entire war had ever found

themselves in such a predicament. Similarly, it was ordinarily impossible to personalize the studies of chemical warfare,

aircraft recognition, field messing, emergency first aid, or even drill, which most

Wacs seldom used after leaving training

centers.

Nevertheless, the more inappropriate a

subject was for women, the more most

women appeared to enjoy it. Wacs plunged

delightedly through gas chambers, viewed

with interest films on battlefield first aid,

and hiked willingly about the countryside

seeking a given point on a map. Drill was

a favorite subject. Spectators noted that

"Many spent off-duty time in small groups

practicing," and those who missed this instruction during the severe winter months

at Des Moines felt themselves defrauded.

Training authorities also noted that weekly

parades and ceremonies of any sort were

very popular with trainees, since they

"tended to enhance the feeling of belonging to the military team."

 27

Physical Training

Only one masculine-type course encountered serious objections on the

grounds that it might be harmful to

women. This was the course in physical

education, in which it appeared impossible

to please everybody. According to staff 23

 TF 8-2093. Ibid., pp. 86-88. 24

 Ibid., p. 79. 25

 Memo, Dir Troop Tng Div MTD ASF for Dir

WAC, 6 Sep 44. WDWAC 353. 26

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 84, 89. 27

 Ibid., pp. 81-98.
TRAINING 639

members in Auxiliary days, more time and

concern was given to this one course than

to any other, with less satisfactory results.

Although Wacs did not require hardening

for combat, and would perform jobs similar to those they had done in civilian life,

some moderate exercise or sports appeared

desirable to offset sedentary work.

In determining the necessary measures,

the WAC was handicapped by the fact

that there apparently flourished in the

United States at least two large and mutually hostile schools of physical education,

as well as a considerable body of those

who felt some antipathy toward any form

of required exercise.28

For the first training classes, civilian experts were hired, who set up a course

based on Swedish-Danish gymnastics. The

student body reaction was generally

critical. One school of thought asserted

that the exercises were "positively harmful

to women over the age of 18,"

 29

 while another—that of a group of former physical

education teachers—held that they were

not strenuous enough, in that "strengthbuilding exercises were not included."

 30

The latter opinion prevailed when a group

of newly commissioned women officers was

assigned to revise the course. These officers

immediately substituted a program designed to increase the strength of the

women, who, they alleged, "are greatly in

need of development. This puts a temporary strain on their physiques, but will

pay dividends in the future."

 31

From this time to the end of the war, the

WAC physical training program remained

in the hands of WAC physical education

experts of the strength-building school,

whose chief, Capt. Donna Niles, informed

a staff conference, "It is as much a part of

our responsibility to keep physically fit as

to uphold the Code of Conduct."

 32

 Accordingly, there was produced a WAC

physical training manual, which prescribed a warm-up "cadence series" followed by muscle-building "strength

progressions" designed to give women

strong muscles in arms and shoulders, abdomen, upper back and neck, and legs.

"Progressions" started with simple exercises for these areas and worked up to very

difficult ones; they were virtually identical

with push-ups and other exercises given

men. The manual also contained a number of careful photographic illustrations,

which for some cause proved extremely

popular with male personnel.33

Opinion on the success of the course was

as divided as was that of the civilian profession in the United States. Civilian

physical educators of the strength-building school highly approved the program.

One wrote:

Many of the most prominent women in the

physical education profession feel that the

WAC has the best physical training program

for women of any of the branches of the

Armed Forces.34

On the other hand, the nationally prominent women of the WAC's Civilian Advisory Committee recommended that

more relaxing sports and recreation be

28

 (1) Interv with Lt Col Helen H. Woods, 9 Oct 48.

(2) M/R, 26 Jun 43, sub: Program Relative to WAAC

Physical Tng. SPWA 353 (9-22-42), 1942. 29

 Memo, 3d O Helen H. Woods for Dir WAAC, 11

Dec 42. SPWA 353 (9-22-42) Phys Tng. 30

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 91-92. 31

 Memo, 2d O Donna Niles for 1st O Dorothea A.

Coleman, Tng Plans Div WAAC Hq, 13 Jan 43. See

also Ltr, Dir Tng, Ft Des Moines, to WAAC Hq, 22

Sep 42. Both in SPWA 353 (9-22-42), 1942. 32

 Min, WAC Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun

43, SPWA 337 (6-1-43). 33

 WDFM 35-20, 15 Jul 43. The manual was reproduced and sold by The Infantry Journal. 34

 Ltr, Mabel Lee (Member, NCAC from University of Nebraska Department of Physical Education

for Women) to Dir WAC, 13 Mar 45. WDWAC 720.
640 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

substituted for the calisthenics, which in

their opinion had little practical value

and were sometimes damaging to the

health of women over 30.35

WAC company officers in the field alleged that exercises were "too strenuous,"

were less useful for female office workers

than ordinary women's sports and recreation would have been, and were at times

detrimental to health and job performance.36

 ASF investigations of the problem

established only that there was no provable connection between muscular

"physical fitness," as developed by these

exercises, and the type of physical-mental

fitness that kept a woman working efficiently at her desk.

The program was eventually discontinued by all Army stations as not worth

the time it required, and replaced by

group recreation. Military Training Division directed its continuance in WAC

training centers, and the discontinuance

of required group sports and recreation,

which were sometimes considered a substitute. The second of the two WAC

training films, Figures Don't Lie, completed in June of 1945, was sponsored to

encourage the program. Training centers

generally experienced less difficulty with

the program than did field stations, since

they were able to provide expert instruction to ensure that each woman followed

the "progressions" to more difficult exercises only as fast as she could without

overexertion.37

Basic Technical Courses

Considerable debate took place concerning the value of sending women for

technical training immediately following

their basic course. Male ASF units automatically continued in training centers

for seven more weeks in various technical

specialties, of which cooks', clerks', and

drivers' courses were standardized for all

branches. The trend of Military Training

Division's policy for men was to increase

rather than decrease this training time.

After complaints that male units with

thirteen weeks' total training were still

lacking in discipline, sanitary standards,

and skills, the ASF lengthened the course

to 17 weeks, and later added an additional 13 to 17 weeks of advanced unit

training where possible.38 Much of this

training concerned the use of weapons,

and other combat subjects.

Neither General Marshall nor Director

Hobby favored such extended technical

training for women if they could fill an

Army job without it. General Marshall

pronounced it "a waste of time which we

didn't have." While the Auxiliary established short technical courses for clerks,

cooks, and drivers, most Waacs who

could qualify were assigned to field units

without further training.39

When WAC training passed to the

control of Military Training Division, this

trend was reversed in accordance with

that division's policy of lengthening training wherever possible. It therefore became the standard practice to route as

many Wacs as possible through some

specialist course immediately following

35

 Min, NCAC Mtg, 16-18 Feb 45, Ft Des Moines.

WD Library, also Hobby file. Action refused by Comment 4, ASF to G-1, 28 May 45. WDWAC 720. 36

 See below. "Physical Training of Field Units." 37

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 95. 38

 Unit and Replacement Training, by MTD ASF,

foreword and p. 21. 39

 (1) Except for the errors common in the first

months, whereby skilled stenographers inveigled their

way into Motor Transport School or were erroneously

assigned to fill quotas in Cooks and Bakers School. (2)

For the more complete statement of General Marshall's opinion, see Ch. I, p. 20, above.
TRAINING 641

basic training, thus requiring retention in

the training center for another four to

twelve weeks, with an average of eight.

However, the Army Air Forces refused

to concur in retention of its recruits, preferring on-the-job training similar to that

used for civilian women employees. The

retention for an average of eight weeks of

technical training cost an additional

9,000 man-days of work for each entire

unit so detained. For this reason, the

AAF forbade WAC training centers to

retain more than 5 percent of its Air

WAC recruits—often the majority of

trainees—for further training after completion of basic.40

Although the ASF was thereby prevented from sending many AAF Wacs to

its courses, more and more of the Service

Forces Wacs came to be routed routinely

through the basic technical courses at

WAC training centers. Until 1945 The

Adjutant General retained power to

order assignment of trainees at the end of

basic training if they were already qualified in skills urgently needed in the field,

but at this time Military Training Division at last, after repeated recommendations, secured the power to determine

sufficiency of training. Thereafter it refused to release most ASF recruits for

assignment until they had received from

four to twelve weeks of technical training.

This was late in the war, so that actually

only 42,000 of the 140,000 Wacs to go

through training centers ever received

such technical training, at an estimated

cost of about 2,000,000 man-days.41

An identical difference of opinion between personnel and training officers

existed in the Navy, where training

authorities sent even higher percentages

of their women to specialists' schools—

from 70 to 80 percent—over the objections of the Bureau of Naval Personnel:

. . . from an economy viewpoint, the Navy

got more use from the girls by sending them

as rapidly as possible to the jobs where while

learning they were contributing something to

the going enterprise rather than just being

sent to school.42

Clerks Course

Most important of these basic technical

courses was the administrative or clerks

course, which Military Training Division

adapted from the regular Army one after

discarding the shorter WAAC version.

Here student clerks became familiar with

Army correspondence and filing systems;

with regulations, manuals, and other references; with company records and reports; and with the records used in

disciplinary procedures, fiscal accounting,

and personnel offices. These subjects were

made as practical as possible, although this

was difficult in view of the fact that few

field commands used identical systems.

Material was deliberately chosen that did

not concern the WAC. Thus, Wacs practiced activating and managing an infantry

company, and studied Army organization

and chain of command with relation to

groups, armies, divisions, regiments, and

battalions. The Army Ground Forces systems were used in exercises in personnel

accounting. Although the practical usefulness of this appeared doubtful to trainees,

97 percent of whom would not be assigned

to the AGF, WAC instructors nevertheless

succeeded in arousing interest by the use

of many ingenious training aids and

mock-up rooms, in which Wacs acted out

40

 See AAF WAC Hist, Ch. 18. Also AAF Ltr, 50-

47, 31 Jul 44. 41

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 343 and 348-49. 42

 WAVES Hist, p. 100.
642 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the parts of cadre for combat infantry

companies.43

No records were retained of the total

number of Wacs who attended clerks

courses, although records of individual

classes indicated that this might have been

around 300 monthly—possibly one tenth

of the month's basic graduates. No comparative studies were made that would

conclusively determine the relative success

of the school-trained and the job-trained

WAC clerks. The Consultation Service at

Des Moines noted many referrals from this

group, and observed:

There were numerous psychological handi- caps to the training: The attitude that attendance was an unnecessary delay from a

field assignment; many women enlisted to

avoid the monotony of their civilian stenographic jobs . . . women already trained as

stenographers were required to complete the

same course as those inexperienced. This .. . could have been avoided by early and con- sistent motivation for Clerks training and . . . by separation of the training groups.44

Typing Course

Less difference of opinion existed concerning the four-week typing course,

which was given independently to Air

Forces recruits, and as part of the clerks

course for others. This consisted chiefly of

80 hours of touch-typing, a subject which

seemed universally useful to Wacs, but

which could not be given prior to the summer of 1943 because of the inability of

training centers to obtain typewriters. The

subject proved more and more essential as

skilled women became harder to recruit

and as Army requisitions for WAC typists

grew heavier; it was approved even by the

AAF for those of its nontyping recruits

who showed clerical aptitude. It was admittedly impossible in 80 hours to bring a

beginner to the expert typist speed of 45

words per minute, but the course succeeded in teaching beginners a speed sufficient for typing cards and other records—

18 words per minute—as well as increasing

by almost the same amount the typing

speed of women who could already type to

some extent.

WAC instructors who had formerly operated civilian typing schools considered

the concentrated military course more

successful than most civilian courses, even

though it was handicapped by inadequate

equipment, by the frequent absence of

trainees for kitchen police, by assignment

of inept beginners, and by the mixture in

one class of women with typing speeds

ranging from 0 to 76 words per minute.

Nevertheless, instructors stated:

. . . training classes had distinct advantages

over civilian teaching: there were no discipline problems; the instructor had the stimu- lation which comes from teaching mature

women conscious of the urgency of the job

and . . . the women applied themselves with a

zeal rarely seen in civilian classes.45

Cooks Course

Training center authorities noted that

"assignment to the Cooks' Course was not

popular with the trainees except in isolated

instances."

 46

 Women regarded the assignment as menial; many women who had

previous cooking or dietary experience

had enlisted to escape from their occupation. High sick call rates and minor psy43

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 125-52. 44

 (1) Ibid., Table VI: 19 classes of about 150 per

month at Des Moines alone. (2) Quotation from

Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC, p. 23. 45

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 31. 46

 Cooks Course is described in ASF Hist of WAC

Tng, pp. 155-63. See also Preston, Hist of Psychiatry

in WAC, p. 18.
TRAINING 643

chiatric casualties resulted. WAC instructors were of the opinion that many women

actually liked to cook but resented the low

social status and lack of advancement, and

the fact that training center officers at

times employed enlisted specialists for food

service at officers' off-duty social affairs.47

Instructors were unable to discover any

easy rule for selecting successful WAC

cooks. Some civilian cooks made good

Army cooks, and some did not, while

many women with no previous experience

proved very efficient. Former restaurant

cooks were usually more of a problem

than beginners, since they had to forget

previous work habits and learn new ideas

of orderliness and cleanliness. Women

with college training in home economics

were likewise found to have "very little

knowledge of cooking," although assignable elsewhere as experts in some specialized dietary field.

School authorities also lamented the

tendency of assignment officers to consider

the cooks course a haven for women of

low aptitude. These, although assigned in

large numbers, could seldom be made into

satisfactory cooks. In addition, their

presence lent the course a certain stigma

which made it unpopular with more capable women, as reflected in a favorite song:

I am the girl with the low I.Q.

I can prepare a good menu

But you do not need brains to make a stew

So I'll be at home on the range.48

As a matter of fact, women with low

AGCT scores seldom could qualify as

cook, baker, or mess sergeant, which in an

Army mess demanded considerable alertness.

In 1944, the WAC cooks course was

lengthened by Military Training Division

from the six weeks used in Auxiliary days

to the eight weeks needed for men. Most

"instruction," as in men's schools, consisted in preparation of food for training

center messes; this was supplemented, between meals, by lectures and demonstrations in the mess halls. Army films and

film strips were found valuable, although

not all were suitable for the smaller scale

of operation of WAC unit messes.49

Motor Vehicle Operators Course

Most popular of the technical courses

offered at WAC training centers was drivers' training, although, because of the

relatively smaller demand for WAC drivers, only 3,000 women were ever trained

at Fort Des Moines, and lesser numbers at

other centers. The original six-week Auxiliary course was lengthened to the men's

eight-week course by Military Training

Division.

It was reported that "devices for driverselection and methods of instruction were

substantially the same as those used

throughout the Army."

 50

 The course included not only vehicle operation, but first

and second echelon maintenance, repair

and lubrication, convoy operation, vehicle

recovery, blackout driving, and motor

pool administration. Maintenance above

the second echelon was not given Wacs, although a third-echelon course had been

prepared before recruiting difficulties

ended possibilities of replacing many men

in such work.

47

 Interv with Miss Margaret E. Tackley, former

director of the school, Lt USA Res, OCMH, 4 Mar 49. 48

 WAAC Parodies, WAAC Publications Office, Ft.

Des Moines, May 1943. Copy in OCMH. 49

 Course established by MTP 35-10, 1 Jul 44. 50

 Course discussed in ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp.

164-84. Exact attendance not given. Course established by MTP 35-10, 1 Jul 44.
MEMBER OF THE COOKS COURSE prepares cake batter in a training center mess

hall, January 1943.
TRAINING 645

Student drivers were supposed to score

at least a Grade III (average) in general

aptitude, and motor transport instructors

reported:

. . . difficulty was experienced all through the

history of Motor Transport in the effort to

establish the fact that people with low AGCT

scores would not make dependable drivers.

Hardly any Army job calls for quicker thinking, more instantaneous adjustments, cooler

nerves—yet the section was sent grade IV's

and V's.51

From the beginning the course operated

successfully in spite of this and other

handicaps. Training aids could seldom be

obtained, but many ingenious ones were

constructed by the faculty. The Fort Des

Moines school reported that, since engines

for instruction were not issued it, several

were "assembled in their entirety from

miscellaneous parts retrieved from the

dump, salvage, or other unidentified

sources."

WAC instructors went to the Army

school at Camp Holabird, and took over

all teaching almost immediately. WAC

trainees felt themselves handicapped by

lack of a proper uniform for women. The

WAC chief of the motor transport school

went in person to Washington to plead

with ASF for ordinary slacks and shirts in

summer, and lined trousers and flannel

shirts in winter, as well as a brimless cap

that would not blow off. She received

promises of such items, but reported later

that "nothing was ever realized from such

promises."

 52

 The appearance of women

drivers in their clumsy and unbecoming

coveralls led, in training authorities' opinions, to "the development of marked masculine traits and unwarranted criticism

of the women drivers because of their

masculine uniforms, appearance, and

mannerisms."

 53

All of the men's motor transport courses

appeared useful and practical to the Wacs

with the exception of those on blackout

driving and decontamination of gassed vehicles, which hours could, they felt, have

been better spent on other subjects. Nevertheless, women were found to be not

averse to driving the most inappropriate

vehicles they could obtain, including

Army tanks. They also enjoyed "bug

hunting" in the engine laboratory, assembly of dismantled engines, convoy driving,

and the recovery of mired vehicles; even

Des Moines' icy winters were approved for

providing the opportunity to rescue stalled

trucks.

Contrary to pessimistic expectations,

the Des Moines motor transport students

drove 1,500,000 miles without a traffic accident, and were awarded a safety plaque

by grateful Des Moines citizens. This

course was called by the Consultation

Service:

. . . one of the most satisfactory basic technical training schools, and the one which was most desired among trainees of all degrees of

intelligence and all variety of occupations....

The low sick call rate, the minimum psychiatric referrals, the lack of serious menstrual difficulties and of fatigue . . . illustrates

the advantage of assignments fulfilling motivation for enlistment.54

Medical Technicians Training

For a brief period in 1945 there existed

at Fort Oglethorpe the fourth and last

type of basic technical course to be given

at WAC training centers: that for medical

51

 Maj Eleanor Garber, in ASF Hist of WAC Tng,

p. 177. 52

 Ibid. 53

 Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC, p. 28. 54

 Ibid.
646 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

MOTOR TRANSPORT TRAINING. Students standing information alongside reconnaissance command cars, 1⁄2-ton pick-up trucks, and carry all trucks.

and surgical technicians and medical

clerks. Wacs had long received such training on a coeducational basis at Army

medical schools, where they had completed men's courses successfully. The

WAC course was merely a transplantation

of these courses to Fort Oglethorpe in

order to instruct centrally the thousands of

recruits obtained by the General Hospital

Campaign in the spring of 1945.

At the instigation of the War Department, and because of the immediate need

for technicians, Military Training Division

in this one instance reversed its usual

policy and shortened rather than lengthened the training time. Basic training was

reduced from six to four and a half weeks,

and the men's twelve-week medical technicians course was given in six weeks.55

Nevertheless, the training was pronounced

highly successful by using agencies, and

The Surgeon General informed training

authorities that the manner of performance of its graduates was "admirable."

 56

Miscellaneous Courses

In addition to the regular basic military

training and basic technical courses, WAC

training centers from time to time gave

various minor courses to meet particular

needs or emergencies. Of these, perhaps

the most significant were the Opportunity

School and its successor, the Special Training Unit. These illustrated again the fact

that unskilled women of low aptitude were

a particular problem to the Army, especially since they could not be trained for

heavy labor as could men in like categories.

Opportunity School

Although recruiting standards recognized this difference and kept the Wac

55

 Course described in ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp.

185-97. Subjects, (C-1 to MTP 35-10).

56

 SPMCT, 13 Sep 45, cited in ASF Hist of WAC

Tng, p. 190.
TRAINING 647

average intelligence and skill above men's,

small but embarrassing numbers of inept

women continued to arrive at training

centers. Training centers found that such

women were literally unassignable to fill

any Army requisitions for women. For the

first year this misfortune was ignored and

the women were shipped out to hapless

stations in the field, which quickly protested. Since such women could not ordinarily be discharged under Army Regulations based on men's standards of ineptness, an opportunity school was eventually

established at Fort Des Moines, to which

field stations were permitted to ship back

their unassignables. Some 552 women

were shipped back under this authority,

about half of whom were Negroes.57

These women spent half a day in formal

training and the other half in on-the-job

training. The formal instruction put great

emphasis on military courtesy, drill, and a

locally devised course called Manners for

Military Women, of which this personnel

seemed in visible need. In the apprenticeship period attempts were made to train

women as hospital orderlies, messengers,

supply clerks, assistant librarians, mimeograph machine operators and in many

other jobs.

Under this intensive grooming, 70 percent of the students qualified in various

skills, chiefly in hospital work, as mail

clerks and orderlies, as machine operators,

messengers, photographic technicians, and

stock clerks and checkers. Some qualified

in even higher specialties, such as radio

operator. Under the apprenticeship system of actual training, many reported

themselves "crazy about their work," and

only some 64 women had to be discharged.

Nevertheless, an additional and expensive

three months beyond basic training, and

the help of the most expert instructors and

cadre, were required to accomplish this

result. The Consultation Service noted

that "a number of the women who successfully completed the course required administrative separation at a later date,"

and concluded that "the results of the

school did not justify its existence."

 58

Special Training Unit

Opportunity School was succeeded, as

soon as Military Training Division took

control, by the Special Training Unit,

which did not attempt to give women

usable skills, but merely to assist through

basic training those with educational deficiencies.59

 The course was exactly like

that of men's special training units, except

that weapons training was omitted. It emphasized reading, writing, arithmetic and

all military subjects, including even tent

pitching and knots and lashings.

Since the WAC enlistment standards,

unlike the Army's, now included an educational requirement, few Wacs had real

educational deficiencies, and much difficulty was experienced when basic companies sent this unit disciplinary problems

and maladjusted women who did not lack

education. Some 426 women were eventually trained by this unit—a tiny fraction of

the Corps, which testified to the average

efficiency of recruiters. Of these, some 80

percent were able to return to basic training, but no records of their later assignability were maintained. The Consultation Service noted:

The greatest problem of the women with

borderline intelligence is their utilization on 57

 Opportunity School discussed: ASF Hist of WAC

Tng, pp. 200-18. Established: ASF Cir 88, 24 Sep 43. 58

 Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC, p. 20. 59

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 219-28. Established

by ASF Cir 76, 15 Mar 44. Opportunity School was

ended by ASF Cir 147, 19 Mar 44.
648 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

jobs. There were never a sufficient number of

routine and simple tasks to which these

women could be assigned. When assigned to

a specialist school or jobs above their intellectual level of comprehension and performance,

frequent psychosomatic complaints developed which rendered them unfit for efficient

duty or created behavior problems and

AWOLS. ... In a volunteer organization

such as the WAC, the problem of women

with low intelligence should not exist.60

WAC Officer Candidate School

The WAC officer candidate school continued to specialize in the production of

officers for WAC troop administration,

since it would have been impossible to

duplicate the training of officers in the

dozen or more arms and services to which

Wac officers might be assigned. The conduct and policy of the WAC officer candidate school were, from the time of the

establishment of the WAC, of minor importance to the Corps, since in its entire

two years of existence the WAC school was

allowed to receive only 750 candidates, in

contrast to the 5,675 that had been received in only one year by the WAAC

school. Later improvements were therefore

of little effect upon Corps leadership. It

could be said of the WAC, as of other Army

Service Forces officer candidate schools,

"It was not until the OCS were considerably past the peak of their greatest usefulness that they reached their highest development as training agencies."

 61

Actually, in the case of the WAC, there

were few noteworthy new developments.

The greatest change was in length; as soon

as the ASF took charge of the school in

1943, it extended the course from the previous eight weeks to three months, since

men's officer candidate courses averaged

about this length. Director Hobby's office

was not consulted about either the extension or the new curriculum, but was

informed of its content.62

The extension to three months made a

greatly increased number of hours available, since women could not be given subjects such as weapons training and combat

orientation. Most of these extra hours

were used on conventional subjects: twice

as much time as the Auxiliary had given to

map reading, defense against air attack,

military courtesy, and physical training;

four times as much in medical instruction;

five times as much in organization of the

army. Several new courses were added:

some, like signal communications, because

they were required for men, and others,

such as duties of a staff officer, in consideration of the wider scope of officer employment in the WAC.

Wacs now received more hours of army

organization than The Adjutant General's

officer candidates, more mess management than The Quartermaster General's,

and more physical training than the

Medical Administrative Corps. In general,

every noncombat course directed for men's

schools was also added to the WAC course,

with the sole and inexplicable omission of

Defense Against Paratroops. The only

courses in the 578 hours that had no parallel in men's courses were 6 hours devoted

to public relations and 5 to recruiting, in

60

 Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC, p. 25-27. 61

 All OCS references unless otherwise stated from:

(1) ASF Hist of Mil Tng, Officer Candidate Training,

MTD ASF. OCMH. Hereafter cited as ASF Hist of

OCT. (2) ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 254-98, and

Tables XV and XVII, which do not agree exactly.

Quotation from pp. 45-46. (3) Figures from Statistical

Sec, OCMH. 62

 (1) Memo, Asst Dir MTD ASF for Dir WAC, 11

Nov 44. SPTRP 352.11 WAC, in WDWAC 352. (2)

Memo, Dir Troop Tng Div MTD ASF for Dir WAC,

5 Dec 44. SPTRP 352.11 WAC, in WDWAC 352.
TRAINING 649

recognition of the fact that the WAC had

to recruit instead of draft its personnel.

Courses that aimed at developing

leadership and the ability to manage a

group were in a minority. Only 79 of the

578 hours could even remotely be considered to fall in this category, and even of

these, many were more concerned with

teaching the correct paper work than with

the psychology of leadership. WAC candidates had more hours in map reading than

in duties of an officer; three times as many

hours in courts and boards as in leadership; five times as many in drill as in

morale.

Consultants at the school observed:

In Officer Candidate Schools, the empha- sis on the transmission of information could

have been changed to an emphasis on developing the characteristics and attitude of an

officer, and thus many of the deficiencies of

leadership might have been averted. . . .63

This deficiency was of course not peculiar

to WAC schools, and Service Forces historians later noted of men's schools, "The

courses most frequently omitted from curricula were those concerned with morale,

management, and training of men."

 64

There was considerable effort by instructors to make all officer candidate

courses practical, but this was seldom possible except in the small group of leadership courses, where lively student discussion of actual problems took place. Material of other subjects was less easy to adapt,

typical difficult subjects being organization of the field army and other tactical

groups, malaria control, map and compass

exercises, radio and pigeon communication, gas identification, camouflage, and

others. In some subjects, such as supply, it

was found that practical experience was a

handicap. In order not to confuse the

standard lecture, it was necessary to suppress student discussion of the varying procedures actually used by commands in the

field in which many officer candidates had

worked as enlisted women.

Instructors' efforts to make courses

practical were handicapped also by the

fact that most instructors had never been

out of the training center, a problem common to other ASF officer candidate

schools, of which it was said:

Most of the instructors were recent OCS

graduates often totally lacking in field experience. . . . Even those in charge were too often those who had a background of school experience and training instead of service in the

field or on-the-job training. . . . Later,

when rotation policies were put into effect, . . . policy-making personnel [were seldom

replaced].65

Intermediate Officers' School (IOS)

Shortly before the conversion to Army

status, Director Hobby attempted to put

into effect a plan for improving the standards of WAAC leadership by establishing

an advanced officer training school

modeled on the British system, to which

the most capable officers would be returned for preparation for higher jobs.66

Unfortunately, the Intermediate Officers'

School upon establishment coincided with

the growth of the officers' pool, and was

used to provide occupation for the unassigned pool officers. Attendance at IOS,

instead of an honor, therefore came to be

considered a blot upon an officer's record.

General Faith tried to convince the inmates that instruction such as Advanced

63

 Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC, pp. 13-14. 64

 ASF Hist of OCT, pp. 45-46. 65 Ibid., p. 93. 66

 Min, Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17 Jun 43.

SPWA 337 (6-1-43). Also Memo, WAAC Hq for

CofAdm Serv, 7 May 43. SPWA 314.8 (1-7-43)(1)

sec 1.
650 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Mapreading was valuable, saying, "Some

of our folks are going to far places and you

wouldn't get far on the instruction you

have previously received in Mapreading."

 67

 However, as months passed, and

the IOS was succeeded by the Advanced

IOS and other endless instruction, the

training center abandoned all pretense of

giving the women any useful training

while they waited. Army Service Forces

authorities admitted later that the various

courses, which were devised to kill time,

"produced no significant training result

and met no training need," and also that

the "inexperience of instructor personnel

rendered the training practically valueless."

 68

Leadership Courses for Enlisted Women

The absence of a course for the training

of enlisted leaders was a serious omission

in the opinion of some training center

authorities, who believed that the daily

adjustments of a member's life were as

often in the hands of the company cadre

as of the officers. A school to train cadre

had not been originally established in the

erroneous belief that lower-rating WAAC

officer candidates would be used as cadre

until their deferred commissioning. When

immediate commissions were granted all

graduates, the various training centers

began belated efforts to set up cadre

schools, but these were scattered and

un-co-ordinated. Finally, in June of 1944,

ASF headquarters directed both men's

and WAC training centers to set up such

courses.69

By this time only limited progress was

possible. Most companies in the field and

in the training center already had their

cadre, who had too much rank to be reassigned elsewhere. Station-and-job recruits,

who constituted the bulk of trainees, could

not be withdrawn for these assignments,

and the available general service recruits

were few and often unqualified. The school

therefore, in its fourteen months of existence, produced only 500 graduates, most

of whom were used only in training

centers.

Nevertheless, training authorities pronounced the course a notable success.

Colonel McCoskrie stated that, of all the

activities at Fort Des Moines, he was most

proud of the development of noncommissioned leaders. Outstanding women to attend this course were selected toward the

end of basic training and were referred to

the Consultation Service, where they were

interviewed by the psychiatrist to determine emotional stability and maturity,

and were given personality inventory tests.

Selected women were then assigned to

training under officers who had demonstrated outstanding leadership. Sleeve and

pocket patches marked "Leadership" were

worn and proved to be an excellent

morale factor in developing pride in the

course.

Military Training Division left the curriculum to the training center, and the result was an eight-week course of more

practical application than anything else at

the center. Although only 12 of the 96 lecture hours concerned leadership, map

reading was conspicuously absent, and

other courses concerned the everyday

cadre duties of administration, supply,

drill, and instruction. Two weeks of theory

were followed by six weeks of supervised

work as acting cadre, with careful plans,

67

 Ibid. 68

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 199, 251. 69

 (1) Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC, p. 21-22.

(2) Interv, Col McCoskrie, Comdt, Ft Des Moines, 29

Jan 46. (3) ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 243-49. (4) See

Cadre Training Course, Appendix E.
TRAINING 651

discussions, and critiques. The Consultation Service's psychiatric workers lectured

on adjustment problems to be expected in

companies, and discussed the individual

cases that arose.

The success of the school and its graduates, in the opinion of training center authorities, more than justified its existence.

Moreover, officers pointed to the trainees'

"marked changes in qualities of leadership" as proof that leadership could actually be taught. Had such a course been

perfected before all field units had been

shipped out, instead of after, its value to

the efficiency of stations in the field apparently would have been considerable.

Testing Procedures

Very few reliable statistics were ever

compiled as to the performance of women

on Army tests and the applicability of the

tests to women. It was the preliminary

opinion of The Adjutant General's testing

experts that women probably did not score

as well on the Army General Classification

Test as did men of the same actual intelligence, since the test had been designed for

and validated with men. They therefore

recommended the use in training centers

of the Women's Classification Test (WCT),

then used in recruiting stations, which was

especially designed for women and on

which the scores were slightly higher.

However, the Office of the Director

WAC was not able to see any significant

injustice to women in the Army test—especially since Wacs were highly selected

and most groups exceeded the men's average in spite of any handicap. Had women

of all types been drafted as men were, the

question might have assumed more importance. The ASF WAC Officer also noted

that the AGCT had more significance and

was more readily understood by personnel

officers on Army stations. The use of the

men's AGCT was therefore continued in

classification procedures at training

centers.

Another test developed for early recruiting—the Mental Alertness Test (MAT)—

did not correlate too highly with later success. The Clerical Aptitude Test seemed

only of moderate value in predicting

women's success on clerical jobs; the Radio

Operators Aptitude Test was found by

training centers to be very poor when applied to women; the Driver Aptitude Test,

on the other hand, had high accuracy.70

Evaluation of Effectiveness of Training

Very few field comments of any sort

were recorded as to the adequacy or inadequacy of WAC school training. The

fact that a Wac had received several times

the number of hours in many basic subjects that a man received had practically

insured that she would be at least as well

indoctrinated. Since a woman's survival in

the field did not so visibly depend upon

the adequacy of her training as did a combat soldier's, the matter was not in any

case unduly conspicuous. Most field commendations concerned merely the women's neatness and military bearing; most

complaints related only to administrative

matters such as supply, records, and classification.

70

 In SPWA 201.6 Mental Alertness Test (10-11-

43): (1) Memo, TAG for Dir WAC, 17 Aug 43. (2)

Memo, TAG for Dir WAC, 16 Dec 43. (3) Memo, Dep

Dir for Dir WAC, 13 Jan 44. The WCT and GCT

seemed about equal in predicting success in basic,

OCS, and specialist schools; the MAT not so good.

The R-1, a short test, seemed as good as the WCT-2

(85 percent received same disposition), and was therefore adopted for recruiting stations as a timesaver. The

WCT and MAT-2 were reserved for retests in cases

where recruit failure seemed due to fright.
652 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Concerning the academic courses themselves, the only notable field objection was

that they had seldom reflected the experience gained by WAC units at Army stations in the field. As a result of lack of rotation, training center instructors and

cadre were generally attempting to prepare recruits for a field service of which

they themselves had no knowledge.

Problem of Rotation

The problem of rotation appeared to be

even more difficult than that experienced

by men's training centers, in that the numbers of WAC field units in the Fourth and

Seventh Service Commands were insufficient to manage normal rotation of Wacs

from field to training center. When training centers appealed to other commands

for an exchange, they discovered with regret that the only ones offered were those

who

. . . had not been successful at previous assignments . . . this condition was generally

recognized by WAC officers, so that an assignment "back to the Training Center" carried a certain stigma and was dreaded by

most officers.71

Training center authorities recommended:

A sound officer rotation policy should contemplate reassignment of old, experienced officers prior to the time that they go stale on

the job; this period varies with the individual,

generally between 12 and 30 months.72

When visiting instructors could be obtained who illustrated precepts with actual

experiences, trainee interest was found to

be much stimulated.

There was similarly noted a lack of information in training courses as to the

latest War Department directives and

policies concerning the WAC, particularly

in matters of recruiting. The attenuated

channel of communication for training

centers led from service command to The

Adjutant General to Military Training

Division. Somewhere along the line blockage occurred; Colonel Strayhorn was of

the opinion that it was "on the Washington level."

 73

 The WAC was not the

only organization to note a lack of liaison

between Military Training Division and

the chief of an arm or service. For the

Judge Advocate General and other services, the view was also expressed that training schools should have been Class II installations:

The final responsibility for the competence

of the product lay not in the Service Command but at the door of the Chief of Service

or Division Director. Direct control over the

personnel engaged in this phase of training

should have accompanied this responsibility.74

Medical Evaluation

A more serious criticism of the WAC

training system was offered early in the

spring of 1944 by The Surgeon General,

who raised the question of whether the

whole system of military training patterned on that for men was too strenuous

for women. At this time, a few months before Colonel Strayhorn's appointment at

Fort Oglethorpe, the incidence of colds

and influenza among women at that installation was almost double that of the

Fourth Service Command as a whole.

71

 (1) ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 353; also see p. 114.

(2) Hist of Ft Des Moines, 1 Jan-30 Jun 45. WD Lib,

000.4 Historical. 72

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 113. 73

 Ibid., pp. 102-03. 74

 ASF Hist of OCT.
TRAINING 653

The Surgeon General reported that

both training centers were "noting a high

incidence of physical disability" and that

52 percent of all disability discharges that

ever occurred in the WAC occurred in the

first three months of a recruit's service.

Training centers blamed this fact entirely

on poor screening by recruiters, but The

Surgeon General inclined to the view that

some part of the responsibility belonged to

the WAC basic training program. Psychiatric problems and questions of mental adjustment were reported by medical inspectors to be frequent at both training centers,

and the injury rate was almost double that

of men's training centers.

As a result, The Surgeon General undertook a survey called "Study of the

WAC Basic Training Program in Relation

to the Physical Fitness of Women." Since

the WAC admitted women up to 50 years

of age, enlisted chiefly for sedentary jobs,

it appeared possible that the whole theory

of giving women a training course was unsuitable and wasteful of personnel, especially since women did not require

hardening for combat.75 At the same time

the Fourth Service Command's inspector

general made a similar investigation,

prompted by complaints from women's

relatives and from Congress. As one irate

relative put it, "It is the consensus of the

civilian population that the basic training

given a WAC should be only schooling

for a particular job."

 76

Director Hobby, while favoring a basic

training course, was also inclined to believe that no training should be given

which was so strenuous as to cause a breakdown and discharge that the Army job itself would not have caused. In late 1943

she informed Military Training Division

that one of the criteria of successful basic

training of Wacs should be that "the individual has not become physically unfit for

military duty."

 77

In all of the resulting investigations, reports confirmed the fact that an excessive

number of breakdowns had resulted from

the training period. On the other hand,

there was no evidence that these breakdowns had any provable connection with

the noncombat basic training subjects,

most of which were not strenuous. Instead,

disability was almost invariably traced to

administrative practices or conditions not

at all intrinsic in the basic course.

Of these, mismanagement of fatigue

duties appeared prominent. In some cases

the women's "basic training" had apparently consisted less of the prescribed

courses than of scrubbing and cleaning the

various classrooms and offices of the headquarters, kitchen police in officers', consolidated, and unit messes, furnace firing,

window washing, and most of the heavy

labor about the training installation.

Women had usually proved unsuccessful

in permanent assignments to such heavy

duties at field stations, and it appeared no

reflection upon the academic training that

women of 50 previously employed in desk

jobs proved unable to complete classwork

while carrying the additional load of training center upkeep.

The inspector general reported that no

precautions had been taken to keep the

length and nature of fatigue duties within

a woman's strength. In a typical case a 25-

hour detail of furnace firing was immediately followed, without time for sleep, by

75

 All in file of SGO Hist Div, unnumbered folders

marked Capt Berlien: (1) Memos, Craighill for Bliss,

11 and 25 Mar 44. (2) M/R, SGO Med Stat Div, 6

Apr 44. 76

 Ltr, Fred C. Haase to Dir WAC, 25 Mar 44, with

Ind, Dir WAC to CG ASF, 1 Apr 44, and Rpt, IG 4th

SvC to CG 4th SvC atchd. WDWAC 330.14. 77

 Memo cited n. 2(2).
654 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

a 14-hour kitchen police detail during

which heavy lifting and scrubbing had

been continuous, resulting in hospitalization and discharge of a skilled recruit. As

a result, the inspector general recommended that commandants take steps to

see that continuous arduous duties were

not assigned during the entire fourteen

hours of kitchen police, and that the scheduling of fatigue details was done so as to insure rotation from heavier to lighter

duties.78

In addition, some of the disability discharges seemed directly traceable to deficiencies in clothing and housing which

also had no necessary relation to the basic

course as such. At Fort Oglethorpe in January and February of 1944, the inspector

general reported that new arrivals had

been housed for several days in poorly

heated barracks, and had walked through

rain and mud to class, mess, and the outside latrines before receiving any issue of

protective military clothing and footgear.

Even at the end of basic training, the inspector general noted:

A check on one group of 30 recruits showed

that no one member had received all the

clothing allowed. . . . The supply situation

had existed for several months with no apparent attempt by the Commandant to rem- edy it.79

By contrast, Fort Des Moines, which had

steam-heated brick buildings, indoor

latrines, and a better-established clothing

supply, reported a rate of respiratory disorders only 60 percent of the service command rate, as against twice the service

command rate at Fort Oglethorpe. This

again offered proof that the military training itself had not caused the excessive illness.

As a result, neither The Inspector General nor The Surgeon General made any

recommendation to abolish the basic

course as such, but there appeared to be a

definite need in administrative matters for

more consideration of women's lesser physical strength, greater enlistment age, and

previous sedentary occupations. The Inspector General also required the Atlanta

Depot to increase the supply of clothing to

Fort Oglethorpe. In April of 1944 the

Army Service Forces also published detailed instructions for the fitting, alteration, and inspection of women's clothing.80

In the same month, from her new office

in G-1 Division, Colonel Hobby secured

the appointment of Colonel Strayhorn as

commandant of Fort Oglethorpe. For the

last year of the war, no further question

was raised concerning the value of a military indoctrination course for women,

although medical inspectors continued to

point out recurring failures to recognize

the limitations of women's physical capacity in fatigue details.

The Army Nurse Corps, soon after the

WAAC's establishment, also accepted the

value of such an indoctrination course before a Nurse Corps officer reported for professional duty, although prohibitive injury

rates resulted when it was attempted to use

men's obstacle courses unaltered. The

Navy found that WAVES officers who

were directly commissioned without a

military indoctrination course were perceptibly embarrassed and handicapped.

In all corps, the evident final solution was

to continue military indoctrination while

avoiding blind imitation of overstrenuous

systems used by men.

78

 Investigations atchd to refs cited in ns. 75 and 76. 79

 Memos cited n. 75(1). 80

 (1) OQMG Ltr to all Tng Cens, 20 Sep 43, and

all depots, 8 Apr 44. (2) ASF Cir 103, 14 Apr 44, Sec

VII. (3) WD Cir 204, 23 May 44.
TRAINING 655

Recruiting Liaison

A particular set of problems revolved

around the always-delicate relationship of

the WAC recruiting and training organizations, which were frequently at crosspurposes. Even in the earliest and least

complicated days of recruiting, both commandants agreed that the WAC training

centers' greatest problem—not shared by

most Army schools in wartime—was its

dependence upon recruiters' success.

In view of the unpredictability of intake

from one week to the next, few firm schedules could be drawn up. At times training

companies were activated and staffed only

to sit idle, with the cadre "suffering a

marked lowering of morale and efficiency." At other times too few companies

were ready, resulting in the "hasty activation of units and procurement of trainer

personnel from whatever source possible."

 81

 There was believed to be no real

solution short of selective service for

women, although Colonel Strayhorn attributed part of the difficulty to the ASF's

"failure to furnish training centers with recruiting figures,"

 82

 which might have

been obtained through better liaison by

Military Training Division with The Adjutant General's Office at the Washington

level.83

Problems redoubled with the advent of

the various special recruiting schemes to

which the War Department was forced to

resort to obtain personnel. From the viewpoint of the training centers, the ideal

training situation was one in which

trainees arrived without strings attached,

thus leaving the centers free to determine

for what job a woman would be classified

and trained. Maj. Elizabeth C. Smith, of

ASF Military Training Division, pointed

out:

Under this plan it is obvious that the

Training Commandants could not exercise

their normal prerogatives of classification and

training. . . . The attitude of many a station-job-assignment recruit was that she

could (and did) tell the Army where she was

going to work and what she was going to do.84

In this respect, it was obvious that there

could be no exact parallel with the classification practices of men's training centers

until the latter in peacetime were also confronted with the problems of career promises to recruits. From the fall of 1943 onward, training centers were presented with

a series of "named companies" such as the

state companies of the All-States Campaign, the Wainwright Company, the

Benito Juarez Company, and others recruited as units under various national or

local projects. Some of these were of much

less than company strength, and caused

waste in overhead and housing in order to

meet the commitment that they be trained

as a group. Others were overstrength for a

standard company, with consequent overcrowding of barracks and classrooms.

There followed the branch recruits, who

had been promised shipment to a particular branch of the service, and the stationjob recruits, who had been promised assignment to a specified station and job.

Training center resentment against these

systems was sharp. While most recruiters'

classifications were found not to be grossly

inaccurate, in some cases women had not

elected a job in their most essential skill, or

had been led to expect further training,

81

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 102-03. 82

 Ibid. 83

 Congress had not authorized a WAC Reserve, in

which recruits could have been held on inactive duty

to stabilize inflow. See: (1) Hist cited n. 71(2). (2) ASF

Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 344-45. 84

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 56-58.
656 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

which could not be provided. Training

center reports added:

Some recruits expected to be exempt from

kitchen police duties; to be destined for superior assignments; to be entitled to more consideration than other Wacs. Naturally this attitude quickly aroused resentment among

other trainees and training center personnel.85

Whatever the cause, the War Department soon began to receive numerous allegations that recruiting promises were being violated by training authorities. For

the duration of most recruiting campaigns,

inspectors were kept busy checking upon

cases in which it was alleged that certificates of enlistment had been ignored or destroyed at training centers, recruits classified in unwanted duties or shipped to other

than the promised station, or ridiculed for

their branch or state armbands. Low

morale among branch recruits was reported as so prevalent that a War Department representative was sent to investigate.86

Recruiters objected that they had received letters from their recruits to the effect that commitments were being violated

and that

. . . it makes the job of recruiting an almost

impossible one for those of us who are interested in the future and welfare of the women

. . . especially when the responsibility lies

on our shoulders for having encouraged them

to join.87

Through the efforts of various inspectors, a number of cases of erroneous shipment were discovered and corrected. In

some cases certificates were still in the possession of recruits, while in others papers

had been lost and training centers had not

sent for duplicates before disallowing

claims. In most cases the numbers of such

shipments were no greater than might

have been attributable to error, haste, or

ignorance of the significance of certificates.

In some cases, women who had not been

promised branch assignment had merely

taken advantage of the general confusion

to assert that they had.88

Colonel Strayhorn was of the opinion

that training authorities in the ASF had

again not co-ordinated matters fully with

recruiters on the Washington level, and

that there was "failure to properly advise

the training center prior to the actual arrival of troops recruited under such recruitment programs of the nature of the

program and of the promises made."

 89

Visiting War Department representatives

agreed that "the Third WAC Training

Center has not been informed of changes

in organization and planning for WAC recruiting."

 90

Air Forces Evaluation

A particular problem was posed by the

presence in one installation of Air Wacs,

Port Wacs, Ground Wacs, and others who

arrived complete with factional spirit. Because of its relatively small size, the WAC

was forced to train in one installation recruits guaranteed assignment in different

branches of the Army, a situation that sel85

 (1) Ibid, pp. 58-59. (2) Ltr, Comdt 1st WAC Tng

Cen to Dir WAC, 9 Mar 44. SPWA 333.1. 86

 (1) Memo, Rctg Off for Dir WAC, 3 Mar 44.

WDWAC 333.1. (2) Ltr, Gen White, G-1, to Rep.

Francis Case, 9 Mar 44. WDWAC 330.14. 87

 Ltr, Lt Virginia Williams to Dir WAC, 8 Feb

44. SPWA 330.14. 88

 (1) Files of Air WAC Div, Hq AAF, ACofAS

Pers, Recruiting. (2) AAF WAC Hist, p. 70 n. 1. (3)

Intervs with AAF WAC Off, and Capt Corene Brooks,

AAF Ln Off, during 1946. 89

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 102-03. 90

 Memo cited n. 80(1).
TRAINING 657

dom if ever confronted men's basic training centers. Training center officers remarked:

Many recruits earmarked for AAF assignments were difficult to orient to basic military training. This was a result of a preconceived idea that training provided by the

ASF was not applicable in the Air Forces.91

To deal with the problem, an approach

was adopted by training centers which in

turn drew objections from other commands: that of temporarily eradicating

branch loyalty. Des Moines training authorities noted:

One of the primary objectives of basic

training is, of course, the inculcation in the

trainee of a feeling of unity and identity with

the Corps. . . . The leadership of a strong

Company Commander was necessary to overcome the . . . sense of separateness, of an

already-developed pride in belonging to a

special unit.92

This view was not concurred in by Director Hobby, who wrote to ask Military

Training Division to stress "building of

pride with the unit in which the soldier

serves rather than building pride in the

WAC." She asked, unsuccessfully, that

passages in training courses be deleted

which "give the impression that the WAC

is something apart from the Army."

 93

By mid-1944, mounting Air Forces indignation at the number of lost recruits,

plus dissatisfaction with training given in

Air Forces organization and nomenclature,

brought the AAF to the point of requesting

its own basic training center in spite of the

expense. This action was averted only by

the Air WAC Officer's substitute proposal

for a less expensive measure: the assignment of one experienced Air Forces officer

to each of the two training centers, to act

as liaison. This plan was fought by the

ASF upon Major Smith's recommendation, and was rejected by G-3 Division of

the General Staff on the grounds that it

was "wasteful of personnel."

Colonel Bandel resubmitted the papers

in person, and eventually prevailed; the

two officers were assigned in 1944, and

were authorized to communicate directly

by mail or telephone with Air Forces

headquarters and its subcommands.94

They proved most successful, in the AAF's

opinion, in securing speedy solution to difficulties: new recruiting appeals were coordinated, Air Forces job classification

systems installed, individual misunderstandings and claims given immediate attention, and training instructors provided

with recent organizational charts.

There was, however, obviously no way

of arriving at an exact parallel with the

practices of men's training centers, until

the peacetime realignment made it possible for each branch to train its own female

recruits.

Other Evaluation

Most other aspects of WAC training

center operation required no comment,

being identical with those of all Army installations of a similar nature. Both Colonel Strayhorn and Colonel McCoskrie

shared the belief that the quality of instruction at WAC installations, as distinguished from course content, was generally

superior. Trained teachers were easily

found among WAC officers. A survey in

91

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 56-58. 92

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 58-59. 93

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 27 Oct 44.

WDWAC 353. 94

 AAF Ltr 80-27, 25 Sep 44.
658 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

1944 showed that over 20 percent of WAC

officers were former teachers, with 16 percent being principals or teachers in universities or secondary schools. These instructors were particularly successful in

preparing training aids, instituting approved teaching methods, and inspiring

trainee interest. An ASF inspector commented, of both officers and enlisted cadre,

"I was impressed by the manner in which

they conducted themselves, the prompt

and courteous attention paid to superiors,

and above all, the effort put forth to do a

job."

 95

Training centers also maintained a

superior record in respect to food and mess

management. Meals were generally well

planned and included plenty of the fruits

and salads that women were found to prefer. In some months, reports showed a disposable garbage rate only half that of the

Army average. Colonel McCoskrie's special pride was his establishment of a "birdseed table" of low-calorie diet, to which he

directed women whose weight seemed to

him to require it, regardless of their age or

rank. The women, however, felt that certain Army men on the installation might

profitably have received the same treatment.96

Great effort was also expended by WAC

training centers in uniform issue and shoe

fitting, which commandants believed got

more attention than at most Army centers.

Such efforts, however, were often fruitless

in view of the shortages of clothing, the

lack of proper sizes, and other problems

connected with the relative difficulty of

standardization and shipment of women's

supplies. Whenever, as was not frequent,

receiving companies were able to issue

women complete and well-fitting uniforms, commandants noted that women

were "more receptive to training."

 97

Closing of Training Centers

With the planned reduction of recruiting at the end of 1944, it was clear that

one of the two remaining centers must

close. Major Smith and Military Training

Division favored retention of Fort Oglethorpe on the grounds of its warmer

climate and greater capacity. Director

Hobby preferred consolidation at Des

Moines, in consideration of the needs of

Negro recruits and of the superiority of the

permanent brick buildings. The AAF supported this view and so, finally, did G-3

Division of the General Staff, which directed the choice of Des Moines.98

Closing of Fort Oglethorpe was delayed

by the training of hospital technicians.

When it eventually closed in September of

1945, Colonel Strayhorn was transferred

to Fort Des Moines as training center commandant, while Colonel McCoskrie remained as post commandant. With the

beginning of WAC demobilization and the

cessation of WAC recruiting, Fort Des

Moines likewise closed out its training activities in December of 1945. This marked

the formal end of wartime WAC training,

except for such scattered attendance at

Army specialist schools as took place

thereafter.99

95

 Rpt, Lt Col H. P. Crane, GSC, to MPD ASF, 12

May 43. SPWA 319.1. Also see Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC, p. 14. 96

 (1) Rpt, Col Howard Clark, Chief, WAAC Opng

Div, to Dir WAAC, 27 May 43, sub: Visit of Info to

2d and 3d WAAC Tng Cens. WPWA319.1. (2) Ltr,

Col McCoskrie to Dir WAC, 9 Mar 44. SPWA 333.1. 97

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 115. 98

 In WDWAC 353: (1) Memo, Dir WAC for G-3,

4 Jul 44. (2) Memo, MTD ASF for G-1, 1 Aug 44,

SPTRP 353 WAC (7-4-44). (3) Memo, MTD ASF

for G-3, 14 Sep 44, SPTRP 354.1 WAC. (4) Memo,

G-3 for MTD ASF, 17 Nov 44, WDGCT 322 WAC

(8-24-44). 99

 Ltr, Mrs. Elizabeth Strayhorn Walsh to OCMH,

14 Jun 50, with incl comments.
LAST BASIC TRAINING INSPECTION by Colonel Strayhorn, commandant of the

First WAC Training Center, and Colonel Rice, October 1945.
660 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Attendance at Army

Specialist Schools

No bars were generally interposed to

the attendance of Wacs at Army noncombat specialist schools on a coeducational

basis, other than the limitations of available housing for women. The number of

WAC students varied, from entire classes

to a few individuals. In the latter case it

was sometimes necessary to delay approval of a Wac's attendance until enough

applications were on hand to justify use of

a housing unit. Some students were sent

direct from training centers to fill WAC

quotas allotted by the school concerned,

and others were sent by Army stations.

The relatively small size of the Corps, and

the fact that many women already possessed civilian skills or were given specialist training in WAC training centers, prevented coeducational specialist training

from reaching any considerable proportions, although obviously the program

would have ceased to be a minor one had

it been necessary to fit a million women

into the Army scheme, or to accept untrained younger women.

WAAC and WAC officers also attended

the Army's Command and Staff School at

Fort Leavenworth,100 The Adjutant General's School, Ordnance School, Quartermaster School, Cooks and Bakers School,

the Chemical Warfare School, and many

others.101 In most such cases, women

proved able to take the full course successfully. Instructors at the Chemical Warfare

School reported, "We pulled no punches,"

as Waacs went through the obstacle

course, complete with tear gas, mustard

gas, and exploding booby traps.102 In addition, faculties noted with approval a certain increased industry among competitive-minded male students.

The only apparent defect in the informal and flexible assignment system was a

lack of knowledge in the field as to how it

operated. Recruiters, personnel officers,

and individual women vainly wrote to

training authorities for "a list of [specialist]

schools, their mission, scope, prerequisites,

and classification of successful graduates."

 103

 At the time of the conversion,

WAAC Headquarters had begun preparation of a list, but the project was never

completed. By the time that Military

Training Division assumed authority, such

a list would have been difficult to compile,

in view of the wide decentralization of

power to authorize attendance.

Not only were WAC quotas for specialist schools set up by Air, Ground, and

Service Forces headquarters, but many

Army stations made the proper arrangements with training commands at a lower

level. Thus, it was frequently discovered

that several Wacs were attending a class

for aircraft mechanics, or other specialists,

without any record of the fact in headquarters.

For this reason, and because the ASF

disapproved of separate studies for women,

no over-all report was ever made by Military Training Division as to which Army

specialist schools Wacs had attended, in

what numbers, and with what success.104

100

 In the first class, a Waac scored fourth in a class

of about 400. The best reported Wac record was in a

later class: fourth in the General Staff Course (AAF

Tactical subdivision), in a class of over 1,000. 101

 WDBPR Release, 13 Oct 42. 102

 Chemical Warfare Bull, Vol. 31, No. 2, MarMay 45. 103

 Ltr, Chief, R&I Br, 7th SvC, to TAG, 12 Feb 44.

SPKPI 353 WAC, in SPWA 353. 104

 See Chs. XVI-XIX, above, for technical schools

of the AAF, AGF, and ASF.
TRAINING 661

Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP)

There was, at different times, some consideration of allowing women to attend not

only Army specialist schools but the civilian colleges that were concurrently training enlisted men under the Army Specialized Training Program. Soon after the

Medical Department received authority

to commission women doctors, The Surgeon General recommended that women

be included in the ASTP, whereby young

men were being sent to medical school at

Army expense. He proposed that women

medical students with two years of training be enlisted in the WAC for completion

of a medical education of eighteen months,

followed by a commission in the Medical

Corps. This, he said, would assure a supply of women doctors for the Army, and

would encourage women already doctors

to serve with the Army, since "it will eliminate much of the prejudice . . . which is

currently a large factor in their reluctance

to enter the Army Medical Corps."

 105

This proposal was rejected by Military

Training Division, ASF, on the grounds

that it would reduce the number of men

who could be given medical training, and

that women did not need the aid, as they

could not be drafted and thus their medical studies could not be interrupted.

In the following year, when the ASTP

for men was drastically cut during the

manpower shortage of early 1944, bereft

college authorities turned with some hope

toward the WAC to fill the vacancies. At

this time Military Training Division reversed its earlier stand, and proposed that

19-year-olds be enlisted in the WAC and

given a year of college training at Army

expense, which would include medical,

communications, dietetic, statistical, or

other work.

Many considerations caused the proposal to be unanimously rejected by the

Director WAC, the Army Service Forces,

and the War Department. Legislation

would have been required to enlist women

under 20, involving delay and possibly difficulties with Congress. Since there was no

draft of women, it could not be said that

the Army was drying up the source of college material and of future women scientists. Most girls of 19 would have been past

college entrance age, yet to lower the entrance age to 17 or 18, with two or three

years of training, would have been unjustifiably expensive and of little value in the

current war. Furthermore, the WAC already had some 6,000 enlisted college

graduates and some 10,000 more with partial college training, very few of whom

were being used to fill assignments that required such training. For these reasons, no

Wacs were ever sent to school under the

ASTP.106

Continuation Training

in the Field

The War Department had for some time

accepted the principle that "continuous

refresher training" was necessary for male

troops not engaged in actual combat; such

troops were excused from their duties for

several hours of training each week so that

a review of basic training was accom105

 (1) Memo, SG for CG ASF, 30 Oct 43, and 1st

Ind from MTD, 30 Nov 43. SPWA 353. (2) Ltr, ASW

to Senator George L. Radcliffe, 14 Oct 44. WD 095

Bentz, Frank L. (Mrs.), in CofS 291.9. 106

 (1) Memo, Sp Asst for Dir WAC, 8 Apr 44; (2)

Memo, Lt Vera Mankinen for Mrs. Gruber, 28 Feb

44; (3) Memo, CG ASF for CofS, 7 Mar 44. WDWAC

353.
662 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

plished every six months.107 In the early

days of the WAAC, no decision was made

about such "continuation training" for

Waacs after they left the training center.

Director Hobby proposed a directive placing responsibility for instruction on the

WAAC company commanders, but General Faith decided that no special directives for women were necessary, upon "the

assumption . . . that local commanders

would discharge their command responsibility for the training of WAAC personnel." As a result, no directive was issued

until just before the establishment of the

WAC, when General Faith's inspectors

discovered that "almost without exception

no provision was being made for WAAC

unit training," because of "confusion in

the minds of station commanders" and

"the inexperience of WAAC unit commanders."

 108

General Faith at once issued a directive

on the subject, Mobilization Training Program 35-1. Since there was as yet very

little knowledge of women's actual training needs in the field, it was merely provided that WAC units would spend not

less than three hours a week, and not more

than four, in a repetition of basic training,

including drill, physical training, military

courtesy, and hygiene. The directive also

contained authority for station commanders, at their discretion, to substitute onthe-job training for part of these hours, or

professional courses such as typing and

shorthand.109

This directive was revised somewhat by

Military Training Division when it took

over WAC training, chiefly by adding map

reading and by omitting the authority for

station commanders to substitute on-thejob training, typing, or professional

courses. The physical training period was

also changed from 11⁄4 hours once a week

to 15 minutes a day, since experts believed

daily exercise more beneficial. The Air

and Ground Forces delegated to the Service Forces the right to prescribe this training for WAC units world-wide, believing

at the time that unsisterly dissension would

result if Wacs on neighboring stations or

combined installations were required to

take different types and amounts of training. The ASF's revised version at first occasioned little comment when published

in a directive entitled Mobilization Training Program for WAC Detachments in the

Field, familiarly known as MTP 35-2.

This repetition of basic training every six

months was, it was stated, expected to

maintain "efficient job performance . . .

military discipline, and physical fitness."

 110

Opposition of Personnel Officers

Within six months of the date of publication, this directive was under fire from

Army section chiefs, station and company

commanders, and personnel officers. The

heart of the opposition was the question of

whether, for permanent-type noncombat

troops, the repetition of basic subjects

every six months had enough value to compensate for time lost from other duties,

or in fact had any value at all. Although

the minimum requirement of 3 to 4 hours

a week appeared small, it in fact added up

to two working days a month, or 24 working days a year. From the section chiefs

viewpoint, such loss was the equivalent of

giving all Wacs a furlough for one month

of the twelve, or of shipping them all back

107

 FM 21-5, WD, esp. par 44 of 1943 edition. 108

 Whole discussion, unless otherwise specified,

based on ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 323-25. 109

 MTP 35-1, Unit Tng Program for WAC Units

in Field, 21 Aug 43. 110

 MTP 35-2, WD, 15 Oct 44. Notification to Director in: Memo, Dir Troop Tng Div ASF for Dir

WAC, 23 Sep 44. SPTRP 300.8, in WDWAC 353.
TRAINING 663

to the training center for another four

weeks' basic course each year.

WAC staff directors believed that enlisted women felt the impact of this problem more keenly than the average men's

unit, for several reasons. Of these, one obvious difficulty was that women were more

permanent employees than men; 85 percent of Wacs never went overseas, and

therefore heard the same course in defense

against chemical attack given by the same

company officers, not once or twice, but

four, five, and six times during the course

of the war. Such prolonged repetition in

time provoked insufferable boredom

among the victims. The ASF WAC Officer, Colonel Goodwin, reported later:

One of the deterrents to morale among en- listed women in the field has been a constant

repetition of such basic military subjects as

Defense Against Chemical Attack, and Map

and Aerial Photograph Reading, which in no

way contribute to the efficiency of women on the job.111

A more important factor was the nature

of women's work, as distinguished from

that of the average men's unit. All Army

personnel were required to be excused

from their duties for the weekly training

"wherever practicable," but the majority

of women, unlike the majority of men,

were in clerical or other office work from

which they could seldom be released. As

the war situation grew worse and combatfit men were transferred away from offices,

Wacs came to hold many key office jobs

which required constant attendance plus

night and Sunday work.112

As a result of the opposition of section

chiefs, almost no cases were reported in

which a WAC company was allowed to

conduct its training during duty hours. To

long hours of office work were already

added duties from which civilian women

employees were exempt: barracks fatigue,

kitchen police, parades, and ceremonies.

The addition of four hours of weekly training on off-duty time therefore posed a serious problem for enlisted women, since it

occupied from two to four nights a week of

supposed "recreation" time.

The Air WAC Officer, Colonel Bandel,

noted

Commands had placed women on key

clerical assignments, would not release them

for training during the day, and yet expected

them to take three or four hours of training

weekly. The result was that women were

working, training, or doing housekeeping

from early morning until late at night.113

Even overseas, this difference was noted.

In the European theater's great training

programs prior to D Day, men and nurses

took the training during duty hours, but

Wacs, because of the pressure of office

work, were obliged to take it in their offduty time, a fact that some Army doctors

blamed for the higher sick rate among

Wacs at this time.114

The difficulty of scheduling required

courses was further increased for women

by the fact that most WAC units were not

homogeneous, as men's often were, but

contained workers of every type employed

in different offices on different hours and

shifts. Thus, company officers and cadre

were obliged to repeat each course several

nights a week to catch all members off

duty.

An additional objection from station

commanders was that the program made

it difficult to find time for more urgently

needed practical courses. Many stations

111

 Memo, Asst ASF WAC Off for MTD through

MPD ASF, 29 Jun 45. SPAP 353 (5-17-43). 112

 Min, Med Tng Conf, Ft Oglethorpe, 1-3 May

45, p. 14, in SGO Tng Div, unnumbered. 113

 AAF WAC Hist, p. 42 and n. 1. 114

 ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. III, p. 5, App. 114, Rpt of

SGO Consultant for 1944; and pp. 69-70.
664 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

and Army commands followed a consistent

program of upgrading both military and

civilian workers by providing free off-duty

training in typing, communications, and

medical skills, or whatever was needed in

the local situation. The staff directors of

every service command informed Colonel

Goodwin that "Training Directors of Service Commands and Technical Services

often superimpose additional training requirements over those of MTP 35-2."

 115

The Air Forces noted the same problem,

but the weekly four-hour program of map

reading and other courses was already so

heavy that it was necessary for Air Forces

Headquarters to forbid more practical

training.116

Physical Training for Field Units

The most unpopular of the required

subjects was the course of muscle-building

calisthenics, identical with that used in the

training center. From the beginning, training inspectors had noted a certain laxity

concerning this requirement. Units in

double-decked barracks ordinarily had no

indoor room for active exercise, since it

was impossible for members to bend, fling

arms and legs, or lie on the floor without

hitting the beds, coal stoves, or each other.

Outdoor training, even if weather permitted it, was hampered by the usual lack

of nearby areas large enough and smooth

enough for the prescribed exercises. Company commanders had sometimes solved

the problem by securing permission to use

some large post recreational hall or area,

where the company was assembled once a

week for an hour of miscellaneous games

or exercises, but this system could not be

used when the requirement was changed

by Military Training Division to 15 minutes a day instead of 11⁄4 hours a week.

Commanders soon protested that it was

impossible to secure a suitable area and assemble the company five time a week. The

time consumed in donning proper clothing

and marching back and forth to the area

was often nearer to an hour a day than to

15 minutes.117

WAC staff directors of Air, Ground, and

Service Forces, after a conference, therefore appealed to Military Training Division to remit the daily requirement because

of "the administrative difficulty involved

in scheduling and operation."

 118

 However, ASF's physical training experts refused, saying, "There was no evidence that

the training as required was not expedient

from the point of view of the purpose of

physical training."

 119

 This, being translated, meant that 15 minutes of daily exercise was considered important enough to

merit further efforts to overcome administrative difficulties. Unfortunately, the

eventual solution arrived at by most WAC

companies was, before dressing for reveille,

to spend 15 minutes in such exercises as

could be taken in double-decked bunks

without awakening shift workers sleeping

in neighboring beds. These, although duly

entered on company records, were often

invisible to the naked eye of the inspector.

Therefore, to enforce more active exercise, Military Training Division proposed

a program not used by men: that WAC

field units be required to administer a

physical fitness rating test every three

months, the rating to consist of scores made

on four exercises requiring considerable

strength, which were currently taught at

training centers. These four were known,

115

 (1) Min, Stf Dirs Conf, Feb 45, Ft Des Moines.

(2) Memo, ASF WAC Off for Dir Mil Tng ASF, 23

Feb 45. SPAP 353 WAC (5-17-43). 116

 AAF WAC Hist, p. 42 and n. 1. 117

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 330. 118

 Min cited n. 115(1). 119

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 339.
TRAINING 665

respectively, as the "dip," the "sit-up," the

"wing-lift," and the "squat thrust." WAC

advocates of these exercises pointed out

that these four taken together would develop muscular strength in every part of

the body, which random sports and recreation would never do. Skeptics, on the

other hand, noted that the exercises were

quite similar to exercises for men, and

questioned whether women's efficiency in

any capacity would be improved by giving

them broad shoulders, narrow hips, and

muscular arms and legs, which the exercises undeniably aimed for.

To make the required score of Good, a

woman was expected to perform all four

exercises in succession with a speed dependent on her age. For a woman of 50,

from 3 to 8 full dips first had to be made

without pause, with the body supported

on hands and toes and lowered by bending the elbows until the chin touched the

floor and then returned to position. Second, from 28 to 48 sit-ups had to be performed, also without pause, with the body

brought from a lying to a sitting position

without the use of the hands. Third was

the wing-lift, in which the body was face

down with the hands clasped behind the

neck, and the upper part of the body then

raised until the breast left the floor; a

woman of 50 was required to do from 69

to 85 of these lifts in one minute. Last was

the squat thrust, in which the subject

squatted, thrust the legs out behind until

the body was straight and rested on hands

and toes, returned to a squat, and then to

a straight-knee stand; a woman of 50 was

required to do from 15 to 18 such thrusts

in 30 seconds. For a younger woman, the

required scores on all four tests were considerably higher.120

Colonel Hobby immediately objected to

this test when it was proposed. She informed Military Training Division:

This office is not in agreement with the

principles of the proposed Training Circular

"WAC Physical Fitness Rating." This disagreement is not based on any expert knowledge of physical training, but on the opinion

that, from the point of view of the welfare of

the enlisted women, such a system is not

appropriate or suitable for women in the

field.

The basic mission of the Women's Army

Corps is to accomplish given military jobs.

Physical training in the field should be held

to the minimum necessary for a woman to

keep fit to perform her assigned duties, most

of which are not strenuous.121

Colonel Hobby privately remarked to her

staff, "Are they trying to make Amazons

of our women?"

 122

In spite of this opposition, ASF training

authorities refused to make the physical

fitness rating less strenuous. Captain Niles

of The Surgeon General's Office, the physical training expert who had devised the

exercises, wrote, "It is essential that the

organic vigor of WAC personnel in the

field be improved." The medical consultant, Major Craighill, likewise favored the

exercises as a means of offsetting sedentary

work. Finally Major Smith secured Colonel Hobby's approval on the grounds that

the test merely provided the field a convenient way of measuring exercises already

taught in training centers and illustrated

in the WAC Physical Training Manual,

and would not be competitive.123

Upon publication, however, the directive stated that the test was not optional

but "will be administered once every 3

120

 WD Tng Cir 62, 16 Jun 44 and 10 Oct 44. 121

 Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Mil Tng ASF, 13 Apr

44. WDWAC 353. 122

 According to Maj Mattie E. Treadwell, Asst

Chief, WAC Br G-1. 123

 (1) Memo, SGO Tng Div for MTD ASF, 9 May

44. WDWAC 353. (2) Memo, SGO Consultant for

Women's Health and Welfare for Dir WAC, 18 Apr

44. WDWAC 353. (3) Memos, Dep Dir WAC for Dir

WAC, 20 May 44, and for MTD ASF, 22 May 44.

WDWAC 353.
666 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

months," and that women of all ages

would be excused only by authority of an

orthopedic surgeon.124 Protests at once

arose in the field. Enlisted men had no

such test, which appeared to Army commands to be an unnecessary burden for

women. The AAF reported with alarm

that their first woman to try the test, although herself a young physical training

teacher, was hospitalized for a week with

a strained back.125 Most women alleged

that, although always perfectly healthy,

they could not perform the exercises at

all.126 Some alleged that only those women

with the build of a man would ever be

able to do them correctly, since most

women's bone and muscle structure was

unsuitable for successful performance,

particularly in required shoulder width

and narrowness of hips.

Captain Niles, on the other hand, believed that the unpopularity of the tests

was due to lack of knowledge on the part

of supervisory officers, and asked that

traveling WAC teams be sent to major

commands to demonstrate. This was done,

but a year later the program still remained

very unpopular. One Air Forces command, after carrying on what it called "a

vigorous program," discovered no improvement in women's scores, with most

still below "average," and concluded that

the test did not measure real physical fitness for women.

WAC company commanders, when

polled, were found to be 95 percent opposed to the whole physical training program. So-called physical fitness as measured by this means often, according to

their observation, actually had a negative

correlation with job efficiency. Instead, the

almost unanimous demand of Wacs in the

field was for permission to replace the

muscle-building calisthenics with some relaxing form of group or individual sports

suitable for women, such as bowling, hiking, or swimming.127 All such field protests were not effective;

Military Training Division refused to alter

the requirement. Major Smith replied to

advocates of a recreation hour:

We have to recognize the difference between planned training and a morale-build- ing program for recreation. . . . Play loses its

value if forced. Therefore the point of substituting recreation for planned exercises is not

valid.128

Personnel vs. Training Needs

The entire issue of continuation training

was finally forced, just before V-E Day, by

a concerted campaign of personnel advisers in all major Army commands. As early

as April of 1944 Colonel Hobby informed

Military Training Division, "The time of

the enlisted women in the field is ordinarily so valuable that none should be devoted

to unnecessary training activities."

 129

 In

February of 1945, as hospitals and personnel centers braced themselves for record

loads, a meeting of all Air, Ground, and

Service Forces WAC staff directors re124

 Cir cited n. 120. 125

 Maj Gwendolyn Watson, AG, then WAC Stf Dir,

AAF Mat Comd, Wright Field. 126

 Including the author, who, although not having

lost a single day from work during five years in the

Army, was unable to arise from the floor after one half

of one full dip. The AGF WAC Officer, who performed the experiment at the same time, achieved an

identical result. 127

 (1) Memo, Opns Serv SGO for MTD ASF, 3 Jul

44. SGO Hist Div 322.5-1. (2) Ltr, AAF ATSC,

Wright Field, to Dir WAC through CG AAF, 21 Jul

45. WDWAC 720, 1945-46. (3) Memo, Asst ASF

WAC Off to MTD ASF, 29 Jan 45. SPAP 353 WAC

(5-17-43). (4) Poll of company officers. Files of Sch of

WAC Pers Admin, WAC files, OCMH. 128

 Min cited n. 112, p. 17. 129

 Memo, Dir WAC for Dir Mil Tng ASF, 13 Apr

44. WDWAC 353.
TRAINING 667

ported the unanimous opinion of their

commands: that authority must be decentralized to them to determine their own

continuation training needs. ASF's report

to this effect was prepared by Colonel

Goodwin and forwarded by General Dalton of Military Personnel Division, who

stated, "Because enlisted women are working longer hours and harder than at any

time since the Corps was established, it is

felt that consideration should be given

to reducing the number of training hours

required."

 130

 AAF's objections were even

more strenuous, since that command had

now abandoned any continuation training

program for its men, and saw no reason for

special requirements for women in a time

of great manpower shortage.131

All such requests for modification were

consistently refused by Military Training

Division, with the statement that continuation training could not safely be decentralized to the station commander,

since the resulting programs would not be

uniform and thus would not produce an

identical Army-wide state of training. In

rejecting the recommendations, Military

Training Division pointed out that the

opinion of personnel officers could not be

considered formal complaints until approved by directors of training in subordinate commands and submitted to headquarters through channels.132

General Dalton replied:

Admittedly not all the Staff Directors are

training specialists, but. . . post commanders,

section chiefs, and hospital commanders complain to them of the difficulties in carrying

out the present training program.133

He suggested that Brig. Gen. Arthur G.

Trudeau verify their comments by inviting

the formal opinions of the service commands and technical services. This, the

Director of Training, ASF, refused to do.134

In any case, the comments were inapplicable to the Army Air Forces. Colonel

Bandel had opposed an earlier break with

the ASF because she preferred to use the

powerful lever of AAF opposition to force

Army-wide reforms, rather than to rescue

Air Wacs alone. After the failure of Colonel Goodwin's efforts in March, Colonel

Bandel made a final attempt to prevent a

division by requesting a conference of Air,

Ground, and Service Forces officers with a

representative of the War Department's

G-3 Division. At this conference the AAF's

argument was supported by the AGF and

by the ASF WAC Officer "in view of pressing work demands on assigned personnel."

Military Training Division again refused to consider this recommendation on

the grounds that:

This opinion was based on administrative

and morale problems evolving from the field

approach to the training requirement. It did

not represent an evaluation of the ability of

the training program to accomplish its stated

purpose.

Therefore, Military Training Division still

refused to modify the program in any command.135

At this, the Air Forces recommended

that continuation training of AAF Wacs

be made a responsibility solely of the AAF,

in line with the system for men's training.

130

 Memo, ASF WAC Off for Dir Mil Tng ASF

through Dir Pers ASF, 23 Feb 45. SPAP 353 WAC (5-

17-43). 131

 AAF Ltr 50-18, 18 Jan 45. 132

 Memo, MTD ASF for Dir Pers ASF, 2 Mar 45.

SPAP 353 WAC (5-17-43). 133

 Ibid. 1st Ind, Gen Dalton to MTD ASF, 13 Mar

45.

134

 Ibid. 2d Ind, MTD to Dir Pers ASF, 22 Mar 45.

See also Speech by Maj Smith, pp. 10-11. Min cited

n. 120. 135

 Above based on ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 339,

except for Colonel Bandel's opinions, obtained by

interview.
668 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

This recommendation received Colonel

Hobby's concurrence and was approved

by G-3 Division of the War Department

for both the AAF and the AGF, becoming

effective 15 July 1945, a few weeks before

the end of the war. The requirement for a

physical fitness rating test was also suspended about the same time by separate

action.136

The Air Forces immediately published

a simplified continuation training program for Air Wacs, in which only two

hours weekly were required. One of these

was the orientation hour directed by the

War Department for all Army men and

women. This offered no problem since it

was not repetitive, was given during duty

hours, and was ordinarily prepared by a

specialist for presentation to both men and

women of an entire station. The second

hour was one of "exercise and sports," with

time, place, and type to be determined by

the station concerned. All other subjects

were to be conducted only when believed

necessary by local commanders, and in no

case could exceed one additional hour

weekly. One day later, the Army Ground

Forces published an identically worded

continuation training program for its

Wacs.137

Military Training Division prepared for

ASF Wacs a continuation training program that was virtually unmodified. Military Personnel Division at once objected

to publication of this program, since the

expanding mission of the Service Forces

after V-E Day had placed even greater

loads on ports, hospitals, and separation

centers. Military Training Division again

refused to consider this recommendation,

and unsuccessfully attempted to revise the

ASF WAC Officer's assigned duty of advising General Somervell on the WAC

program to that of advising him on the

WAC program except for WAC training.

At this, General Dalton appealed to the

Chief of Staff, Army Service Forces, to

override its Training Division on the whole

matter. Both Control Division, ASF, and

the Chief of Staff, ASF, approved General

Dalton's appeal, and directed Military

Training Division to publish an easier program like that of the Army Air Forces and

Army Ground Forces.138

The program was published as directed.

Only three months later, Military Training Division's policies met an even greater

setback when the pressure of work forced

the ASF to remove all requirements for

continuation training of all operating personnel, both male and female. Since the

AAF and AGF already had no such requirement, the theory that routine continuation training was practicable in time

of emergency was generally discarded. It

was subsequently made clear by Major

Smith that Military Training Division had

not altered its opinion as to the ideal

course content when time permitted. Since

the objections of most Army station commanders had chiefly concerned the loss of

work time and efficiency in an emergency,

it appeared that there would be less active

opposition to repetition of basic courses in

peacetime when personnel became plentiful.139

136

 (1) Memo, ACofAS Tng for G-3, 11 May 45;

Comment 1,1 7 May 45, G-3 to Dir WAC; Comment

2, 26 May 45, Dir WAC to G-3. AVACT-4, in

WDWAC 353. (2) WD Tng Cir 31, 2 Jul 45. 137

 (1) AAF Reg 50-34, 23 Jun 45 (effective 15 Jul

45). (2) AGF Ltr 461/150, (MTP) (24 Jun 45)

GNGAP. 138

 (1) Memos, Asst ASF WAC Off for MTD ASF,

29 Jun 45, and no date. SPAP 353 WAC (5-17-43).

(2) Memo, Gen Dalton to CofS ASF, 12 Jul 45. SPAP

353 WAC. This outlines briefly the entire history of

negotiation discussed in this chapter. 139

 (1) ASF Cir 289, 30 Jul 45. (2) ASF Cir 359, 25

Sep 45. (3) ASF Hist of WAC Tng, p. 354, final

critique by Maj Smith.
CHAPTER XXXIII

The Leadership of Women

If the development of leaders among

men was one of the Army's major problems, the development of women leaders

was equally urgent for the Women's Army

Corps, and even more difficult, since the

Corps began its career without a nucleus

of experienced personnel. Soon after the

conversion to Army status, field commands noted that one of the Corps' most

pressing needs was for good WAC detachment commanders; those sent out were

frequently found to be deficient in the

training, the experience, and the temperament for leadership.1

There were those who held that the task

was impossible, in that the terms female

and leader were self-contradictory. This

prevalent view was set forth, soon after the

move of the Director's Office to G-1 Division, in a nationally syndicated newspaper

column, which alleged:

The War Department has received thousands of letters from Wacs suggesting that officer personnel in their outfits consist of men

instead of women. The revolt is so bitter and

widespread that the recommendation may be

accepted. . . . The gist of the general complaint seems to be that the gals would have

more respect for a male boss than for a female

commander. . . . Most of the communications

charge that women are too "petty" to handle

large groups of the same sex.2

This statement was, fortunately for the

WAC, entirely inaccurate. No such

avalanche of letters was received by the

War Department; there was no hint of any

such "revolt"; no recommendation that

WAC commanders be replaced was ever

received from any major commander.3

There was much question of the way in

which to discover the best female commanders and remove unsuitable ones, but

there was never, after the first officer candidate classes, any question of the necessity

for unit commanders of the same sex as the

troops. Only the first seven WAAC training classes had male officers, who were replaced by female officers as rapidly as

possible.

The question of "leadership" as here

raised was distinct from the administrative

and disciplinary aspects of command. In

mere administration, women officers for

female troops had a natural advantage:

the WAC company routine of inspection,

sick call, monthly physical examination

and similar matters was, if not impossible,

at least embarrassing for the male commander, and in all private interviews he

was forced to remain constantly aware of

possible charges that might be brought

against him unless witnesses were present

at all times. In disciplinary matters, reports

on file from field commanders also attested

that the average male officer was more

1

 Min, Stf Dirs Conf, New York, 1-3 Dec 43. SPWA

337 (11-10-43). 2

 The column "National Whirligig," 11 Apr 44.

WDWAC 000.7. 3

 Only one such early document was discovered,

and this was never forwarded to the War Department.
670 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

hampered by "misplaced chivalry" than a

female officer, when required to adjudge

disciplinary penalties against women.4

However, the real question concerned

the more positive aspects of leadership—

whether women officers were "too petty"

to handle large groups of women, or were

unable to inspire troop loyalty, devotion,

high morale, and good conduct. This was

the view commonly supported by popular

surveys concerning women supervisors in

business offices and by public opinion in

general. If this was true, and if women

would not follow the leadership of a

woman, it would be necessary to train

male leaders for women's units in spite of

their natural handicaps along administrative and disciplinary lines.

The Army found no basis for any such

belief. Women leaders were found to exist,

both those with natural ability and those

capable of being trained, and the conditions and qualities of female leadership

seemed reasonably in accord with those

already understood for men.5 There was

no reliable basis for estimating the relative

numbers of leaders among women, although it appeared probable that they

were scarcer than among men for lack of

previous opportunities to develop. Nevertheless, leadership ability appeared to be

latent in a number of women, and the

woman leader, once found, was able to

draw from her female troops a devotion,

respect, loyalty, obedience, and self-sacrifice which resembled in every way that

obtained from men by the best male

commanders.6

In the opinion of Army psychologists, a

woman was, on the company level, the

only natural and possible leader of women

in the truest sense of the word, since real

leadership involved psychological processes of identification and mimesis which

for women properly required a superior

woman as the object. Some of the undesirable mannishness of early projects of

WAAC training centers appeared due to

the fact that the first women trainees had

imitated their male commanders in the

matter of voice, dress, walk, manners, and

other standards. Psychologists told the

WAC officer:

The strongest and most direct motivation

is identification with yourself. ... People gain

emotional security by modeling themselves

on a leader in whom they have confidence .. .

attitudes, mannerisms, gestures, even voice

tones, are contagious.7

Capabilities of the Woman Leader

Testimony as to the existence of the successful woman leader was offered by every

command. The Army Air Forces reported:

The WAC squadron commanders have

been extremely important factors in the

(WAC) program. . . . Women lean on their

company commander for advice and guidance considerably more, evidently, than do

men. ... A good WAC Commander could

and often did increase the actual job efficiency of an entire WAC unit.8

WAC training centers reported the same

phenomenon:

The strength and ability of the commanding officer of a training unit has probably influenced the training result of a unit more

4

 See Ch. XXV, pp. 503-05, above. 5

 All references to established principles of leadership for men are based upon: (1) FM 22-5, WD, Feb

46, Leadership, Courtesy, and Drill. (2) Speech by

Maj. Gen. Orlando Ward to Fort Jackson Rotary

Club, 1945. (3) Interv with Mr. Charles McDonald,

OCMH, author of Company Commander (Washington:

The Infantry Journal Press, 1947). 6

 See quoted passages below. 7

 (1) Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC. (2) Dr.

Hildegarde Durfee, The WAC Officer, A Guide to Successful Leadership, WD Pamphlet 35-2, Feb 45. 8

 AAF WAC Hist, p. 96. See Ch. XVI, above.
THE LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN 671

than any other single factor. In many instances a superior commanding officer has

been able to attain a good training result

even where handicapped by inadequate

junior officers or cadre, inadequate housing,

and an inadequate flow of supplies. Her importance in the training picture cannot be

overemphasized.9

In the field, a survey of several detachments brought forth the same comment:

The enlisted women attribute everything

that happens to the company commander.

The policies were made by the post [but] as

far as the women are concerned, the company commander could change them if she

would do so. ... Her attitude and her moral

tone set the tone for the entire company. If

you study the attitude of the days or weeks

when she is feeling low, the company follows

the same trend.10

Various other surveys repeatedly confirmed not only the existence of the

woman leader, but also her surprising

ability to dominate all other factors in her

unit's surroundings. The Transportation

Corps studied two WAC companies stationed near the same port: the first company had a superior location, was more

warmly received by its employers, had

more convenient transportation and better

recreation facilities, more passes, more

promotions; nevertheless, the members of

the second company were found to be

happier, to like the food better, to be better pleased with recreation facilities, to

consider themselves in better health. Investigators were unable to find any cause

except the superior leadership ability of

the commander of the second detachment.11

In another survey of forty-four WAC

detachments, investigators found that no

environmental factor had serious effect

upon company morale in companies with

good leadership. In such companies

women took more pride in their unit, believed themselves better adjusted to the

Army, liked their jobs better, thought that

there were fewer discomforts in Army life,

that their housing and sanitary facilities

were superior, post recreational opportunities better, and medical attention

more satisfactory. In an especially striking

case, two WAC companies on the same

post used the same medical facilities, yet

women in one company thought they were

getting better medical care than the other

did, the only real difference being in the

leadership ability of their WAC commander.12

This control that the WAC company

commander exercised over apparently unrelated matters never ceased to astonish

investigators. Concerning the cause of

widely different unmarried pregnancy

rates at five stations in the same area, inspectors reported, "In those detachments

where there has been continuous good

leadership, the pregnancy rate has been

low."

 13

 At other stations, statistical studies

showed that the number of entries in the

sick book increased when the company

commander was changed; when the company commander got married, the number

of disciplinary offenses increased; when

the officers went on leave, both offenses

and sickness increased.14

The existence of the female leader, and

9

 ASF Hist of WAC Tng, pp. 111-12. 10

 Remarks of S/Sgt Doris Todd re Det Pers. Min,

of TC WAC Stf Dirs Mtg, 1-4 May 45. WDWAC

337 Stf Dir Mtg. 11

 Ibid.

12

 Hq Rpt C-102, How Enlisted Wacs in the U.S.

View Their WAC Officers. ASF/AG 461 (6-4-45),

DRB AGO, and OCMH. 13

 Memo, Maj Margaret Janeway, MC, Asst Consultant, for Col Freer, SGO, 27 Sep 44, sub: Visit to

WAC Dets at NYPOE and Sepn Ctr, Fort Dix, N. J.

SGO 321 WAC. 14

 Min cited n. 10.
672 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the tremendous power that she was capable of wielding, were therefore undeniable;

it was also undeniable that not every

woman officer was so qualified.

Efforts To Determine Qualities of Leadership

After two years of experiment it was

clear that the successful leader could not

be determined entirely by age, or previous

occupation, or education or the lack of it,

or intelligence, or any other circumstance.

This was in accord with Army experience

with men.15 Later statistics revealed that

some successful women leaders were married, some unmarried; many were college

graduates; a few never went to high school;

their ages ranged from 21 to 50. Many

former teachers did well, but were almost

equaled in number by former clerks and

secretaries. Some former office managers

succeeded, but so did former bookkeepers.

Librarians were leaders as often as reporters, housewives as often as buyers,

beauticians as often as lawyers.16

Neither did the ability to lead women

automatically follow from instruction in

voice and command, military manners, or

Army Regulations. In fact, the only reliable method of discovery in the Corps' first

years was that of trial and error, of sending

commanders out with companies and advising Army stations to replace those who

proved unsuccessful. This was costly, and

involved the loss of real or potential leaders

and damage to units.

The task of collecting and verifying

available evidence on the nature of leadership was delegated to Dr. Hildegarde

Durfee, a psychologist employed as civilian consultant by the Office of the Director and, after the conversion, by the

Army Service Forces. It was Dr. Durfee's

opinion that the general principles of

leadership for men would apply equally to

women, but that women would have certain special and additional problems. She

added:

They are newcomers in a male setting;

hence tend to feel on trial and under special

pressure to make good. . . . They have volunteered their services, are apt to be more

eager and more individualistic. . . . Their

problem is not the overcoming of fear in combat, but more often the endurance of routine

and monotony. . . . Women as a whole

have had less experience in group discipline

and leadership. Theirs has been at once an

over privileged and an under privileged

status in our society. They have been given

more attention and consideration, but the

price of this has been less opportunity and

recognition.17

It was therefore anticipated, and later

proved true, that certain established

leadership principles would receive peculiar emphasis for women, and that new

principles might emerge.

Sensitivity to Discipline

The first and most obvious difference to

confront researchers was one of degree

rather than intrinsic quality: that of responsiveness to leadership. All observers

agreed that women were more dependent

upon their company commander than

were most men. A poor commander had

15

 Lecture, Psychology of Leadership and Motivation, Lt. Col. T. Ernest Newland, USMA, 24 Mar 47,

to seminar in advanced psychological principles of

personnel administration, George Washington University, (D, C.), and on file there in mimeographed

form. 16

 Statistics concern 818 WAC officers who attended

the School for WAC Personnel Administration in

1945. Routing Form, G-1, 26 Oct 45, sub: Final Rpt

of Sch for WAC Pers Admin. SPTRP 352 WAC. Incl,

Rpt of Comdt to G-1, 19 Oct 45. WDWAC 352. 17

 References to Dr. Durfee's opinion are from her

pamphlet, The WAC Officer.
THE LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN 673

an exaggerated effect upon women, who

were unable to take her shortcomings

lightly and were completely demoralized,

while a capable commander found them

unprecedentedly malleable, and was able

to build an unusually high company discipline and spirit. Army men commented

that women seemed noticeably more sensitive to discipline than were the average

male troops whom they had commanded.

"Women don't require the needling that

men do," said Colonel McCoskrie of Fort

Des Moines.

Women hate to fail. Words of encouragement go further with them than blame. It

is fatal to assume the same attitude one

would with men—you just scare them and

then get nothing further from them.18

This difference appeared partly due to

women's social training, which, according

to Dr. Durfee, "makes them tend to want

to please and not offend," and partly due

to the fact that they were volunteers,

above average in aptitude, and eager to

demonstrate the abilities of their sex.

Because of this trait, the successful WAC

commander was always obliged to have

positive qualities of leadership instead of

merely negative ones of authority. "You

don't command women—you lead them,"

Colonel McCoskrie reported. Dr. Durfee

noted that "there is a great difference between ordering your women around

because you are their commanding officer

and winning their cooperation because

you are their leader."

 19

 Colonel Hobby

urged selection boards to consider this

factor, saying:

In the beginning we put too much stress

on this business of command anyway. We

never want to make the mistake of substituting force for real leadership. My experience

is that leadership is mostly by example.20

The Maternalistic Commander

Women leaders, apparently more than

men, also needed to guard against an

overprotective attitude toward their companies. In spite of the Wacs' dependency

upon their commander, they seldom enjoyed being the recipients of applied child

psychology, in which too many WAC

officers appeared to be experts. The

leadership situation was definitely not that

of parent and child, nor even that of

teacher and child. Dr. Durfee noted:

The criticism most often heard of WAC

officers is that they treat their troops too

much like children and talk down to them

too much. This tendency to fall into a housemother role is understandable, and is probably due, in part, to the natural maternalism

of women, in part to the dependence of troops

on their company commanders. It is well for

WAC officers to remember that they are

dealing with grown women, many of whom

have managed their own affairs for years.

Of officers who failed on this score, enlisted

women commented:

"She treated her command as she probably

did her 4B grade class."

"She never seemed to realize we might be

intelligent too."

"She regarded us as so many figures to be

pushed around on a checkerboard."

Of those whom they considered real

leaders, enlisted women said:

"She acted as though she thought highly of

everyone of us and gave us fair adult treatment."

"She treated us with respect and automatically received in kind."

18

 Interv, 29 Jan 46. 19

 The WAC Officer, p. 11. 20

 M/R, A Statement of Policy on Selection of OGs,

12 Mar 43. SPWA 314.7 (1-7-43)(11) sec 1.
674 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

"She not only demanded respect, she

gave it."

"She always expected the best of people—

and got it."

 21

Overmaternalistic officers, in addition

to irritating their women, were usually

failures at developing leadership in subordinates. Case histories revealed that

some officers could not qualify as leaders

because, although intelligent, conscientious, and hard-working, they did not

only their own job but that of the rest of

the cadre, making all the decisions, and

failing to give the proper training to junior

officers. It was significant that failure of

this type caused the first recorded removal

of a woman commander in a WAAC training center, in which testimony stated:

The morale of this Battalion is at a low

state. The basic difficulty is that Lt. ————

has tried to treat adult, intelligent women as

high school freshmen, and it won't work.

Lt. ———— uses her staff practically entirely

as a source of information; in most cases she

neither asks nor accepts the advice of members of her staff. . . . On numerous occasions

I have heard Lt. ———— reprimand officers

in the presence of other officers. Officers and

auxiliaries are motivated by fear accompanied by a lack of respect. . . . Lt.————

has completely stifled the initiative of members of her staff.

To this the commandant added:

I am of the opinion that . . . in her every

act, Lt. ———— has honestly believed that she

was carrying out instructions . . . that the

present difficulty has arisen through her zeal,

her lack of understanding of human nature,

and her arbitrary manner.22

Leadership courses for men likewise emphasized the delegation of authority; for

female leaders, its observance appeared

especially important.

Even excellent leaders with no tendencies toward maternalism had to guard

against the zealousness for work that had

been previously remarked as a characteristic of most volunteers, and that in a company commander could easily result in

nervous and physical exhaustion and loss

of perspective. Colonel Hobby wrote, "It is

absolutely necessary for a good leader to

have a life of her own with interests other

than the WAC in it."

 23

 Published leadership studies added:

The officer who thinks—talks—breathes of

WAC affairs, out of a natural but mistaken

enthusiasm and conscientiousness, narrows

her mental and emotional horizon to the

detriment of her own enrichment of living

and her effectiveness as a leader. . . . Maintain your individuality so far as possible

within the Army framework. Strive to keep

up your interests in the outer world; read,

play, cultivate social contacts.24

Psychological tests also indicated that

the WAC leader should be a woman of

energy and quick action rather than of

abstract ideas; the responses of successful

leaders to word associations suggested that

"the leader is the doer, the one whose

primary associations are with actions and

not merely with activity in the abstract."

 25

Other Leadership Problems

Many other traits required of their

leader by enlisted women seemed to differ

from those of male leaders in degree of intensity if not in kind. It appeared that

women's curiosity could scarely have been

21

 All above from The WAC Officer, pp. 26-27. 22

 Memo, Comdt 2d Tng Gen for Dir WAAC, 27

Nov 42. SPWA 320.2 (8-18-42)(1) sec 1. 23

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 22 Oct 44, sub:

Dr. Durfee's Tng MS on Leadership. WDWAC 353. 24

 The WAC Officer, p. 13. 25

 Ltr, Exec WAC to Miss Florence L. Goodenough,

Prof., University of Minnesota Institute of Child Welfare, 15 Mar 46. WDWAC 095 Goodenough.
THE LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN 675

exceeded, and leadership studies cautioned women officers: "Wherever possible, explain the reason for orders and regulations, especially disagreeable ones."

Numerous cases came to light in which

disappointment, resentment, and low morale followed a commander's repeated

failure to give simple explanations—which

would in no way have compromised

security—in such matters as the cancellation of passes, the extra policing of

grounds, or a delay in orders.

Colonel Hobby also noted a tendency

for women, more than men, to value their

individuality, possibly because of their

lesser regimentation in civilian life in dress,

schools, clubs, and employment. The

Director urged training authorities to

point out to WAC leaders that

. . . one of the main distinctions between

successful leadership of women and similiar

leadership of men is that women need to

remain individuals to such an extent that

group activity, outside of office hours, can

very easily be overdone with them.26

Because of this natural individuality,

prospective WAC leaders were cautioned

to emphasize group loyalty. Dr. Durfee

stated:

Women have not, as a rule, had much

organizational experience in civilian life, and

sometimes lack a concept of what loyalty to

organization means. They tend to be personal

and subjective in their attitudes, to feel free to

criticize each other as if they were merely

separate individuals. This attitude may lead

to jealousy and backbiting which can disturb

the unity of command and seriously affect the

morale of troops.

The successful WAC leader therefore was

obliged to set a perfect example of loyalty

to the Army, to the station and its policies,

to fellow officers, and to the members of

her company. When inspired by such an

example, the women's natural idealism

was apt to produce group loyalty and

esprit of an unexcelled intensity. When not

so inspired, a WAC unit seemed particularly liable to degenerate into feuding

cliques and factions. Wac leaders were

warned to avoid building "a selfish personal following," but instead to promote

loyalty to the Army.

A forceful example of the dangers of

personal followings was given early in

WAAC history, when the commandant of

one training center secured to himself the

loyalty of one segment of the WAAC staff

to such an extent that, upon his removal,

these officers telegraphed hundreds of personal protests to the War Department.

Colonel Hobby in return severely reprimanded these women for unmilitary conduct and misplacement of their loyalties.

No commander of women was ever to be

counted successful who permitted any

such cleavage within his command.27

The prospective WAC leader was told:

If once the impression is created that she

plays favorites, is inconsistent in her discipline, or that her word is not to be trusted, she

might as well walk East until her hat floats.

Enlisted women serving under poor leaders

said:

"You can't beat the clique in this detachment. There's no team spirit since the new

CO came. It's split the company right in

two."

"Our CO caters to a little group of apple

polishers ... It makes us sick to see how

hard she falls for their line."

"If you don't stand in with the first sergeant, you're out of luck."

"There's no use trying . . . what few

grades there are all go to the CO's pets."

 28

26

 The WAC Officer, p. 13. 27

 Hobby files. 28

 The WAC Officer, p. 29.
676 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

In exact proportion as women appeared to

be more sensitive than men to the approval of their leader, it became more

essential that there be no clique, group, or

individual to which that approval appeared to be especially given.

Problems Peculiar to WAC Leaders

In a few respects women leaders faced

especial problems with little Army parallel.

One of these concerned the feminine interpretation of the Army leader's responsibility "to teach and encourage high moral

standards in troops." Since military regulations had been modeled on men's moral

standards, but not on women's, leaders

were cautioned:

Although some [women] may feel that they

should be able to exercise a man's freedom in

their conduct, they must bear in mind that

they are in the Army to do a job, and not to

settle an old social problem.29

To maintain the women's reputation

and their social adjustment, the WAC

leader was required far to exceed the male

commander in the moral standards that

she instilled and maintained. Release of

personal tensions by means of alcohol, sex,

or disturbing the peace ordinarily had far

more serious social consequences for

women than for men. Many women had

been previously more sheltered than men,

and were now given more unaccustomed

freedom, which presented a situation more

difficult for the commander to manage. In

the leader's own life, whatever her previous habits or beliefs, she was also obliged

to exemplify the strictest of feminine codes;

nothing less was found to hold the respect

of the average WAC company.

In many cases a female leader also

needed leadership qualities in even greater

degree than the average male leader, in

order to hold her position without the

combat incentive. Army manuals stated,

"The necessity for discipline is never fully

comprehended by the soldier until he has

undergone the experience of battle,"

 30

 and

this no WAC unit would ever know. To

overcome the meaninglessness of noncombat routine, WAC commanders were

urged to

. . . bring the realities of the war home to

your women in every possible way. . . . Try

to make each woman realize what it would

mean to her, as a woman, to live in a Nazicontrolled world; what it would mean in the

education of her children; what the Nazi

state could and would do with her menfolk;

what restrictions would be placed on her

opportunities as a woman.31

This remote stimulus was the WAC leader's only substitute for combat discipline.

A WAC company commander was at

times under an additional strain in introducing female troops into a location in

which they had not previously served.

While the needs of male troops on the

average station were well documented and

remedies prescribed, the WAC commander was sometimes obliged to meet

peculiar and unforeseen needs, and to advise the station commander in a way not

commonly expected of the average male

captain or lieutenant. There was also at

times a problem of public relations and of

community and post acceptance, in which

the WAC commander had to lead the way

for the women, as well as minimizing any

initial friction. Failure in this respect was

not uncommon. One staff visitor noted:

29

 The WAC Officer, p. 50. 30

 FM 22-5, Feb 46, Leadership, Courtesy and

Drill, p. 6. 31

 The WAC Officer, p. 4.
THE LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN 677

At one extreme is the C.O. who tries to run

her detachment as an autonomous outfit; at

the other, an officer who is merely a funnel

through which post rules are transmitted.

The former has not learned how to mesh

gears with the command for the most effective development of its mission; the latter fails

to realize that if she does not function in an

advisory capacity, she is useless to the Army

and the WAC.32

The One Essential Quality

Toward the end of the war, a survey

was made by the ASF's Information and

Education Division of the attitudes of

more than 6,000 women in all types of

units. As a telling commentary on the

popular belief that women could never

like a woman supervisor, it was found that

as many as 90 percent of the women in

some companies had only favorable attitudes toward their WAC commanders.33

The ASF study, as well as that by Dr.

Durfee, came independently to the same

surprising conclusion: the real qualities

that made a woman a leader of women

had little to do with those that had often

been attributed to a female leader in civilian life, or with the concept of "command"

and efficiency so laboriously inculcated at

officer training schools. Both studies made

it clear that the human values, and these

values only, constituted the ability to lead

women. Dropped to the lowest place in the

scale were many commonly praised factors

of efficient paper work, knowledge of regulations, supervisory thoroughness, commanding voice and appearance, and

military bearing. Leading the list were

personal and individual matters—fairness,

friendliness, unselfishness, sincerity, courage, and a genuine concern for the women.

If a woman possessed these traits, the

women would follow her, but, the ASF

surveyors noted, "If a C.O. is deficient in

these traits, it is likely that no amount of efficiency or administrative skill will win for her the

enthusiastic support of her enlisted women."

Of their successful leaders, women said:

"She is fair and square with everyone and

shows no partiality."

"She obeys the rules she makes for us."

"She is fair to Wacs, enlisted men, and

civilians."

"Doesn't punish all for the misdeeds of a

few."

Typical adjectives were just, dependable,

objective, impartial, unselfish, and honest. Of

the poor leader, women said:

"Very unfair to the majority. Makes too

many exceptions for those she likes."

"She bucks dirty jobs to those under her

but breaks any good news to us herself."

"She will say yes when no is the right

answer, if it is unpleasant to say No."

"Some get punishment for infringement of

rules, some don't."

The quality of friendliness ranked high:

"She is a regular. I can talk to her better

than anyone I know."

"Her ability to be one of us and yet hold

the complete respect of all of us."

"She is cheerful and interested in individuals."

"She is available and willing to listen to

our troubles."

"She is a good sport and really sympathetic."

"She has a ready smile."

32

 Memo, Dep Dir for Dir WAC, 16 Sep 46.

WD WAC 333.1. 33

 Rpt cited n. 12. The survey points out that the

women's opinion was not necessarily a true picture of

their commander's efficiency, in that difficulties unknown to the women existed at certain posts, but as

far as the qualities preferred or disliked were concerned, there was no room for mistake.
678 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Of unfriendly commanders, it was said:

"C.O. is too impersonal. Doesn't try to get

acquainted with her company except in that

'holier than thou' attitude."

"She means well, but lacks the democratic

way of making me feel at ease in her pres- ence."

"Much too G.I. She outshines the meanest

male officer."

"Her manner is unfriendly, almost discourteous."

"She is too G.I. and rank conscious."

"She is not interested in individuals."

"She's as cold as a fish and gives the impression she's god and almighty and we're

nothing."

The women were quite well aware that

their correct assignment and general welfare often depended upon their commanding officer's willingness to "go to bat" for

them, even when this might cost her own

promotion, advancement, or popularity

with higher authorities. Of real leaders,

women said:

"She cares about the enlisted women— really cares."

"She is loyal to the company."

"She thinks and acts for the welfare of all

the girls."

"She has improved our mail system . . .

our medical treatment . . . housing conditions . . . recreational facilities . . . company policies, and morale."

Typical unfavorable comments were:

"She looks out for her own skin first, then will do something for us if it may help her."

"She is partial to anyone who can further

her personal interests."

"She is more concerned with personal

affairs than with the welfare of the women."

"She is indifferent to the welfare of the

WAC."

"She'll never do anything for you—never

pursue your problem."

"She shows a complete lack of interest towards our job."

"If she would be more interested in you and your job instead of the way you wear

your hair, the Wacs would be more interested

in being Wacs."

The factor of appearance—so much

stressed in officer candidate school—did

not impress the Wacs in proportion to the

other qualities, and their views were sometimes unorthodox. Their approved leaders

were described as "ladylike . . . lovely

looking . . . dignified, courteous, poised

. . . neat, clean." They disapproved of an

oversevere or overglamorous appearance

as much as they did a careless one, and

said, "She is too hard and mannish

. . . ," "I don't like her G.I. haircut

. . . ," "She wears her skirts too short."

The quality of technical competence, so

thoroughly stressed in schools, was likewise

of secondary importance to the enlisted

women. Surveyors reported that, while administrative ability might be more important to the general success of an officer

than the women realized, it was not

leadership: "It lacks the 'personal relationship' aspect which appears to be highly

important." Since the women's lives did

not depend, as did those of combat soldiers, upon an officer's technical competence, they were apt to lay less stress upon

ability to memorize regulations and correct procedures. While even the best female leader obviously profited by knowledge of technical details, no amount of

study of Army Regulations appeared sufficient to make a leader of a woman lacking in personal qualities.

Absolutely disqualifying to leadership

was one trait seldom mentioned in officer

candidate selection or training instruc-
THE LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN 679

tions: selfish ambition, or rank-consciousness. All evidence indicated that, quite

simply, the WAC leader was a person

whose primary and genuine concern was

for her troops and not for herself. In the

makeup of her character, there must be no

primary interest or motivation which concerned the importance of her own rank,

authority, promotion, or economic advancement, for if so, the women would inevitably discover it and would not respect

her, whatever her other abilities.

Enlisted women gave no respect to any

woman who was a bully, rank-conscious,

or an "apple-polisher." Comments on this

type included: "Gold bar crazy," "The

Great I-Am," "Power hungry," "Grandstand Officer," "Her bars weigh heavy,"

"Her bars go to her head instead of her

heart," "Uninterested in her job because

there's no promotion in it." Even though

an officer refrained from the more obvious

tyrannical tactics or "throwing her rank

around," enlisted women seemed to know

her inner motivation. Trouble shooters

sent out to inspect ailing companies reported "the lowest morale where company

commanders are too interested in their

social life or their personal advancement."

 34

Objective psychological tests confirmed

their surmise; the typical WAC officer

"profile" showed "a far higher social motivation and lower economic motivation

than the population in general." The

higher the rank of the officer tested, the

greater was her emphasis on human

values.35

Unfortunately, the selfish officer was

difficult for superiors to detect, since she

often presented a most attractive and capable appearance. Colonel Hobby admitted later:

I was often misled; for example, when I

first met Captain S. at Des Moines, she

talked of nothing but her enlisted women's

welfare, until I was much impressed with her

devotion; only after she had been given a

better job and promoted did I discover that

her only devotion was to herself.36

Director Hobby in her speeches and Dr.

Durfee in her published studies constantly

exposed the pretensions of the rank-conscious or selfishly ambitious individual, in

the hope that the developing leader would

not be misled. Director Hobby said:

I should consider it very unfortunate if any

of us should ever forget that the only reason

for our existence as officers is the Women's

Army Corps—and that the Women's Army

Corps is its enlisted personnel.37

One published study added:

Your rank gives you many privileges. . . .

These are not just tributes to your natural

superiority, nor do they in themselves make

you superior. . . . Many an enlisted woman

has as good educational background and

civilian experience as her officers. . . . You

are not their master but their servant. Your

only reason for being, in fact, is the enlisted

women of the Corps.

The discovery of this basic requirement

for the leadership of women appeared

to offer a key to the myth that women

leaders did not exist, and to the fact that

many women bosses and supervisors were

heartily disliked in civilian life. The career

woman, who by hard fighting rose to the

top of a profession in a man's world, had

sometimes, by the very intensity of the

struggle, lost the concern for others that

was essential to the leadership of women.

Such civilian "leaders" often failed in the

WAC as completely as did some women

34

 The WAC Officer, pp. 1 and 25. 35

 The WAC Officer, p. 22. 36

 Interv, 15 Jan 46. 37

 Min cited n. 1.
680 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

unaccustomed to authority. In civilian life

a compulsive drive for self-advancement

had propelled them to professional or business success, but it had simultaneously

denied them the respect of their women

subordinates, over whose figuratively dead

bodies they sometimes rose.

The natural leader of women was, in the

Army experience, distinct from the nervously ambitious office supervisor, the

technically competent specialist, the aggressive professional woman, the busybody

clubwoman, and the wealthy social leader,

all of whom had previously usurped the

title. In the WAC such women could succeed in other types of work, but not as

leaders of women. The true leader's ambition had to be all for her troops, her Corps,

and the Army—never, even secretly, for

herself first. The possession of this honest

selflessness lent a woman, in the eyes of the

women who followed her, a certain dignity, strength, and even greatness.

Selection and Training of Leaders

These discoveries, if applied, might have

effected considerable changes in the

methods of selection and training of WAC

officer candidates. Unfortunately, Dr.

Durfee's studies were not published until

February of 1945, and the ASF survey not

until April, by which time all but about

two hundred of the WAC's some seven

thousand officers had been selected. Even

had earlier results been obtained, it appeared unlikely that the WAC system

would be modified until the Army selection and training system was also

changed.

Some eighteen months previously, Director Hobby had proposed a changed officer candidate selection system based on

very similar British conclusions. The

British women's services, like the American, had discovered by experience that a

woman leader could not be detected by

any external factor, but only by the "personal" qualities that emerged upon contact with a group of women. British

women officer candidates selected by field

stations were therefore screened by a brief

sojourn with a small group of women who

included not only other candidates but

testing experts, who administered a series

of group tests—written, oral, and practical. These women, identically dressed

without sign of rank, and living in an informal group, were placed in a number of

real-life situations, and led to discuss company problems with the group, while experts made notes of their reactions. The

testing officers were thus able to discover

much the same personal qualities that

would have been apparent to a company

of enlisted women over a period of weeks.38

The American adaptation was fully

worked out, with specific tests and procedures and with selection and training of

team members. The team actually functioned in dry runs at the training center,

during which groups of thirty officer candidates spent a two-day "live-in" period

with team members, taking psychological

and performance tests, before going on to

regular officer candidate school. Director

Hobby's proposal was, however, rejected

by the War Department for numerous reasons. The Adjutant General's test construction experts rejected it because commercial psychological tests were used

38

 (1) Remarks of Dr. Durfee and Dir Hobby. Ibid.

(2) Entire file new OCS procedure; submitted Dec

1943; disapproved Jan 1944; in SPWA 352 OCS, 1943.

(3) WAR, Bull of Army Bur of Current Affairs

(British), 17 Apr 43, Sec. 2, p. 7. OCMH.
THE LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN 681

which they had neither made nor validated, and the use of such tests was not in

accordance with policy, while the construction and validation of such tests by

the Army would have been more expensive than the small numbers of Wacs

merited. Even could this obstacle be overcome, the Army Service Forces nonconcurred on grounds that the system would

be a violation of command prerogative:

the selection of officer candidates, male

and female, was a function of field commands, and to reject their selected candidates after only two days would have been

offensive to them. In England this problem

had not arisen because of the short distances involved: an applicant could with

little travel be sent where the team was located, and was not placed on a command's

eligible list prior to a successful sojourn

with the team.39

The only partial solution available to

the WAC was therefore to use a modified

testing team as an advisory committee to

the officer candidate "murder board"; this

was reported to be helpful, although its efficiency was "relative to the cooperation

and understanding of the officers."

 40

 After

the end of the war, the ASF arrived at the

conclusion that such a system of pre-officer

candidate school screening would have

been valuable for male candidates, to

avoid the "waste of man hours" and the

"tremendous burden of eliminating misfits," which in its absence fell upon the

schools themselves. There appeared to be a

good chance that such a system would

eventually be adopted for men as well as

women. ASF inspectors also recommended

at the end of the war "that the definition of

leadership as the ability to command

troops in close order drill be discarded and

that leadership be defined as an element in

every relationship."

 41

The Army Commander as a Leader of Women

Troops

While educating the WAC officer to be

a leader of women on the company level,

the Army also had to consider the knowledge and training required by Army commanders above that level in the leadership

of female troops. In the opinion of Army

psychiatrists, above the company officer

level it was not only safe but proper and

natural for women troops, like the citizenry in general, to identify themselves

with great military heroes, commanding

generals, station commanders, or whatever other Army leaders were best known

to them. Such identification promoted

morale and pride in military status and a

more uncomplaining acceptance of hardships shared by leader and follower alike.

There was considerable evidence that

such motivation operated with Wacs, and

that they followed meticulously and even

blindly any example set. From the first

days of the Auxiliary, the Chief of Staff's

office took the attitude that Army officers,

being senior to the Waacs, were responsible for setting them an example. In one

case in which a commander subjected

newly arrived WAAC officers to public

criticism by inviting them to have drinks

in his hotel room, the Chief of Staff's office

directed a reprimand:

The War Department regrets that mem- bers of the WAAC have cause to be disap- pointed in a natural expectation that an officer of the Regular Army of thirteen years

39

 Ibid. Also: (1) Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in

WAC, p. 12. (2) From Maj Treadwell, Asst Chief,

WAC Br G-1, who discussed tests with TAG. (3)

Memo, MPD ASF for Dir Pers ASF, 31 Dec 43.

SPGAP 352 OCS (12-23-43) 232, in SPAP 352

WAAC (6-14-43). 40

 Preston, Hist of Psychiatry in WAC. 41

 ASF Hist of OCT 1941-45, p. 87.
682 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

service could be looked to as a mentor of

what was customary and expected in their

association with officers of the other arms and

services.42

The chief difficulty for the Army officer

in fulfilling such expectations lay in the

necessity for separating his personal and

lifelong attitudes toward women from his

military behavior. It was quite simple to

recite the only precept necessary for success in Army leadership of women: that

women troops should be treated with the

same justice, concern, and objectivity that

a good commander applies to any troops.

It was quite another matter to apply such

a precept in the minutiae of daily personal

encounters. From the officer whose Wac

driver assisted him from a car, to the section chief requested to rescue a tearful

secretary from kitchen police, each separate decision frequently required deliberation and good judgment to determine the

wise and objective course. Neither was it

always possible to follow exactly the same

course that could have been followed with

a male subordinate, since many situations—such as the case of hotel room

drinking—obviously had different implications to society where different sexes

were concerned.

Fortunately, the penalty for such failure

of objectivity was severe in only one respect. No irreparable damage was usually

done by the officer who allowed a personal

misogyny to cause a military overseverity,

or by the officer who translated a personal

gallantry into a military overleniency.

WAC units could and did survive both

situations. Somewhat more dangerous was

the commander whose age and fatherly attitude produced a paternalism that stifled

the growth of responsible and mature conduct among women. However, even in

this case the worst possible result was ordinarily his own disappointment in the unit's

performance if responsibility was suddenly

thrown upon it. In none of these cases, unless carried to pathological extremes, was

the partial failure of a higher commander's

objectivity and leadership sufficient totally

to undermine unit spirit and efficiency.

One type of failure in leadership, and

only one, invariably seemed to end a WAC

unit's usefulness and damage its members

personally: this was that of the commander who allowed his military decisions

to be affected by "the man-woman factor." In civilian life, this officer had his

counterpart in the boss who favored one

secretary with his personal attention to the

disadvantage of other employees. Such a

practice habitually damaged civilian office

morale even when not aggravated by the

greater control superimposed by the military system. Although the relationship

that caused the favoritism might be a completely innocent one, bad results were felt

by the WAC unit in every case in which an

officer attempted to secure special favors,

exceptions from rules, or unwarranted advancement for a member. If the relationship was not innocent, it likewise incurred

the disfavor of the WAC unit, a thousand

times intensified if a unit officer was concerned. The worst possible situation was

the combination of an immoral relationship with open and unconcealed favoritism

in promotion and other advantages. From

the point of view of leadership of women

troops, such action by a higher commander constituted complete betrayal,

and almost invariably ended the unit's

morale, discipline, and efficiency in a way

that no other known factor in the Army

42

 Memo, TIG for Dep CofS, 2 Jan 43, sub: Investigation Concerning Treatment of WAAC Offs in

Norfolk Air Def Wing. IG 333.9 Wilmington, N.C.,

with incl. WTJCSA 291.9.
THE LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN 683

environment had ever succeeded in doing.

The difficulty in the man-woman factor

in the field was not that it occurred frequently, and not that it could not be easily

detected by observers, but rather that in

such cases as did occur, outside advisers

often found themselves powerless to correct the situation. In one extreme case,

which went as far as the War Department,

both the Chief of Chaplains and the ASF

WAC Officer asked transfer of a WAC

company officer because her close association with the post commander "is occasioning much comment." However, the

commanding officer of the subordinate

command and the Chief Signal Officer

himself refused to take action, pronouncing the request "idle gossip." As a result,

the situation brought on low morale in the

detachment, and the divorce of the officer

concerned.43

Such situations were regarded by reasonably competent WAC staff officers as

simple to detect and correct by transfer,

had recommendations on the matter

always been backed by superiors. With

such backing, the man-woman factor was

pronounced no serious threat to the integration of women in the Army. The only

sure preventive, however, appeared to be

the indoctrination of every Army officer in

the full consequences of such situations,

and his recognition of their relation to his

responsibilities for troop leadership.

43

 (1) Memo, 9 Jun 44, ASF WAC Off for CSigO,

incl request of Chief of Chaplains; (2) 1st Ind, CSigO

to ASF, 13 Jun 44, SPSAC 200 WAC; sequel furnished

author by ASF WAC Off. SPAP 333.1.
CHAPTER XXXIV

Recruiting and Publicity

Recruiting

The solution to the riddle of WAC recruiting developed, in the opinion of some

observers, into a favorite indoor sport. To

the end of the war, it never lost its appeal

for amateur and professional alike. The

letter-writing public, in particular, was

fascinated by the problem, and WAC files

were filled with helpful letters, such as, "I

read with a great deal of interest . . . the

recruiting difficulties of the WAC. An idea

occurred to me which is so simple that I

am surprised that no one has thought of

it."

 1

Insofar as this riddle was ever solved in

World War II, the solution was not simple,

but a matter for constant and painful attention. Following Director Hobby's move

to G-1 Division, the principle was fully

accepted by the Chief of Staff that continued recruiting success would require

not only specialization, but expert specialization, in the recruiting of women. One of

the more significant developments of the

last months of the war was the perfection

within The Adjutant General's Office of a

precision recruiting machinery, previously

unknown in the Army.

For the last eighteen months of the war,

the Recruiting Service faced a tremendously more complicated national problem, and a generally admitted "War-IsWon" attitude, with those few applicants

who still presented themselves including

greater numbers of culls and previously

rejected women.2

Under the circumstances, there existed

some question as to whether a continuation of WAC recruiting was possible at

all. Some staff offices, such as G-3 Division, recommended against making the

effort. During the last year of the war the

Army was already overstrength, and the

draft was able to supply enough limited

service men for replacements. Since there

was no longer any numerical compulsion

to recruit, the decision hinged upon the

relative efficiency of Wacs and limited

service men.

It was the General Staffs decision that

WAC recruiting must be continued in spite

of the greater effort and expense involved.

It was noted that all available general

service draftees were required as combat

replacements. Therefore, men drafted to

fill clerical jobs would be not only limited

service but frequently lacking in clerical

skills. It was also reasoned that, although

the Army was overstrength, there were

many able-bodied soldiers still in the zone

of the interior who were needed overseas,

and skilled Wacs could be trained and as1

 Ltr, Mrs. F. L. C. to Dir WAC, 15 Jan 44. SPWA

062.2. 2

 (1) D/F, ACof AS Pers for CofAS, 1 Jan 44. (2)

M/R, 30 May 44, Conf (Mbrs: Gens White, Surles;

Cols Hobby, Rice; Dr. Gallup and other Young &

Rubicam representatives), sub: Formal Presentation

of Nationwide Attitude Survey Made in April.

WDWAC 341.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 685

signed to replace them within six to ten

weeks, while men could not be. The final

decision was that the overstrength could

best be taken care of, not by cutting off the

supply of needed skills, but by discharging

noneffectives, thus "improving efficiency

and avoiding aggravation of the current

overstrength."

 3

"Fighting Men and Wacs"

This decision was announced by Secretary of War Stimson in widely quoted interviews: "The need at the moment is for

fighting men and capable Wacs." The

Secretary specifically repudiated the

decades-old view that male 4-F's and

limited service personnel, whenever obtainable, should be used for noncombat

Army jobs. One reporter noted, "Secretary

Stimson added that the Army doesn't

think very much of 4-F's and would prefer

a good capable Wac any day." The Secretary added:

We can fit them into the Army with the

minimum of training and use them on jobs

where men are seldom as well-trained, as

efficient, as well-suited by temperament, or

as willing to work as women are.

In another press release a month later,

Secretary Stimson again stated:

We need women because they have the

skills we are looking for. ... It is not economy to take men from their families and from

jobs in essential industry to do the work in

the Army which women who are mobile and

without dependents could do with less train- ing.4

Such a statement was at first shocking

to press and public, which clung to the

World War I view that limited service

men, however sickly or unskilled, should

be used by an Army in preference to

women, however healthy or skilled. In response to an appeal from the Bureau of

Public Relations, which was deluged by

complaints, G-1 Division stated the War

Department's position unequivocally in

writing:

1. If the Army is up to troop strength, why are

more women needed? Answer: From 75,000 to

100,000 men or women a month are needed

to keep the Army up to strength.

2. A million men have been discharged. Couldn't

they have been retained to do the work Wacs do?

Answer: These men were discharged for

physical reasons, for essential civilian jobs, for

age, or because unskilled and unsuited for

combat. Some could have been placed by the

Army, but they have a high sick rate, and

would have had to be trained for jobs for

which they had no aptitude.

3. Some 5,000,000 4-F's have not yet been called.

Couldn't they be drafted to keep the Army up to

strength, without using women? Answer: Most

such men would have to be trained, while

women have previous civilian skills. Also, 3

medical persons are needed for every 4 hospital patients, so that the Army does not want

4-F's.

4. About 10,000,000 men aged 26-38 are deferred. Why not use them instead of Wacs? Answer:

Most are in essential jobs; many are fathers. It is better to take women already skilled in

clerical work than to take these men from industry and retrain them.5

This concept of the ideal composition of

the Army became so well accepted that

when, in late 1944, economy-minded congressmen again demanded reasons for not

stopping WAC recruiting, the Army replied that in future its activity would be

3

 Entire discussion from Memo, G-1 for ASF, 4 Jul

44; incl G-3 noncurrence, 26 Jun 44; DCofS approval,

3 Jul 44. WDGAP 341 WAC, in SPAP 341 WAC. 4

 (1) Stimson statement and reporters' comments,

11 May 44. SPWA 000.77. (2) WDBPR Release, 17

Jul 44. 5

 Memo, G-1 for Dir WDBPR, 18 Apr 44. Hobby

files.
686 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

... in line with the statement of the Chief of

Staff to the effect that the personnel needs of

the Army are now for fighting men and Wacs—

men qualified for combat, and women quali- fied for those jobs requiring the technical and

administrative training commonly found

among women.

A letter from the Secretary of War to an

inquiring congressman further stated:

As you know, selective service calls are

now confined almost entirely to combat replacements, whereas the recruitment of Wacs

is based upon the Army's need of those skills and training largely held by women.

The need for administrative skills in fact

was found to be increasing rather than

lessening in the last days of the emergency,

because of the need for hospitalization of

wounded and for paper work to redeploy

or separate others.6

The General Staff decision constituted,

in effect, a new Army personnel policy.

Until this time, it had been customary to

group female military personnel with

other "limited service" personnel, without

much distinction. The new policy recognized three types of military personnel:

general service men who were available

for combat, women who were "limited

service" only with respect to combat, and

finally, the genuine limited service category, men or women with physical and

mental handicaps requiring additional

medical attention or consideration on

Army jobs. The Secretary's statement

made it clear that in the future "fighting

men" would be preferred for combat and

"capable Wacs" for office work, with the

real limited service category a distinctly

last choice for either.

The General Staff thenceforth turned

upon the WAC Recruiting Service a close

and specialized attention that was to produce, by the end of the war, a streamlined

and efficient recruiting and publicity

machinery which compared favorably

with civilian sales organizations, and

which was later to serve as a model for the

Army's own postwar Recruiting Service.

Improvement of Recruiting Machinery

In preparation for its resumption of recruiting responsibility at the end of the

All-States Campaign, the Army Service

Forces began a stock-taking of the state of

The Adjutant General's Army Recruiting

Service. Investigators, sent out to compile

the working recruiters' needs, found an

organization scarcely improved since the

days of World War I, and recruiters

fatigued and in need of attention. Offices

were still unattractive and poorly located,

transportation still inadequate, funds not

properly distributed. Ratings were so poor

that only low-rated and therefore often

unqualified men and women could be assigned to recruiting duty, while those already assigned could not look forward to

promotion no matter how capable their

work. There was no training course by

which recruiters might be helped toward

a proper pride in their specialty, nor bulletins to encourage them. Not even a sufficient supply of uniforms for satisfactory

public appearance was provided.7

The inadequacy of those in command

of recruiting stations, as well as that of the

enlisted personnel, was also frequently

noted by these investigators, who reported:

Personnel assigned to recruiting is generally below standard and seems to be in

6

 T/S, G-1 for CofS and SW, 22 Sep 44, with incl

ltr for signature of ASW to Joint Com on Reduction

of Non-Essential Federal Expenditures. CofS Cl 324.5

WAC. 7

 Memo, Capt Joseph D. Neikirk, AGD, for Gen

Dalton, 20 Jan 44. SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43). Incl

1: Memo, Lt Col Hall C. Park, Chief, Mobilization

Br, 5th SvC, for Capt Neikirk. SPVPM.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 687

direct relation to the results achieved. Particularly the Army officers in charge of districts seem unsuitable, by the admission of

Service Command Headquarters. WAC officers for the most part seem average or better but need training. Enlisted women were

below standard in many cases.

Those in charge of stations were found to

include such persons as a professor of

botany, a linguist, and a man who "is inefficient and drinks too much." Even in

the far more important position of director

of recruiting in service command headquarters, there were found to be no topflight sales personnel, but a former farm

manager, an accountant, a bookkeeper,

an ordinary salesman, and others even less

qualified. General Dalton suggested

strongly to the service commands that they

replace such directors of recruiting with

Army officers with a civilian background

of responsible sales experience—by definition, those whose salaries had been at least

$7,500 yearly—but unfortunately no such

officers could be found in most service

commands.8

It was impossible at all stages to avoid

frequent unfavorable comparisons with

the Navy recruiting service. One Army investigator reported:

The WAVES have enjoyed a constant and

aggressive recruiting policy, backed by highest Headquarters. Offices have been manned

with personnel of civilian sales experience, both officer and enlisted. Sales managers

have been commissioned. Sales education

and training have been available for all

levels. They have enjoyed abundant advertising material and transportation.

A comparison of one recruiting area revealed numerous differences:

Army Navy

Personnel on recruiting duty. ...... . 205 375

Number of substations............ . 53 63

Number of vehicles............... . 19 63

Army recruiters had nevertheless, at the

time of the survey, got 70,000 women as

against the Navy's 48,000—the difference

being chiefly due to the Army's six months'

start—but the Army had been forced to

spend a million dollars on paid advertising

while the Navy experts had obtained almost an equal amount free, and had been

able to limit acceptances to women with a

high school education. The Navy's savings

resulted, in Director Hobby's opinion,

from the fact that, before WAVES recruiting began,

The leading male sales managers of leading industries were contacted and offered a

commission in the grade of Lieutenant Commander to participate in the WAVES recruiting program at one of their approximately

500 Navy recruiting stations. . . . This highly

trained sales organization promptly obtained

so much free sponsored advertising that the

paid advertising test was cancelled.

It was the Director's opinion that reform

in the recruiting organization could eventually enable the Army to do the same.9

In remedying these ills, it became increasingly obvious that, as General Ulio

had predicted a year before, the recruiting

organization for men was inadequate to

cope with the problems of recruiting

women: specialization was the only means

of lasting success. In January of 1944, this

principle was first applied by the establishment, within The Adjutant General's Office, of the Planning Branch for WAC

Recruiting. The Planning Branch's staff

was chosen from Army officers of proven

ability, most of whom had years of civilian

experience in the field of life insurance

8

 Ltrs, Gen Dalton to CGs of SvCs, 31 Dec 43, and

12, 13, and 15 Jan 44; and replies. SPAP 341 WAAC

(2-26-43). 9

 (1) Memo cited n. 7. (2) Memo, Dir WAC for

CofS, 3 Apr 44. WDWAC 341.
688 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

sales management. Brig. Gen. Edward F.

Witsell, of The Adjutant General's Office,

noted:

This decision was based on the realization

that the problem is not only one requiring expert sales technique, but the personalized

technique best found in the life insurance

field, where salesmen deal daily with the intimate personal relationships of all types of

individuals.10

As chief of the branch, The Adjutant General appointed Lt. Col. John F. Johns, a

former insurance sales executive who had

for two years been Director of Officer Procurement, Fifth Service Command.

To advise the Planning Branch, there

was set up at the War Department level a

Planning Board for WAC Recruiting. The

Planning Board had an impressive membership of the highest personnel advisers

available to the Army—not only General

White of G-1 Division, but the personnel

chiefs of Air, Ground, and Service Forces,

at that time General Bevans, Brig. Gen.

Clyde L. Hyssong, and General Dalton,

respectively—as well as The Adjutant

General and the Director WAC. This

board met occasionally as needed to settle

major questions. With such a battery of

talent turned upon the problem, there was

little chance that earlier errors would be

repeated.11

An auspicious factor for the success of

further recruiting efforts was the close and

friendly co-operation that existed from this

time forward between The Adjutant General's Office and the Office of the Director.

Colonel Johns' group met frequently with

Deputy Director Rice, with Col. Vance L.

Sailor of The Adjutant General's Appointment and Induction Branch, and with

representatives of Young & Rubicam.

With the establishment of the Planning

Branch, the Director's Office routinely referred to it a considerable burden of

recruiting inquiries—suggestions from the

public, protests, and requests for changes

in standards.12

At the time of its establishment, it appeared to the men of the Planning Branch

that their powers to improve the Recruiting Service were limited. In her reply to

the Meek Report, Colonel Hobby therefore asked that this group be given power

to institute approved sales policies and

methods, supervise and visit the field, and

integrate advertising and publicity. These

recommendations were all approved by

General Marshall.13

Diagnosis of Resistance to Enlistment

As the first step in improving both the

recruiting and the publicity machinery, a

national conference of Army recruiters

from every service command was held in

Chicago; its keynote was the discovery of

handicaps and the polishing of method.14

Veteran recruiters at the 1944 conference

no longer expressed any doubt as to the

basic cause of women's resistance to enlistment. Recruiters stated the conviction that

the cause of recruiting difficulty did not lie

in any of the earlier diagnoses such as

women's aversion to Army housing, uniforms, pay, jobs, or any other WAC

deficiency. Instead, it appeared to them to

be almost solely due to the poor public at10

 Opening Remarks, Min, WAC Recruiters Conf,

Chicago, 21-23 Feb 44. WDWAC 337. 11

 Planning Board set up by AG Ltr 341 WAC (1-

27-44), 29 Jan 44. SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43). 12

 See examples in WDWAC 341 (1944). 13

 Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 10 Apr 44, with CofS

approval, 11 Apr 44. CofS Cl 324.5. WAC, also SPWA

341, in SPAP 341 WAC (2-26-43). 14

 (1) Memo, TAG for Dir Pers, 12 Jan 43. SPAP

341 WAAC (2-26-43). (2) Memo, Dir WAC for CG

ASF, 27 Nov 43. SPWA 341 sec B, in SPAP 341

WAAC.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 689

titude toward women in the armed forces,

which in turn was largely traceable to the

opposition of Army men.15

Brig. Gen. Henry S. Aurand of the Sixth

Service Command voiced the service commanders' opinion to this effect:

We are all convinced that the attitude of

the buck private is the reason for slow enlistment of Wacs. That is unanimous, and we all

say you cannot do anything about it. You

have to recruit in spite of it. Let's take this

Command for example. Less than ten percent of the enlisted men are in combat organizations. Just tell those fellows to go out and

get Wacs so they can be sent overseas, and

you will see how far you get. You cannot do

anything about that. You have to do it in

spite of the attitude of the Army. You might

just as well put that in your pipe and smoke

it. You are not going to change the way these

men think.16

This opinion was supported by thousands

of letters and statements to recruiters from

hesitant prospects. A typical letter from an

eligible stated:

The trouble lies with U.S. men. The average serviceman absolutely forbids his wife,

sweetheart, or sister to join a military organization, and nearly all U.S. women are in one

of these categories. When a girl sees an Army officer refuse to

return a WAC salute and even leave a restaurant just because a group of Wacs walk in, is

that any inducement for her to enlist? The

catcalls, filthy remarks and dirty stories floating among soldiers and sailors about servicewomen make a decent American girl shudder.

From Nebraska to California to Montana to

Florida I have heard servicemen's opinions,

all the same. . . . Ever since I can remember I

have thrilled to military music, marching

feet, and uniforms. When the WAC was

formed I desired to go right in but the boy I

was going with said it would be the end of

our romance. Now . . . my husband is an

Army officer overseas and my brother is overseas. This state is filled with servicemen's

wives living at home. . . . There is nothing I

would rather do than join . . . but if I do, I

would probably be disowned by my father,

my brother would be ashamed to admit rela- tion to me, and my husband would be heartbroken. . . . The WAC hat is atrocious and

the whole uniform a definite drawback, but

if men would give their OK, women would

gladly wear them. Other objections raised are

low salary, long hours, and adverse living

conditions, but. . . the expenses I have each

month leave about the same amount of

money a Wac clears. . .. All those silly reasons

are just excuses for pleasing a man.17

Even the most loyal Wacs themselves, and

the parents of Wacs, dared not gloss over

this factor in advising other women to enlist. A typical Wac letter to a prospective

recruit stated:

You make up your own mind what you

want to do about joining up with the WAC

. . . I'm not homesick and I'm not sorry for

myself, but I've had the biggest disappoint- ment of my life. You know I loved basic train- ing with all the hard work, discipline, and

things I felt I was "taking" in order that I

might become a good soldier. I still do not

mind having to sleep in an upper bunk with

few comforts that I had at home. ... I have

no complaints about the requirements and

restraints . . . but the biggest disappointment

is the utter lack of respect for the personnel of

the WAC. At first I was indignant, but lately

. . . instead of being a proud soldier, I am embarrassed that I am a Wac. The soldiers have

absolutely no respect for us.18

There was little tendency among service

commanders to make light of the American woman's subservience to masculine

opinion in this respect; the emotional suffering of women and their parents under

such social disapprobation was too intense

15

 See Ch. XI, above. 16

 Min cited n. 10. 17

 Ltr, Mrs. R. L. C. to Dir WAC, 3 Feb 44. SPWA

095.

18

 Incl to Ltr, CG AAF to all Air Comds, 22 Feb 44;

Tab D to Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 16 Mar 44.

WDWAC 341.
690 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

to be discounted. One mother sent to the

President a daughter's letter, adding:

It is a terrible thing to have one's child

write such a letter, when there is nothing a

mother can do but pray. ... Is it such a terrible thing that girls are in the Armed Forces?

It seems they are very much resented.19

There existed considerable differences

of opinion among conferees as to whether

the Army man's thinking could be

changed. The vice-president of Young &

Rubicam, Mr. Jack Reeder, alleged:

I would want to resign from Young and

Rubicam tonight and go into some other

kind of business if I agreed that you cannot

change the attitude of the Army men in regard to the WAC. I have never seen any

public attitude yet which could not be

changed if gone about intelligently. Some of

the things we have persuaded Americans

they would want. . . makes me think that this

is not a particularly tough job, especially

when the Wacs themselves are doing such a

wonderful job of changing the opinion of the

men.20

Most service commanders, at a conference

in Dallas, agreed that there was nothing

wrong with the product for sale, and that

men's attitude rapidly changed wherever

they had actually worked with Wacs. Maj.

Gen. David McCoach, Jr., of the Ninth

Service Command, added: "There is no

question of the popularity of the Wacs in

those services which have them. Right in

my own headquarters everybody is enthusiastic. . . ."

 21

 Nevertheless, only a

small fraction of enlisted men were ever

thus exposed, and even Young & Rubicam's experts admitted that when they

started a survey of what men thought

about Wacs, "Our first man was arrested

and put in jail in Omaha and we were

called off."

Commanding generals of service commands generally refused to abandon the

project as completely hopeless. Maj. Gen.

J. Lawton Collins stated, "The enthusiasm

of the Army can be obtained by the 'center

of influence' method." He recommended

that senior officers demonstrate to their

juniors by concrete action, not speeches,

that they approved of the WAC. Maj.

Gen. Richard Donovan of the Eighth

Service Command called for the ASF to

take the lead in "breaking down opposition on the part of the enlisted men" and

selling them the idea that "each of them

can and must recruit a Wac. . . . We have

an Army of seven million men ... if one

out of twenty can induce some woman to

apply, we would have 350,000 applications."

 22

In this respect, the most confident of the

service commands was the Seventh, which

had already developed and tried out an

orientation program for male Army personnel, with very encouraging results. This

program employed enlisted men and

women with professional stage and radio

experience in a lively dramatization of the

WAC's jobs and mission. At every Army

station where the show had been presented, a notable improvement in soldier

understanding and friendliness had been

reported. Although it was physically impossible for the actors to visit every station

in the United States, the Seventh Service

Command made available the script and

instructions for use by other commands.23

Out of these conferences and simultaneous telegraphed instructions to the field,

19

 Inds to Ltr, Air WAC Off to Dir WAC, 6 May

44. WDWAC 330.14. 20

 Min cited n. 10. 21

 Min, Conf of CGs of SvCs, Dallas, Tex., 1944.

WDWAC 337. 22

 Min cited ns. 10 and 21. Also Memo, Dir Pers

ASF for CofS ASF, 14 May 44. SPAP 210.3. 23

 Memo, TAG for Dir WAC, 31 Mar 44, sub:

WAC-Army Orientation Movie. AG 341 WAC (3-31-

44) WR-E.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 691

there came for the first time a clear and

uniform understanding in all commands

of the policies basic to successful recruiting.

The first of these, not new, was a matter

which a year's previous effort had not succeeded in informing all recruiters: "Request omission from announcements of

reference to the fact that Wacs 'replace

men.' Imply that men are destined to move

overseas leaving work to be done here."

Colonel Hobby added:

I think that the WAC is old enough to stop

talking about 'replacing' a man . . . manpower has become so acute that we should

not think in terms of womanpower replacing

a man. The soldier does not like it. There is

not always a good civilian reaction to it, and

we mothers are jealous, perhaps, of our

sons . . . we do not like to think that some

girl has replaced our son. The WAC is now a

total part of the man and woman power of

this nation.24

Quite closely related to this principle

was the Director's request—somewhat

startling at first sight—that recruiters

cease from public praise of the WAC. She

noted:

I think that the day of speaking of the

WAC as something new or novel should be

over. We should stop saying what a good job

the WAC does. I think it should be an accepted part of the war effort. We should

simply appeal to the manpower and the

womanpower of this nation.

Telegraphed suggestions to the field added:

Because it will antagonize male listeners,

don't imply that women do a better job than men except on work in which men recognize

women's superiority, such as stenography.

Recruiters were also warned that it was

no longer enough to state that the Army

needed personnel, because surveys showed

that the public realized the need. Director

Hobby said, "We know that a great many

women are rationalizing the job they do.

If they work . . . two hours a week, they

think they are doing a war job." As a

"simple measuring stick," she suggested

that recruiters ask such women whether

their work could be justified as essential

in countries that drafted women.

All present at the conference deplored

the widespread misunderstandings about

recruiting promises. Recruiters were told

emphatically that they must make clear

to the prospect the limitations on even the

station-and-job promise, and Colonel

Sailor of The Adjutant General's Office

added, "The interested prospect is almost

sure to overlook the phraseology, unforeseen military exigencies—I wish I could catch

up with the guy who coined that. . . ."

He advised avoidance of all promises

where possible. Colonel Hobby especially

insisted that additional and undignified

inducements not be added at a local level,

with particular emphasis on a rumor that

nylon hose, unobtainable on the civilian

market, were being offered.

Service command representatives also

unanimously objected to impossible quotas, which had previously been based on

the astronomical numbers of Wacs wanted

by the Army, instead of upon what might

reasonably be obtained. Director Hobby

agreed, and stated that it was possible

that quotas had been the basic reason for

the defeatist attitude about the failure of

WAC recruiting.

Another demand of service commanders

was for the establishment of a recruiters'

school. A few service commands, on their

own initiative, had taken some earlier

steps to train WAC recruiters. The Ninth

Service Command's indoctrination pro24

 All, including following discussion, from: (1) Min

cited n. 10. (2) TWX, Dir WAC to all WAC Ln Offs

in SvCs, 19 Feb 44. SPWA 000.77.
692 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

gram had included a study of WAC Regulations, local news files, common errors,

and what not to say for publication.25 It

was Colonel Johns' first opinion that all

could do likewise. He informed service

command conferees:

The nine Service Commands have men

who are possessed of a sufficient knowledge

of the problem to start the training procedure, so that you do not have to wait until

we set up a school. May I suggest that you

try to solve the problem in your own commands?

Service command representatives disagreed, stating variously: "We have done

that, but have not been successful"; "If

we could have them go to school outside

the Service Command, it would be much

better than the effort we can put forth";

"Recruiting is primarily AG work . . .

you have the Fort Washington School."

When Colonel Johns called for a vote, six

of the nine favored a centralized school.

Remedial Action by The Adjutant General

During the first six months of 1944,

Colonel Johns' Planning Branch took

swift remedial action against all such defects in organization that might hamper

or discourage the working recruiter. In

January The Adjutant General's Office

published the first issue of its Recruiters'

Review, designed to inform recruiters in

the field of the latest developments and

to exchange workable ideas between commands, as well as to reveal the comparative record of each area's progress. The

Air Forces already used a similar bulletin

to spread knowledge of successful devices.

By the first day of February, The Adjutant General's Recruiting Publicity

Bureau was ready to distribute more than

39,000,000 pieces of literature, including

recruiter's kits, booklets, cards, posters, a

more attractive application blank, a

booklet for servicemen, a reassuring letter

for mothers of recruits, and other aids.

In March, as a result of suggestions

made at the conference, widespread use

was made of ideas and devices that had

proved successful in various commands.

Small information booths were set up in

department stores, theater lobbies, and

other places where women were more

likely to go than to the main Army recruiting station. Columns were written by

enlisted women for home-town newspapers, letters of information were mailed

home from training centers and new stations, home-town mayors proclaimed

"WAC Day," and the Air Forces bombed

whole communities with recruiting literature. A moving picture short subject was

planned, to orient Army men to the useful work done by Wacs.

The Planning Branch sponsored a concerted drive on women's colleges, universities, and business and technical

schools, with the object of getting skilled

workers and at the same time "to improve the general opinion of the nation

regarding the type of women which make

up the WAC." Nationwide publicity was

directed to particularly successful local

results. For example, when General Somervell's daughter and six other highly

eligible young women enlisted from

Sweetbriar College, General Dalton was

rushed to the spot to administer the oath,

and widespread news stories resulted.

Also in March, for the first time in over

a year, a recruiting quota was set that was

humanly capable of being met. In April,

for the first time in most recruiters'

memory, this quota was exceeded—a 25

 Ltr, Hq 9th SvC to Dir WAC, 10 Mar 43. SPWA

201.6.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 693

psychological triumph which, without any

great increase in recruits, caused a more

optimistic feeling to be reflected in press

and public opinion.26

In late April, a WAC recruiters' school

was established in conjunction with The

Adjutant General's other schools, taking

fifty women at a time for classes of two

weeks' duration. To be eligible for the

school, enlisted women were required to

be high school graduates of good character, with at least two months' recruiting experience and previous experience

in dealing with people.

To improve the type of personnel assigned to the WAC Recruiting Service,

the Planning Branch proposed a special

allotment of grades that would make it

possible to assign and keep competent

specialists, comparable to the Navy's

ratings.

This effort was for a time blocked by

General Dalton, who stated that he did

not wish to restrict the service commands

in how they utilized their bulk allotments.

Colonel Hobby therefore included in her

reply to the Meek Report a recommendation that appropriate grades and ratings

be provided. This was approved by the

Chief of Staff. General Marshall, at her

request, also directed each service command to bring recruiting personnel up to

authorized strength and assign a fulltime supervisor of WAC recruiting.

In this month, members of the Planning Branch spent two thirds of their

time in the field. Service command organizations were revised, supervisors appointed, and attempts made to keep up

recruiters' enthusiasm. More uniforms

were obtained for recruiters, and they

were given a priority on the new tropical

worsted summer uniforms.27

In May, after two months of furious activity, the Planning Branch published a

selection procedure for WAC applicants.

This was later, for convenience, incorporated in an ASF manual. It gave a detailed

compilation, in one convenient publication, of the many rules, procedures, and

policies that now applied to WAC recruiting. For new or untrained recruiters, such

a book of reference was expected to be

especially valuable.28

In all these efforts, good use was made

of the National Civilian Advisory Committee, by which prominent women lent

their assistance in many localities. One report from an especially active group in the

Second Service Command, headed by Mrs.

Oswald Lord, showed that it had approached numbers of eligible women for

enlistment, obtained much free advertising, persuaded 300 theaters to show WAC

recruiting films, put displays in various

department store windows and in Pennsylvania Station, New York City, got spot

announcements from seventy-five radio

commentators, met with local groups and

churches, arranged trips for reporters,

and persuaded the Fifth Avenue Coach

26

 (1) Recruiters' Review, first issue. Copy in SPAP

341 WAAC (2-26-43). (2) Memo 5, Hq AAF Tng

Comd, WAC Rctg Publicity Campaign, 11 Nov 43.

SPWA 007. (3) Min, Mtg in O Dir WAC, 14 Dec 43.

SPAP 341 WAAC. (4) Memo, Maj McClure for Dir

WAC, 26 Jan 44. SPWA 000.7. (5) Memo, Plng Br for

TAG, 3 May 44. SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43). (6)

Memo, Capt P. Spofford for Lt Col Robert S. Brown,

ASF, 18 Apr 44. ASF Folder, WAC Rctg, DRB AGO.

(7) Rpt, Plng Br for WAC Rctg to Plng Bd, 26 Apr 44,

and incls. WDWAC 341. 27

 (1) Rpt cited n. 26(7). Also Memo Routing Slip,

AGO for Dir WAC, 19 May 44; incl, Revised Program of Instruction for WAC Recruiters. WDWAC

341. (2) Memo, Gen Dalton for TAG, 9 Feb 44.

SPGAS 220.2 Gen (2-9-44)-49, in SPAP 220.4 WAC

319.1 WAC folder. (3) Memo cited n. 13. 28

 ASF Manual M208, 23 Jan 45, sec III. Earlier

ltr, 19 May 44. See Comment 4, Dir Pers ASF for

G-1, 28 May 45. WDWAC 720.
694 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Company to repaint one of its buses with

WAC advertising.29

At the same time, with the aid of Director Hobby's appeal to the Chief of

Staff, funds for paid advertising for another

four months were secured. The ASF opposed the further use of funds on the

grounds that the Navy did not require it,

but the Director noted that, in spite of

planned improvements, the Army did not

yet have the necessary trained and capable personnel, nor was there any one unified WAC recruiting service comparable

to the Navy's. Without such central coordination, she stated, the use of free

sponsored advertising was ineffective, since

each sponsor followed a different theme.

Paid advertising was thus as yet the Army's

only means of maintaining centralized

control of advertising policies and coordination of the sales approach of the

field recruiters.30

The importance of the expense of the

measure depended on the viewpoint; thus,

although about $2,000,000 was spent on

paid advertising in the fiscal year 1944,

this was little more than half that appropriated to give soldiers free lapel buttons

with certain medals.31

Establishment of a Separate WAC Recruiting

Service

All of these improvements, while valuable, did not yet solve the problem of

creating efficient recruiting machinery. In

late May of 1944, the Planning Branch

finally admitted the necessity of the one

last step that had been foreseen by General Ulio more than a year before: the

complete separation of the WAC Recruiting Service from the Army Recruiting

Service in the service command organization. In spite of other improvements, final

control of acceptance or rejection still did

not always lie with personnel trained to

meet the problem or sympathetic to it. At

a meeting of the Planning Board in late

May, the inadequacy of this organization

to meet continuing needs was noted, and

it was decided that "definite steps must be

taken immediately to gear the recruiting

organization to the mission to be accomplished."

 32

The seriousness of The Adjutant General's proposals caused considerable General Staff debate. Complete specialization

was recommended, with the WAC Recruiting Service entirely divorced from the

Army Recruiting Service, and responsible

only to the director of personnel of a

service command and thence to The Adjutant General. Acceptance and rejection

would be entirely in the hands of the service command's WAC recruiting officer and

her assistants, and could not be overruled

by the parallel Army recruiting office. The

service would have its own appropriate

allotment of grades, with assignment and

promotion entirely in its own control. It

was also proposed that order be brought

out of the hodgepodge of personnel by

permanently assigning to the WAC Recruiting Service those temporary-duty 29

 Rpt, 2d SvC CAC to ASF, 1 Sep-15 Dec 44.

SPAP 319.1 WAC (10-9-44). 30

 On WAC advertising in this period, see: (1)

Memo, Dir WAC for CG ASF, 27 Nov 43. SPWA 341,

in SPAP 341 WAAC. (2) Memo, Dir WAC for Budget

Off for WAC, 23 Dec 43. WAC CI file, unnumbered.

(3) Memo, TAG for G-1, 28 Feb 44. Same file. (4)

Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 3 Apr 44; (5) Memo, Plng

Bd for WAC Rctg for TAG, 30 Jun 44; (6) Memo,

Dep Dir WAC for Col Coursey, G-1 Div, 21 Oct 44;

Rpt, Plng Br AGD to Plng Bd, 23 Oct 44; (7) Memo,

WAC Gp WDBPR for Dir WDBPR, 27 Oct 44.

WDWAC 341. 31

 G-4 Rpt, Min. Gen Council, 21 May 46. 32

 (1) Memo, TAG for G-1, 14 Jun 44. AGWR-E

341 WAC. (2) Memo, G-1 for CG ASF through CofS,

23 Jun 44; with DCofS approval, 3 Jul 44. WDGAP

341 WAC. All in CofS 324.5 WAC.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 695

recruiters now on loan from Air or Ground

Forces, currently only partially under Recruiting Service control, and unable to be

rated until returned to other duty.

The drastic nature of the proposed action brought objection from several

agencies, particularly G-3 Division, which

in July of 1944 believed the war's end too

close to warrant the effort and recommended that WAC recruiting cease. However, in view of the continuing need for the

administrative skills found among women,

it was the General Staff's decision that the

reorganization was warranted, and the

establishment of the WAC Recruiting

Service was directed.

With the addition of former temporary

duty personnel, a total of almost 4,000

persons—both men and women, officers

and enlisted personnel—was assigned to

the WAC Recruiting Service. The assignment of men was limited, since past experience showed a bad public reaction, partly

because men were kept from combat to

recruit women, and partly because

. . . many of the enlisted men who have been

assigned to WAC recruiting have proved

actually harmful because of their wisecracking and scornful attitude towards members

of the WAC in the same office and because of

blunt and often fresh remarks to prospective

recruits.33

It was finally decided to allow only a

minimum use of returned combat men,

who could not be accused of avoiding

active duty, and whose status as war

heroes lent a certain prestige to the recruiting station, particularly if they could

be kept busy making public speeches to

civic groups. The Navy some time before

admitted that, even though men in its recruiting stations had no authority over

WAVES acceptances, they were not even

satisfactory in a limited role as processing

agents because they "did not pay sufficiently careful attention to weeding out

underage girls and some who proved to be

marked disciplinary problems."

 34

With the completion of this reorganization, the WAC recruiting machinery

reached the peak of its wartime efficiency.

In July of 1944, Colonel Johns and Planning Branch members visited all service

commands, and reported:

The program on an over-all national basis

seems now to be well underway, and definite

accomplishments should shortly begin to result, providing the public does not become

too thoroughly convinced that the war is

about over.35

At this inopportune moment, the brief

honeymoon between the WAC and the

nations' manpower agencies was ended

when the Office of War Information, objecting to the WAC decision to spend its

advertising money in newspapers instead

of radio, stopped all radio co-operation.

OWI's national headquarters wrote to all

radio stations in the United States that,

since the War Department had decided to

spend its WAC advertising appropriation

by buying newspaper space exclusively,

the Office of War Information therefore

"feels that the WAC Recruiting Campaign will be adequately handled in this

media" and that free radio facilities

should not be given to recruiters. Colonel

Johns reported:

The withdrawal of OWI radio support has

affected every Service Command . . . this has

proved inestimably detrimental to the Recruiting Program and . . . even in the event

radio support is soon reestablished, the posi33

 D/F, Plng Br AGO for Dir WAC, 29 Jan 44; 1st

Ind, 2 Feb 44. SPWA 341. 34

 WAVES Hist, pp. 66-69. 35

 Memo, Col Johns for Plng Bd for WAC Rctg,

through TAG, 9 Aug 44, sub: Rpt of Visit to All SvCs

and MDW, 17 Jul 44. SPAP 341 WAAC (2-26-43).
696 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

tion we formerly held in relation to this

medium can never be fully regained.36

The national situation had not improved,

with even military authorities implying

that the war was over. Colonel Johns

reported:

Continued adverse publicity has had a

very detrimental effect. ... It is doubtful if

we will exceed our quota . . . , because of

headlines and statements such as ARMY IS

ALREADY OVERSTRENGTH, or MORE THAN A

MILLION MEN HAVE BEEN DISCHARGED, or MEN

BEYOND 26 YEARS OF AGE ARE NOT NEEDED,

and numerous other negative pronouncements by Army and Government officials.37

Achievements of the WAC Recruiting Service

In the face of these difficulties, the new

and separate WAC Recruiting Service

nevertheless accomplished what, in the

first months of the year, had seemed unlikely: the maintenance of recruiting for

the rest of the war at a level not too far

below that set earlier by the All-States

Campaign, with an actual rise in recruits

in the summer of 1944 in spite of the optimism engendered by the Normandy

invasion.

Even more remarkable was the WAC

Recruiting Service's success in preventing

enlistment of unqualified women. Records

of training centers indicated that discharges for erroneous enlistment, minority, and dependency were wiped out by

the new system; the Army thus saved

thousands of dollars in terminal bonuses

alone, as well as in clothing, transportation, and training costs. Discharges for undesirable traits and for fraudulent enlistments were almost eliminated. At the

same time there was a reduction of 35

percent in the number of women who had

to be sent to the Special Training Unit.38

Also, after six months of the new system,

Director Hobby was able to recommend

the abolition of paid advertising, since the

Army now, like the Navy, had a specialist

group with centralized control. The Planning Branch estimated that, in the last

nine months of 1944, the value of free

sponsored advertising obtained by the

WAC exceeded $15,000,000. As a result,

the WAC was able to turn back unspent

some $200,000 of the earlier appropriation for paid advertising. Had the Planning Branch and a separate WAC recruiting service operated from the beginning of

the war, it was estimated that the economy would have been even greater, to the

sum of several million dollars.39

Last Days of WAC Recruiting

Cessation of recruiting began gradually

in the fall of 1944 by the simplification of

mechanics. It was at the time hoped that

a need for lesser numbers would permit

abandonment of the various special inducement systems such as branch or station-and-job recruiting. There were two

major objections to these systems. The

ASF and AGF objected to them on the

grounds that the AAF continued, by

means of them, to get the majority of recruits; the majority of women in the top

AGCT brackets also chose the AAF.40 The

ASF also objected on the grounds that

ASF training centers could not classify

36

 Ibid. Incl is OWI Ltr, Chief, Station Relations Br

to all radio stations, 15 Jul 44. 37

 Rpt, Plng Br for WAC Rctg to Plng Bd for WAC

Rctg, 26 Apr 44, and incls. WDWAC 341. 38

 (1) Memo, Maj Katherine K.Johnson for Dir

WAC, 23 Feb 45. WDWAC 220.8. (2) Rpt, Plng Br

to Plng Br, 23 Oct 44. WDWAC 341. 39

 (1) Ibid. (2) Memo, Dep Dir WAC to Col Coursey,

G-1 Div, 20 Oct 44. WDWAC 341. 40

 D/F, Classif and Repl Br AGO for MPD AGO,

17 Jun 44. WDWAC 319.1.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 697

and assign, as they saw fit, the women already promised a branch, job, or station.41

The AAF concurred in dropping the

station-job system, always troublesome,

but refused to allow the 1,500 members of

its recruiting teams to continue unless

branch recruiting also continued. In late

August of 1944, letters therefore went out

directing the end of station-and-job recruiting on 1 November.42

The next step was intended to be the

reduction of recruiting to a maintenance

basis immediately following the defeat of

Germany—which, it was prematurely expected, would take place by the end of the

year. Plans made in late October called

for the strength of the Corps to be frozen

at the end of 1944, recruiting thereafter to

be limited to 500 or 700 women a month

in essential skills to make up attrition.

This reduction would, in The Adjutant

General's opinion, make possible a simultaneous 65 percent reduction in facilities

and 77 percent in personnel.43

In pursuance of this plan, letters went

out to all service commands on 20 December 1944, virtually ending active WAC

recruiting. Effective 1 January, each service command was directed to reduce its

service to 20 officers and 41 enlisted personnel. Each command had a quota of

only 68 each month, the women to get a

choice only of the major branch of service,

not job or station.44

Unhappily for this plan, and for the relief to which recruiters were looking forward, the Battle of the Bulge made this

directive obsolete even before it was sent

out. In the first days of the new year, the

relief orders were rescinded and recruiters

learned of the General Hospital Campaign with its system of recruitment for

specific installations.45

In every way the General Hospital

Campaign, which occupied the first four

months of 1945, made the fullest use of the

technical knowledge evolved by the Recruiting Service, and avoided the pitfalls

revealed by past experience. The original

directive plainly stated that, while women

could be promised initial assignment to a

unit, the recruiter must make clear the

meaning "initial" and also that the members might be trained as either technicians

or medical clerks, according to the needs

of the service. To prevent misunderstandings and later disputes as to what had been

promised, it was specified that a qualification certificate be completed in quadruplicate: the original to be placed in the

service record, a duplicate to go to training center classification officers, the third

copy to the woman herself, and the fourth

to the service command file.46

So thorough did the WAC recruiting

organization eventually become that, in

the last days of its operation, it appeared

doubtful whether any eligible prospect or

avenue of approach in the entire nation

was ignored. In fact, the Director received

a congressman's complaint that recruiting

literature had been sent to a former constituent, although the lady had died the

previous year at the age of 95.47

After almost three years of continuous

41

 Memo, MPD ASF for Dir Pers ASF, 27 Apr 44.

SPGAP 341 Gen (4-19-44)-69, in SPAP 341 WAAC

(2-26-43). 42

 D/F, G-1 for TAG, 29 Aug 44. WDGAP 341

WAC, in WDWAC 341. Published in AG Ltr to SvCs,

31 Aug 44. SGPR-I-A 341 WAC (8-29-44). 43

 Memo, G-1 for ASF, 26 Oct 44, with inds and

M/R through 8 Dec 44. SPAP 341 WAC (11-6-44). 44

 Ltr, TAG to all SvCs, 20 Dec 44. SPXPR-I WAC

(12-20-44) in SPAP 341 WAAC. 45

 Ltr, TAG for All SvCs, 13 Jan 45. AGPR-I 341

WAC, in WDWAC 341. 46

 Ibid; also Ltr, TAG for all SvCs, 23 Jan 45. Same

file.

47

 D/F, Dir WAC to TAG, 16 Jan 45, incl ltr to

Rep. Paul W. Shafer. WDWAC 341.
698 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

campaigning, the unrelieved proximity to

public opinion had been sufficient to reduce even the most normal and extroverted of recruiters to what most believed

to be incipient paranoia with delusions of

persecution. Relief had been promised

upon successful completion of the General

Hospital Campaign, since there was no

legislative authorization for a peacetime

women's Corps and demobilization was at

hand. With the campaign completed and

V-E Day at hand, G-1 Division of the

General Staff hastened to restore the

earlier orders to cease WAC recruiting except for attrition replacements.48

Effective 15 May 1945, the WAC Recruiting Service was abolished, its separate

Table of Organization was rescinded, and

it was again integrated into the Army Recruiting Service. Its personnel was cut

from 3,600 to 300, the excess being returned to the major command that had

contributed it. The Planning Branch for

WAC Recruiting was also abolished as of

15 May 1945. The recruiting effort for

women of all services appeared over. Even

the War Manpower Commission declared

an end to the joint statement of policy,

and noted that, because of the lessened

need in industry, "Army-Navy recruitment of women will no longer be subject

to the restrictions and policies set forth in

the joint statement."

 49

For a few weeks it appeared that this

action had been premature. In the uncertain days of the early summer of 1945,

both the Army and the Navy decided that

it had been a mistake to cut recruiting of

women to an attrition basis, since the demobilization process began to present

unprecedented demands for clerical personnel. As a result, soon after Director

Hobby's resignation, G-1 Division presented the service commands with a new

quota of 10,000 in six months—fully half

that which the highly organized WAC Recruiting Service had been able to get in its

most intensive campaign. In addition, it

was demanded that 75 percent of recruits

be in the scarce clerical skills, and another

25 percent in other skilled specialist fields.

With something of the optimism of early

WAAC days, the General Staff indicated

that the Army Recruiting Service should

be able to get these numbers without the

expense of reactivating the WAC Recruiting Service. Some surprise was expressed

that WAC recruiting had promptly

slumped to insignificant numbers as soon

as the WAC specialist groups were disbanded, and that low-grade recruits were

again being erroneously admitted. Officers

sent to the field to investigate reported

that WAC recruiting "had been relegated

to a position of minor importance."

 50

The renewed demand, therefore, caused

some concern to former WAC recruiting

authorities, who had always held the

unanimous opinion that recruiting would

never succeed without organization:

Chevrolet, or General Electric, or any big

concern trying to sell a large quantity of

goods could not do it without retail salesmen

... to try to do this job without people . . .

would be just about suicide.51

48

 Memo, G-1 for TAG, 27 Mar 45. SPAP 341

WAC. 49

 Ltr, WMC to all Regional Dirs, 20 Jun 45.

WMPE, in WDWAC 341. 50

 Above and following based on: (1) M/R, Memo

for Presentation at Mtg of Plng Bd for WAC Rctg, 26

Jul 45; (2) Memo, Dir WAC for Dir WDBPR, 27 Jul

45; (3) Memo, Dir WAC for Dir WDBPR, 27 Jul 45;

(4) TWX, TAG to all SvCs, 29 Aug 45, AGSE-P 341

WAC, Priority, in WDWAC 341. (5) TWX, TAG to

all SvCs, 13 Sep 45. AGPO-A-SPGAG, 210.31 WAC

(9-1-45) in WD WAC 210.31. 51

 Remarks of Vice-Pres, Young & Rubicam, In

Min, WAC Recruiters Conf, Chicago, 21-23 Feb 44.

WDWAC 337.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 699

At a meeting of the divisions concerned,

it was pointed out that the Army Recruiting Service faced an impossible situation:

the Navy had just launched a specialistsparked campaign for 20,000 Waves; the

skills asked were short nationally; the pay

and advancement offered could not compare to industry's; and women were reluctant to enlist just as men were being

redeployed from Europe.

Bombs dropped at Hiroshima and

Nagasaki intervened to spare recruiters

this ordeal. Soon after V-J Day, the wartime history of WAC recruiting was closed

out by a telegram to all service commands:

DISCONTINUE WAC RECRUITING AND WAC

ENLISTMENT. DO NOT REPEAT NOT COMPLETE

ENLISTMENTS BEING PROCESSED. REPLACE WAC

RECRUITING PERSONNEL WITH MALE PERSONNEL END.52

Public Relations

Support

During the last eighteen months of the

war, an identical course of development

had been experienced in the parallel problem of providing public relations support

for WAC recruiting. Although the policies

for presenting the Corps in a dignified

manner had been established since the

day the WAAC was launched, the average

public relations officer in the field did not

have the advantage of familiarity with

these policies. Recruiters in the field complained that, with a remarkable unanimity considering the lack of co-ordination,

almost every post public relations officer

had decided that it was funny or effective

to pose a woman peeling mountains of potatoes or onions, or to smear her face with

grease and show her peering from under a

truck. One male recruiter noted:

Post Public Relations Officers, with the

best intentions in the world . . . would send

out pictures of somebody doing a tough job.

Making your pictures of pretty girls panting

and in awkward positions won't win friends

and influence people.53

Local radio shows were even more difficult to control; a typical early protest

went to the Fifth Service Command concerning a soldier broadcast which was "in

poor taste, with kidding back and forth

between the Waacs and soldiers of a sort

that sounded cheap on the air."

 54

 Overseas theaters in early days were also

habitually blind to the effect of their news

releases on the home-town recruiters.

Soon after Waacs arrived, the North

African theater created a minor sensation

by releasing pictures of veil-skirted Waacs

in what appeared to be a harem, but

which NATO public relations officers insisted was a "light, clean comedy put on

under the supervision of staff officers.. . ."

The public nevertheless persisted in writing to the Director for information on "the

burlesque show being put on by Waacs in

North Africa"; one told her: "I am about

to prepare a study on causes of delinquency and would appreciate the details

you have uncovered."

 55

The agencies releasing publicity material in this un-co-ordinated fashion included not only posts, camp, and stations,

but overseas theaters, the various divisions

of the Bureau of Public Relations itself,

and all War Department personnel who

52

 TWX cited n. 50(4); also Ch. XXXVI. 53

 Min, Rctg Conf 6th SvC, 7-8 May 43. SPWA

337.

54

 Ltr, Actg Dep Dir WAAC to WAAC Stf Dir 5th

SvC, 26 Apr 43, re broadcast from Camp Campbell. 55

 Ltr, Mansur B. Oakes to Lt Pat Lee Chance, 25

Mar 44, and reply, 3 Apr 44. WDWAC 330.14.
700 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

mentioned the WAC in public interviews.56

By the time of the move to G-1 Division, the WAC file of clippings labeled

"Horrible Examples" included many unlikely releases originated by station public

relations officers, such as FORMER CIRCUS

FREAK NOW A WAC AT THIS POST. Wacs in

leopard skin sarongs and Wacs in nudecolored bathing suits vied with overweight

Wacs and stern-faced mannishly barbered

Wacs for Army publicity pictures.

Negative public statements were also

frequent, with typical headlines such as:

RESULTS SO FAR POOR, GENERAL UHL REPORTS; WAAC DRIVE GOES SLOWLY; RESPONSE IN NEBRASKA UNSATISFACTORY; LAG

IN WAAC ENLISTMENTS IS DISAPPOINTING

TO THE ARMY. At the same time other

services, with smaller actual enlistments,

were releasing statements such as WOMEN

MARINES' RECRUITERS SWAMPED WITH APPLICATIONS. Some public commendations

were ill-chosen to soften soldier opinion,

such as a statement from a post commander: "Their coming here has literally

shamed the soldiers into a little more conscientiousness and neatness." Errors of

fact were common; Wacs were pictured in

jobs that they did not actually perform, or

in unauthorized uniforms. Possibly most

damaging were press stories to the effect

that MALE RIDICULE RETARDS WAC ENLISTMENT, or WOMEN IN WAR OPPOSED.

Since all such efforts of local public relations officers had been guided by very

little knowledge of national recruiting

policy, it was possibly more surprising

that some had achieved effective and positive publicity, such as MEDAL GIVEN HUSBAND RECEIVED BY AIR-WAC, OF PLANE

NAMED PALLAS ATHENE ... AS TRIBUTE TO

GIRLS AT THIS BASE.57

In January of 1944, the Chief of Staff

became aware of the problem through one

of the worst gaffes yet committed by the

publicity organization. In this month public relations officers in the European theater released to a national pictorial

magazine in the United States a series

of pictures of grotesque mannish-looking

"Wacs" in obscene poses and engaged in

soliciting men. The captions did not make

it clear that the subjects were men dressed

in WAC uniforms. Once released, the pictures were beyond recall by the War Department. Director Hobby protested:

These pictures together with the captions, are a reflection on both the serious purpose

and the morals of the WAC.. . . The WAC is

a component of the Army, and War Depart- ment policy contemplates that there shall be

no discredit to any member of the Army of

the United States because of sex, as well as

none because of color or creed.58

This incident for the first time brought

the Chief of Staff into the problem of coordination of publicity with recruiting

expenditures. In a personal note to the

bureau he commented, "We do not appear

to have made the best of the picture."

General Marshall listed cases that he

would have used to aid recruiting if he

had been a public relations expert: General Arnold's WAC adviser, representative

of 20,000 women; the five WAC officers in

56

 Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 21 Mar 44, with Tabs

A to J atchd. WDGAP 341. 57

 All from press scrapbook on loan to author; specifically (not in order): Omaha World-Herald, April 12

and 21, June 21, and December 16, 1943, February 19

and August 31, 1944; Pueblo (Colo.) Star, May 21,

1943, and January 31, 1944; Springfield [?] Leader,

March 11, 1943; Denver, Colo., Rocky Mountain News,

March 2, 1943; Denver Post, March 23, 1943; Fargo

Forum, (N. D.), February 20, 1944; St. Paul Dispatch,

January 19 and 20, 1944; New York Times, June 16,

1943 and February 14, 1944; Des Moines Register, June

27, 1943, and January 20, 1944. 58

 Memo, Dir WAC for CG AAF, 2 Feb 44. SPWA

001.-N.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 701

Africa, present at Casablanca and entertained at dinner by President Roosevelt

and Prime Minister Churchill; the fact

that General Eisenhower's driver was a

Wac and that "my driver in Africa was a

Wac and a very efficient one." From his

own office he contributed a case, saying:

There came to my office, shortly after the

initiation of the WAAC, a Lt. F. T. Newsome.

She was used to replace an officer in the outer

office to meet people. Her work proved so

valuable that she was gradually moved from

job to job until she is now my personal secretary for all matters pertaining to the U.S.

Chiefs of Staff and combined Chiefs of Staff,

briefing the papers, making contact with the

interested parties who include General

Arnold, General Somervell, and General

Handy, and apprising me of the pros and

cons of the various issues. That is certainly an

important job. Furthermore, during certain

periods on off hours she performs the duty of

Acting Secretary, General Staff.

I am sure that there are a number of somewhat similar cases, none of which I have seen

featured. Who is handling this business?59

The answer, not rendered in exactly those

terms, was that there was no section or individual in the Bureau of Public Relations

charged with co-ordinating WAC publicity on an Army-wide basis. On 18 February, at his request, the Director submitted

to General Surles of the bureau a twelvepage summary of problems and deterrents

connected with WAC recruiting.60

 This

received no immediate reply.

Establishment of the WAC Group

A month later, in her reply to the Meek

Report, the Director recommended formation of a specialist group, under General

Surles' jurisdiction, to co-ordinate publicity with recruiting policy. She stated:

Civilian experience has shown that in the

information field there are two distinct and

separate functions to be performed. The personnel required to perform these functions is

different in temperament and training and

never grouped together in civilian practice.

One is the creative type which thinks of ideas

which, when they occur, will create an impression on the public mind. The other is the

type which tells what has happened: factual

reporting. The personnel of the Bureau, in

keeping with its mission, has been selected

from this latter type. ... A group must be

established whose primary mission is to prepare plans and follow through. . . . This

must be a professional job, competing in a

well-organized field for the attention and interest of the civilian public against professional attempts to attract the same people in

other directions.61

Over the objections of both General

Somervell and General Surles, General

Marshall directed formation of such a

group. General Surles stated that he could

spare no personnel for the project. Accordingly, G-1 Division augmented the

Bureau of Public Relations by twelve

officer grades to form a WAC Group.62

Six field grade male officers and six

company grade women officers were assembled to form the WAC Group, headed

by Col. J. Noel Macy, formerly the

WAAC's first deputy and public relations

officer. Specialists were included in the

fields of radio, photography, newspapers,

magazines, and other publicity media.

The group was formally charged with developing a favorable public reaction to

59

 Memo, "G. C. M." for WAC Rctg Sec, WDBPR

(nonexistent sec), 26 Jan 44. OCS 324.5 WAC. 60

 Memo, Dir WAC for Dir WDBPR, 18 Feb 44.

SPWA 341 B, in WAC files, OCMH. 61

 Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 4 Apr 44. WDGAP

341, WDBPR files—Orgn of WAC Gp. 62

 (1) Memo, Chief, News Div WDBPR for Dir

WDBPR, 13 Apr 44. (2) WDBPR Office Memo 22,

25 Apr 44. Establishes WAC Gp, with 12 offs. Both in

Folder, Orgn of WAC Gp, WDGAP 341 (4-4-41).
702 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

WAC recruiting, and its relations to The

Adjutant General's Planning Branch were

formally defined. It was directed to devise

a proper approach, gather material, write

releases, review copy for accuracy, and

guide field public relations officers toward

the original idea of the WAC as a serious

and dignified organization, which General

Marshall had attempted to inculcate at

the WAAC's first press conference almost

two years before. It was Director Hobby's

opinion that such a group, operating from

the beginning, might have saved the WAC

from much of its recruiting difficulties and

public misunderstanding.63

From this time onward, it was not always

possible to tell which improvements in

national opinion could be credited to

Army recruiters and which to Army

public relations officers, since they were

no longer employing contradictory approaches. The WAC Group set itself to

obtain from posts and stations a stream of

information and pictures that would make

good news stories, which soon began to

flow out to the recruiters and to publicity media—radio, newspapers, and

magazines. It was hoped that enough

emphasis upon accurate publicity of this

type would eventually counteract other

stories shocking enough to reach reporters

unassisted.64

By the summer of 1944, the WAC's first

real public relations campaign was under

way. For the first time a full-scale publicity campaign was designed to reinforce

a recruiting campaign, and for the first

time public relations officers in the field

learned exactly what the Army wished of

them in the way of presenting the Women's

Army Corps to the public. The rules, as

laid down in classified bulletins to field

public relations officers, were quite similar to those which Colonel Hobby had

adopted for her own office two years

before, with some additions. The chief

ideas to be keynoted by stories and

pictures were:

1. Wacs are just as feminine as before

they enlisted. They gain new poise and

charm. They do feminine jobs much like

those of civilian women. They have dates

and are good friends with Army men.

2. The Women's Army Corps is no

longer an experiment. It has public acceptance and prestige. "Present it as a

success story." Parents are proud. Requirements are high. Only attractive

pictures should appear.

3. Army jobs performed by Wacs are

necessary to the war effort. Dramatize the

job. Show Wacs working with men. Avoid

pictures of kitchen police.

4. "Uncle Sam provides for the welfare

of his Army nieces." Emphasize advantages of travel, new friends, medical care,

recreation.

5. Adopt an affirmative approach.

Don't be on the defensive. The WAC has

a right to be proud of its record.

For the first time also the field public

relations officers learned the "do's" and

"don'ts" which had long been common

practice in the Director's office: Say

women., not girls. Show the proper uniform

always except in sports pictures. Show

attractive women but not cheesecake. Use

the Corps' full name once—Women's

Army Corps—and thereafter in an article

it is permissible to say the WAC or Wacs.

Avoid pictures of Wacs smoking or drinking. Do not put Wacs on radio programs

in competition with male personnel, nor as

stooges, nor as romantic interest. Avoid

using Wacs in off-the-post theatricals.

63

 Ibid. 64

 Ibid. Also Draft of Memo for WAC Gp, undated.

Same file.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 703

Avoid "humor" in camp newspapers

which creates the public impression that

the Army does not have the proper regard

for Wacs. "Would you object to your wife

or daughter being identified as the subject

of an article or cartoon?" Avoid showing

Wacs doing jobs which Wacs do not really

do. Do not guarantee assignments, commissions, or ratings.65

There were now many obstacles to the

success of the campaign that had not existed two years before. The WAC Group

found that the WAC was no longer "news"

in itself, and that editors who previously

had fought to get any sort of story about

the Corps now refused to print anything

that was not in itself noteworthy. It now

required good writing, good photography,

and good liaison to persuade news media

to give recruiters the free publicity that

formerly had been abundant. Also, public

relations officers and civilian reporters

were now well set in their previous attitudes, and could not be re-educated

overnight.

In spite of the handicap of a late start,

the new publicity campaign achieved substantial results. A random sampling of the

press scrapbook of a Midwestern headquarters showed that the field had seized

on the leads offered. Headlines read:

MORE ENLISTING IN WAC — PLEASED AT RESULTS; or SECOND WAC GROUP FILLED—

RESPONSE OF NEBRASKA YOUNG WOMEN

GOOD. The European theater had in January released a story headlined PREFER

ENGLISH GIRLS TO WACS, but in July it sent

a wirephoto of the first Wacs on Normandy

Beach, labeled YANKS WELCOME WACS. The

"general's daughter" theme took hold at

once, with such items as GENERAL'S

DAUGHTER ARMY PRIVATE, COLONEL'S

MOTHER JOINS WACS, WACS TO MAKE BETTER

WIVES SAYS COLONEL, HUBBY'S FOOTSTEPS

FOLLOWED BY DEVOTED WIFE, and so on.

The number of positive headlines swelled:

WAC ENLISTS AND MAKES FAMILY 100 PERCENT IN WAR EFFORT, SOLDIER MEETS WAC

SISTER IN AUSTRALIA, FOUR WOUNDED

SOLDIER HEROES HELP RECRUIT WACS,

MARCH QUOTA EXCEEDED IN WAC ENLISTMENTS, WAC SIGNS LEAVE PAPERS FOR

HUSBAND, WAC CREDITED WITH SAVING

LIVES OF PLANE CREW, and many others.66

The files of the WAC Group revealed

that in one week alone at least two hundred free news stories and pictures could

be attributed to material supplied to news

media by the group. Press releases to national agencies were mimeographed and

mailed to some three hundred recruiting

offices as well as to public relations officers

in the field, the Office of War Information,

and the War Advertising Council. This

caused the amount of news coverage to

soar as local newspapers and radio stations

picked up items that national services had

not featured.67

Material about Wacs overseas was particularly easy to peddle to news agencies,

but difficult to get. The North African

theater had an early rule that all film must

be used to record combat activities. The

65

 (1) WDBPR Bull, 24 Jun 44. WDWAC 014.13.

(2) WDBPR Continental Ln Bull XXV, 30 Sep 44.

WDWAC 062. (3) WDBPR Bull., "Public Relations

Activities Pertaining to WAC," 1-30 Jun 44.

WDWAC 000.7. 66

 In order: Denver Post, April 22, 1944, and Omaha

World Herald, March 21, 1945, Des Moines Register,

January 20, 1944, and Minneapolis Star-Journal, July

22, 1944; Denver, Colo., Rocky Mountain News, February 12, 1944; Minneapolis Star-Journal, July 13, 1944;

Omaha World Herald, July 3, 1944; Denver Post, May 5,

1944 and November 6, 1944; Pueblo (Colo.) Star-Journal, June 18, 1944; same; Minneapolis Star-Journal,

May 15, 1944; Denver Post, May 5, 1944; Des Moines

Register, March 30, 1944; Omaha World Herald, November 14 and 16, 1944. 67

 Office Memo, Actg Chief, WAC Gp, for Dep Dir

WDBPR, 18 Feb 45. Folder, Orgn of WAC Gp,

WDGAP (4-4-41).
704 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

European theater permitted WAC pictures, but with so little forethought in

public relations policy that releases were

often more harmful than helpful. The

Pacific theater's stricter control of reporters' activities prevented any great

number of derogatory stories, but likewise

did not produce any positive material. An

appeal for better recruiting aids produced

only five pictures of the staff director with

koala bears and three of Wacs doing

kitchen police.68

Again, the only solution was found to be

specialization, with a WAC publicity expert and a photographer sent to tour overseas theaters and obtain newsworthy

stories about actual jobs and interesting

locations. The result was a considerable

jump in sound publicity. In the Pacific

theater alone a volume of about 1,000

stories monthly was attained by one

permanently assigned specialist. In one

month she arranged for 1,360 home-town

stories, 6 general stories, and 235 pictures

and captions. Overseas pictures and stories

were featured to good effect: Wacs dancing

with soldiers in New Delhi or studying

Paris styles in liberated France, local

stories like FOUR KANSAS WACS FLY TO

AFRICA, or MINNESOTA WAC, AIDE TO GENERAL IKE, WEDS HIS ORDERLY.69

 These were

willingly given space by most newspapers;

almost every Wac overseas was good for a

story and picture in her home-town paper.

Because of the greater apparent importance of overseas stories in the minds of

newspaper editors, the Chief of Staff also

cabled all theater commanders:

Because of the emphasis placed on all news

coming from the theaters of operations,

special care must be taken that news stories, radio scripts, or other publicity material

about the WAC or in any way referring to

the Wacs be in good taste and free from

unfavorable innuendoes or coarse humor

injurious to the general reputation of the

WAC.70

The WAC Group at the same time

made efforts to establish friendly liaison

with editors and reporters, in the hope

that newspapers would gradually learn to

consult the group before printing damaging stories. This type of diplomacy occupied a good part of the group's time;

unfavorable stories that did reach print

were isolated and prevented from spreading, and poor or ill-timed photographs

were quickly replaced with better ones.71

National surveys soon gave grounds for

hope that the tide of public opinion

against the Women's Army Corps had

been almost arrested, at least in its more

frequent published manifestations; there

was now some chance that a more favorable feeling would set in. The WAC Group

reported:

The most recent study of public opinion

toward the Wac indicates an increased favorable public attitude and that the public is

receptive in general to the purposes and

objectives to which the 1945 recruiting

program is geared.72

68

 (1) Ltr, ETO to AAF, 3 Feb 44, with incl.

WDWAC 000.7. (2) Cbl R9627 (CM-OUT 8528),

Surles to Eisenhower, 19 Feb 44. WDWAC 000.7. (3)

Memo, Dir WAC for WDBPR, 25 Feb 44. SPWA 062.

(4) Ltr, Exec WAC to Capt Juanita Stryker, 16 Aug

44, with incl. WDWAC 320.2 SWPA. (5) Memo,

Women's Interest Sec AFPAC for all WAC PROs in

AFPAC, 2 Oct 45. WDWAC 319.1. 69

 Ibid. Also Denver (Colo.) Rocky Mountain News,

February 3, 1944; Greeley (Colo.) Tribune, May 1, 1945;

Topeka Daily Capital, November 4, 1944; Minneapolis

Star-Journal, December 16, 1944. 70

 Cbl (CM-OUT 2890), WD to all overseas Comds

(from CofS, revised by DCofS), 7 Feb 44. WDGAP

320.2 (8-18-42) (i) sec 8a. 71

 (1) Memo, Actg Chief, WAC Gp, for Chief, Press

Br WDBPR, 23 Feb 45. (2) Memo, Lt Carroll for Dep

Dir WDBPR, 29 Jan 45. Both in Folder, Orgn of

WAC Gp, WDGAP 341 (4-4-41). 72

 Memo, Chief, WAC Gp for Dep Dir WDBPR, 20

Dec 44. Same file.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 705

It was never to be known to what extent

the tide could have been turned. The

WAC Group had been founded by General Marshall only over the Bureau of

Public Relations' objections. Four months

after its establishment, the bureau began

to consider reducing the size of the group

after the defeat of Germany. Three months

later, in December of 1944, although Germany was still undefeated, the bureau informed the group that it was to be discontinued, since the only purpose in improving public opinion had been "to support

all-out recruiting."

 73

 At this moment the

Battle of the Bulge and the resulting extension of WAC recruiting automatically

postponed the disbandment of the WAC

Group, but it shrank in size until only a

few junior officers remained. These

pleaded for retention until the Corps was

demobilized, citing the volume of output

of desirable stories,

. . . which by their very appearance and

availability will serve to discourage and offset a return of the previous unfavorable

publicity. . . . Should [this] be denied, the

needs and accomplishments of the Corps will

rapidly disappear from the classification of

genuine news, and the unfavorable publicity

will again become a fact.74

Nevertheless, at the end of February,

1945, the WAC Group had vanished. To

support the General Hospital Recruiting

Campaign, there were left three WAC

officers in the Press Branch of the bureau.

A month later, in an undocumented

reversal, the group was suddenly re-established, with eight WAC officers assigned.

In May of 1945, upon reduction of WAC

recruiting, the group asked to be retained

on the grounds that it must now carry

alone the load of "prestige publicity" that

had previously been shared by hundreds of

WAC recruiters in the field. It was therefore left intact for the time being, but was

not long to survive the departure of Colonel Hobby in the summer of 1945.75

Support by Films and Stage Shows

Possibly nine out of ten suggestions from

amateur critics advocated an additional

form of supporting publicity for recruiters:

the use of films, stage shows, motion picture stars, and other theatrical means,

which, it was confidently stated, would

bring the American woman to enlist as

would nothing else on earth. In spite of

this opinion, no great use of this form of

recruiting support ever proved possible,

for a number of reasons.

From its earliest days the Corps offered

an irresistible attraction to the theatricalminded. The WAAC had not graduated

its first members before a Hollywood company had asked permission to star them

in a musical comedy. This and the other

frequent requests to make films about the

Corps were refused by the Bureau of

Public Relations, which replied:

The WAAC is a new thing in the lives of

the American people, and so being, is for the

present on trial. Its success is dependent upon

two effects: first, the achievement of its objective in an efficient, dignified, and military

manner, and two, the approval by the American people and their acceptance of the organization as necessary in the war effort.

While serious treatment of the organization

73

 Ibid. Also see Memo, Col Macy, Chief, WAC Gp,

for Dir WDBPR, 15 Sep 44. Same file. 74

 Memos cited n. 71. 75

 (1) Memo, Actg Chief, WAC Sec Press Br, for

Press Br WDBPR, 26 Feb 45. Folder, Orgn of WAC

Gp, WDGAP 341 (4-4-41). (2) Ltr, Maj Louise Goeden to Maj Henriette Horak, PRO SHAEF, 25 Apr

45. (3) M/R, 28 May 45. Folder, Orgn of WAC Gp,

WDGAP 341 (4-4-41)
706 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

in dignified, dramatic structure is one thing,

its portrayal in musical comedy is another,

and one which cannot receive official sanction.76

In spite of rebuffs, private producers

remained interested. It was with something less than appreciation that public

relations authorities received offers from

unknown producing agencies, such as one

which stated, "We are about to produce a

legitimate stageplay . . . based on the

Women's Army and entitled They All

Do It." 77 The typical producer desired to

"glorify" Wacs in a nonprofit show for the

benefit of some Army cause; the producer

would furnish the writer, and the Army

would furnish the material, the talent, the

equipment, probably the funds, and,

usually, indorse the producers' songs as

official. All such ideas for gaining producing fame at the expense of the government

were politely refused by the Bureau of

Public Relations, in consideration of the

expenditure involved and the frequently

dubious picture of the WAC that would

have resulted.78

Even in the case of reputable film companies eager to contribute their services to

the war effort, the results were discouraging. As soon as the WAAC was formed, an

attempt was made to get a recruiting film

from this source. Top-flight talent was contributed, with Warner Brothers sending its

director, Frank Capra, to Des Moines to

photograph the short subject, Women at

War.

The result was pronounced "a very fine

picture photographically"; the pictures of

Des Moines were "superb," and the film

had "great dramatic appeal." Unfortunately, the script as cleared by the Bureau

of Public Relations, which at that date

had no WAAC specialists, contained considerable untrue information, including a

final battlefield scene, with Wacs rushing

into combat to take over the work of frontline Signal Corps troops. By the time the

film was seen by a WAAC adviser,

changes would have been prohibitively

expensive, and the studio refused to make

them since the script had been cleared by

the War Department. The film was therefore shelved for a time, and eventually released commercially with the substitution

of dialogue stating that the "combat" was

merely a maneuver in the United States—

a statement equally erroneous as to WAC

participation, but less alarming to the

public. Its value except as a work of art remained dubious: at best it gave recruits an

overglamorous idea of WAC activities, and

at worst it perhaps alarmed timid prospects and parents.79

While this particular fiasco was solely

the fault of poor co-ordination within the

War Department, in general the scripts

later submitted by both military and nonmilitary writers proved unmalleable, with

errors so integral to the structure that it

was impossible to correct them. The difficulty seemed to lie in a certain unbridgeable gap between the real facts of WAC

76

 Telg, Republic Pictures to Dir WAC, 23 Jul 43,

with reply by Ltr, Chief, Pictorial Br WDBPR to Republic Pictures, Inc., 4 Aug 42. WA 413.56 (7-23-

42)A. 77

 Ltr, Society of American Talents, Inc., to Red

Cross Auxiliary, 15 Jun 44. WDWAC 080 Relief

Fund. 78

 (1) Ltr, Lee M. Rousseau to Dir WAC, 26 Nov

43, sub: Salute to the Wacs; (2) File showing previous

rejections by ASF OTI and AER as well as by Dir

WAC; (3) Rejections from Gen Surles, WDBPR. All

in SPWA 062 (1943). 79

 (1) Transcript, Long Distance Tp Conv, Dir

Hobby and 1st Off Woods, 21 Aug 43. G-1 WAC

312-312.9, Drawer 6, DRB AGO. (2) Memo, Sp Serv

Div for CG ASF, 12 Apr 44. SPRPS 413.56, in AG

341 9th SvC.
RECRUITING AND PUBLICITY 707

existence and the workings of the theatrical mind.

For this reason, requests to use WAC

training centers and units as the background of commercial feature films were

generally refused. Among the dramatic

stereotypes suggested for such stories were

the ancient rival-buddies theme, which in

females looked like a mere cat fight; the

bad girl reformed by the Army; the

woman who discovers she must shed her

Army uniform and don black lace to recover her husband's love. None of these

appeared particularly helpful to recruiting, and it proved impossible to interest

film makers in the real, although less conventional, drama of a Wac's actual life.

Nevertheless, many critics of WAC recruiting policies believed that the Corps

was losing much valuable free publicity by

rejecting such offers. Finally it was agreed

to let a major company produce a WAC

picture provided that the script was approved and a WAC adviser kept on the

scene at all times. In spite of such precautions, the resulting effort was an embarrassment to Wacs everywhere. One of

Hollywood's most glamorous stars was

compressed, rather unsuccessfully, into a

WAC uniform, and portrayed as receiving

an officer's commission after a writer's

idea of "feminine" behavior such as jealousy, tears, hysteria, and face-slapping on

the drill field, which would have disqualified any real Wac officer candidate. Real

Wacs in the audience fled in tears, accompanied by the jeers of soldier-spectators.80

It was difficult to see what such productions added to public acceptance, other

than the idea that all Wacs suffered from

emotional instability but nevertheless

were promptly made officers.

Thereafter, Army assistance was not

given to further fictional films, and such

recruiting short subjects as were necessary

were made by the Signal Corps. Even with

military producers, the proper straightforward and realistic tone was difficult to

achieve. A few excellent and successful

short subjects were nevertheless produced,

particularly in support of the General

Hospital Campaign.

Invariably rejected were the hundreds of

suggestions that enlistment be stimulated

by the use on recruiting duty of Hollywood stars then in the military establishment, particularly Clark Gable and

James Stewart. This idea, in addition to

its unpopularity with the individuals concerned, would have violated War Department policy on the assignment of prominent persons. As recruiting policy it was

likewise frowned upon as being in the

same category with offers of free nylons to

potential recruits, and other misrepresentations of the advantages of life in the

services.

Whether or not, in the future, this advertising medium could be more successfully exploited remained an unsolved

problem. After the end of the war, the

second Director WAC was of the opinion

that the thousands of existing feet of film

on WAC activities should be cut and consolidated for a historical record, and for

the training of future Wacs, "since enlisted

women were used in this war for the first

time in the history of the United States

Army." The proposal was rejected, however, by Maj. Gen. Russell L. Maxwell of

the Army Pictorial Board, as not worth

the expense of preparation.81

80

 Observed by author and others. 81

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for G-4, 27 Nov 45, and

Inds; (2) Min, 20th Mtg, Army Pictorial Bd, 8 Jan 46.

WDWAC 060-06.2 (1945-46).
708 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Evaluation

From the parallel patterns of the Planning Branch and the WAC Group, two

final conclusions were reported. One was

the unvarying unpopularity of their efforts

with other agencies, which opposed their

establishment as long as possible and proposed their disbandment at the earliest opportunity. It was inevitably irritating to

established services to see one Corps publicized, groomed, and pushed to the forefront of public attention—pictures of

WAC recruits mailed to home-town

papers when men's were not; prominent

personages rushed into WAC ceremonies

while those for men were ignored; publicity given to the WAC's first steps in

paths anonymously trodden by men for

years.

The other and equally unpleasant conclusion was also inescapable. There was

every evidence that no corps or branch,

whether of men or women, could recruit

any number of individuals, in active competition with industry and the other services, without the expert, hard, and constant attention that had been given to the

WAC Recruiting Service. Both the Army

and the Navy had found, even after recruiting was seemingly well established,

that when recruiters were cut and the

machine disbanded, recruits vanished.

The General Staff noted:

Experience has conclusively proved that

recruits are only obtained by direct and repeated personal interviews and that the aver- age good recruiter can at best actually enlist

not more than 2 or 3 prospects out of every

20 interviewed.82

Any corps obliged to recruit in this manner while all others were supplied by the

draft was obviously placed in a position to

incur animosity. Among the many benefits

that selective service would have brought

to the WAC, not the least would have

been freedom from the resentment of other

services, as well as from the strain of keeping itself in the state of spotless saleability

ordinarily required only of soap flakes and

cigarettes.

It seemed important that future planners realize that an Army which wished to

employ women in wartime must either

summon its forces to back draft legislation,

or pay the price of ungrudging specialization in women's publicity and recruitment.

The early failure to commission the most

highly qualified experts available, and to

centralize control, was a luxury too expensive to be repeated, costing millions of dollars in advertising and thousands of

potential recruits. In peacetime, when

equal measures were required to recruit

men, the problems of WAC recruiters and

publicity experts would obviously be less

conspicuous, and all branches would be

more likely to receive equal publicity.

82

 Memo cited n. 3.
PART FOUR

LAST DAYS OF THE WARTIME WAC

CHAPTER XXXV

1945: The Closing Months

of the War

The prospect of victory in Europe

brought to the WAC, as to the Army as a

whole, the last of its problems before demobilization: that of maintaining efficiency in a period of war weariness. Symptoms, as they appeared in the last winter of

the war, were not in themselves any more

alarming for the WAC than for the Army

as a whole, except as trends which, if continued, would render the Corps ineffective

at the moment the expected strain of redeployment to the Pacific would tax all administrative facilities. In January of 1945,

the rate of medical discharge for Wacs was

found to be more than double that of January of the preceding year. The rate of discharge other than honorable (blue) was

many times greater than that of the year

before.1 WAC uniform violations became

increasingly common, as well as mere untidiness. WAC officers, who should have

set an example in this respect, instead were

frequently the worst offenders. Director

Hobby moved to secure publication of two

separate admonitions, stating that "it is

manifestly unfair to require and expect enlisted women to abide strictly by Uniform

Regulations when the officers of their

Corps are guilty of flagrant abuse thereof."

 2

Possibly more important was the intangible but unmistakable crumbling of that

high morale and idealism upon which the

Corps had always depended in surmounting pioneering obstacles and public disapproval. Among company officers, visitors

reported a definite feeling that they and

their women had been forgotten by those

in authority. Most of the reforms in the

uniform supply, job assignment, medical

care, and other policy matters, which had

been fought over for two years in the War

Department, had reached the field so late

as to make little impression, or had not arrived at all at some isolated stations.

Even at best, the earlier crusading spirit,

with its rosy expectation of capturing the

citadel of full acceptance, had long since

been replaced by a more realistic evaluation of the situation. The familiar gibes

and gossip had ceased to be a challenge

and had become merely wearisome, and

the average woman now realized that, so

long as women did not share in combat,

they would never be full-fledged military

citizens. As one dispirited Wac put it in a

letter to Director Hobby, "We don't want

1

 See Tables 12 and 13, Appendix A. 2

 (1) Ltr, Dir WAC to CGs AAF, AGF, and ASF, 18

Sep 44. WDWAC 421. (2) Memo, Dir WAC for

WAC Offs on Duty in Washington, 20 May 45.

WDWAC 421. (3) Ltr, Hq MDW to all Stations, 12

Sep 44, SPWBG 420 WAC, in WDWAC 421. (4) St.

Louis Post-Dispatch, November 14, 1944. (5) Min, Stf

Dirs Conf, 1-3 Dec 43. SPWA 337 (11-10-43).
712 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

appreciation; we only want to go home."

 3

The British Auxiliary Territorial Service had reported the same situation some

months earlier, with particular reference

to female troop officers stationed permanently in isolated spots. Having coped

with all of the changes that naturally accompanied the growth of a new organization, they were described as needing "a

shot in the arm."

 4 In the American WAC,

urgent cases of company officer fatigue

had been reported as early as 1943, with

officers vainly seeking transfer on grounds

that they had "gone stale" and had nothing more to give to their units.5

Rotation Proposals

Inasmuch as medical surveys showed

the job-interest factor to have more influence upon both fatigue and health than all

other factors combined, first WAC proposals for combating a slump in efficiency

hinged upon a transfer or rotation system

that would approximate for female personnel the normal rotation in the armed

forces. Women in both the Army and the

Navy had generally lacked the job rotation customary for men. Except for the few

released for officer candidate school or

overseas service, most had remained at the

station of initial assignment. The Navy

Department was the first to note the problem in this system, reporting:

Since the familiar shore-sea duty rotation

did not apply to the Women's Reserve, it was

originally contemplated that their initial assignments to duty would probably be for the

duration of the war. As the war lengthened,

it became clear that this was not a sound

policy. Morale in general was injured by a

pervading policy which apparently froze all

hands in whatever billets they had first

chanced to find themselves. . . . Women assigned to out-of-the-way or otherwise less desirable stations were considerably worse off

than the men, who at least had a prospect of

sea duty as a change.6

In November of 1944, the Navy Department therefore adopted a system

whereby Waves who had given two years

of good service, exclusive of training time,

could request transfer to another location,

approval to be contingent upon military

necessity. Women whose original assignments remained responsible and absorbing to their interests did not request such

rotation, but of others who did, it was

noted that 90 percent wanted duty nearer

home. Even if a new assignment held little

more interest than the old, the change of

scenery and renewal of family contacts appeared to improve efficiency.7

No comparable solution was arrived at

by the Army. In a conference early in

1945, Army Service Forces staff directors

recommended that the Army add a similar provision to its directives governing rotation, to apply only to individuals who

had served at least two years either on

"isolated stations" or "on duties the nature of which on a prolonged assignment

is detrimental to the individuals concerned." Final approval of such a change

in jobs would have remained a prerogative

of command, dependent upon the situation.

This proposal met the opposition of

Military Personnel Division, ASF, on the

grounds that "the assignment and reas3

 (1) Extracts from Rpt of Asst ASF WAC Off, 18

Jul 44. SPGAS 319.1 WAC, in SPAP 319.1. (2) Quo- tation from D/F, G-1 WD to TAG, with incl Ltrs, 4

Sep 45. WDGAP 220.8 WAC, in WDWAC 220.8. 4

 Cbl and Ltr, Asst Mil Attache, London, for Dir

WAC, 8 Feb 45. WDWAC 320.2 WAC. 5

 (1) Min cited n. 2(5). (2) Memo, Miss Lies for Dir

WAC, 19 Apr 44, with 9 atchd tabs. 1944 Plng Serv

files.

6

 WAVES Hist, pp. 142 ff. 7

 Ibid.
1945: THE CLOSING MONTHS OF THE WAR 713

signment of military personnel is a command function" and that rotation should

therefore be left to a station commander to

initiate if necessary. An eventual stalemate

resulted from the fact that there was no reliable estimate of the number of men who

would be affected by such a provision. Director Hobby believed it to be so small as

to permit equal applicability of the provision to men and women, while General

Dalton feared otherwise and that to apply

it to women alone would appear discriminatory. For this reason, no such rotation

was authorized until just before the end of

the war, and WAC advisers instead sought

other means of arresting a decline in efficiency.8

Refresher Training of Officers

British experience indicated that good

results in combating fatigue among

women troops could be obtained by combating it in their officers, by means of refresher training to impart new ideas and

encouragement. The ATS had therefore

established both junior and senior officers'

schools, later merged, with reportedly excellent response.9

 As early as August of

1944, Director Hobby approached the

Chief of Staff concerning the advisability

of establishing a refresher course, because

of the increasing fatigue of WAC troop officers and the unavailability of replacements.10

 She noted:

These officers . . . should be a very

proud group, a group recognized throughout

the Army. . . . Instead, there has been a

growing tendency to regard the assignment

to an operational job as a "plum." ... A

WAC detachment officer, if she does her job

properly constantly has to listen to the problems of the women of her unit. Conditions in

military service are more strange to women

than to men, home situations often bear more

heavily, the very type of work they perform

is more monotonous because the chances of

transfer and change are less, outside diversions are fewer. The result is that at the present time many WAC commanders, many of

the best ones, have been so drained of inner

strength that they feel that they have nothing

else to give and would like to be transferred to

routine operational jobs. . . . I do not feel

that the Corps can afford to transfer good detachment officers. ... I do feel that some- thing must be done to refresh the tired ones

and constantly improve the work of all.11

In spite of General Marshall's immediate approval of this suggestion in August

of 1944, ASF's opposition delayed the

school's beginning until April of the next

year.12 Military Training Division took a

firm stand against the school, on the

grounds that there were no problems peculiar to females in the Army:

It is not apparent to this office what func- tions are peculiar to a WAC Staff Director

that are not common to other officers performing staff assignments. Furthermore, it is

not understood what functions are peculiar

to WAC Detachment Commanders that are

8

 (1) Min, ASF WAC Stf Dirs, Mtg, Feb 45, with

transmittal slip. SPAP 210.3 WAC. (2) Memo, G-1.

WDWAC 220.3 (1945-46). (3) Memo, Dir MPD for

Pers ASF, 6 Aug 45. SPAP 210.85 WAC. (4) For final

action, see Ch. XXXVII, below. 9

 Cbl and Ltr cited n. 4. 10

 Summary of entire procedure for establishment

of school in D/F, G-1 to Dep CofS, 9 Feb 45.

WDGAP 353 WAC, in CofS 324.5 WAC. Approved

by CofS, 14 Feb 45. 11

 Memo (draft for discussion), Dir WAC for Gen

Henry, G-1, 21 Aug 44. WDWAC 352 WAC Pers

Admin. 12

 For description of series of conferences see: (1)

M/R by ASF WAC Off, 12 Oct 44, SPAP 352 WAC.

(2) Memo, Chief Tng Gp G-3, for Dir WAC, 11 Nov

44, WDWAC 352 (1945). G-3 meetings: 3, 11, and

17 Oct. (3) Buck slip, Dir Pers ASF for Dir Mil Tng

ASF, 13 Oct 44. SPAP 352 WAC. (4) Memo, Dir Pers

ASF for CofS ASF, 20 Nov 44. SPAP 352 WAC (6-14-

43). (5) Memo, MTO ASF for Dir Pers ASF, 21 Nov

44. SPTRD 352 WAC (10-12-44), in SPAP 352. (6)

Memo, Dir Pers ASF for MTD ASF, 23 Nov 44.

SPAP 352.
714 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

not common to all Detachment or Unit com- manders.13

The Office of the Director disagreed

with this opinion, believing that, while

subjects such as hygiene, recreation, and

discipline might be identical in title for

both men and women, the practical application differed at least as much as the

course content in Infantry School differed

from that of the Field Artillery or Armored

Force School. Colonel Rice added:

The only two new jobs added to the Army

by the inclusion of the WAC have been those

of WAC detachment officer and WAC Staff

Director. While these carry the same MOS

numbers as similar jobs for men, the actual

duties, and therefore the elements in successful accomplishment, are somewhat different.

. . . The personnel administration of women is

now an Army job and I fail to see how an offi- cers' school for that training is a different

idea from an officers' school for any other

specialized job such as QM School, Signal,

CWS, Ordnance, or any technical and professional job.14

Nevertheless, Director Hobby decided

to ask the opinion of the three major commands concerning the appropriateness of

the school and of its proposed course of

study. This was done, and two of the three

commands proved receptive.15 The Army

Air Forces stated:

... it would be of particular value to secure

by this means a digest of the best practices

which have been developed in the administration of female military personnel over the

past two and a half years, and thus to lay the

foundation for a manual or guide to be used

in the training of future WAC administrators.16

The Army Ground Forces likewise

agreed, saying that the school "will be of

real military advantage in the command

and administration of members of the

WAC."

 17

 AGF suggested that the course

include especial help in guiding women's

recreation and physical training activities,

education, and preparation for demobilization. On the other hand, in the ASF,

Military Training Division alleged that

there were plenty of Army schools already

in existence. General Dalton added that

the development of women leaders was no

proper concern of the War Department:

"After assignment, the efficient administration of a WAC company is one responsibility of command. . . ."

 18

Director Hobby offered the opinion that

no Army school, even The Adjutant General's School, included courses on women's

health, jobs, recreation, and physical,

moral, and social problems. She also

pointed out that she was not asking a

women's school but an Army school, for

the instruction of any Army officer whose

business happened to be that new Army

specialty, the personnel administration of

women.19 Male officers were therefore eligible to attend if interested in this specialty, or if assigned to WAC recruiting

and similar fields.20

G-3 Division and the Chief of Staff both

agreed with this statement, and establishment of the School for WAC Personnel

13

 Memo, MTD ASF for CofS ASF, 23 Oct 44.

SPTRP 352 WAC (10-12-44), in SPAP 352. 14

 Memo, Dep Dir for Dir WAC, 20 Nov 44.

WDWAC 352 WAC Pers Admin. 15

 Memo, Dir WAC for CGs AAF, AGF, 28 Dec 44.

WDWAC 353, in WDWAC 352 (1945-46). 16

 Memo, ACofAS Pers, Hq AAF, for G-1, 4 Jan

45. WDWAC 352. 17

 Memo, Ground AG, Hq AGF, for CofS, Att: G1, 3 Jan 45. 353 GNGAP-W, in WDWAC 352. 18

 (1) Memo, MTD ASF to Dir Pers ASF, 4 Jan 45.

SPTRP 353, in SPAP 352 WAC. (2) Memo, Dir Pers

ASF for G-1, 10 Jan 45. SPAP 352 WAC (1-4-44),

in WDWAC 352. 19

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-3, 20 Jan 45. WDWAC

352.

20

 None did.
1945: THE CLOSING MONTHS OF THE WAR 715

Administration was directed.21 Thus, as

the Corps neared completion of its third

year, there was set a new major principle:

that the leadership of women was a recognized specialty and branch of the science

of personnel administration, and an Army

responsibility. In an important restatement of the Corps' mission, the Director

noted:

The WAC mission as a Corps is to procure, train, and supply personnel to the Army, and

to administer that personnel. When trained

personnel has been supplied to the commands, the mission of that personnel becomes

the mission of the command to which it is

assigned. . . . There is only one small group

that performs a Corps mission. That group— consisting of officers assigned to detachments

and WAC staff work—is charged with the

administration of WAC troops because they

are women. . . .

My concern with this matter is purely my

concern with officers whose duty is the wellbeing and morale of women. All matters

which can be handled by Army mechanics

seem now to be well-understood and wellhandled within the established framework of

the Army.22

School for WAC Personnel Administration

By April of 1945, when the School for

WAC Personnel Administration opened

its doors, the plight of WAC leadership in

the field appeared to be desperate almost

beyond the point of remedying. The most

capable WAC troop commanders were by

their own admission exhausted and embittered. Critiques submitted by members of

the first class of students revealed that

they knew little of the attempts at progress

and improvement in clothing supply,

public opinion, and regulations that had

been taking place in the War Department,

and most stated frankly that they and

their women desired nothing so much as

to get out of the military establishment.23

To counteract an attitude that seemed

about to nullify the Corps' previous accomplishments, Director Hobby called

upon the woman whose initiative had rallied the Corps once before in the days of

recruiting failure, Colonel Rice, the

deputy director. Although herself, in the

opinion of doctors of the Army Medical

Center, now so exhausted and ill that continuance of service was dangerous, Colonel Rice was given the final task of reviving, by exposure to her own leadership,

the courage and idealism of troop officers

and thus of the entire Corps. It was intended to assign Colonel Rice as commandant only long enough for her to

establish the curriculum. It soon became

evident, however, that, in the task of reviving exhausted leaders, the curriculum

was less important than the commandant's personality, which a witness called

. . . the type of leadership based on personal

integrity, selfless devotion to the cause she

serves and the people she leads, and the

vision to see and interpret for others a pro- gram in its broadest and most constructive

aspect which inspires those who follow her.24

Colonel Rice therefore relinquished her

post as deputy and remained with the

school until its closing. In the Director's

Office, she was replaced by Colonel Boyce

21

 (1) Memo, G-3 for G-1, 30 Jan 45, WDGGT

322 (1-20-43). (2) D/F, G-1 for DCofS, 9 Feb 45.

WDGAP 353 WAC, in WDWAC 352. (3) Memo,

G-1 for ASF, 8 Feb 45. WDGAP 353 WAC. 22

 Memo cited n. 11. 23

 Unless otherwise stated, entire section based on

files of Sch for WAC Pers Admin: Critiques, etc.,

filed with Prof of Mil Science and Tactics, ROTC,

Purdue; other student papers shipped to OCMH.

Also, Preliminary Rpt, Sch for WAC Pers Admin to

WDGS, Jun 45, with rosters. WDWAC 352 WAC

Pers Admin. 24

 Memo, Hq AAF for Dir WAC, 23 Oct 45, sub:

Expression of Appreciation. WDWAC 353.
716 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

as deputy, as well as by two other officers,

a major and a captain.

The entire curriculum of the refresher

course was designed by Colonel Rice. Both

G-3 Division and Director Hobby had

agreed that the War Department, not

ASF, must control training doctrine, since

students came from all three major commands and overseas theaters. ASF was

given control of routine supply and administration.25

General Marshall himself vetoed Director Hobby's earlier plans to place the

school on a military post, and insisted that

its mission of restoring energy and perspective to troop administrators could best

succeed in an informal atmosphere. Accordingly, the chosen site was Purdue

University at Lafayette, Indiana, a school

centrally located and one that already

housed a Navy technical school and an

Army ROTC. WAC administrative officers were ordered to this school at the rate

of 90 every three weeks, for a two and a

half weeks' course. In contrast to the custom at WAC training centers, a deliberately democratic and informal atmosphere

was maintained; the commandant directed that the relative rank of students

and faculty be ignored in the interests of

maximum free discussion.

The school, as established at Purdue,

set an example in personnel administration by proving the least expensive per

student per month of all officers' schools

conducted by the Army. Colonel Rice was

assisted by a permanent staff of only four

officers, with an additional rotating staff of

four outstanding WAC administrators attending each class as temporary instructors.26

The most outstanding characteristic of

the school was that no course was given

that could not be given by a top authority

in the field; thus, maxims and precepts

were to a large extent replaced by a firsthand account of the Corps' experience.

Colonel Hobby visited every class until

her retirement, after which Colonel Boyce

came often. The Air WAC Officer visited

every class and addressed AAF students;

the ASF and AGF WAC Officers came

frequently, furnishing latest authoritative

information on policies of those commands.

Lectures on mental health were given

to each class by the WAC's psychiatric

authority, Major Preston of Fort Des

Moines. Medical problems of women were

discussed by Colonel Craighill and Maj.

Margaret Janeway of The Surgeon General's Office. Reliable information on demobilization and women's job opportunities was furnished each class by the WAC

representative in Selective Service headquarters, Maj. Marion Lichty.

Purdue University, noted for its close

working liaison with industry, furnished

experts in personnel administration. Its

psychology department likewise offered

authoritative condensed lectures on the

psychology of the adult female. Favorite

subjects were the technique of the company interview, the psychology of punishment of women, and women's readjustment problems.

Lectures on War Department organization and policies, and on approximately

two hundred War Department regulations

peculiar to the WAC, were given chiefly

by Colonel Rice, who had personally

written most of the regulations under discussion. Prominent lecturers on the other

women's services included Director Doro25

 (1) Memo, Chief, Tng Gp G-3, for Dir WAC, 11

Nov 44; (2) Memo, Dep Dir for Dir WAC, 20 Nov 44.

WDWAC352. 26

 WDBPR Release, 3 Apr 45.
1945: THE CLOSING MONTHS OF THE WAR 717

thy C. Stratton of the SPARS, Director

Ruth Streeter of the Marine Corps Women's Reserve, and representatives of the

WAVES, ATS, and Canadian WAC.27

Also included, both for rehabilitation of

students and for their use in teaching their

units, was instruction by the college faculty

in women's sports, as well as in a posture

clinic, and in the organization of games,

square dancing, and group singing.

The most important visiting experts,

however, were believed by the commandant to be the students themselves, experienced troop officers. Therefore, group

conferences and forums followed each lecture and emphasized the sharing of

practical experiences.

In a conference on Morale, specific devices were discussed—crafts and homemaking classes, cheerful date rooms,

women's sports tournaments, future wardrobe planning. In Public Relations, commanders related ways in which they had

encouraged co-operation with local

churches, newspapers, women's clubs, and

civic groups so as to secure pleasant relations and recreational opportunities for

the women. In Discipline, actual problem

cases and most effective methods were discussed, as well as successful means of preparing courts-and-boards cases concerning

women who injured company morale and

reputation. The conference on helpful administrative devices discussed such matters

as the best means of coping with the

heterogeneity peculiar to WAC companies: how to arrange sleeping quarters

for workers on different shifts, as well as

barracks duties, training and meals. A

dozen conferences of this nature left few

original devices and discoveries unshared

by the group.

Because officers from many different

commands were included, the school offered no "approved solution" to any problem, but merely allowed women to observe

the best solutions that fellow students had

been able to achieve under varying command situations. Visiting psychiatrists

pronounced the conferences "group

therapy" as well as instruction. Commanders who, at isolated stations, had

long borne in silence the responsibility for

their women's lives and behavior now discovered dozens of individuals with identical experiences. Even after classwork,

there was a torrent of extracurricular conversation, which filled every spare minute

and lasted well into the night, and which

Colonel Rice viewed with extreme approval as being more important than the

course of study.

Many commanders were found to have

labored under a weight of guilt and

depression in the belief that certain problems were limited to their own companies,

and were amazed and exhilarated to discover that identical problems had been

met by every other commander and by

Navy and British services. The only complaint was that this release and reassurance had come too late for many. One

student wrote, "If only I could have talked

about these things before my nerves were

shot instead of after!" Others speculated

bitterly on enlisted women whose lives or

moral standards might have been saved

had such shared information been available earlier to enable the commander to

handle their cases more wisely.

Evaluation of Refresher Training

The effectiveness of the School for WAC

Personnel Administration in combating

troop fatigue was commended by most of

27

 For course of study, see files cited n. 23.
718 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

the commands that had sent WAC

students. The AGF's adjutant general

commented to General Marshall:

It has been apparent that all officers who

attended the school received invaluable

training in personnel procedures, designed to

develop and maintain high morale among

the enlisted women in this command. This

has been indicated by the increasing number

of units which have been awarded the Meritorious Service Unit Plaque and by the increased enthusiasm of the Commanding

Officers themselves, which has in turn been

reflected in the attitude and morale of the enlisted women under their immediate jurisdic- tion.28

As a result, AGF sent to the school every

WAC company officer and staff director

under its jurisdiction, except a few newcomers who were too late to participate.

The AAF noted:

Officers who attended the course returned

to their bases not only with sound information . . . but also with a renewed zest for their

own jobs, gained from the opportunity they

had been given to assess the overall progress

which had been made during the past three

years in the program to utilize WAC personnel in the military service.29

The AAF likewise sent every WAC staff

director, every WAC air inspector, all

Wacs who handled WAC business in Air

Forces headquarters, and almost all company officers, to the full extent of their

quota for each class.

ASF sent none of its service command

staff directors except those requested by

name as temporary instructors, very few

of its training center personnel, and only a

scattering of company officers and recruiters.

The WAVES shortly secured authorization to set up an identical school for Wave

troop officers and Women's Reserve representatives in each naval district. Only the

end of the war prevented this program.

The SPARS, without waiting for the proposed Navy school, sent women to the

WAC school. Although Spars met separately when specific Army Regulations

were being discussed, it was found that almost every practical problem was identical for women in the Army and in the

Coast Guard. After a visit to Purdue, Col.

Ruth Streeter also requested permission

to send members of the Marine Corps

Women's Reserve. She said:

If the British ATS, the Canadian WAC,

and the U.S. WAC have all had the same experience, it is only common sense for us to

anticipate a similar situation."

 30

Colonel Streeter's request was disapproved by Marine Corps headquarters.

The Canadian Wacs, however, sent representatives to obtain successful procedures

for use in their own advanced school for

leaders of female troops.31

With the defeat of Japan and beginning

of rapid demobilization, Colonel Rice

recommended that the school be closed.

In spite of the officers' initial fatigue and

disillusionment, Colonel Rice considered

their reaction excellent, and wrote, "Based

on what we have seen and heard here, I

think we have a right to be very proud of

the WAC officers, the jobs they are doing,

and the attitude they have toward their

jobs."

 32

 The course had come too late for

28

 Ltr, Hq AGF to CofS, 24 Oct 45. 362 (WAC)

GNGAP-W, in WDWAC 353. 29

 Ltr, Dep ACofAS-1, Hq AAF, to Dir WAC, 23

Oct 45, sub: Expression of Appreciation. WDWAC

353.

30

 Ltr, Col Streeter to Col Hobby 25 May 45.

WDWAC 352 (1-20-45). 31

 (1) Memo, Asst Exec WAC for Dir WAC, 6 Jun

45. WDWAC 319.1 Johnson. (2) Memo, Dep Dir

WAC for Dir WAC, 19 Jun 45. WDWAC 352 (1-

20-45) 32

 Ltr, Col Rice to Maj Johnson, 15 May 45.

WDWAC 352.
1945: THE CLOSING MONTHS OF THE WAR 719

its results to be reflected in more than a

few months of administration; but not too

late to aid in demobilization and readjustment, and to send women administrators

and their troops home with some feeling of

increased understanding and good will

toward the Army.

Colonel Rice, at the instigation of the

Air and Ground Forces,33 was awarded

the Legion of Merit for this and earlier

assignments:

... As Chief of the Recruiting Division of her

Corps . . . she developed and supervised the

All-States Recruitment Plan in a manner

which swelled enlistments during a critical

period . . . she was successively Assistant Director, Executive Officer in the Office of the

Director, and Deputy Director, Women's

Army Corps, positions in which she applied

her ingenuity, forcefulness, and rare ability

to the solution of weighty problems affecting

the military service of women. She initiated,

developed, co-ordinated, supervised, and

recommended many important changes

which accomplished the thorough integration of the Women's Army Corps into the

Army. Her suggestions brought about many

plans for the welfare, health, and increased

morale of the Corps. As Commandant of the

Women's Army Corps School for Personnel

Administration at Purdue University, she devised, co-ordinated, and executed a program

for training officers in personnel management. In all these varied assignments, Colonel Rice, by her indefatigable energy, organizing ability, and steadfast devotion to duty

helped to guide the Women's Army Corps

through a difficult period of growth and contributed in a marked manner to the effective

utilization of women in the Army of the

United States.34

Director Hobby said later:

It is impossible to say too much about what

the school accomplished. I really think it

held the Corps together during the last hard

days.35

Director Hobby's Resignation

Two months after launching the School

for WAC Personnel Administration, a

month after the victory in Europe, Director Hobby made a long-postponed decision to leave the Corps. For the past

months the increasingly precarious state of

her health had been common knowledge

within a limited circle of the General

Staff. In 1944 she had been hospitalized

several times at Walter Reed General

Hospital in Washington, for anemia, exhaustion, and a throat ailment which prevented speaking. Eventually Army doctors

ordered her for six weeks to Brooke General Hospital in San Antonio and thence

to an address known only to her family,

with orders that not even policy matters

could be communicated to her.

At this time she had attempted to resign

in favor of her deputy, Colonel Rice, who

carried the weight of Corps' policy during

this time with the aid of the one remaining

staff officer, Captain Chance, and the

civilian adviser, Mrs. Gruber. Colonel

Rice had dissuaded her from this step in

view of the probable effect of such action

on a Corps which was already becoming

demobilization-conscious. The hope of a

partial recovery proved justified, and in

the fall of 1944 the Director was able to

return to a limited amount of activity, although from time to time ordered back to

the hospital for additional treatment. At

this time she informed an inquirer, "I expect now to be able to 'finish out the war.'

I hope that it will not be too long."

 36

During 1944 the entire staff was hospitalized for various causes; in particular

33

 See ns. 24 and 28. 34

 WDBPR Release, 30 Nov 45. 35

 Interv, 23 Aug 48.

36

 Ltr, Dir WAC to Gen White, 2 Oct 44, WDWAC

320.2. Also: (1) Intervs with participants. (2) Ltr,

Maj Chance, Exec WAC, to Maj Gen Philip Hayes,

CG 3d SvC, 10 Oct 44. WDWAC 335.2.
720 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Colonel Rice, who spent a month in the

hospital for a major operation but was

obliged by the Director's equally poor

health to return to work while still undergoing X-ray treatment. Her inability to

visit the field during this year was a constant source of distress to the Director.

Files were by now filled with urgent requests from various agencies: training

centers asked her to attend graduation

ceremonies, and the enlisted women themselves were pathetically eager for a

glimpse of her. Not realizing that one day

at each of the more than 500 WAC units

would have taken more than a year, field

commands hopefully invited her to visit

all their detachments.37 Companies that

she did manage to see wrote, "Since your

visit, the morale of our girls has been improved one hundred percent."

 38

In October of 1944, an attempt to send

Colonel Rice to the Pacific had to be canceled, on the very eve of departure, because of the Director's renewed illness. In

December of 1944, the Director requested

the War Department Manpower Board to

allot her another officer, and informed

overseas staff directors that "if they approve the request, I have made a plan to

spend a great deal of time at field installations and to send Colonel Rice out when

I am in the field."

 39

 This hope proved

vain; by the time another captain was allotted, her full-time work on demobilization planning was required, and the later

allotment of a major came after Colonel

Rice's reassignment, too late to make the

plan practicable.

In connection with her retirement, there

was also in the Director's mind a consideration that she admitted later: a comparison with the British women's experience, in which the head of one of the

largest services had retired, as soon as its

problems were worked out, in favor of a

successor who had been less active in early

months. Her quite similar career had included successful crusades for equal status,

full military rights, redesign of the uniform, elimination of the "snob element"

and choice of officer candidates from the

ranks, and other identical policy problems.

"It was my feeling," Mrs. Hobby noted

later, "that any woman who brought a

Corps through its early difficulties had to

fight so many battles and antagonize so

many individuals that she must eventually

destroy her usefulness to the Corps."

 40

Nevertheless, as late as the end of May

1945, two weeks after V-E Day, Colonel

Hobby was still hopeful of being able to

continue. At this time she told a reporter,

"Until everybody can get out of the

Army—I won't. . . . No matter what

you've heard, I'm staying in until the

Pacific war is over."

 41

In late June, the serious illness of the

Director's husband required her immediate presence. Her own further hospitalization was imminent. At this time, General

Marshall informed her that the situation

in the Pacific area required a visit from

the Director. All other Corps business appeared settled; even the demobilization

policy was now approved. Colonel Hobby

therefore reluctantly directed her office to

draft a statement that would explain her

action. The draft, intended for public release, made clear that she had meant, in

1941, to remain away from her husband

and children only for a few months while

37

 Invitations cited, with many others, in WDWAC

335.2 (1944); also WDWAC 333.1 (1945-46). 38

 Ltr, CO WAC Sq, Chatham Field, Ga., to Dir

WAC, 21 Jun 44. WDWAC 062.2. 39

 Ltr, Dir WAC to Overseas Stf Dirs, 1 Dec 44.

WDWAC 320.2. 40

 Interv, 23 Aug 48. 41

 St. Louis Post-Dispatch, May 28, 1945.
1945: THE CLOSING MONTHS OF THE WAR 721

organizing the Woman's Interest Section

of the Bureau of Public Relations. This

had taken longer than expected, and she

was then "asked to stay a little longer and

help organize the new Women's Army

Corps. This organizing job lasted three

years. Problems came up ... at no time

did she feel she could leave."

 42

 With this

draft, the Director sent to General

Marshall a note, with a barely legible signature, to the effect that "due to circumstances which have recently arisen it is

necessary for the undersigned to be placed

on terminal leave status."

 43

Recommendations for Promotion

During these last few days of the Director's tenure, there was again raised an

issue that had recurred periodically:

whether legislation should be requested to

authorize her promotion to general officer

rank. Among Congressional supporters of

this measure one stated:

In no other branch of the service does an

officer holding the rank of colonel command

so many troops. Under the Tables of Organization of the Army, a brigadier general is

supposed to command a triangle division

consisting of 10,000 troops. In the Wacs, a

colonel commands ten times this number.

This is not fair to the head ... it is not fair

to its officers . . . Colonel Oveta Hobby is

entitled to the rank of major general.44

There was also within the War Department some feeling that, even as staff adviser, the Director's rank should be more

nearly comparable to that of the British

women's equivalent, or major general. A

staff study to this effect was therefore

initiated at the last moment, proposing

that the necessary legislation should be

sought. This encountered delay in the

Army Service Forces, and came up only

much later, after demobilization was well

under way, at which time it was deemed

inappropriate to promote her successor,

the head of a small peacetime Corps, to a

rank that had not been awarded to the full

Corps in wartime.45

In any case, it was the general opinion

that a Congressional majority for such

legislation would not have been forthcoming. Some six months before, the Director

had received the Army's highest noncombat award, the Distinguished Service

Medal. On this occasion General White

had noted, "Since our friends on the hill

won't let us pin stars on you, this is the

next best thing."

 46

 The award of the DSM

was regarded as some measure of substitute recognition, as much to the Corps as

to the Director. Its citation stated, in part:

Without the guidance of precedents in

United States military history to assist her,

Colonel Hobby established sound initial

policies, planned and supervised the selection

of officers and the preparation of regulations.

The soundness of basic plans and policies

promulgated is evidenced by the outstanding

success of the Women's Army Corps, composed of nearly 100,000 women and comprising an essential and integral part of the

Army.47

Choice of Successor

With her resignation, the Director submitted to the Chief of Staff, for consideration in choosing her successor, the names

42

 Draft, no date, sub: The Mission That Grew.

WD WAC 314.7 (1945-46). 43

 D/F, Dir WAC for CofS, 26 Jun 45. WD G-1

WAC 210.31-.482. 44

 Congressional Record, 11 Jul 45, Mr. Overton

Brooks of Louisiana, pp. 7416-17. 45

 Interv with Mrs. Hobby. 46

 Ltr, Gen White to Col Hobby, 3 Jan 45.

"MTO," Hobby files. 47

 WDBPR Press Release, 12 Jul 45 (has copy of

citation).
722 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

of five WAC lieutenant colonels listed in

the order of her preference.48 It was

natural that members of the Corps staff

should expect the new head to be the

former deputy who for twenty months had

been Colonel Hobby's chief assistant and

at times Acting Director, Lt. Col. Jessie P.

Rice. However, it may have appeared unwise to ask Colonel Rice, in view of her

poor health, to leave her job as head of the

School for WAC Personnel Administration and assume a new and more formidable post. Another consideration may have

been the fact that Colonel Rice had not

found herself in harmony with the views of

the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, Maj.

Gen. Stephen G. Henry, the Director's immediate superior. A particular disagreement, occurring some months before, had

centered around language which Colonel

Rice reported that General Henry applied

to Negro Wacs in her presence. In protest,

Colonel Rice had submitted her resignation and Colonel Hobby had supported

her deputy by proffering her own resignation. Later, both resignations were withdrawn at the request of General Henry,

who apologized for his language.49

In any event, Colonel Hobby's first

listed choice for her successor was Deputy

Director Lt. Col. Westray Battle Boyce.

Earlier she had served as a staff officer in

General Henry's Personnel Policy Branch,

where she had handled numerous projects,

including the allotment of grades for WAC

general hospital companies. She had been

the first staff director of the North African

theater, and, before that, staff director of

the Fourth Service Command. General

Henry, in approving Colonel Hobby's

nomination of Colonel Boyce as Director,

stated that "she will make a better director

in the eyes of the public, a better 'front' for

the Corps," that she had shown her capacity to win the support of influential organizations of women, and also that she was

"more the feminine type than any other

candidate." General Marshall, about to

leave for Potsdam, approved the choice,

after obtaining the concurrence of Secretary Stimson, who was already on shipboard.50

Colonel Hobby elected immediate resignation instead of a medical discharge,

since this enabled her successor to be promoted on the same day to the rank of colonel and the full status of Director, without

waiting upon lengthy board proceedings.

On 12 July 1945, the closely guarded secret was revealed, and in the presence of

the Acting Secretary of War, Colonel

Boyce took office as the second Director

WAC. Acting Secretary of War Robert P.

Patterson praised the first Director's work

and informed a press conference, "She

had to fight many obstacles in promoting

a program that was unique in the history

of the Army, but she did it with great distinction." Mrs. Hobby thanked the War

Department for "The great assistance

always at hand," and the press for their

"constructive interpretation." She added:

I have been a member of the greatest

democratic fraternity in the world. I shall

always be grateful for my service in the Army

48

 Memo, Dir WAC for CofS, 26 Jun 45, sub: Recommendations. WD G-1 WAC 210.31-.482. 49

 The account of this incident is based on the

author's recollections. The clash with General Henry

was reported to a few WAC staff officers, including

the author, as well as to Colonel Hobby. According to

Colonel Rice, she had walked out in silence after General Henry's remarks, but had immediately returned

to offer her uncensored opinion and resignation saying, "Sir, your staff officer just went out and a citizen

of the United States walked in." 50

 (1) Memo, ACofS G-1 for CofS, 8 Jul 45, sub:

New Director, WAC, with handwritten notes by CofS

and SGS. WDGAP 210.31 WAC (6-21-45). (2) CMIN-10024, Stimson to AGWAR (for Marshall), 11 Jul

45.
1945: THE CLOSING MONTHS OF THE WAR 723

of the United States. . . . After three years,

the Women's Army Corps has reached its authorized strength. These women are serving

in more than two hundred and fifty Army

jobs. They are performing their tasks in every

theater in the world. The Women's Army

Corps is no longer an experiment. Through

the measure of its performance, it is accepted

by the Army and by the public as an integral

part of the team. So, I feel that my mission of organizing the

Corps has been completed. In resigning as

Director of the WAC, I would like to say that

I have had no comparable experience. . . .

Reporters were, as always, unwilling to

let the subject drop so easily, and there followed a question-and-answer exchange

not unlike that which had inaugurated the

Director's term of service:

Press: What will be the most vivid impression you take away?

Mrs. Hobby: You cannot shed a four-year

experience with people in the War Department, and with the great number of women

that I have served with, without taking back

the knowledge that you are a much richer

woman.

Press: Would you like to see the WAC made

a permanent part of the Army?

Mrs. Hobby: That is, as you know, a Congressional decision, and I wouldn't comment

on it.

Press: Have you bought any new civilian

hats?

Mrs. Hobby: Do you mind if I don't end this

conference on a note of levity?

 51

The violence of the women's reaction to

Mrs. Hobby's departure, although expected by the Office of the Director, was

surprising to those who had not understood to what extent the small all-volunteer Women's Army Corps had been knit

together and sustained in its pioneering by

purely emotional motives—idealism, patriotism, and fierce loyalties to fellow

members and to its leaders. Now the

women's expected reaction was unfortunately intensified by the manner of the

press's relating of the event. The vital

phrase in the prepared release, "that her

mission of organizing the Corps had been

completed," was omitted by the Associated Press, which reported, "Colonel

Hobby said her mission was completed

and that she is returning to her family."

 52

The United Press retained the phrase "of

organizing," but most newspapers did not

print the long explanatory material.

As a result, many Wacs felt that if the

Director's mission was ended, so was

theirs. From as far away as New Guinea

there came the disillusioned protest, "Fine

thing—she helped us get into this mess,

then she turns around and resigns and

here we sit. Nice war, isn't it?" Others

said, "If she can go, why can't we?" Because of the Director's desire not to reveal

the personal matters that made her eligible for discharge on three different counts

under Army Regulations, including the

Adjusted Service Rating score, women

said, erroneously but indignantly, "Men

Army officers can't resign." As expected,

parents also wrote to attack Colonel

Hobby for resigning when their daughters

were unable to do so.53

The total effect on the Corps soon became quite serious. Colonel Rice responded to a plea for help from the new

Director's staff with a speech to troop

commanders at the Purdue school in

which, mincing few words, she denned a

soldier's proper attitude in such crises, and

defended the choice of Colonel Boyce, who

was not well known to the Corps. The

51

 All from Transcript, Press Conf of Col Hobby

with Actg SW Robert P. Patterson and Lt Col

Westray B. Boyce, 12 Jul 45. WD G-1 WAC 210.31-

482.

52

 AP; see Chicago World Herald, July 13, 1945. 53

 Ltrs in WDWAC 095 (1945-46) esp Ltr, Exec

WAC to Mrs. D. F. Pattison, 22 Sep 45.
724 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

student response was good and Colonel

Rice predicted that the Corps' reaction,

though extreme, was a purely personal

one, and being such, would pass of itself

as soon as the shock wore off. In this she

proved correct, and within a few weeks the

normal routine of WAC life had been resumed. The women's reaction had, however, obliged Mrs. Hobby to make public

the state of her health, which she had desired not to mention, and to allow release

of the fact that she had been admitted immediately to Doctors' Hospital in New

York.54

Final Recommendations

The War Department soon discovered

that even in departure Colonel Hobby

had seized the opportunity for a posthumous effort in favor of certain favorite

recommendations. In her final report, she

brought to the attention of the Chief of

Staff the only five major policy matters on

which she had been repeatedly defeated,

and which she considered important omissions from the perfection of the final WAC

program.55 Although General Henry held

the paper for two months before presenting it to General Marshall, there appeared

to have been a good chance that the former Director would have scored final victory on all five counts had not the atomic

bomb brought the war to a close.

The most serious of these proposals was

that the War Department establish a

policy, comparable to the Navy's, to permit enlisted women to associate socially

with male officers. This proposal Colonel

Hobby had already presented seven times

in the past two years. General Henry

again disagreed, saying, "The traditional

relationship between officers and enlisted

personnel is a strongly entrenched custom

of the service, and any exception which is

made for Wacs will be a step in the direction of its complete elimination." This proposal now at last reached General Marshall himself, who noted, "I am inclined

to agree with Colonel Hobby. The situation between the sexes is very different

from that in the male Army."

 56

 However,

General Marshall's deputies urged him to

reconsider this decision, and finally, in

view of the unsettled postwar conditions,

and the prospective demobilization of the

Corps, General Marshall decided to make

no change in policy for the present.57

The other four proposals, made while

the war seemed of indefinite duration, returned to the problem of fatigue. The report noted that barracks which were

adequate for shorter occupancy by women

could produce excessive fatigue over a

period of years, and asked that "the housing regulation be amended to provide

some privacy" in the latter case. Although

the idea was approved in substance, with

the end of the war no new housing was authorized.

In a third proposal, the Director again

attempted to get a rotation policy after

two years of service. This also was approved to the extent of a nonmandatory

letter of advice to each major command,

54

 Announced by press (AP), 19 July 1945. 55

 Memo, Dir WAC for CofS through G-1, 11 Jul

45. WD WAC 319.1. Forwarded by Summary Sheet,

Gen Henry, G-1, for CofS, sub: Final Rpt on WAC

by Col Oveta Culp Hobby, Retiring Dir, 10 Sep 45.

WDGAP 319.1 WAC (7-11-45). Co-ordination of

G-3, 21 Sep 45, and G-4, 27 Sep 45. Approved by

Brig Gen Henry I. Hodes, Asst DCofS, 30 Sep 45. 56

 Ibid., Atchd Note, CofS for Gen Hodes, 1 Oct 44. 57

 Ibid., Atchd Notes. Brig Gen Robert W. Berry,

Dep G-1, prepared a memo for General Handy

(DCofS). General Handy did not sign this but talked

to the Chief of Staff, 15 October, according to an attached note from General Hodes, (Asst DCofS), 15

October 1945. Copies of document were forwarded to

author by Deputy Director WAC. WAC files, OCMH.
1945: THE CLOSING MONTHS OF THE WAR 725

although only the Air and Ground Forces

accepted the advice, and the beginning of

demobilization effectually prevented such

rotation in any case.

A fourth proposal was also approved:

that WAC officers in the older age bracket

be eligible for discharge as men were, a

provision that had been omitted from the

directive on the discharge eligibility of officers.

The last proposal, that noncommissioned officers' schools be set up in the

major commands, similar in purpose to

the officers' school at Purdue, became unnecessary with quick demobilization at

hand.

In addition to her formal report, Mrs.

Hobby also wrote personally to General

Marshall:

Serving under your leadership was one of

the great experiences of my life. I shall ever be

grateful to you for the opportunity and the

never failing assistance.

Upon his return from Potsdam, General

Marshall thanked the former Director for

her service, and wrote:

Your firm leadership and unselfish purpose were a tremendous factor in the out- standing success of the organization. You

made a great sacrifice in the effort which I

hope will not prove costly to your future

health.58

Upon her resignation in mid-July, 1945,

Colonel Hobby had come nearer to seeing

the wartime WAC to its end than she realized. She later remarked that, had she

known how suddenly Japan would be defeated, she would have endeavored to remain for a short time thereafter. A few

weeks after her departure, the first atomic

bomb fell, and in the next month demobilization was on.

58

 Ltr, Oveta Culp Hobby for CofS, 10 Sep 45, and

reply, 18 Sep 45, both in personal file of CofS. Made

available to author, December 1945, by courtesy of

his secretary.
CHAPTER XXXVI

Demobilization

Before her departure, Director Hobby

had secured approval of a demobilization

policy that would permit Wacs to be separated from the service in a fair and

orderly sequence, a movement already

begun in a small way with V-E Day. The

process was, inevitably, to remain orderly

for scarcely as long as was required for

Japan to capitulate or the nation to succumb to a panic for quick demobilization.

Two years before, while the Auxiliary

was still struggling to establish itself, it had

been confronted by the War Department's

Special Planning Division with the incongruous necessity of planning for demobilization. Three vital decisions were

required: whether the WAC should get

out faster, slower, or at the same rate as

the men; which women should get out

first; and the manner in which they could

best be processed through separation

facilities.1

Director Hobby's unvarying conviction,

then and later, was that the WAC should

be disbanded as soon as possible after the

war was over. She replied to the Special

Planning Division that the WAC was so

small that even its complete and sudden

postwar demise would upset neither Army

demobilization nor the civilian economy;

that Waacs legally had no re-employment

rights even if they had joined the WAC;

that without these rights, jobs for women

would be scarce in peacetime and therefore an early start in searching for them

was advisable; and that the nation would

wish its homes re-established as soon as

possible. Unlike the Army, the WAC,

under existing legislation, had no peacetime component toward which to build,

nor even an inactive reserve. She therefore

recommended a quick demobilization, in

the order of length of service, with priority

for former Waacs, veterans' wives, women

with dependents, and women with guaranteed civilian jobs. The last to go, in her

opinion, should be volunteers who elected

to remain for a time.

These ideas were rejected in their entirety by Special Planning Division, which

stated that "military necessity"— the essentiality of the job—could be the only

governing factor, and that the length of a

woman's service could not be considered.

This view caused some concern to Director Hobby, since women were chiefly

located in overhead jobs, where it might

be deemed a military necessity to keep

every Wac clerk until the last man was

discharged. She asked also what community agency could be expected to assist

WAC veterans as the Selective Service

1

 Entire planning project, except as cited in later

notes, from: (1) WDWAC 370.01, containing: Memo,

SPD WD for Dir WAC, 31 Jul 43; two Memos, Stf

for Dir WAC, one 25 Aug 43, one undated; M/R,

Miss Lies for Dir WAC, 28 Dec 43. (2) Folder, Plng

Proj 26, WAAC Plng Serv files, including: M/R, 13

Jul 43; Memo, Miss Lies for Dir WAC, 24 Mar 44,

with incl Memo, Dir WAC for SPD WD, 6 Sep 43,

reply from SPD, 1 Oct 43, and from Dir WAC, 21

Jan 44.
DEMOBILIZATION 727

boards would assist returning draftees. As

a result, the Office of the Director formulated the policy to which it held while

Director Hobby was in office: "It is not

intended to suggest any preferred treatment for WAC personnel . . . however, it

is believed that a percentage of discharge

should be established for the WAC, and

that this percentage should be the same as

that which the total number of Army

separations bears to the Army."

 2

Special Planning Division refused to

take any action to authorize such a percentage. Accordingly, General Somervell,

the Director's superior at the time, recommended that no plans be made for WAC

demobilization until the War Department

had decided whether to keep a Regular

Army WAC—a decision that actually was

not to be made until three years after the

victory over Japan. In this he was eventually overruled by General Marshall, to

whom the Director carried the issue at the

time of her transfer to G-1. General Marshall directed that the WAC be immediately included in the Army's demobilization planning. General Somervell and the

Director were in agreement on one point:

that there should be quick postwar demobilization. General Somervell noted, "It

is believed that all women who wish to

leave the service after the defeat of Germany should be permitted to do so as fast

as they can be replaced by men with the

proper qualifications."

 3

In spite of the Chief of Staffs directive,

as late as April of 1945 the War Department's readjustment plan still made no

definite provision for female personnel, although the Adjusted Service Rating System had been developed for men, which

gave particular weight to combat service

and number of children. Director Hobby

therefore submitted to G-1 Division a request that the WAC's strength, like the

Army's, be reduced by one sixth after the

victory in Europe.4

While most G-1 planners were favorable to equal percentages, a particular

difficulty developed. G-1 Division noted

that, since the WAC had virtually ceased

recruiting while the Army was still drafting men, it would be more economical to

discharge only men on point scores, and

let normal attrition take care of reduction

in the WAC. Director Hobby opposed this

view, because she felt that it was not the

enlisted women's fault that recruiting had

ceased. On the matter of giving priority to

women married to veterans, which the

Special Planning Division favored, Director Hobby did not object, provided the

purpose was to aid veterans' readjustment.

She believed, however, that such priority

should not affect the percentage of women

to be discharged on their own merit.5

As a result of Colonel Hobby's request,

a point score of 44 was set for the WAC,

which permitted it, like the Army, to be

reduced on merit after V-E Day. The discharge of married women did not prevent

the departure of those with 44 points, nor

did normal attrition. Director Hobby also

received from G-3 Division the informal

commitment that, while the remainder of

the WAC, like the Army, must be kept

until Japan surrendered, the Corps would

then be quickly demobilized.6

2

 Memo, Jessie P. Rice, Dep Dir WAC, for SPD, 21

Jan 44. WD WAC 370.01. 3

 Memo, CG ASF for CofS, 29 Mar 44. SPAP 324.5

(3-29-44), ASF. For Gen Marshall's action, see Ch.

XV, above. 4

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 28 Apr 45. WD WAC

320.2. 5

 See n. 1; also Memo, Capt Margaret Stone, WAC,

for Dir WAC, 12 Apr 45. WDWAC 370.01. 6

 Memo, Capt Stone for Dep Dir WAC, 12 Jun 45.

WDWAC 370.01.
728 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Before her departure, Director Hobby

also secured the assignment of a WAC officer, Major Lichty, to the Veterans Placement Division, Office of the Director of

Selective Service, to aid in applying the

re-employment program to WAC veterans

insofar as legally possible. A Wave and a

woman Marine officer were also assigned.7

Only one provision of the final plan was

not wholly satisfactory to Director Hobby.

This was the requirement that the WAC

use the Army system of computing point

scores for discharge eligibility; G-1 Division considered it uneconomical and confusing to print and distribute separate

cards and separate instructions for women.

Of the four factors that determined a final

score, only one really fit the WAC—

"length of service." Of the others, "number of children" was manifestly inapplicable, since women with children had not

been allowed to enlist after the first month

of recruiting. Most "combat decorations"

were also inapplicable, since women had

not been admitted to combat, although

they received Bronze Stars and lesser

awards. "Overseas service" applied, but in

the wrong way, since overseas service for

Wacs had been generally considered a privilege, and those without it were often more

in need of discharge than those with it.

No inequity was caused by the fact that

men's scores computed under this system

necessarily ran higher than women's, since

the WAC was guaranteed an equal percentage of reduction. The inequity occurred among members of the WAC,

where those with overseas service outscored those who had enlisted long before

them. Nevertheless, this difficulty was not

at the time deemed prohibitive, as less

than one fifth of the Wacs had been overseas. In a quick demobilization, numbers

of those at home would go out almost as

fast as women abroad could be returned

for separation.

With the understanding that Wacs

would get equal discharge percentages on

length of service, and after seeing some

2,500 women demobilized under the system, Colonel Hobby resigned.8

 Less than

a month later, the sudden defeat of Japan

disrupted both Army and WAC plans for

demobilization; the armed forces found

themselves powerless to stem the tide of

public demand for more immediate and

drastic action than had earlier been

deemed wise.

Action Following V-J Day

In the ensuing scramble, the WAC was

overlooked in War Department press releases. Public announcements were made

about the future demobilization of Army

men, and the Navy issued announcements

about its men and about the WAVES,

SPARS, and Women Marines, but nothing

was said about the WAC's plans.9 The

WAC discharge score was left at 44, where

it had been since May, a score that allowed no Wacs in the United States to be

separated on length of service. Women

who had no children and no overseas service could not have accumulated more

than 36 points even had they enlisted on

the day the WAAC began.

The new Director, Colonel Boyce,

undertook a tour of training centers and

service commands to check on the situation. She was immediately struck by the

overwhelming sentiment of Wacs in the

field in favor of quick demobilization,

7

 1st Ind (to unidentified Ltr), TAG to Dir SS, 23

Nov 44. AG PO-M-A 320.21 (11-13-44), in

WD WAC 353. 8

 M/R, 5 Jul 45, sub: WAC. WDWAC 220.8. 9

 Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Henry, 27 Aug 45.

WDWAC 370.01.
DEMOBILIZATION 729

especially of women with long monotonous service in the zone of the interior. She

reported: "There is a growing feeling

among WAC personnel with long Zone of

the Interior service on isolated posts that

they are being discriminated against" by

discharge of overseas Wacs with shorter

service. Colonel Boyce therefore recommended "an early press release in order

that the questions in the minds of the

Wacs, the public, and Congress may be

answered." She expressed herself in favor

of beginning WAC demobilization in the

zone of the interior by dropping the point

score from 44 to 30, thus allowing demobilization of women who had enlisted in

the Auxiliary's first six months, even if

they had had no overseas service.10

Colonel Boyce's recommendations were

not favorably considered by the War Department. On the day following her

request, General Henry spoke before the

Military Affairs Committee of the House

of Representatives, giving only the plan

for demobilization of men.11 Colonel

Boyce at once protested:

. . . the inadvertent omission of any reference

to the lowering of the point score [for women]

is particularly unfortunate in view of.. . my

memorandum. It is hoped that an immediate

decision will be reached. When the necessary

policy decisions are made, this office will prepare a separate War Department release on

the future of the WAC, to try to offset the

detrimental effect of past silence.12

A week later the War Department decided on a drop in the point score. It

proved to be a disappointment, since the

drop was from 44 to only 41 for enlisted

Wacs, instead of to 30. WAC officers'

scores were set at 44. This score still prevented the discharge of Wacs in the

United States, some 85 percent of the

Corps. Since overseas theaters, with most

of the discharge eligibles, were extremely

slow about returning Wacs, the result was

that almost no women moved toward separation centers.13

With this announcement, the Director's

Office was all but submerged in a wave of

bitter letters from Wacs in the field. Even

before she received these protests, Colonel

Boyce in September drafted a memorandum pointing out that, when the men's

score dropped to 80 points, the WAC score

should drop to 33, if the percentage of

Wacs allowed to go home was to equal the

percentage of men leaving. This memorandum was not sent. In the meantime

the War Department had directed that on

1 October the men's score was to fall further, to 60 points, but the Wacs' only to

36, and that in November, when the enlisted men's score fell to 55, the Wacs'

would fall only to 34.

Thus, six months after V-E Day, the

principle of equal discharge percentages

on point scores was abrogated, and no

Wacs in the United States, except the

handful of enlisted women who had enrolled during the Auxiliary's first two

months, were yet eligible for discharge on

the basis of points.14

Slowing of WAC Demobilization

What had actually been repudiated

was the plan that the percentages of Wacs

10

 Ibid.

11

 Gen Henry's mimeographed statement, 28 Aug

45. WDWAC 370.01. 12

 Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Henry. WDWAC

370.01. 13

 (1) WDBPR Press Releases, 3, 6 Sep 45. (2) Cbl,

G-1 overseas commands, 6 Sep 45, by WDGAP 220.8

to TAG. WDWAC 370.01. 14

 (1) Draft (not used) of Memo, Dir WAC for Gen

Henry, (Sep 45). WDWAC 370.01. (2) WD Policies

on Discharge, par II, 6. (3) WDBPR Press Release, 20

Sep 45.
730 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

to be discharged on length of service

should not be affected by the numbers discharged because they were veterans' wives

or for any other reason. Even before Colonel Hobby left, G-1 Division's Statistical

Branch had objected to this system,

saying:

In order that the relative importance and

prestige of the WAC be maintained throughout the entire demobilization period, it seems

necessary that the present WAC percentage of the total Army strength be maintained.

. . . Although the WAC is under moral obligation to release women who have performed

long and arduous service, yet ... it seems

necessary to sacrifice a few for the good of the

many.15

Attrition losses were by this time considerable. First, several thousand veterans'

wives had been discharged. Next, the

Army let men and women over 38 years

old leave if they wished, and some 7,000

more women were made eligible for discharge. No sooner were these gone than

the outcry of nonveteran husbands forced

the release of all married women. Their

discharge was authorized regardless of

length of service, at the same time that

men with three or more children became

eligible for discharge regardless of length

of service. The WAC took this step reluctantly, and only at the insistence of G-1

Division, and after the Nurse Corps,

WAVES, SPARS, and Marines had already taken it, since this made 13,000

more women eligible. In order to maintain

Corps strength after recruiting had ceased,

these women had been substituted on the

monthly demobilization quota for those

who would ordinarily have been made

eligible by a lowering of point scores comparable to that of the men's scores.16

Even more significant for the future was

the refusal of the General Staff to approve

public announcement of the final demobilization date of the WAC, still tentatively set as June 1946. At the same time,

the Navy Department was also considering holding the WAVES beyond the

originally scheduled June date, over the

protest of the WAVES leaders.17 This

delay, in all the armed forces, was generally related to the discovery that the need

for the skills common among female personnel had been underestimated, to an

extent that raised doubts as to whether enlisted women could be allowed to leave at

the same rate as enlisted men. Overseas

theaters in particular had resolutely refused to face the fact that the WAC could

never be entirely demobilized, as required

by law, until male replacements were accepted for discharged Wacs. In justification for its action in retaining dischargeeligibles, the European theater pointed

out that, when it had returned a few

women for discharge, these had not been

separated as men were, but had been

pulled out by Army Service Forces' separation centers to process men for discharge, on the grounds of "military

necessity."

 18

The Army Service Forces informed the

War Department that, in order to main15

 Memo, Maj A. J. Bonis, G-1 Stat Br, for Dir

WAC, 28 Apr 45. WDWAC 370.01. 16

 (1) Memo, Maj Bonis for Dir WAC, 5 Sep 45.

WDWAC 370.01. (2) Memo, Dep Dir WAC for Col

Boyce, 14 Nov 45. WDWAC 319.1. (3) Memo, Exec

WAC for Col Boyce, 27 Nov 45. WDWAC 220.8. (4)

Memo, Maj Bonis for Col Boyce, 10 Sep 45, atchd to

Memo, G-1 for MPD ASF, 6 Sep 45. WDWAC 354.1. 17

 Memo, Dep Dir WAC for Dir WAC, 23 Jan 46,

sub: Rpt of Mtg of Dirs of Women's Servs, 22 Jan 46.

WDWAC 337. 18

 (1) Memo, "KKJ," WAC Exec, for Dir WAC, 13

May 45, sub: Rpt for Week 7-13 May 45. WDWAC

319.1. (2) Ltr, WAC Stf Dir ETO for Dir WAC, 6 Aug

45, and Reply, 13 Aug 45. WDWAC 320.2. (3) 1945

Budget Hearing material. Hobby files. See also Chs.

XX and XXI, above.
DEMOBILIZATION 731

tain separation centers, 5,000 Wacs should

be transferred from the Air and Ground

Forces. Both Air and Ground Forces offered objections. AGF was hard-pressed to

find enough Wacs to replace high-point

men in its commanding general's office in

Washington and at the Army War College. It was in fact preparing to request the

War Department to remove Wacs from

other commands in order to fill its needs.

For this reason, the War Department was

able to allot ASF only 2,600 of the requested 5,000 and was obliged to direct

the AAF to furnish all of them.19

Over the issue of demobilization, WAC

leaders split into two opposing camps—

those who believed that WAC demobilization should be effected in accordance with

original commitments to former Director

Hobby, and those who favored keeping as

many women as possible as long as possible, in the hope that Congress would

authorize some type of peacetime group.

By what appeared more than coincidence,

the majority of Wacs who supported a permanent Corps, or desired to remain in

one, were those whose service had been

chiefly overseas. The nonsupporters included the WAC advisers in almost all air,

ground, and service commands in the

United States, the most eager to depart

being those whose service had been entirely in the War Department.

These officers' desire for a speedy demobilization was based on various factors.

There was at the time no prospect of a

Regular Army corps, and it seemed futile

to keep a handful of women on an ambiguous status. In addition, a recent Information and Education Division survey

showed that only 2 percent of the enlisted

women were actively interested in remaining, and that these constituted the Corps'

bottom 2 percent from the point of view of

education, maturity, and ability.20 Just

before WAC recruiting ended, Colonel

Boyce reported that, with the WAC Recruiting Service disbanded,

. . . the recruits received since V-E Day include an increasingly high number of Grade

IV's and V's despite outstanding directives

that only the equivalent to Grade III's or

better are acceptable. ... It is the opinion of

recruiting officers that the number and

quality of enlistments will decrease as time

goes on.21

There were also reports from the field,

such as one from a staff director who

wrote:

We have noticed a definite change in the

attitude of male officers and enlisted personnel toward the WAC since the cessation of

hostilities. . . . Present pressure for demobilization will undoubtedly influence public

opinion against the wearer of the uniform.

. . . Today the majority of the people in America would give us a vote of confidence. I am fearful that four months from now the fickle

public will be questioning the reason for

women being in uniform. ... I am leaving

in any event.22

An additional objection, as voiced by

Colonel Bandel, was the belief that peacetime Army life, as contrasted to emergency

wartime service, presented an unnatural

situation for a woman. A woman choosing

the Army for a thirty-year career would,

19

 (1) Memo, Dir Pers ASF (Gen Dalton) for G-1,

13 Aug 45. SPGAC 210.3 WAC, in SPAP 220.3 WAC.

(2) D/F, G-1 for DCofS, 15 Aug 45. WDGAP 220.3

WAC, in CSA 324.5 WAC. (3) Memo, Dir WAC for

CG ASF, 18 Aug 45. WDWAC 220.3. (4) WDBPR

Press Release, 5 Sep 45. (5) AGF Hist, Vol. I, p. 77,

and Vol. II, App. XXVII. 2 0 I&E Div Rpt B-166, 14 Sep 45, Postwar Job

Plans of Enlisted WAC. WAC files OCMH. 21

 Ibid. Also, D/F, G-1 for CofS, 28 Aug 45.

WDGAP 370.01 WAC, in WDWAC 370.01. Approved by DCofS, 29 Aug 45. See WDBPR Press Release, 30 Aug 45. 22

 Ltr, Maj J. S. Phillips, WAC Stf Dir EFTC, to

Col Woods, 25 Sep 45. WDWAC 330.14.
732 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

she stated, have to face the fact that her

husband could not be considered a dependent and thus could not live with her

on a military post. If he was an Army man

he could live on the post, if by chance the

stations of husband and wife coincided,

but questions would arise as to who took

the social status and quarters of whom. In

any case, if Wacs married, the loss from

pregnancy would be high, or a woman

bent on a career could not permit herself

any children. Under the circumstances,

while most Army career men lived normal

lives with homes and families, it appeared

that career women would be denied

both.23

WAC Effort To Hasten Demobilization

In September, Colonel Boyce left for

the Pacific without having secured a decision on the Corps' future. In November,

Acting Director Helen Woods made a

final effort to secure total demobilization.

In a memorandum for the new Assistant

Chief of Staff, G-1, General Paul, she

recommended that the Corps' fourth

birthday, 14 May 1946, be chosen for the

closing date, and that the WAC go out

proudly in a burst of ceremonies and with

the public announcement that the War

Department had requested Congress to

bestow Reserve status on all women who

had served honorably. By the Corps'

fourth birthday, its strength would have

been reduced to about 20,000 after which

point, said Colonel Woods, it would be

"unsound economically and administratively to keep the Corps in operation at a

figure much below this."

 24

Colonel Woods was later reinforced in

her position by written memoranda from

the Army Service Forces WAC Officer

and the Army Ground Forces WAC Officer. The ASF WAC Officer, Colonel

Goodwin, concurred in the choice of the

WAC fourth anniversary as closing day,

for WAC officers as well as enlisted

women, since officers would not be vitally

needed with the women gone. The AGF

WAC Officer, Colonel Davis, likewise

urged speedy demobilization, but preferred the thirteenth of June as the final

deadline.25

The Air WAC Officer, Colonel Bandel,

had already taken a more practical step.

Taking advantage of an obscure provision

that gave the Air Forces the right to discharge its women as well as its men at its

own rates, she persuaded her headquarters to release Air Forces Wacs as fast as it

was releasing AAF men. This at once cut

the critical score for Air Wacs from 34

to 18, and opened floodgates which by

December had let out of the Army all

but 10,000 of the AAF's 39,000 Wacs, and

which threatened by the fourth anniversary to have settled the dispute, at least for

the Air Forces, in a most effective

manner.26

At this point, Colonel Boyce abandoned

her overseas tour and hurried home, recording the fact that

. . . information received by the Director

WAC in a teletype conference with her office on Saturday, 10 November, indicated that

plans and policies affecting the future of the

Corps were being discussed, and she felt it

23

 AAF WAC Hist; also Intervs. 24

 Above and below from Memo, Dep Dir WAC for

Gen Paul G-1, 8 Nov 45. WDWAC 370.01. 25

 Memo, ASF WAC Off for Dir WAC, 11 Dec 45,

and Memo, AGF WAC Off for Dir WAC, 10 Dec 45.

WDWAC 370.01. 26

 TAG Ltr to major comds, 24 Sep 45. AGPW-AWDGAP 220.8 (9-22-45), in WDWAC 220.8. Also

WDWAC 370.01, 1945-46, documents dated 13, 19,

20, and 26 Dec 45.
DEMOBILIZATION 733

advisable for her to return to Washington

rather than complete the tour.27

Colonel Boyce returned to a War Department that had been virtually taken

over by the staff of the European theater.

As a result of the high caliber and skills of

WAC personnel employed in wartime by

that theater, the idea of a permanent

Corps was now favorably viewed by General Eisenhower as Chief of Staff, General Paul as G-1, General Devers as

AGF commander, and Generals Spaatz

and Eaker as AAF commanders.

Soon after Colonel Boyce's return, the

Air Forces' independent discharge authority, insofar as it concerned women only,

was withdrawn. Thereafter the WAC critical score fell slowly. By January of 1946

the score remained at 32 points or two and

a half years' service.28

WAC officers' scores fell even more

slowly; on 1 November the score of 37 was

adopted, the first point at which any WAC

officer who had not served overseas became eligible for discharge. At this score,

800 veteran officers from the first classes

became eligible, including many of the

key officers of the WAC. In January those

officers with three years and three months

of service were also released. It proved

difficult to lower the WAC officers' score

much more, since few had been commissioned since 1943, and all but one

tenth had three years of service by the

spring of 1946.29

Cessation of WAC Demobilization

In the first days of January 1946, the

War Department was faced with the

necessity of slowing all demobilization, an

unpopular move that was to produce a

crisis in Army public relations.30 At this

time the issue was finally forced as to

whether the WAC should be retained after

June of 1946. A memorandum in Colonel

Boyce's file indicated that she or her staff

prepared one last strong objection to

retaining the WAC:

It is the considered opinion and urgent

recommendation of the Director WAC that

the enlisted personnel and administrative

officers of the Corps be demobilized by the

end of the fiscal year, 30 June 1946.31

Six different objections were advanced:

First, as WAC units shrank, constant and

expensive transfer and consolidation

would be necessary. Second, "it is not efficient or economical to continue to utilize

WAC personnel beyond a minimum

strength level, since administration and

supply become impractical at a certain

point." Third, "it is becoming increasingly

apparent that, with an indeterminate demobilization date for the Corps, utilizing

agencies are finding it impossible to plan

intelligently on the use of Wacs." Fourth,

morale would become steadily worse as

women waited for long-delayed information. Fifth, "the public relations aspects of

having the Corps dwindle to small scattered groups of personnel remaining to an

undecided date are highly undesirable."

Sixth, embarrassing errors would be inevitable in view of the uncertainty as to

27

 Rpt of Dir WAC on overseas tour, undated, Tab

B, sub: General Observations on All Theaters.

WDWAC 333.1 (1945-46). 28

 Memo, Dep Dir Woods for Col Boyce, 7 Dec 45.

WDWAC 370.01. 29

 D/F, G-1 for TAG, 10 Oct 45. WDWAC 370.01. 30

 (1) Memo, Maj Chance, Exec WAC, for Lt Col

McClure, G-1, 23 Oct 45. WDWAC 370.01. (2)

Memo, Dep Dir Woods for Col Boyce, 5 Dec 45.

WDWAC 370.01. (3) Memo, WDBPR, 15 Jan 46.

WDWAC 350.001. (4) For final WAC separation figures for both officer and enlisted personnel, see Tables

12 and 13, Appendix A. 31

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 17 Jan 46. WDWAC

320.2.
734 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

whether the services would be merged, the

Air Forces made independent, or the

Army placed on a peacetime basis. As a

result, the WAC recommendation concluded, "It is not practical to contemplate

an Interim WAC."

This proposal was rejected by G-1 Division. Instead, General Paul recommended that the WAC be retained indefinitely, possibly as long as the Army

retained any non-Regular Army men. He

explained the action to a Senate committee, saying:

We fully expect to have a small permanent group of women in the Army. . . . For

that reason the directive did not direct the

abolishment of all of our women from the

Army by June 30. . . . The women have

done a very outstanding job in this war, and

in line with getting more men out of the

Army we should use every available replacement we can get.32

The stoppage of the critical score for

women was approved by the Chief of Staff,

General Eisenhower, in a directive that

stated: "There is a potential shortage of

skilled personnel for utilization in the

Interim Army."

 33

 At the same time the

Navy Department also decided to retain

the WAVES beyond June 1946, although

only on a volunteer status with offer of

inducements to remain. This policy was

adopted over the nonconcurrence of the

WAVES director. The women Marines

were likewise retained. Only the SPARS

managed to secure demobilization by

June 1946.34

Accordingly, the War Department announced that the release of Wacs with

twenty-four months' service would be delayed from April to June, and that those

with less than twenty-four months would

not be released until some indefinite

future date. The men's discharge rate was

also slowed, but their critical score, which

had been twice as great as the Wacs' in the

beginning, fell so rapidly that by June it

was identical with the Wacs', and remained so thereafter.

With this decision to hold the Women's

Army Corps involuntarily, there ended a

sixth-month period in which Colonel

Hobby's policies for demobilization had

been gradually but completely reversed.

As the WAC headed into the troublesome two-year interim period ahead, the

face of the Corps was completely altered

by the departure of those in key spots and

their replacement by officers who approved of the new policy. First to go, in

December of 1945, were Colonels Bandel

and Rice; Colonel Bandel left the Air

Forces only after having successfully demobilized three fourths of her women.

Colonel Woods left in February; Colonel

Goodwin stayed only for the inactivation

of the Army Service Forces in June. Within

a few months almost every wartime WAC

leader had left the Corps: fifteen of the

seventeen women who had been wartime

service command staff directors, and

almost all of their assistant staff directors,35

twenty-three of the twenty-five wartime

32

 Statement to Senate Subcommittee on Mil Affairs, in Ltr, Asst Exec G-1 to Mr. James L. Conners,

28 Jan 46. WDGAP 095 Conners, in WD WAC 095.

See also D/F, G-1 for CofS, 1 Feb 46. WDGAP

370.01 WAC (1-4-46), in WDWAC 370.01. 33

 Ibid., Tab A to D/F. 34

 (1) Memo cited n. 17; (2) M/R, 22 Jan 46, by

Maj Jere Knight; (3) Memo, Asst Exec WAC for Dir

WAC, 23 Feb 46. WDWAC 337. 35

 Remaining: Boyce (4th SvC, later Dir WAC), Bell

(7th SvC, later overseas).

Discharged: Goodwin, Stearns, Perry (1st SvC); Bass,

VanBolt, McQuatters (2d SvC); Rice, Wilson, Kerens,

(3d SvC); Wolcott (4th SvC); Miller, Hedekin, Werbach (5th SvC); Epperson (6th SvC); Welch (7th

SvC); Brown, Stillwell (8th SvC); Milburn, Gardiner

(9th SvC); Keplinger (MDW).
DEMOBILIZATION 735

air command directors,36 and all of the

Army Ground Forces staff directors in

field commands.37 All wartime staff directors of overseas theaters also left, even

including such strong advocates of a

permanent Corps as Colonel Wilson, who

left to be married, and Colonel Brown,

who returned to the Veterans' Administration.38

 After Colonel Bandel, two more

Air WAC Officers left in rapid succession;

 39

 and after Colonel Davis, two more

AGF WAC Officers elected discharge.40

The ASF WAC Officer's only assistant

left with her when the Service Forces

closed.41 The only Wac to have been a

training center commandant, Colonel

Strayhorn, likewise departed. All former

officers of Colonel Hobby's staff elected

discharge.

Colonel Boyce's office—like most other

General Staff sections—was now entirely

staffed with officers from the European

and Mediterranean theaters. For her new

deputy she chose Lt. Col. Mary A.

Hallaren, former staff director of the Air

Forces in Europe, in civilian life a teacher

and lecturer for women's groups, and a

strong advocate of a peacetime WAC.

Separation Procedure

While some 20,000 members of the

Women's Army Corps were held in service

by the frozen discharge criteria, the other

80,000 were in the process of leaving it. A

year before, the commitment had been

secured that women would be separated at

only five of the many separation centers

for men, to permit the assignment of

specialists in women's medical and vocational problems. With the beginning of

demobilization, women began to be

processed through these five centers—

Fort Dix, Fort Bragg, Camp Beale, Fort

Sheridan, and Fort Sam Houston. Fort

Des Moines was added at a later date.42

Although these centers had a year's advance warning, the idea of adequate

facilities for women and of skilled processing teams never was brought to fruition at

all of them. War Department inspectors

early discovered that medical teams examining women lacked gynecological

specialists; a woman doctor was shortly

ordered to each of the five centers, to be

responsible for detecting gynecological

disorders requiring treatment.43

At Camp Beale, physical surroundings

were found to be undesirable and only a

few women a day could be processed, with

others waiting indefinitely.44 At Fort Dix,

barracks were overcrowded and unsanitary. Some correction was undertaken, but

a full year later hundreds of Wacs at Fort

Dix still had to wait over a week for sepa36

 Remaining: Hague (CFTC), Kersey (2d AF).

Discharged: Freeman (TC and Air WAC), Woods

(WFTC and Dep Dir), Phillips (EFTC), Stryker

(TTC), Hardesty (WTTC and Air WAC), Johnson

(CTTC), Lea (ETTC), May (ATC; recalled 1946);

Gilbert (1st AF), Watson (2d AF), McCauley (3d AFdied); Clague (recalled 1948), Marshall (4th AF); Elrod (Mat C-recalled 1948), Kennedy (ASC), Kerr

(TCC), Guild (PGC; recalled 1947), Sweet, McKay

(AFTAC), Morris (FDC), Earth (AACS; recalled

1948), Pease (WW), Ludwigsen (Hq AAF). 37

 Melin, Riley. 38

 Remaining: none.

Leaving: ETO: Wilson. SWPA: Brown. MTO:

Coleman (Colonel Boyce, first MTO Stf Dir, remained until May 1947). ME: Dyer. CBI: Clague (returned to RA, 1948). 39

 Lt Col Mary Freeman, Maj Elizabeth Hardesty. 40

 Maj Louise Neilson, Maj Geneva McQuatters. 41

 Maj Margaret Perry. 42

 (1) Min, Conf, 17 Jun 44. WDGAP 354.1(1945-

46). (2) Memo, G-1 for MPD ASF, 6 Sep 45.

WDWAC 354.1. (3) Memo, SGO for Dir WAC, 6 Jul

44. WDWAC 220.8. 43

 D/F, G-1 to CG ASF, 19 Jun 45. WDGAP

321.02, in WDWAC 720. 44

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 14 Jul 45. WDWAC

220.8.
736 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

VOCATION COUNSELING at the separation center, Fort Des Moines.

ration, since only 35 could be processed

daily.

Eventually a series of incidents of illness

and improper housing caused a War Department survey team to be sent to visit

all five centers. Only Fort Des Moines received unqualified praise from this team.

Here were employed medical officers and

vocational counselors experienced in

women's needs, and a final impressive

ceremony with a band sent women away

in an apparent glow of good will. Fort

Sheridan was also praised for its separation ceremonies, in which men and women

participated together.45 A later limited

survey showed that only about 3 percent

of women in some areas had received any

of the prescribed counseling prior to discharge. Even in these cases, counselors

had little or no information on job opportunities for women.46

The War Department overlooked female

personnel in most of its directives on separation. It was discovered that all reference

to women had been omitted from the

official War Department pamphlet, Going

Back to Civilian Life, which was given to

each person leaving the service to inform

him of his rights and responsibilities and

of the assistance available to him. This

pamphlet was often inapplicable to Wacs,

who did not have to report to Selective

Service boards, could not join the Reserve

or National Guard, had different dependency rules, had special provisions concerning WAAC service, and experienced other

unique problems of status. Accordingly, a

45

 Unfavorable rpts in 1945-46 WDWAC 333.1 and

354.1. 46

 Helen G. Brown (former 1st Lt WAC), "Adjustment of problems of College and Non-College WAC

Veterans," M. A. thesis, Stanford Univ, 1947.
DEMOBILIZATION 737

WAC supplement to the pamphlet was

hastily published, but this did not reach

the field until 1946, when more than half

of the Corps had already been separated.47

At the same time, it was discovered that

instructions to separation centers had

neglected to provide for entry concerning

Auxiliary service anywhere on the standard discharge records, and former members of the WAAC experienced difficulty

in securing credit for this service when

seeking employment. This deficiency was

discovered by Colonel Rice in the midst of

her own separation. When informed that

no official proof could be given her of her

fifteen months' WAAC service, she returned to G-1 Division, wrote and

processed a corrective circular, and came

back, bearing a certified copy, to complete

her discharge. Five necessary special notations for women were discovered to be

missing. Again, it was not possible to

remedy these omissions in time to assist

many women.48

Women returning from overseas appeared especially in need of some preparation for what awaited them. Wacs from

the European and Mediterranean theaters

were reportedly startled by the attitude of

the civilian population toward Wacs, and

by the accommodations offered troops in

the United States, which were far less

favorable than those overseas. Colonel

Boyce's office therefore devised a plan

whereby trained WAC convoy officers met

and accompanied each returning group,

and gently broke the news about life in the

United States.49

In spite of minor difficulties, confusion,

and lack of counseling, most Wacs, like the

men, had little trouble in surviving the

brief passage through separation centers.

All Wacs reverted to inactive status, since

Congress had authorized Reserve status

only for men and Navy women. Colonel

Boyce's office considered a survey of these

WAC veterans, such as had been made

for men, in order to discover how the separation process might be improved, but she

was informed by Information and Education Division, which now had only a small

staff, that such a plan for women would

encounter "resistance," and at any rate

survey results would be too late to assist

the Army in processing women.50

Veterans' Administration Policy

To evaluate further the results of the demobilization process, the Veterans' Administration in May of 1946 undertook a

WAC survey as a part of its survey of male

veterans. As expected, it was found that

women experienced much the same readjustment difficulties as enlisted men, plus

a number of their own. Women were

found to be taking jobs more slowly and in

smaller proportionate numbers than men.

Although 89 percent had been working

before enlistment, only about half were

found, three or four months after discharge, to be employed. The remainder

were housewives, students, job-seekers, or

"just resting." Even when they took a job,

47

 (1) TWX, TAG to all SvCs, SPGAT, 11 Sep 45,

re TWX to same, 7 Sep 45. WDWAC 370.01, and

WAC 370.01. (2) Memo, G-1 for Chairman, WD

Printing Bd, 14 Dec 45, sub: WD Pamphlet 21-4a,

Dec 45, WAC Supplement to Going Back to Civilian

Life. WDWAC 300.6. (3) D/F, G-1 to TAG, 20 Dec

45. WD WAC 461. 48

 Observed by author. Also D/F, G-1 to TAG, 12

Dec 45. WDGAP 220.8 WAC, in WDWAC 220.8. 49

 (1) WD Memo 600-45, 23 Aug 45. WDWAC

320. (2) D/F, G-1 to CG ASF, 24 Oct 45. WDWAC

210.31. (3) Memo, Convoy Offs to Stf Dir NYPOE,

29 Dec 45. WDWAC 319.1. (4) Memo, Dep Dir for

Dir WAC, 4 Jan 46. WDWAC 319.1. 50

 (1) Memo, Maj Alice Knight for Dir WAC, 14

Dec 45, with incls; (2) M/R, Col Davis, 19 Dec 45.

WDWAC 292.
738 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

women showed almost twice as great a

tendency as men to leave it. Only 22 percent of women went back to their former

employment, although twice as great a

percentage of men did so. Many of those

women who did go back expressed dissatisfaction. To some extent the women's reluctance to go back to their old work

seemed due to their desire to find work

that offered the degree of responsibility

learned in the service.

To a much greater extent than the male

veterans, women had related their future

plans to the skill they had acquired in the

service, but only two in five employed

women were able to use their servicegained experience on their new jobs.

Others were prevented from doing so by

the low salaries offered them, by unwillingness of employers to give credit for

military experience, and by the refusal of

civilian employers to hire women in unusual jobs if men were available. Those

least likely to be able to use their skill were

those trained in technical work usually

thought of as men's jobs: radio operator,

mechanic, aircraft specialist, and others.

About the same percentage of women as

of men had applied for readjustment

allowances, and about the same percent

had entered school. Fewer women than

men were interested in loans to buy a

home or to go into business.51

Army psychiatrists expressed fear that

women's readjustment would be more

difficult than that of men, since

Even more than men, these women have

become unsuited to their former civilian environment because the change in their pat- tern of life was more radical. . . . Most of

them have matured, have broader interests,

and a new and finer sense of values.52

However, few Wacs reported worse effects

than "nervousness and a feeling of strangeness, tiredness"; "lack of real concern for

seemingly unimportant things"; "a failure

of family and friends to accept me as a

responsible individual." Some found

themselves "lacking in initiative"; others,

"too bossy." Possibly the worst generally

reported result was "a lost feeling . . .

lack of interest in former friends or environment ... an inability to find work

which seemed really vital."

 53

The returning female veteran also found

that the jokes and stories on WAC morals

had preceded her into civilian life. As one

Wac put it, "I discovered that it is best not

to mention my army career due to the

unfortunate stigma attached to the

WAC."

 54

 The head of the New York

Veterans Service Committee, Mrs. Anna

Rosenberg, reported: "Many [women

veterans] have been disillusioned and discouraged by a cold reception from various

women's groups."

 55

To combat such hindrances to readjustment, various plans were invoked. The

National Federation of Business and

Professional Women's Clubs launched its

Servicewomen's Project, by which local

club members assisted returning servicewomen in job counseling and placement.

The Retraining and Reemployment Administration employed the former head of

the SPARS, Capt. Dorothy C. Stratton, to

insure that women were not overlooked in

its mission of guiding civilian communities in reintegrating veterans and war

workers. Still another government agency, 51

 The Woman Veteran, Research Studies MPR-2, 31

Apr 46, Rpts Contl Symbol PAB-7-S, by Research

Serv, VA. Also correspondence, VA and Dir WAC,

leading up to survey, in WDWAC 292, Mar-Sep 46. 52

 Margaret D. Craighill, M.D., "Psychiatric Aspects of Women Serving in the Army," American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 104, No. 4, October, 1947. 53

 Helen G. Brown, thesis cited n. 46. 54

 Ibid., p. 56. 55

 Washington Post, editorial, January 24, 1946.
DEMOBILIZATION 739

the U.S. Office of Education, requested its

state offices to assist women veterans.

Possibly the most extensive assistance

came from the WAC's National Civilian

Advisory Committee members, under a

plan whereby a woman could obtain assistance in career planning by mailing a

card to her service command advisory

committee. Results were generally excellent, especially in the Second Service

Command, where over a thousand women

were assisted.56

The Veterans' Administration itself, as

reorganized by Gen. Omar N. Bradley,

was in a position to render greatest assistance, and therefore designated a returning

employee, Colonel Brown, to act as adviser on women veterans. General Bradley

directed that women be hired in policymaking jobs by Veterans' Administration

local offices, "in view of the large number

of women veterans who have served in

World War II and the great number of

widows or wives of veterans who are entitled to Military Preference."

 57

 General

Bradley also obtained the services of the

Army's senior woman medical officer,

Colonel Craighill, to survey hospitals

where women veterans were receiving

care, and to prevent recurrence of previous difficulties.58

A Veterans' Administration survey

showed that a considerable number of

women veterans were refused recognition

as such, not only by civilians and private

employers, but even by government agencies, which were unaware that the women's services had legally been taken into

the Army and Navy. Other agencies had

apparently overlooked the women accidentally, although the combined strength

of the various women's services had been

around 370,000, between 2 and 3 percent

of the armed forces. In other cases, the

failure to recognize women as veterans

was not accidental, as when one of the

major veterans' organizations amended its

constitution and bylaws for the purpose of

excluding women from membership.59

Since former Waacs who had joined the

WAC had no re-employment rights, the

National Civilian Advisory Committee

recommended that legislation be sought

for their relief. The Army Service Forces

nonconcurred on grounds that this would

"create situations of great complexity"

where employers had replaced Waacs with

others on a permanent basis. Nevertheless, the legislation was finally obtained,

although not until August of 1946, long

after the last of the former Auxiliaries became eligible for discharge.60

Reserve Proposals

The majority of Wacs had returned to

civilian life by the time the War Department arrived at the decision to request

56

 (1) Memo, SS Vet Pers Div for Dep Dir WAC, 25

Oct 45. WDWAC 080. (2) Memo, Mary-Agnes

Brown, VA, for Dir WAC, 12 Sep 45. WDWAC 292.

(3) M/R, 5 Jan 46. WDWAC 292. (4) Brookings Institution Rpt, cited by Dorothy C. Stratton, "Women

After the War," The Independent Woman, October 1945.

(5) Routing Slip, I&E Div for Dir WAC, 27 Nov 45,

with atchd. WDWAC 292. (6) D/F, G-1 for TAG, 8

Sep 45. WDGAP 201.7. (7) Memo, ASF WAC Off for

Maj Knight, 28 Dec 45. WDWAC 220.8. 57

 VA Serv Ltr to all Regional Offices and Cens, 17

Nov 45; and another, 29 Oct 45. Also, Ltr, G-1 to

VA, 2 Nov 45, reply to VA Ltr, 26 Oct 45. WDWAC

292.

58

 (1) Ltr, Gen Bradley to The SG, USA, 28 Dec

46. (2) Ltr, Surg 7th SvC to SGO, 9 Feb 44. SPKSM

704.11 WAC, inSPWA710. 59

 (1) The Woman Veteran. (2) Address by Lt Col

Mary-Agnes Brown to American Vocational Association, 7 Feb 46. Copy in OCMH. 60

 (1) Comment 2, MPD ASF to G-1, to Basic

Memo, G-1 for ASF, 28 Mar 45, sub: Recommendations of NCAC. SPAP319.1 WAC (10-9-44). (2) PL

709, 79th Cong, 9 Aug 46. Published in WD Bull 26,

12 Sep 46.
740 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

that Congress allow reserve status to be offered to Wacs, as it was to men and to

Waves.61 Reserve corps status had been

recommended to Colonel Hobby, soon

after V-E Day, by the General Staff's Reserve Policy Committee, which expressed

the desire to seek immediate legislation

"rather than to await the enactment of

enabling legislation when an emergency

was upon us."

 62

 Colonel Hobby gave

tentative approval to such legislation only

insofar as it concerned an officers' reserve.

She disapproved of an enlisted reserve,

and desired that even the officers' reserve

be limited to three women officers on

active duty in the War Department to

formulate policy, with all others on inactive status. To maintain the officers' reserve, she agreed to the eventual establishment of an ROTC system similar to the

men's. Any more extensive system would,

she felt, be uneconomical because of the

high attrition expected among female reserves by reason of marriage and motherhood, which would render many members

ineligible for recall.63

These ideas were at first endorsed by

Colonel Boyce when she succeeded Colonel Hobby at this point in the planning.

Colonel Boyce stated that "need does not

exist for the services or training of enlisted

women at this time."

 64

 Within a few

weeks, after repeated conferences with

members of G-1 Division, Colonel Boyce

was led to admit the possibility of an enlisted reserve. Her office also devised detailed schemes for a female ROTC, which,

it was pointed out, would be less costly

than the men's, since only six months'

basic training would be required, instead

of the two years needed by men. For the

men's advanced specialized courses, it was

proposed to substitute courses in hospital

administration, cryptanalysis, military administration, and similar subjects.65

The War Department split into opposing groups when legislation to this effect

was proposed by the Reserve Policy Committee. When consulted, G-2, G-3, OPD,

and the Commanding General, Army

Service Forces, objected to reserve status

for women.66 G-3 was willing to take wartime Wacs into an inactive reserve and let

it die gradually without replacements,

since "it may be politic" to make this gesture. In a recommendation quite similar

to one of twenty years before, these divisions proposed that "planning on this subject be carried out in the regular General

Staff Divisions without special provisions

of female personnel on duty in the War

Department for that purpose."

On the other hand, G-1, G-4, and the

Executive for Reserve and ROTC Affairs

favored full reserve status for women. G-1

offered the recommendation that the

WAC reserve system should parallel the

men's reserve system exactly. The Executive for Reserve and ROTC added:

It is recognized that women . . . will be

used in time of war; therefore it is deemed essential to have a nucleus which is available

in times of emergency. ... To ignore the

women of the country might create an opposition to the Army.67

61

 Memo, JAG for MPD ASF, 30 May 45. SPJGA

1945/5434, in WDWAC 326.2. 62

 (1) Memo, Capt Stone for Dir WAC, 9 Jun 45,

and Incls. WDWAC 326.2. (2) Memo, SPD for G-1,

29 Jun 45. WDWAC 319.1. 63

 Ibid.; Col Hobby's note and other M/R atchd. 64

 Draft of comment, Dir WAC to SPD, 23 Aug 45.

WDWAC 326.2. 65

 Ibid. Also, Draft of Memo for G-1, 5 Sep 45.

WD WAC 3 26.2. 66

 Following statements of opinion are all in M/R

with Memo cited n. 62(1) also atchd to proposed

Memo, SPD for CofS USA, 24 Sep 45. WDWAC

326.2. 67

 Memos cited n. 62(1) and n. 66. Also, Memo G-1

for SPD, 7 Jul 45. WDGAP 316.2 ORC.
DEMOBILIZATION 741

The General Staff referred the conflicting opinions to Special Planning Division

for preparation of a recommendation to

the Chief of Staff.68 Special Planning Division's final recommendation to the Chief

of Staff was adverse. It was proposed that

female nurses, dietitians, and physiotherapists be offered reserve status, but as for

Wacs, the study concluded: "The awarding of Inactive Reserve commissions to

present and former WAC officers is not

considered a desirable or effective gesture

of recognition."

 69

This recommendation had the somewhat peculiar effect of reversing the sentiments of the WAC staff as to the wisdom of

a women's Reserve. Acting Director

Woods pointed out that an inactive and

unreplenished women's Reserve would

cost exactly nothing, and that the deliberate omission of the WAC from this status,

if it was to be awarded to every other

women's service of the Army and Navy,

could only be construed by the public as a

condemnation of the WAC's wartime

record. She noted that the using agencies—the Air Forces, Ground Forces, service commands, and overseas theaters—

had not been allowed to comment,

although they, having employed WAC

personnel, were the only agencies in a position to assess the usefulness of the WAC.

She added:

The Director WAC does not consider it her

function to comment upon the Army's need,

beyond pointing out that the usefulness of

women members in a wartime army is no

longer a matter of speculation. The WAC has

made a record of service, either good or bad,

during the three years of its existence. The

War Department should evaluate that record, then plan and act accordingly.70

G-1 Division endorsed the WAC comments to the Chief of Staff, saying:

It is believed that such action in respect to

the WAC would place the War Department

in an untenable position at this time when

every effort is being made to utilize the experience gained in the war. . . . The Corps

represents an investment which should not be

lost to the Army.71

This broadside was successful, but the

results were more than the Office of the

Director had bargained for. Planners

were, as requested, directed by the Chief

of Staff to get the opinion of the agencies

that had employed Wacs, but the response

of these agencies was to sweep the WAC

into acceptance of a Regular Army Corps,

instead of an inactive reserve, which was

all that the Director had desired.

Plans for a Regular Army WAC

The recommendations received from the

using commands on the inactive reserve

proposal led the new G-1, General Paul, to

direct Colonel Boyce to prepare an alternate plan for a small permanent force, to

be either in the Regular Army or in a new

type of active reserve. The Office of the

Director complied, although expressing

disfavor, saying that the Army would not

desire such a group unless it was as efficient as in the past, which appeared impossible.72

Reactions to the plan revealed that

foremost among the advocates of a Regular Army WAC was the Army Ground 68

 See D/F, Gen Porter, Dir SPD, for G-1, G-2,

G-3, G-4, OPD, Ex Res and ROTC, 19 Jul 45.

WDWAC 326.2. 69

 Memo, SPD for CofS, 24 Sep 45. WDWAC 326.2. 70

 (1) Memo, Dep Dir WAC for CofS through G-1,

1 Oct 45. WDWAC 326.2. (2) Personal Memo,

"HHW" for Col Boyce, 14 Nov 45. WDWAC 319.1. 71

 Memo, G-1 for CofS through SPD WDSS, 15

Oct 45. WDWAC 326.2. 72

 Memo, Dep Dir for Dir WAC 26 Nov 45.

WDWAC 326.2.
742 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Forces, which not only replied favorably

to the General Staff's inquiry, but imported from the European theater a staff

of planners, including the former ETO

staff director, Colonel Wilson. General

Devers expressed surprise that no previous

plan had been made to request legislation

and that there was "some resistance to

WAC planning at the War Department

staff level." No less enthusiastic support

came from the Army Air Forces under its

new heads, General Spaatz and his deputy, General Eaker, who declared: "If I

have anything to do with it, there will be

a place for women in the Regular Air

Force."

 73

 The Army Service Forces ofered no such approbation; General Dalton stated that "in the event of an emergency, women specialists could be commissioned directly from civilian life to

meet the demand."

 74

Considerable outside support for continuation of the WAC also began to appear from the American Association of

University Women and other women's

groups and from individuals like Mrs.

Eleanor Roosevelt, who went so far as to

favor universal military training for both

men and women, saying, "While the men

were receiving scientific training, women

would be trained in dietetics, nursing, and

the like, so they could serve in peace as

well as in war."

 75

In conference with General Eisenhower, Colonel Boyce again urged that he

announce only the Reserve plan, and postpone the Regular Army plan for later decision. Since demobilized Wacs were scattering rapidly, she favored a quick request

to Congress for power to offer them Reserve status, after which the more controversial issue of a permanent Corps could

be fought out at leisure.76 General Paul

overrode this recommendation, fearing

that Congress would consider only one

bill. He therefore substituted a plan for a

bill to ask simultaneous Reserve and

Regular Army status, the adoption of

which seemed to him by this time so certain that he informed a Senate committee

of the plan. This was followed, on 5 February 1946, by the formal announcement

to the Army that the Chief of Staff had directed the drafting of legislation "for the

establishment of a Women's Army Corps

in the Regular Army with concurrent Reserve Corps status." The same directive

also provided for plans for an Army Nurse

Corps and a Women's Medical Specialist

Corps in the Regular Army and Reserve

Corps.77

At once the expected delay and controversy descended on the Army, leaving

the WAC's future uncertain. Public, Congressional, and military opposition were

found to be so strong that General Eisenhower delayed issuing a public announcement to the press. When cornered by reporters on 5 March 1946, he stated that

the question was "still under study," and

when asked "No plan has reached you

73

 (1) AGF WAC Hist, Vol. I, p. 77; Vol. II, App.

XXVII; see Ch. XVI, above. (2) Address by Gen

Eaker at 60th OCS Grad Class, 17 Nov 45. WDWAC

352.

74

 Memo, Dir Pers ASF for Dir Plng Div ASF, 17

Dec 45. SPAP 326.2 WAC (12-5-45). 75

 UP release, 17 Oct 44, WDWAC 032.1, 1944;

Washington Post, November 15, 1945; quotation from

Washington Post, October 24, 1945. 76

 Memo cited n. 72. 77

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Paul, 14 Jan 46.

WDWAC 370.01. (2) Excerpt from Statement made

by Gen W. S. Paul before Sen Subcom on Mil Affairs,

17 Jan 46, WDWAC 326. (3) Ltr, Gen Modes, Asst

DCofS, to WDGS, WDSS, maj comds, 5 Feb 46.

WDGAP 326.2 Org Res Corps (7-12-45), in

WDWAC 326.2.
DEMOBILIZATION 743

yet?" he replied, "None has gone out of the

War Department."

 78

None was, in fact, to go out of the War

Department for another year, or to be

voted on for still another.

The Interim

Meanwhile, the demobilization of the

last 20,000 members of the wartime WAC

entered its final phase, without benefit of

a firm decision on the Corps' future. In order to slow departure, General Paul authorized, over Colonel Boyce's nonconcurrence, a volunteer program in which

enlisted women were told that "General

Eisenhower is calling upon the Women's

Army Corps to remain in operation. . . .

The Army is turning to the WAC for help

in the manpower emergency."

 79

Response to the volunteer program was

not enthusiastic. Although "without exception, headquarters personnel were anxious to retain Wacs,"

 80

 the enlisted women

showed a tendency to desire more specific

information as to their eligibility for future

careers if they remained, which could not

be given them. Those able to keep more of

their women included the hospitals, the

Transportation Corps, and the Fifth and

Seventh Army Areas. Very few—from

none to fifty women—volunteered to remain with the Army Ground Forces, the

Signal Corps, The Adjutant General, the

Chemical Warfare Service, or the Ordnance Department.81

At the same time, also over Colonel

Boyce's nonconcurrence, General Paul authorized a re-entry program to maintain

Corps strength. While new recruits could

not be accepted for lack of a training center, discharged Wacs were allowed to reenter through regular recruiting stations.

In spite of all efforts, the Corps dwindled

rapidly. Toward the end of 1946, the War

Department permitted the departure of

all men except those enlisting in the Regular Army, and all women except volunteers. At this time, with the departure of

nonvolunteer Wacs, there remained of the

wartime Corps only 8,461 enlisted women

and 1,194 officers.82 These women, interested in a permanent career, had already

waited eighteen months since the end of

the war for a decision. Another eighteen

months of uncertainty awaited them.

Colonel Boyce called upon WAC officers

for "experienced advice and leadership

that will carry our women through the

waiting period," adding that "they have

been good soldiers and have waited for

definite word so they can plan their future.

They do not understand why word has

been so long in coming."

 83

With the decrease in size and the departure of many leaders, the Corps in a

few months found most of its wartime advances swept away, and itself in a situation distressingly similar to that of the old

Auxiliary in the worst of its early days.

Supplies were scarce, and units in the field

78

 HR 4909, 79th Cong, 1st Sess, 5 Dec 45, A Bill

To Provide for the Discharge of Members of Women's

Reserves of Armed Forces. WDWAC 032.1. Also

Congressional Record, same date. 79

 Mimeographed statement, sub: Mission.

WDWAC 342 (1945-46). 80

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 9 Apr 46. WDWAC

333.1. 81

 (1) D/F, G-1 to CofS, 1 Feb 46. WDGAP 370.01

WAC (1-4-46), in WDWAC 370.01. (2) Memo, Dep

Dir for Col Boyce, 23 Jan 46. WDWAC 337. (3)

Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Paul, 1 Feb 46, and another

25 Jan 46. WDWAC 342. (4) Memo, Dir WAC for

G-1, 15 May 46. WDWAC 320. (5) Memo, Dir WAC

for Dir P&A Div WD, 25 Sep 46. WDWAC 370.01. 82

 By tp from Maj Ruth E. Myers, Stat Br, G-1, 9

Nov 46. 83

 Message of retiring Director, Min, Stf Dirs, Conf,

26-28 Mar 47, Pentagon. WAC files, OCMH.
744 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

were for months unable to get either

clothing maintenance or salvage. Job assignments reverted promptly to unmilitary duties in "service capacities" and as

servants in civilian messes, quarters, and

nurseries.84 Applicants for re-entry "practically had to fight their way back into the

Army,"

 85

 having been told at recruiting

stations that male recruiters "did not

know anything about the WAC," and to

"go home and forget it."

 86

Director Hobby's minimum safety requirements vanished rapidly. Women

were assigned in less than company units,

without WAC officers in command. Because of the small numbers of Wacs, only

the Army areas could now be required to

have staff directors. Friction resulted as

technical services again objected to supervision out of channels. All medical and

psychiatric consultants for women left the

Medical Department, and protective

medical circulars lapsed. All specialists

left the Bureau of Public Relations, and

news stories again featured "khaki

panties."

 87

 Policy powers were removed

from Colonel Boyce's office and given to

other General Staff sections, but numerous

operating duties were returned to it, upon

the abolition of specialist groups elsewhere—an approximation of the old

WAAC system.88

Enough company commanders with

previous experience could not be obtained,

and none of the new Army area staff directors had served as such in wartime.

Station commanders, many of whom had

recently returned from overseas, were

often unfamiliar with WAC administration. Some declared Army Regulations inapplicable, others refused to allow visits by

WAC staff directors, and one moved a

group of amazed WAC veterans to a

floodlighted barbed-wire compound.89

Breaking with previous policy, General

Paul returned small groups of Wacs overseas, where many served in units of no

more than a dozen women without a com84

 (1) Two Memos, Dir WAC for Welfare Br P&A

WD, 4 Oct 46, WDWAC 333.1; (2) D/F Manpower

Contl GP&S Div to D/SSP, 17 Sep 46. WDGPA 421

WAC in WDWAC 421. (3) Washington Post, May 5,

1949, p. 20. (4) Ltr, Exec WAC to Chairman NCAC,

20 Sep 45, and incl. WDWAC 080. (5) Notes by author,. Conf in O Dir WAC, 16 May 47. WAC files,

OCMH. (6) Ltr, Dir WAC to all WAC Stf Dirs, 4 Sep

46. WDWAC 421. (7) WD Cir 281, 18 Sep 46, sec

VII. (8) In WDWAC 421: (a) Memo, G-1 for Chief

MPS Gp, 15 Apr 46, WDGAP 342.06. (b) Memo,

G-1 Welfare Br for Gen Paul, 18 Apr 46, ref to

Memo, SW for President of U.S., 4 Sep 45. (c) Ltr,

Gen Paul to Gen Madison Pearson, 6 Sep 46. (d)

Note, Sgt Crush to Dir WAC, undated, (e) Draft,

Memo for President, undated. 85

 Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Paul, 7 Jun 46.

WDWAC 342. 86

 Memo, Maj S. H. Herbert for Gen Paul, 27 Sep

46. WDWAC 342. 87

 Washington Post, February 3, 1949, p. 6. All in

1945-46 WAC files: (1) SGO Cir 1, 1 Jan 44; telephone call from Director WAC to author inquired

whether provision re pelvic examinations had ever

existed; telephone call from author to SGO ascertained that such SGO circulars were out of date. (2)

Memo, Actg Dir BPR for Dir WAC, 17 Dec 45.

WDWAC 320. (3) Memo, Dir WAC for WDBPR, 26

Dec 45. Abolition was by WDBPR Office Memo 1,11

Jan 46. (4) Memo, Dir WAC for Lt Col D. J. Rogers,

3 Jun 46. WDWAC 320. (5) Memo, Maj Horak for

Col Boyce, 4 Sep 46, same file. (6) Memo, Maj Herbert for Col Boyce, 1 Oct 46. WDWAC 333.1. (7)

Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Paul, 27 Aug 46. WDWAC

210.31. (8) Memo, Maj Herbert for Col Boyce, 21 Jun

46, and Memo, Chief CO AG for Col Boyce, 4 Sep 46,

with note by Dir. WDWAC 210.31. (9) Memo, Col

Boyce for Gen Paul, 30 Aug 46. 88

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for Manpower Gp P&A, 12

Apr 46. WDWAC 210.3. (2) Memo, Dir WAC for

Gen Henry, 14 Aug 46; reply, Brig Gen Morris R.

Nelson, 15 Aug 45. WDWAC 210.31. (3) Memo, P&A

Div WD for its Gps and Dir WAC, 27 Sep 46.

WDGPA 320 WAC. (4) Memo, G-1 for DCofS, 2 Oct

46. WDGPA 320 WAC, in WDWAC 320. (5) Memo,

Asst DCofS for P&A, O&T, SS&P, PRD, and I&E

Divs, 14 Oct 46. WDCSA 320 (9-26-46) in

WDWAC 320. (6) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 3 Apr

46, and reply, 9 Apr 46. WDWAC 300.3. 89

 All in 1945-46 WAC files: (1) G-1 Memo to

AAF, AGF, ASF, and all Admin and Tech Servs, 16

May 46. WDGAP 320 WAC, in WDWAC 320. Also
DEMOBILIZATION 745

pany officer.90 In another reversal of Director Hobby's policies, he offered promise

of overseas service to re-entries, a move

which produced a morale crisis and

charges of a "dirty deal" from Wacs still

in the United States.91 Because of faulty

screening by male recruiters at recruiting

stations, these re-entries when shipped

overseas brought protests of "inferior quality" from theaters. Shipments included

epileptics, manic-depressives, women just

court-martialed, "homosexuals, alcoholics,

and promiscuous women."

 92

 To improve

the shipments, Colonel Boyce asked General Paul to send one WAC enlisted

woman to each Army area—a total of six

women, as against the 4,000 specialists

who had once managed WAC recruiting—but this request was disapproved by

General Paul as "wasteful of personnel."

 93

Eventually the re-entry program was discontinued after getting only 1,690 women,

more than half of whom required quick

discharge as undesirables.94

All such problems, although inevitable

in the attempt to hold a small Corps during the chaotic days of Army demobilization, caused considerable uneasiness to the

Director. She feared particularly that the

wartime WAC's good record would be

damaged and Congress alienated.95

Regular Army legislation, toward

which WAC leaders looked to end the

chaos of the interim period, progressed

haltingly. Colonel Boyce's advice was not

always accepted on provisions, nor was

she kept in close touch with planning.96

She had recommended that Colonel McCoskrie be assigned to G-1 Division to

draft legislation, but the work was instead

given to an officer with no previous knowledge of the Corps.97

 Her suggestion for

simple legislation with complete integration, such as that drafted for the WAVES,

D/F, G-1 to TAG, 8 Jun 46, and Comment 2 to D/F,

P&A Div, to OGSigO, 16 Oct 46. WDGAP 320 WAC

(6-13-46). (2) Rpt on TD to 1st and 2d SvCs by Dep

Dir WAC, 26 Oct-1 Nov, 2 Nov 45, WDWAC 333.1.

(3) Ltr, WAC Stf Dir Seventh Army to Dir WAC, 22

Jun 46. WDWAC 320. (4) Memo, Dir WAC for P&A,

7 Aug 46, WDWAC 201, and Ltr, TAG to Dir WAC,

14 Aug 46, AGPR-D-A-210.31. 90

 (1) Stat Info on Strength, Distribution, Rotation,

and Redeployment of WAC Pers in ET, 31 Oct 46.

WDWAC 320. (2) Ltr, TAG to TIG, AAF, PMG, and

SGO, 20 Aug 47. AGAM-PM 334 WDGPA. (3) DA

Memo 20-30-2, 27 Oct 47, Investigations of WAC

Pers. WAC files OCMH. (4) Ltr, Maj Herbert to Col

Boyce, 17 Sep 46. WDWAC 320. (5) Series of TWXs;

26 Feb-20Jun 46. WDWAC 210.31 and 320.

91

 Intervs with ASF WAC Off, 19 Apr 46, and former Stf Dir 3d SvC, 12 Apr 46. 92

 (1) Ltr, WAC Stf Dir Hq USAF China to Dir

WAC, 28 May 46. WDWAC 320. (2) Ltr, WAC Stf

Dir Hq First Army to Maj Herbert, 18 Jul 46.

WDWAC 210.31. (3) Boyce request cited in personal

ltr, Maj Herbert to WAC Stf Dir Sixth Army Area,

17 Sep 46, with incl ltr, 16 Sep 46, SGO to Letterman GH. WDWAC 320. (4) Ltr, WAC Stf Dir 2d

SvC to Dir WAC, 10 Jun 46. WDWAC 342. (5) Personal ltr, Maj Herbert to WAC Stf Dir USFET, 19 Jul

46. WDWAC 210.31. (6) Memo, Maj Herbert for Col

Boyce, 23 Sep 46. WDWAC 720. (7) Personal ltr,

Maj Herbert to WAC Stf Dir Sixth Army Area, 19

Sep 46. WDWAC 320. (8) Ltr, Dir WAC to Hq Fifth

Army Area, 16 Oct 46. WDWAC 320. (9) Memo,

Maj Herbert for Col Boyce, 1 Oct 46, WDWAC 333.1.

(10) Ltr, Lt Irene Scott, WDBPR, to Editor WAC

Newsletter, 14 Jun 46. WDWAC 000.76. (11) Memo,

Dir WAC for Chief OT Div WD, 1 Aug 46. WDWAC

352.

93

 (1) Memo cited n. 86. (2) Memo, Maj Herbert

for Dir WAC, 2 Oct 46, with reply. 94

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1, 17 Jan 46.

WDWAC 320.2. (2) TWX to all SvCs, 9 Feb 46, CMOUT 96566, DTG-0920082, in WDWAC 342. (3)

WD Memo 600-750-13, 3 Apr 47. (4) Memo, G-1

for TAG, 25 Feb 46. WDGAP 220.3 WAC (2-15-46),

in WDWAC 342. (5) Memo, Maj Herbert for Lt

Irene Scott, 19 Sep 46. WDWAC 320. (6) Ltr, Dir

WAC to all Wac Stf Dirs, 11 Sep 46, re sec III, WD

Cir 241, 10 Aug 46. WDWAC 421. 95

 Ltr cited n. 92(3). 96

 Memos cited n. 88. 97

 Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Paul, 19 Jan 46, sub:

Col Frank U. McCoskrie. 1945-46 WAC file, unnumbered. Colonel McCoskrie asked the author to

send him "the WAC files," to which he intended to

devote a week's reading in order to familiarize himself with its past history.
746 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

WAF, and women Marines, was rejected.

Instead, the draft legislation provided for

a separate corps with separate grades, as

in Auxiliary days. A separate promotion

list was provided, on the ground that

WAC officers "could not be transferred

into the other Arms and Services."

 98

Women officers were limited to one temporary colonel and no more than 10 percent lieutenant colonels, as against 14 percent lieutenant colonels and 8 percent

colonels for men.99 Because of these low

ranks, weeks more of delay resulted as

special retirement rules and predicted attrition schedules were worked out.100

In another reversal of wartime policy,

direct commissions were authorized for

civilian women, since no ROTC training

was authorized for women. In still another

reversal, the age limit for enlistment was

dropped to 18 years, a move that Director

Hobby had several times rejected as dangerous.101

In the spring of 1947, Deputy Director

Hallaren stated, "We felt that if we do not

get it [legislation] in this session, we might

as well quit; women interested in planning

a career will give up and go home."

 102

 By

March, the legislation was at last believed

satisfactory to the War Department and

ready for introduction into Congress. At

this time Colonel Boyce, who had been

hospitalized since late January, elected to

leave the Army and the Acting Director

and former Deputy, Colonel Hallaren, assumed office on 5 May 1947 as the third

Director WAC.103

Congressional Action

On 15 April 1947, the WAC Integration Act of 1947 was introduced in Congress, and eventually was approved unanimously on the Senate floor. Everything

appeared favorable to a speedy passage.

Endorsements had been received from

almost all important women's groups,

and a Gallup poll disclosed that a majority of the American public—a majority of men as well as of women—

also favored peacetime status.104 General

Eisenhower in 1946 took the step that

General Marshall had taken two years before, and wrote personally to field commanders to request their support.105

 These

measures proved inadequate to prevent

another year's delay.106 During this time

there ensued an attack from the same

source that in wartime had crippled WAC

recruiting: Army men and veterans, articles in soldier magazines, and letters to the

editor.107

Representative Margaret Chase Smith

said that she had been told that the opposition stemmed from "off-the-record

statements" made to Armed Services

Committee members by "duly authorized

98

 Notes by author at Mtg, O Dir WAC, 10 Dec 46,

Col Hallaren presiding for Dir WAC, Gen Dahlquist

for Army. 99

 Min, Stf Mtg, O Dir WAC, 10 Jan 46, Col Boyce

presiding. WAC file OCMH. 100

 (1) Memo, Maj Herbert for Col Boyce, 16 Sep

46. WDWAC 320.2. (2) Notes by author, Conf at O

Dir WAC, Col Hallaren presiding, 27 Nov 46. 101

 Ibid. For final form, see PL 625 (1948). 102

 Notes by author, Stf Mtg, O Dir WAC, 28 Feb

47.

103

 Min cited n. 83. Also Ltr, CofS to Col Boyce, 14

Mar 47. OCMH. 104

 (1) Letters and Resolutions dated from January

through June 1947, and read into Congressional Record

by Representative Edith N. Rogers on 21 April 1948,

pp. 4813-14. Also notes by author, Stf Mtg, 31 Jan

47, Col Hallaren presiding. (2) Gallup Poll, 21 Aug

47, in Washington Post for August 22, 1947. 105

 Personal ltr, CofS to CGs Army Areas, 23 Jul

46; replies, 29 and 31 Jul and 1 Aug 46. WDGPA

342.06 WAC (7-17-46), G-1 files. 106

 Personnel Newsletter 9, 1 Sep 47. WAC files,

OCMH. 107

 Washington Post, July 15, 1947, March 11, 1948,

and many others; Salute, August 1947, "Thirty-year

Girls."
DEMOBILIZATION 747

officer representatives of the Navy Department."

 108

 Representative Dewey

Short of Missouri stated, without revealing

his informants, that, "as far as the high officers are concerned, and from major

down to second lieutenant, and an overwhelming majority of the enlisted men,

they are against the Corps."

 109

 Representative Leroy Johnson of California explained:

The sad part about this is that we have

only heard from a few top bracket men in the

Army, and in asking questions I found that

there were many, many officers in the Army

who are not sure that it is the right thing to

do to make these women a part of the Regu- lar Establishment. They have never had a

chance to be heard.110

Although Representative Frances P. Bolton said, "It seems to me that we should

know why the Armed Services differ so

definitely from the heads of services," no

committee member made this clear. A

member noted, "There are several aspects

to this bill that I do not care to discuss here

publicly." One representative exclaimed,

"If we could only discuss publicly on the

floor of the House those things that we discussed behind closed doors!"

 l1l

 The

anonymous opposition became so general

that early in 1948 Secretary of the Army

Kenneth C. Royall reopened the question

before the War Council as to whether the

armed services should continue to sponsor

the legislation. After a study of the "contribution and performance" of the wartime women's services, the position of the

heads of the services remained unchanged.112

On 23 March 1948 the House Armed

Services Committee voted, 26-1, to pass

only the Reserve part of the legislation.

The one dissenting vote belonged to Congresswoman Margaret Chase Smith of

Maine, the only woman member of the

committee.113

Representative Smith offered an amendment to put the Regular Army provisions

back in the bill. When this was defeated,

she immediately offered another to limit

the Reserves to 10 officers and 25 enlisted

women on active duty for not more than

two years at a time, stating that she intended to make sure that armed forces did

not employ large numbers of women "just

as you would Regulars without giving

them Regular status." This amendment

was also defeated, and the bill was passed

by the House authorizing only a Reserve.

The matter now took on an especial urgency, with only two months remaining

before the date in June of 1948 upon

which the wartime Corps, as part of the

Army of the United States, must be disbanded because of the expiration of legislative authority for its continuance. Whatever the opinion of the anonymous Army

man, the heads of the several services in all

of that spring's hearings rallied to the support of the bill in a display of strength unprecedented in Corps history. Those who

personally appeared before the armed

services committees included Secretary of

Defense James V. Forrestal, Generals

Eisenhower, Bradley, Paul, and Brig. Gen.

George Ellis Armstrong; Gen. Hoyt S. 108

 Congressional Record, 6 Apr 48, p. A2241. 109

 Congressional Record, 21 Apr 48, p. 4831. 110

 Congressional Record, 8 Apr 48, p. 4369. 111

 Both in Congressional Record, 21 Apr 48. 112

 Tentative Agenda, Mtg of War Council, 10:00

A.M., 20 Jan 48. Composition: Secys Royall, W.

Stuart Symington, and James V. Forrestal; Gens

Eisenhower, Spaatz; Admiral Louis E. Denfeld. Copy

in WAC files, OCMH. 113

 By tp call, O Dir WAC to author, 23 Mar 48,

and Washington Post, 24 Mar 48. Also Congressional

Record, 6 Apr 46, pp. 4233-34. Full debate is in Congressional Record, 21 Apr 48, pp. 4806-34. See also

Washington Post, April 27, 1942, for reporters' impressions.
748 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Vandenberg and Brig. Gen. Dean C.

Strother; Admiral Louis E. Denfeld, Vice

Adm. Arthur W. Radford, Rear Adms.

Herbert L. Pugh, Walter A. Buck, and

Earl E. Stone. General Eisenhower stated:

When this project was proposed in the beginning of the war, like most old soldiers, I

was violently against it. I thought a tremendous number of difficulties would occur. . . .

Every phase of the record they compiled during the war convinced me of the error of my

first reaction.

In tasks for which they are particularly

suited, Wacs are more valuable than men,

and fewer of them are required to perform a

given amount of work. ... In the disciplinary field they were, throughout the war, a

model for the Army. . . . More than this,

their influence throughout the whole command was good. Carefully supervised, pre- senting a picture of model deportment and

neatness, their presence was always reflected

around a headquarters in improved conduct

on the part of all.

In the event of another war, which would

be even more truly global than the last in its

effects upon the entire population, it is my

conviction that everybody in this country

would serve under some form of call to duty.

... I assure you that I look upon this measure as a "must". . . . You are at perfect liberty to quote me privately and publicly in

this matter.114

General Eisenhower strongly opposed

the substitution of Reserve for Regular

status, adding:

The history of the Army shows that . . . there was tremendous resentment on the part

of line officers originally when surgeons were

given rank and called colonels, etc. . . . We

have long since outgrown that and I believe

that type of argument no longer has any

validity.

Appearances were also made by the

current heads of the various women's services, and statements were submitted by

former Director Boyce and by various

women's groups including the WAC's National Civilian Advisory Committee. The

wartime WAC leaders—Colonels Hobby,

Bandel, Rice, Woods, Goodwin, Davis,

and Strayhorn—were not asked to testify

or to submit statements; the same was true

of the wartime heads of the WAVES,

SPARS, and women Marines. When privately approached by members of Congress to inquire whether such an invitation should not be issued by Congress,

since it had not been issued by the armed

forces, the wartime WAC leaders discouraged such action. While personally uninterested in peacetime service, most did not

feel justified in barring it for any women

who wished to remain. More important,

they feared that their opposition to peacetime service might mistakenly be construed as a condemnation of the WAC's

wartime record, or of future service by

women in national emergencies.115

In the following weeks, the Senate stood

firm in its earlier approval of Regular

Army status. Before the voting, the House

put up a final fight on what appeared to

be the basic point of opposition—the fear

that women would command men. One

member, a Navy veteran, stated:

There is not a member of the House Committee on Armed Services who has not re- ceived a telephone call or a call in person

from enlisted men objecting to the idea of

having to take orders from a WAVES officer.

Another stated:

I heartily concur in all of the laudatory remarks. . . . But . . . what we are asked to

approve today is an organizational change in

the structure of the Armed Services which is

as extreme and far reaching as any ever con114

 House Corn on Armed Servs, Subcommittee Hearings on S. 1641, 18 Feb 48, incl Ltr, CofS to Chmn

HR Com on Armed Servs, 30 Jan 48. 115

 Intervs, 1949-50.
DEMOBILIZATION 749

templated by any nation. If we approve this

conference report, women will become an integral part of the Armed Forces of the United

States in peacetime for the first time in our history.

After a final struggle in which it was

necessary for the sergeant-at-arms to close

the doors and secure absent members, a

vote was taken on 2 June 1948 which—

206 to 133, 91 not voting—placed women

in both the Regular services and the Reserves.116

 On 12 June 1948, upon the

President's signature, the measure became

law.117 The wartime Women's Army

Corps, expiring in the same month, bequeathed some 2,000 of its former members to the Regular Army WAC.118

116

 Congressional Record, 2 Jun 48, pp. 7052-57. 117

 PL 625, 80th Cong, 12 Jun 45. 118

 By tp from Maj Ruth Myers, Stat Br G-1, 10

Nov 50. Some 5,500 Wacs remained in June; some

2,000 former Wacs (AUS) enlisted in the WAC (RA),

chiefly from these women but partly from those returning from civilian life. Legislation provided for retention of women until integration could be effected.
CHAPTER XXXVII

Evaluation

and Recommendations

Neither the cost nor the worth of the

wartime Women's Army Corps, Army of

the United States, was ever officially assessed. Few of the Army's operating agencies, fiscal, procurement, or otherwise,

kept a separate Corps accounting or a separate total of expenditures. From the

viewpoint of achievement of full integration, there was no reason why expensive

separate accounts should have been maintained; even if they had been, there would

have been no objective manner of weighing them against that intangible—performance.

Cost to the Army

For the information of Congress, the

General Staff, in its postwar planning,

compiled a chart of the estimated relative

cost of male and female soldiers under

"normal" conditions.1 This summary

made clear that there was no reason why a

woman soldier should cost as much as a

man. Aside from the considerable saving

of food, the major economy in the use of

female personnel consisted in the lesser

number of dependents or persons legally

entitled to be considered dependents, with

resulting savings not only in wartime allotments of salary but also in dependents'

quarters, travel, and other costs. Since

combat training could be omitted, the required training time was also shorter and

less expensive, particularly when, in wartime, numbers of older women already

possessing needed civilian skills chose to

enter. Under normal conditions, and if the

estimates to Congress held true, it appeared that the wartime Army of the

future could save itself at least $7,700,000

per year for each 100,000 women substituted for an equal number of male noncombatants.

In addition, if the estimates of commanders such as Generals Eisenhower,

Eaker, and Devers were correct, the savings could be doubled by the use of only

50,000 women to substitute for 100,000

men in jobs in which women appeared to

excel. In testimony before Congress every

authority almost without exception stated

that in such work one woman had in wartime offices replaced at least two men and

possibly more. Such double savings, however, would apply only to part of the possible replacements. If it was necessary to

extend the use of women to motor transport and mechanical jobs, no better than

one-for-one replacement could be expected, while further extension to work in

1

 See accompanying chart. O Dir WAC, printed

in House Com on Armed Services, Subcommittee

Hearings on S. 1641, HR Rpt 238, 18 Feb 48.

752 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

large messes and as hospital orderly would

require two women for one man, thus canceling the earlier savings.

Such estimates gave no clue to the

actual cost of the wartime WAC, which

had never operated under "normal" conditions. The Corps as a whole had been

the victim of the expensive experiments

inherent in any new organization. It had

accumulated stocks of unusable misfit

clothing; it had spent money on early illplanned recruiting schemes, with illchosen slogans and personnel, and aimed

at unrealistic goals; it had opened and

promptly closed large training centers for

recruits who never appeared. It had also

required incalculable man-hours of the

time of experienced Army staff officers,

from the Chief of Staff downward to every

headquarters and station commander,

which could not be reckoned in dollars

and cents. Whether or not the expense of

such an experimental stage was recompensed by even the most superlative efficiency in its members was a question

difficult to answer. However, if later wars

required total mobilization, and if the organizational lessons of World War II were

not forgotten, the experiment had obviously been a useful and necessary one.

Recommendations for the Future

Although no WAC or Army authorities

left detailed studies as to the means by

which successive mobilizations could

avoid the major causes of expense or difficulty in World War II, their general

recommendations could to some extent be

pieced together from speeches, separate

staff studies, historical accounts, and lists

of incomplete projects.

General Paul, the postwar head of G-1

Division, was the only man on the General

Staff level to leave a formal recommendation. He stated that five problems "must

be solved in order to effect a sound and

complete utilization of women." Two of

these had, he believed, been solved by

Regular Army legislation: the "lack of

prior planning" before an emergency occurred, and the "lack of an organized

nucleus within the military establishment

on which to build." Two others concerned

what was generally now recognized by administrators of women: that women's jobs

were more important to them than any

other factor in their environment. General Paul therefore stated that the Army

must not again be guilty either of "failure

to evaluate civilian training and experience" or of "reluctance to utilize women

in Army jobs formerly held by men."

Finally, he noted the effect of unfavorable

Army attitude on all echelons, resulting

from "failure to orient key male personnel

as to proper utilization of women in the

Army." In spite of these past problems,

General Paul was confident that they need

not be repeated. In any case, he concluded:

Experience of World War II proved that women play a vital role in the military effectiveness of any nation. And American

women, through their services in the

Women's Army Corps, showed that, contrary

to dogmatic opinion, the previously untapped

potentiality of womanpower could be directed into the channel of personnel power

with positive results. The record shows that

their contribution erased any doubt as to the

ability, adaptability, and stability of American women in time of national crisis.

As to continuation of this wartime performance in the peacetime Army or any

future wartime Corps, only one immediate

question occured to General Paul, which

he called, "the question that pops up in

anyone's mind—Would you be able to get
EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 753

the type of womanhood you want?"

 2

The final recommendations of Directors

Hobby and Boyce were not so specific,

being merely lists of unfinished business or

other staff studies. It was noteworthy,

however, that on several points there was

general agreement between the views of

both Directors, several major commands,

and frequently General Paul or medical

authorities. Points on which there was

some agreement among several experts included the fields of Army opinion,

women's jobs and housing, the caste system, the recruiting organization, and the

proper employment of WAC advisers at

all levels.

Army Attitude

On the question of Army attitude, both

Colonel Hobby and Colonel Boyce agreed

with General Paul in ascribing it a place

of primary importance in the course of

any future Corps. Colonel Boyce noted

that "though improvement has come . . .

this attitude is still not wholly corrected."

She therefore recommended, for the

future:

In any future organization for women, the

War Department, through the Chief of Staff,

should at the outset set forth to the Army the

desire that the women shall be considered as

full members of the Army and be accorded

every courtesy and protection by all male

members, commissioned and enlisted; and

that all commanders be held responsible to

prevent scurrilous comment and a negative

attitude on the part of male military person- nel toward the women within their commands.3

Women's Jobs

The Corps' entire history demonstrated

that one factor above all others influenced

women's morale, happiness, or discipline.

This was, simply, correct job assignment

and full-time work. Director Hobby had

stated unequivocally at the end of the

WAAC's first year: "That is the biggest

single morale factor. If they feel that they

have actually replaced a man, they feel

that they are doing their job."

 4

An Army Service Forces survey in the

last days of the war noted that job satisfaction would be essential "for the future utilization of women in emergencies," and

that:

Satisfaction with her job is probably the

single most important factor in an enlisted

woman's evaluation of her role as a member of the Women's Army Corps, and, consequently, her general morale and adjustment

in Army life.

Unlike men in the Army, who can display

endurance and courage through hardships

and combat, the women have only the work

they do on their jobs to offer as evidence of

their contribution to the war effort.5

From the viewpoint of mental health,

General Menninger agreed that in the

future more instead of less choice of jobs

should be allowed a recruit: "We should

attempt to mold and modify the program

to ... allow for specificity in assignment

and an opportunity for expression of

feminine . . . ability."

 6

Social Association

Subordinate in importance only to job

assignment, both Colonels Hobby and

Boyce listed the Army caste system as ap2

 All from Speech of Gen Paul at Comd and Gen

Stf Sch, 3 Apr 46, p. II-8. WD WAC 350.001. 3

 Summary of Recommendations, Col Boyce, Dir

WAC, 27 Nov 45. WD WAC 314.7. 4

 Speech, Dir Hobby. Stf Dirs Conf, Chicago, 15-17

Jun 43. SPWA 337 (6-1-43). 5

 Hq ASF, I&E Div Rpt C130, 7 Aug 45. OCMH. 6

 Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World, p. 115.
754 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

plied to off-duty association of personnel

of opposite sex, which Colonel Boyce

called "the second strongest adverse factor

in WAC morale." The Office of the Director, as well as Colonel Bandel in the Air

Forces, continued to recommend that the

only restriction be "the simple rule followed in most business offices"—that

supervisors not date employees. Colonel

Boyce also suggested that "an All-Ranks

Club be established as an Army-wide custom, thus solving the problem for male

Army personnel, Army Nurse Corps, and

WAC officers and enlisted." The Medical

Department's General Menninger endorsed this as a very practical recommendation and advised that the War Department publish a policy asserting that the

laws of natural selection should govern offduty associations between male and

female personnel.

Even in the few cases, such as that in

the European theater, where WAC advisers favored application of the caste system to social engagements, all without

exception agreed that some Army-wide

policy should be published, comparable

to the Navy's publication. Colonel Boyce

noted that "the absence of any announced

policy by the War Department led to inevitable and unfortunate inequality in

handling this problem . . . whatever is decided as the policy, it should be announced

at the War Department level."

 7

While it appeared that the. problem

would be less evident among peacetime

personnel, who enlisted in full knowledge

of the system, wartime WAC leaders were

unanimous that it would be unwise ever

again to attempt to form a large women's

corps, particularly if women were drafted,

without such an announced policy. Army

men were ordinarily surprised to find this

problem given such a high place in the list,

yet all recorded comments of enlisted

women were to the effect that "the whole

experience was degrading and humiliating ... I would not re-enlist for any

amount of money unless the caste system

is abolished in its entirety."

 8 Regardless of

conflicting explanations of why this attitude should be held so strongly by American women, the fact was that it did exist,

to a degree that could not safely be discounted.

Housing

In the matter of housing, all WAC

authorities agreed with Colonel Hobby's

final report, which noted the need for a

distinction between housing for transient

troops and that for permanent employees.

Colonel Boyce's final statement on the

matter added that, if the War Department

wished to attract a Corps of women of

high ability, it would be obliged to provide

"suitable living standards ... a greater

degree of privacy than the open barracks

of the past war, and . . . heating systems

which would not necessitate the stoking of

coal stoves by women." Colonel Craighill's

medical reports invariably attributed tension and exhaustion among Wacs and

nurses in large part to the lack of privacy.

Colonel Bandel's final observation, concerning Air Force experience, was:

From the standpoint of hindsight ... it

would seem that one of the major aspects of

the WAC program which might have been

improved, in the initial planning stages, was

the housing program. . . . Field experience

indicated that drab or flimsy wartime hous7

 (1) Summary cited n. 3. (2) AAF WAC Hist, p.

96.

8

 Ltr, Mrs. J. S. to Dir WAC, 19 Mar 46. WDWAC

095. This is typical of thousands of similar letters discovered in WAC files of every command.
EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 755

ing had a greater effect on WAC efficiency

and morale than anyone had anticipated.

Except for Colonel Craighill, none of

these advisers applied such remarks to

women overseas or otherwise transient in

residence. It appeared that the problem

would be less conspicuous in peacetime

when all troops occupied more or less permanent housing, but in another mobilization a careful distinction was obviously

required between those Wacs who could

be considered transients and those who, in

several years at one station, would benefit

by housing comparable to peacetime

Army quarters or civilian women's dormitories.9

The Uniform

Plans made by The Quartermaster

General indicated that revision of the uniform would incorporate wartime lessons.

The various uniforms worn by Wacs and

nurses were scheduled for standardization

to permit a common and simplified procurement. Work items needed by Wacs

were added or retained: summer and winter slacks, a summer work dress, and

adequate cold-weather clothing. The offduty dress was temporarily dropped from

peacetime issue, as civilian clothing could

be worn off duty.

The only reversal of a wartime advance

came in the matter of uniform color. From

preplanning days, the Director's Office

had successfully vetoed The Quartermaster General's ideas for a non-Army color

for women's uniforms; the frequent wartime suggestions that the WAC uniform be

changed to another shade had been rebuffed "in view of the fact that the WAC is

a part of the Army." In 1946, the Office of

The Quartermaster General returned to

the attempt with a design for an applegreen uniform with a pale green shirt, intended to be more becoming and attractive to women. Although the WAC staff

protested that "women's uniforms in general should be of the same material, color

and design as that prescribed for men,"

The Quartermaster General proceeded

with field tests, and finally abandoned the

project only after receiving discouraging

comments from enlisted women. A short

time later, the Quartermaster Corps made

a more successful attempt; another version

was produced in another non-Army color,

a grayish taupe model by a famous designer, cut with Peter Pan collar and general nonmilitary lines. Other services—

the WAF, WAVES, and Women Marinescontinued to employ regulation tailored

designs.10

Recruiting

All WAC authorities affirmed the need

for special recruiting methods and standards for women. Colonel Boyce wrote:

The costly and unsuccessful experiments

in WAC recruiting indicate that regular R&I

methods are completely unsuccessful with

women. Recruiting policies for women require a special technique and approach and

their establishment should be considered as

9

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC, for CofS through G-1, 11

Jul 45. WDWAC 319.1. Forwarded by Summary

Sheet, Gen Henry, G-1, for CofS, sub: Final Rpt on

WAC by Col Oveta Culp Hobby, Retiring Dir, 10

Sep 45. WDGAP319.1 WAC (7-11-45). (2) Craighill SWPA Rpt. (3) AAF WAC Hist, p. 93. (4) Memo,

Col Boyce, Dir WAC, for Welfare Br G-1, 12 Apr 46.

WDWAC 334. (5) Rpt by Dir WAC, 27 Nov 45.

WD WAC 314.7. 10

 Section on uniform from: (1) Ltr, OQMG to Mr.

L. Margrave, 9 Jun 44. SPQRD 095, in WDWAC

095. (2) Comment 2, P&A Div WD to D/SSP, 30 Sep

46. WDWAC 421. (3) Bull, Women's Uniforms, ANCWAC, 10 Apr 46, by R&D Br, OQMG. WDWAC

421. (4) M/R, 16 May 46, Mtg in O Dir WAC.

WDWAC 421. (5) M/R, 12 Sep 46. WDWAC 400.34.
756 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

one of the primary functions on which the

heads of the Women's Services should

advise.11

These views were not concurred in by

the postwar Adjutant General's Office.

The early days of 1943, once viewed with

alarm as the time of an influx of unassignables, were now cited as evidence of the

superiority of a merger of WAC and Army

recruiting, since the numerical intake had

in those days been at its peak. As a result,

the regular recruiting organization was

employed for WAC recruiting. The WAC

advertising account, as part of the Army

account, was returned to the firm that had

originated the slogan of "Release a Man

for Combat." The recruiting program

nevertheless profited from wartime lessons

by setting high standards, and by warning

that "Commitments made to the enlistee

must be conscientiously carried out; no

false promises."

 12

Both Directors were of the opinion that

civilian women advisers such as the National Civilian Advisory Committee had

been of great value to recruiting. Colonel

Boyce noted: "The interest of the members of this Committee greatly enhanced

the prestige of the Corps nationally and

locally."

 13

Standards

Most wartime officers with experience

in administering Wacs agreed that high

enlistment standards—mental, physical,

educational, and moral—were utterly essential to successful replacement of men in

the type of noncombat work open to

women and within their strength. General

White noted later, "The biggest mistake

we ever made was in briefly dropping

our standards for numbers. Daytona

Beach was the most convincing lesson

about that. From then on I bitterly opposed lowering standards."

 14

In spite of the fact that WAC enlistment

standards had been higher than those of

the Army, most authorities believed that

they should have been even stricter. Colonel Boyce later commented that many

Corps problems "would not have existed

or would have been minimized" by constant and strenuous screening at the recruiting level, the basic training level, the

officer candidate level, and before overseas

shipment.15

Provision for Troop Officers and Cadre

Almost all final recommendations by

WAC staff advisers cited the need for better provisions to make troop work more

attractive to women leaders, and for better

training for those engaged in it. Colonel

Hobby, upon her departure from the

Corps, called for advanced training

schools not only for troop officers but for

enlisted cadre, with emphasis on the medical, social, recreational, psychological,

and disciplinary problems of women.

The Air Forces and the European theater also suggested an allotment of cadre

grades to each station if the presence of a

WAC unit did not decrease the number of

men's units. The European theater added:

The major problem arising from assignment of WAC personnel to existing tables of

organization has been in securing commensurate grades and ratings for cadre. In many

11

 Col Boyce, Summary of Recommendations, 27

Nov 45. WDWAC 314.7. 12

 (1) "Outline of TAG Organization," speech by

Col Wright to Stf Dirs Conf, Jun 46. Notes by author,

OCMH. (2) Summary, WAC (RA) Rctg. OCMH. 13

 Ltr, Mrs. Westray Battle Boyce Leslie to OCMH,

2 May 51. 14

 Interv, 5 Jan 51. 15

 Ltr cited n. 13.
EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 757

instances it has been difficult to promote or

even secure cadre personnel.16

The recommending agencies were of

the opinion that the best female officers

and enlisted women would not be attracted to troop duty as long as cadre

grades were not provided for the WAC

unit on the same terms as formally activated Army units. Colonel Bandel also

recommended that the WAC officer candidate school be reserved for troop officers

and that other women specialists be appointed in other arms or services.17

All wartime WAC and Air WAC advisers without exception agreed that it was

essential to retain the system of permitting

assignment of enlisted women only to units

of company size commanded by women

officers. Where this precaution had been

neglected, WAC health, morale, discipline, and supply had invariably suffered,

and necessary provisions of all sorts had

been omitted. At least one full-time company commander, and at least one or two

part-time junior assistants were stated to

be the irreducible minimum for enlisted

women's well-being.

Need for Staff Advisers

Although all WAC recommendations

stressed the essentiality of female company officers, more question existed as to

whether, in the future, female advisers like

the wartime staff directors would be

needed in the headquarters of major commands employing Wacs. Colonel Bandel

noted that the question of what advisers

would be required several decades in the

future "can not be answered at this time,"

but that specialists would probably be

needed "so long as a condition exists, as it

did in World War II, in which women

represent only about three percent of the

strength of any command."

 18

 Colonel

Good win stated:

I believe that it will be absolutely necessary to have women staff advisers in future

emergencies. I found that in all commands

where the Staff Director was ignored, enlisted

women were assigned to poor jobs and less

than full utilization resulted.19

The pattern of WAC history in World

War II showed that, in those commands

that did not employ a staff director, problems arose—not merely occasionally, but

invariably—to a greater degree than in

commands that made use of such an adviser. Inferior results were also noted in

commands that did not ordinarily give the

staff adviser's recommendations the weight

normally given to an Army special staff

member.20 Colonel Boyce gave her opinion that the time had not yet arrived when

commands might safely dispense with a

female adviser, even though her duties

would gradually decrease, and that "in

the utilization of women certain safeguards are essential for the protection of

their health and well-being."

 21

The parallel example of industry offered strong support for the theory that the

use of women staff advisers was not an interference with command but an assistance to it, and merely common sense in

personnel management.

War Manpower Commission officials

stated, during the war, "Employers can

save themselves all sorts of trouble if they

16

 See Ch. XVI, above; also ETO Bd Rpt, Vol. II,

App. 1, p. 10. 17

 AAF WAC Hist, pp. 85, 94. 18

 Ibid., p. 96. 19

 Interv and comments on draft of chapter, 2-4

May 51. 20

 See Chs. XVIII and XXII, above. 21

 Remarks of Dir WAC at Conf of Overseas Theater G-1s, 15 Oct 46. WD WAC 337 A-S.
758 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

will hire the best woman supervisors they

can find, and give them enough authority

in the plant to make their orders stick."

Industry discovered that it lost women

workers when it did not have women

supervisors. Women supervisors proved

able to prevent resignations and absenteeism by giving understanding attention

to problems of home conditions, shopping

hours, recreation, morale, and illness, and

by securing clean washrooms, cafeterias,

and labor-saving devices that maintained

women's efficiency. Officials concluded

that "a female personnel director for

women, with common sense and efficiency, is the important catalyst."

 22

The Office of the Director

Many of the same conclusions appeared

to be generally held concerning the need

for a WAC director on the General Staff

level. While the duties of that office would

evidently decrease as women's needs were

catalogued and provided for by Army

Regulations, and as specialist groups in

other offices were re-established and became capable of taking over operating

details, there appeared to exist a continuing need for a nerve center to detect problems and disseminate latest advancements.

The precedent of the British and Canadian women's services likewise indicated

a continuing need, not merely for a

woman adviser located somewhere in the

headquarters, but for an Office of the Director. In the Canadian Women's Army

Corps, the experiment had actually been

made of abolishing the office and assigning the director as an assistant adjutant

general, a position equivalent to that of

Assistant G-1 in the American General

Staff, but after some months it was found

necessary to re-establish an Office of the

Director.23 A similar conclusion was

reached by the American WAVES.24

The Unification Issue

The trend of all postwar studies was toward recognition that unification of the

women's services was desirable, with one

female adviser in senior rank at the highest level. Proposals for unification of the

armed forces therefore met with strong

support from women advisers. The European theater's final board report suggested

that, at any headquarters level, there be

one top adviser for Wacs, nurses, and civilian female employees, so that similar rules

and equal consideration might be given

all groups as to medical care, recreation,

housing, and other matters of well-being.

The Robinson report to the War Department in 1946 recommended that a

special adviser for women's affairs be appointed to advise the General Staff on

matters pertaining to all female military

personnel. Unification appeared even

more desirable for women's services than

for men's, in view of the smaller size and

generally closer-knit nature of the groups,

which made them especially sensitive to

jealousies and lowered morale in cases in

which better uniforms or housing, or more

lenient discipline, discharge, or other

rules, were seen in one group only.25

While medical and nursing groups had

always remained aloof to any such unifica22

 "The Margin is Woman power," Fortune, January,

1943. 23

 Draft of WAC Hist, 14 Nov 45, incl note.

WD WAC 314.7. 24

 WAVES Hist. 25

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for Plng Br, G-1, 13 Feb

46; (2) Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Paul, 21 Feb 46;

(3) Memo, Dir WAC for Gen Paul, 4 Jun 46, re WD

Cir 5-1, 27 May 46; (4) Memo, Dep Dir to Plng and

Policy Co-ordination Br, G-1, 16 Aug 46. WDWAC

320.
EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 759

tion, the four enlisted women's services of

the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and

Coast Guard had in fact for most of the

war acted in a unified manner insofar as

their directors were able to achieve it. A

telephone conversation between Colonel

Hobby and Capt. Mildred McAfee of the

WAVES gave some indication that they

were at times in advance of their parent

services in this respect:

Capt. McAfee: This is certainly something

that had better be joint. Col. Hobby: It would be terrible if it were

any other way. . . . I wonder if it might not

be well if we got together informally and

agreed to something before we brought the

men in?

Capt. McAfee: I think that's a smart

thought.26

Nevertheless, the chief of the Bureau of

Naval Personnel admitted that the Joint

Policy Committee of the Women's Reserves, a subcommittee of the Joint ArmyNavy Personnel Board, did not work as

well as the women desired because of the

"stubborn autonomy" of the parent

services.27

Unhappily for women's efforts in this

respect, the trend of the parent services

was towards greater compartmentalization rather than unification. With the

"unification" of the Air Forces, the Air

Wacs became the WAF, with their own

distinctive uniform, and headed by a director in the rank of colonel. The trend

was increased by the determination of the

Medical Department to achieve autonomy

in its women's corps. In addition to the

Army Nurse Corps, the Medical Department secured legislation for the separate

Women's Medical Specialist Corps, composed of female officers commissioned as

dietitians, physiotherapists, and other

medical specialists. This corps, although

small, had equal status with the Army

Nurse Corps and WAC, and was also

headed by a colonel.

There seemed to be no very good reason,

if this trend continued, why separate

women's corps would not be formed by all

the arms and services—a Women's Transportation Corps, Women's Quartermaster

Corps, or Women's Signal Corps—each

with its own director and its own regulations and policies. In fact, upon the analogy of the Medical Department, there

seemed no reason why a service such as

the Quartermaster Corps should not have

two or more independent women's corps,

such as the Women's Food Management

Corps and the Women's Supply Corps.

However, the recommendations of all

women advisers were against such development of special corps for women and in

favor of full integration into existing Army

groups.

The Question of Conscripting Women

Although some Army leaders, like General Eisenhower, expressed the view that

total mobilization would be required in

future emergencies, none became more

specific on the implied necessity for drafting womanpower. Testimony before Congress made quite clear that the Army did

not consider the establishment of a peacetime women's corps to have any necessary

connection with drafting women, which

would be a matter for future and separate

consideration by Congress in time of mobilization.

The precedent of British and other

services indicated that, when and if such a

proposal reached a legislative body, it

26

 Tp Conv, Col Hobby and Capt McAfee, 5 Mar

45. G-1 312-312.9, Drawer 6, DRB AGO. 27

 WAVES Hist.
760 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

would not come from the armed forces,

which might encounter more bitter opposition, but rather as a part of a wider program of national mobilization, civilian as

well as military. The first step would apparently be a mere registration of women,

as a guide to planners concerning available skills, age groups, mobility, and other

factors in the allotment of womanpower.

Such a proposal had been recognized by

World War II planners as the least controversial of several alternatives, and later

had been tentatively endorsed by President Harry S. Truman. At a news conference in 1950, Mr. Truman told reporters

that, in the event of an emergency, it was

his belief that the government should require national registration of women for

defense and industry.28

Should the emergency continue, British

precedent indicated that the next step

would not be the extension of military selective service to women, but rather their

forcible direction into industry, farm work,

and other vital civilian occupations. Since

women who volunteered for military service were of course exempt from such a

labor draft, the armed forces would possibly be assured a supply of female recruits

as considerable as that which the British

had received under like circumstances.

This phase of mobilization offered a possible advantage to the armed services in that

they would be able to pick and choose,

taking only women of intelligence and

needed skill. On the other hand, the Army

prospects had to be considered in the light

of the fact that, under such a voluntary

system, British women had flocked in

needed numbers to the WRNS and

WRAF but not to the ATS, which required more personnel and had a reputation for menial work.

The final stage of such a mobilization,

as reached by the British in World War II,

was the actual drafting of women into the

armed forces. The Army's earlier draft

plans, made on two occasions in World

War II, indicated that exemptions for

women would be more lenient than those

for men, with the less mobile women, and

those with children and home responsibilities, going instead into local industry.

These plans had indicated no intent by

the Army to take any women whatever

from essential industry, agriculture, government, or their husbands and children.

As long as fewer women than men continued to be required by the armed forces,

it would obviously be to their advantage,

as well as to the nation's, to use only highly

selected, mobile women without dependents. It was of course uncertain whether

the Army would be able to convince the

highest manpower agencies that it should

not be obliged to take women in the lowest

AGCT grades, since they could not replace

men one-for-one on unskilled heavy work

or be sent into front-line combat units.

In some respects, the advantages of a

draft over the voluntary enlistment system

would be considerable. Without a draft,

the armed forces could not expect, by wartime precedent, to plan on a women's

corps of any great size. Greater expansion

plans founded on voluntary recruiting had

not only failed in World War II, but had

involved the Corps in expensive miscalculations in clothing, housing, officer

strength, and other allotments. The competitive expense of recruiting had also become so high that it appeared unthinkable

for the armed forces and industry to enter

another such contest against each other,

with each spending tremendous sums on

recruiting and advertising, and at times

28

 Washington Times-Herald, May 5, 1950.
EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 761

attracting women who more properly

should have used their skills in some other

agency. It was also obvious that, without

selective service, the Army would have difficulty in establishing firm and predictable

schedules for the inflow of womanpower

into basic and specialist training, and its

allotment among various commands and

overseas theaters.

Another likely advantage of such a selective service system would be the avoidance of recruiting commitments as to job

or station, with resulting better morale

among malassigned women. Classification

surveyors noted that "the main problem in

adjustment of women to the Army arose

through conflict between the inductee's

conception of the treatment to be accorded

her and the actual Army situation."

 29

From the viewpoint of mental health,

General Menninger commented:

The whole problem of motivation for enlistment into the WAC raises the question of

the disadvantages of voluntary enlistment for

women . . . not alone for military duty but

for assignment to civilian work. The British

had fewer problems when they ceased to

have a volunteer organization. . . .30

On the other hand, a drafted corps of

considerably larger size would also encounter problems unknown to the wartime WAC, and might be in danger of disappointing using agencies who expected it

to meet the World War II level of performance. British precedent indicated

that, to the exact extent that the Army

was obliged by civilian manpower agencies to be unselective about its womanpower, it would meet increased problems

of efficiency, health, discipline, illness and

attrition rates, and morale.

For this reason, wartime WAC experts

such as General White expressed a hope

that it would never be necessary to draft

women, believing that the second or civilian-draft phase would be more advantageous in permitting selectivity. As an

alarming precedent it was noted that, for

men under Selective Service, Congress repeatedly forced cutting physical and mental standards below the limits proposed by

the Army.31

In the opinion of some authorities, the

second phase would also provide adequate

numbers of women. The former Deputy

Director, Colonel Rice, in a last interview

before her death, informally expressed the

idea that paper plans in World War II for

use of a million or more women had been

unrealistic, and that the wartime WAC

had actually come close to the limits of efficient replacement. Instead, she believed

that the next war's dangers would fall on

the home front, and that the majority of

women could most profitably be used in

civil defense activities.32

In addition, wartime WAC leaders

pointed out that under a system of selective service for women, there would be increased opportunity for neglect of or

damage to the needs of a minor group,

which were easily overlooked in any case.

Most improvements in the Corps in World

War II, such as that in the uniform, in

medical specialization, in measures to

change public and soldier opinion, and in

correction of unmilitary assignments, had

been undertaken solely because, without

them, it became increasingly difficult to

get recruits. Without the pressure of public

opinion and of womanpower shortages, it

appeared unlikely that the skilled specialists of World War II would ever have been

29

 Rpt of Survey Team, Southern Area, 8 Nov 43,

in Hist of O Dir Pers ASF. OCMH. 30

 Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World, p. 108. 31

 Interv, Oct 48. 32

 Ibid.
762 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

assigned to The Quartermaster General's

Office, The Surgeon General, the Bureau

of Public Relations, and dozens of other

staff sections. It was doubtful whether,

without such specialists and without any

need to attract recruits, every command

would provide as good care and attention

to the peculiar needs of the minority as

had been enforced in wartime.

Report of the Hoover Commission

This last possibility led directly to the

most considered statement ever made by

wartime WAC leaders as to the final issue

at stake, and the possible dangers to be

avoided, in the employment of womanpower by the armed forces. In mid-1948,

former Director Hobby and other wartime

women's leaders were called to testify before the Commission on the Organization

of the Executive Branch of the Government, better known as the Hoover Commission. Since peacetime heads of the various women's corps were not so summoned,

the committee report was not in every respect agreeable to them. It represented,

however, Mrs. Hobby's only formal testimony of any sort upon the lessons of the

wartime experiment.33

Minor and preliminary comments of

the report were not startling, being generally in line with accepted opinion. It

was noted that in spite of advancements

"the place of women in the armed services

is not completely secure," and that since

women's morale depended so largely upon

public and soldier opinion, a special information program designed to improve this

should continue to be provided. As for

women's jobs, caution was given against

"the tendency to use women in the services

as additional personnel in jobs that could

have been filled by civilian employees."

The opinion was expressed that women

should never be assigned in units of less

than 50, and preferably not smaller than

200 or 300—an increase over the previous

wartime size, and one that seemed useful

to insure economy in the necessary provisions for a minority.

However, the report's most important

conclusion concerned the Corps' greatest

single dilemma—the need for modification of some Army rules and procedures

for fullest protection to women's well-being. In business and industry, standards of

production and well-being had often been

set up with consideration of the needs of

both sexes, but all armed forces rules and

operations had naturally for centuries

been worked out for men only, and there

was a tendency to look on any modifications as favoritism or special privilege.

Modifications also might damage the

morale of enlisted men, and could thus be

approached, if at all, only with the greatest

caution. On the other hand, the only other

alternative was for the women to make the

entire adjustment to men's standards of

rougher dress, decreased modesty or need

for privacy and cleanliness, more strenuous sports and recreational interests, a

single standard of morality, and different

opinions concerning drinking, sex, and

conduct in general. While there was no

doubt that in time women could and

would successfully make this adjustment,

the responsibility for such masculinization

of the American woman was one for which

wartime leaders did not care to assume responsibility. General Menninger noted

that, from the psychiatric standpoint,

33

 Entire discussion from: Report of the Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the

Government, November 15, 1948, Vol. III, Sec. XIV.

OCMH.
EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 763

greater instead of less difference was desirable:

In the event of another emergency, more

consideration should be given to the problems of the women in the Army—their protection from ruthless male officers in their

environment, their personal needs. . . .

Such steps would greatly improve their . . .

mental health.34

It was evident, however, that less, instead

of more, attention to these matters would

be likely in future emergencies, particularly under selective service for women. It

was also noted that peacetime policies were

set increasingly in the direction of elimination of wartime safeguards, although every

such loss meant some change in the traditional social, cultural, and moral standards of women in national life.35

 With the

peacetime abolition of most specialist

groups in The Surgeon General's Office

and elsewhere, it appeared doubtful

whether the well-being of women in the

Army could be given care equal to that

normally given men.

The commission's report therefore concluded:

The whole subject of the use of women for

war must be studied against the background

of the American philosophy. The proper

utilization of women in the Armed Services

and elsewhere for war purposes can undoubtedly aid military efficiency and the national effort. This factor of increased efficiency must be weighed against a break with

the philosophy of the past and the possible

dangers of too great a growth of militarism.

Many of the steps proposed to this committee—among them, the compulsory utilization of women—undoubtedly would increase

military efficiency, but at the same time all

of them collectively and some of them individually would greatly increase military influence in the United States and, over a

period of time, might tend to set the national

thinking in a military mold. . . .

The utilization of women for war, if improperly developed, has certain dangerous

implications to our way of life. This subject

deserves the most careful and cautious study.

The Final View

In retrospect, many of the difficulties

that had appeared incomprehensible to

the WAC's leaders and its members were

at last explained by the realization that

the Women's Army Corps had passed

through the natural evolution of any new

cultural phenomenon: the mistakes and

experiments, the blind opposition of opponents of change, the enthusiasm of a

pioneering minority, the slander by the

less venturesome majority, the gradual adjustments, the eventual success partially

nullified by the exhaustion and departure

of leaders and the bewilderment of followers—all might equally well have applied to the history of the flying machine,

the forty-niners, or the American Revolution. The chairman of the WAC's National Civilian Advisory Committee, Mrs.

Oswald Lord, wrote later:

These women were pioneers. Many of us

wondered if the American sense of adventure

and steadfastness had died with their grand- mothers. ... I know now that the American woman of today can "take it" as her

grandmother did. With her sense of humor

unimpaired, she has pioneered in a new field

and has done her job well.36

All agreed on one thing. The Women's

Army Corps, Army of the United States,

World War II, had been a new thing un34

 Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World, p. 120. 35

 M/R, 17 Apr 46, sub: Presentation of Army Postwar Policy for Female Pers at Joint Army-Navy Pers

Bd, 17 Apr 46; sent by G-1 to Col Boyce. WDWAC

326.

36

 Article in New York Times by Mary P. Lord, September 2, 1945.
764 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

der the sun. Its three crowded wartime

years had passed too quickly for evaluation, and too roughly for appreciation, but

once over, its thousands of members and

its Army sponsors realized that they had

been part of a phenomenon that they

would not have missed. In a world where

new frontiers had been hard to find, they

had found one; in an age where pioneers

and their problems were a memory, they

had been pioneers. They might, like the

forty-niners, shrink from thought of repeating such a passage, but it would be the

prized memory of any lifetime.
Appendix A

[NOTE: The apparent discrepancies between strength figures and those for accessions and

separations are due in part to the time lag needed for the former to catch up with the latter

and in part to the confusion that attended the period of conversion from WAAC to WAC.

Also, as has been noted on several occasions in the text, there are discrepancies between

current WAAC/WAC figures, which were all that were available for planning at the time,

and the final figures of the Adjutant General's Office.]

TABLE 1—STRENGTH OF THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS: JULY 1942-DECEMBER 1946

Source: U.S. Dept of Army, AGO, Strength Accounting Branch, Strength of the Army (STM-30), 1 December 1946, 1 July 1948, and 1 January 1949.
766 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

TABLE 2—ACCESSIONS OF PERSONNEL IN THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS: 1942-1946 a

a

 Most of the officers and warrant officers shown are also included in the enlisted column since virtually all were commissioned after

enlisted service. b

 Because of the conversion from WAAC to WAC, AGO records showed no new accessions of enlisted Wacs and recorded 41,177 WAAC

personnel enlisting in the WAC. The August 1943 figure in Table 1 includes Waacs who did not enlist in the WAC until later. c

 Data for 1946 represent re-enlistments in Army of the United States.

Source: U.S. Dept of Army, AGO, Strength Accounting Branch, Strength of the Army (STM-30), 1 February 1948, as revised by AGO.
APPENDIX A 767

TABLE 3—WAAC PERSONNEL STATISTICS

Source: (1) Info on WAAC, Dir's personal book of statistics. 1943 WAAC files, unnumbered. (2) WAAC Pers Statistics, 6 Sep 43.

1943 WAAC files, unnumbered. (3) Plng Proj 10, 7 May 43, Analysis of AGO Machine Records. WAAC Plng Serv file. (4) Plng Proj 5 ,

May 43. WAAC Plng Serv file.
768 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

TABLE 4—STRENGTH OF WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS IN CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES: MAY

1943-DECEMBER 1946 a

a

 Distribution indicates commands to which personnel were regularly assigned. Does not reflect attached strength. Waacs were attached

to AAF and other commands beginning September 1942; Auxiliary status precluded direct assignment until May 1943. b

 Defense commands consolidated with service commands 31 March 1946.
APPENDIX A 769

TABLE 4—STRENGTH OF WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS IN CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES: MAY

1943-DECEMBER 1946

 a—Continued

c

 Army Service Forces (formerly Services of Supply) discontinued as of 11 June 1946 with reorganization of War Department (see War

Department Circular 138, 14 May 1946). Figures shown for June-December 1946 are for administrative and technical services and headquarters of armies and army area troops.

Source: U.S. Dept of Army, AGO, Strength Accounting Branch, Strength of the Army (STM-30) and predecessor reports for respective

months. Figures for July 1942-April 1943 are omitted because the early misunderstandings concerning WAAC status made them unreliable.
770 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

TABLE 5—WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS ENLISTED PERSONNEL IN ARMY AIR FORCES, CONTINENTAL

UNITED STATES, BY MILITARY OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALTY: 31 JANUARY 1945

a

 Less than 0.05 percent. b

 Includes 80 percent on-the-job trainees, newly recruited, and undergoing 90-day period required for AAF SSN. Estimated that these

would be distributed into listed job groups according to the same ratio as other women. Remainder of Duty group includes messengers,

duty sergeants, and other miscellaneous groups. c

 Includes chiefly Food Services, also Chemical, etc.

Source: Extracted from list shown in "Strength of AAF Personnel in WAC within Continental U.S. by Command, SSN, and Race."

SC-PS-123 (AAF Office of Statistical Control). Does not agree with AGO figure, Table 4, because of different reporting system.
APPENDIX A 771

TABLE 6—WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS OFFICER PERSONNEL IN ARMY AIR FORCES, CONTINENTAL

UNITED STATES, BY MILITARY OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALTY: 31 JANUARY 1945

a

 Two SSN's assigned to this Military Occupational Specialty.

Source: Extracted from list shown in "Strength of AAF Personnel in WAC within Continental U.S. By Command, SSN, and Race."

SC-PS-123 (AAF Office of Statistical Control). Does not agree with AGO figure, Table 4, because of different reporting system.
772 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

TABLE 7—STRENGTH OF WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS IN OVERSEAS THEATERS: 1943-1946

a

 Consists chiefly of personnel assigned to U.S. commands but on temporary or recurring duty overseas. Includes personnel en route

from United States to theaters and small numbers assigned for short periods to Northwest Service Command and Caribbean Defense Command.

b

 Audited strength reports apparently incomplete. Other sources indicate total strength of 36 (11 officers and 25 enlisted women).
APPENDIX A 773

TABLE 7—STRENGTH OF WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS IN OVERSEAS THEATERS: 1943-1946—Con.

Source: U.S. Dept. of Army, AGO, Strength Accounting Branch, Strength of the Army (STM-30) and predecessor reports for respective

months.
774 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

TABLE 8—DECORATIONS AND AWARDS MADE TO THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS: 7 DECEMBER

1941-30 JUNE 1947 a

a

 Does not include Purple Heart or Army Commendation Ribbon.

Source: War Department, Decorations and Awards, HTM-14, Prepared by Strength Accounting Branch, AGO, under direction of

Statistical Division, Office of the Army Comptroller, OCS, 30 June 1947.
APPENDIX A 775

TABLE 9—PERSONNEL DISCHARGED FROM THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS BECAUSE OF

PREGNANCY: 1942-1946

a

 Computed on the basis of month-end strength. Averages shown for periods are weighted arithmetic averages; geometric averages

would be somewhat lower.

Source: U.S. Department of Amy, Administrative Services Division, AGO.
776 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

TABLE 10—PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF WAC AND MALE PERSONNEL IN THE U.S. ARMY,

BY GRADE: DECEMBER 1942-DECEMBER 1946

a

 Less than 0.05 percent. b

 The Director was the only woman in the WAC holding the rank of colonel.

Source: U.S. Department of Army, AGO, Strength Accounting Branch, Strength of the Army (STM-30), respective months.
APPENDIX A 777

TABLE 11—STRENGTH OF NEGRO PERSONNEL IN THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS: 1943-1946 a

a

 Negro strength i» based on personal statements at time of entry into active service. Does not necessarily include personnel of other

races with Negro blood.

Source: U.S. Dept, of Army, AGO, Strength Accounting Branch, Strength of the Army (STM-30), 1 January 1949.
778 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

TABLE 12—ENLISTED PERSONNEL SEPARATED FROM THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS: AUGUST

1942-DECEMBER 1946 a

a

 Separations from November 1943 through June 1945 are based on month of processing. Other months reflect actual month of occur- rence. Figures shown do not include the number dropped from the rolls because of AWOL and desertion. b

 Includes certificate of disability, pregnancy and likelihood of early recurrences of incapacitating symptoms. c

 Includes minority, dependency, hardship, marriage, national health, safety, or interest, and others. Includes 14,199 separated at their request during August-October 1943, due to conversion to WAC. d

 Includes undesirable habits or traits of character and misconduct. e

 Excludes 41,177 WAAC enlisted personnel re-enlisting in the WAC during August 1943.

Source: U. S. Dept, of Army, AGO, Strength Accounting Branch, Strength of the Army (STM-30) 1 August 1949.
APPENDIX A 779

TABLE 13—OFFICERS SEPARATED FROM THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS: SEPTEMBER 1942-

DECEMBER 1946

 a

a

 Includes data for 47 WAC warrant officers. b

 Consists chiefly of personnel released as surplus officers or relieved at own request. c

 Includes undesirable habits or traits of character and misconduct.

Source: U.S. Dept of Army, AGO, Strength Accounting Branch, Strength of the Army (STM-30), 1 August 1949, and unpublished work sheets used in compiling this report.
Appendix B

Excerpt From Report on British

Women's Services

Virtue has no gossip value. It has been

one of the tasks of your Committee to form

some conclusion as to why the Women's

Services have incurred so much criticism.

Anyone who has visited a Service camp

and has watched the auxiliaries at work

and at play; who has noted their trim and

soldierly bearing, their good discipline and

high spirits, can only marvel at the unfriendly comments often current. A reasoned judgment in this matter is not

easy. . . .

The British, though they fight when

called upon to do so with unfaltering courage, are not a military race. They cherish

a deeprooted prejudice against uniforms;

consequently a woman in uniform may

arouse a special sense of hostility, conscious and subconscious, among people

who would never give two thoughts to her

conduct as a private citizen. . . . Further, though the service rendered to their

country by the women is generally recognized, there are exceptions and critics.

. . . Strictures from soldiers, sailors, and

airmen, small minority though they may

be, carry weight out of proportion to their

numbers. . . .

For the ATS, we have been supplied

with detailed figures on discharges for

pregnancy which prove conclusively how

little truth there is in the rumor regarding

illegitimate pregnancy in that Service.

There are in the ATS large numbers of

married women and the pregnancies of

these women are often, no doubt, carelessly

confused with those of the single women.

The pregnancy rate for married ATS

women . . . for the first five months of

this year ranged from 15.5 to 17 per 1000.

. . . The pregnancy rate among single ATS

personnel is 15.5 per 1000 per annum.

The illegitimate birth rate among the

civilian population groups from which the

ATS are recruited is approximately 21.8

per 1000 per annum ... it is clear that

if comparable figures could be arrived at

the gap would be wider. . . . Furthermore a number of single women come into

the Forces already pregnant . . . the percentage of single women discharged for

pregnancy who were pregnant before entering the ATS ranged from 18 to 44 percent. . . . We can therefore, with certainty, say that the illegitimate birth rate

in the Services is lower than the illegitimate birth rate among the comparable

civilian population.

. . . The Women's Services today represent a cross-section of the population

and all types and standards are represented among them. . . . Unfortunately

gossip mongers never stop to reflect on

such .abstract and unpicturesque details as
APPENDIX B 781

incidence and ratio which would reduce

the stories they put into circulation to their

just proportion. Allegations of general immorality in a camp, when investigated, resolved themselves into one or two cases

which, in the course of gossip, have multiplied times over. And the same applies to

charges of drunkenness.

. . . Loose behavior, when it occurs, is

not necessarily the product of service life:

it is introduced primarily from without.

Service life, with its discipline, work and

good comradeship, generally puts the relations of men and women on a healthy and

normal basis.

We can find "no justification for the

vague but sweeping charges of immorality

which had disturbed public opinion, and

in this we are supported by representatives

of the various welfare organizations and

the Chaplains who are in constant touch

with the girls. . . . Promiscuous conduct

in the Women's Services is confined to a

small proportion of the whole. . . . Your

committee can only deplore the irresponsible conduct of persons who, without any

first hand knowledge, are content to damage the war effort by malicious or careless

talk derogatory to the forces of the Crown.

These tales are deeply wounding to auxiliaries. . . . Further, slanderous gossip

has a very adverse effect on recruiting.

It is not without interest to note that in

1918 wild and fantastic tales were in circulation about the immorality of the

W.A.A.C.s in France; tales almost identical in substance with those current. . . .

A Commission of Enquiry which visited

France reported that apart from some

cases of misconduct, the charges as generalizations were mischievous and false.

Then as now, a vast superstructure of

slander has been raised on a small foundation in fact.

—Report of the Committee on Amenities and Welfare

Conditions in the Three Women's Services, presented to

Parliament by command of His Majesty, 5 August

1942, pp. 49-52.
Appendix C

A Summary of Controversy on

Legal Status of WAAC

After the conversion of the WAAC to

the WAC in September 1943, numerous

questions continued to arise concerning

the Auxiliary Corps' legal status.

WAAC service was eventually counted

by the Army toward the points required

for demobilization, and in computing accrued leave. Under legislation existing at

the time of the conversion period, it was

not possible to go further and count it toward longevity pay and the various benefits of the GI bill such as educational

rights.1 Congress did recognize the WAAC

service in two further ways: it had already

granted medical, hospital, and domiciliary

care under the auspices of the Veterans'

Administration to former Waacs; and in

early February 1944 it shortly added legislation to give mustering-out pay to those

Waacs who had been discharged for disability.2

Director Hobby shortly proposed that

the War Department recommend to Congress that service in the WAAC be counted

as military service for all purposes. She

stated, "Such legislation would give recognition to the fact that from a practical

standpoint members of the WAAC were

regarded by the War Department as military personnel."

 3

The matter dragged on for some eight

months without decision by the War Department. It appeared that Congress

might be favorably disposed to such a request, since certain members were experiencing considerable pressure from various

constituents including American Legion

posts, and several members of Congress

asked the War Department to take action

in the matter.

In the fall of 1944 one member of Congress actually introduced a bill to provide

educational benefits for members of the

WAAC and the Merchant Marine. Colonel Hobby favored this plan, but the

Legislative and Liaison Division disapproved of Colonel Hobby's proposal and

of the legislation, and was upheld by G-1

Division and the Secretary of War.4 Said

the Secretary:

The fact remains that the legal status of

the members of both groups has been that of

1

 M/R, undated. WDWAC 292 (1945-46). 2

 (1) PL 10, 78th Cong, 17 May 43, in WD Cir 103,

1943. (2) PL 225, 78th Cong, 3 Feb 44, in WD Bull

3, 10 Feb 44. 3

 Memo, Dir WAC for G-1 WD, 26 Feb 44, sub:

Proposed Legislation Relative to WAC. SPWA 314.7

(2-26-44) E, sec 5. 4

 (1) Ltr, Senator Theodore G. Bilbo to Dir WAC,

26 Oct 44, re Mrs. Margaret Fogarty. WDWAC 095.

(2) Memo, Exec WAC for Leg and Ln Div, 20 Jun

45. WDWAC 242.12. (3) D/F, Leg and Ln Div, for

Dir WAC, 9 Nov 45, sub: Lt Marie Simon. WDWAC

292.
APPENDIX C 783

civilians. . . . The proposed grant would es- tablish a precedent for granting other vet- erans' benefits to the same and other groups

of persons whose service was that of civilians. In the present war, such groups include, among others, certain contractors' crews;

civilians serving on Army transports; civilian

pilots of the Air Transport Command; civil- ian instructors of the Air Forces; war correspondents; personnel of the Army Specialists Corps, Civil Air Patrol, and the Women's

Auxiliary Service Pilots; and certain personnel of the Red Cross.5

Director Hobby continued to protest

this decision, pointing out that there were

two differences in the WAAC ar.d all of

the cited groups: (1) the Corps had later

been brought into the Army as a group,

and (2) its members had received, not the

larger salaries which supposedly recompensed the Merchant Marine and all

others for their civilian status, but the

mere $21 a month (later $50) of the Army

men. They had also been obliged to live

in barracks and under military restrictions

not encountered by any other such group.

Her proposals were disapproved and,

ironically enough, she was blamed by the

public for the War Department's action;

a former member of the Corps wrote her:

God frowns on such things, especially in a

democratic country, and he frowns on those

who are in power to change it and don't. . . .

Before you leave office have this cleaned up

and your conscience will be cleared.6

Director Hobby was unable to secure

approval before her departure, and

neither was the second Director, after the

end of the war. At this time three bills

were introduced in Congress: one to give

military benefits to all Waacs, one only to

Waacs discharged for disability, and one

to count WAAC service toward longevity

pay of its members who had joined the

WAC.7 For at least the last proposal, the

second Director could marshal strong

support, since credit toward longevity pay

had been given to Army nurses for their

civilian contract service, to female dietitians for their earlier civilian service with

the Army, to members of the Officers' Reserve Corps for the time during which they

had resigned commissions to serve with

the American Volunteer Group in China,

and to numerous others including the National Guard and Reserves. However, the

War Department again disapproved all

proposals, saying:

There is no policy in the War Department

more soundly fixed or more historically ad- hered to than that the Department should

oppose the inclusion of civilian groups within

the special class of the military group in the

matter of eligibility for benefits. . . . As for

the citation of the cases of Medical Depart- ment female personnel service being in- cluded as military service, since a statute of

1802 . . . nurses and surgeons have been

closely associated with the military forces in

their peculiarly military status. . . .

On only one such matter was legislation

enacted. After Congress passed legislation

granting re-employment benefits to members of the Merchant Marine, the War Department sponsored and obtained legislation to give the same to former Waacs who

had joined the WAC, and who otherwise

lacked the re-employment benefits of

those who had joined the WAC direct

from civilian life.8

5

 This and WD statement below quoted in memo,

Col. D. M. McConnell for G-1 WD, 4 Apr 46, sub:

Recognition of Serv in WAAC, with incls. WDGAP

324.5, in WDWAC 324.5, 6

 Ltr, Miss D. Anderson to Dir WAC, Sep 44.

WDWAC 095. 7

 HR 2713, HR 1405, and HR 4569. 8

 (1) Memo, Dir WAC for G-1 WD, 6 Aug 45.

WDWAC 292. (2) Memo, same, 7 Aug 45. (3) PL

709, 79th Cong, 9 Aug 46, in WD Bull 26, 12 Sep 46.
Appendix D

A Summary of WASP Controversy

On 6 April 1943 the Chief of Air Staff,

Maj. Gen. George E. Stratemeyer, sent a

memorandum to G-1 Division, War Department General Staff, "Women's Pilot

Training Program." In this he recommended that as soon as the WAAC was

put in the Army by Congress, the new

WAC begin to recruit flight officers and

commissioned pilots for direct appointment and assignment to the AAF. By covering indorsement, 17 April 1943, WAAC

Headquarters concurred and recommended that necessary modifications be

made in WAAC Regulations to suit the

AAF's specifications.1

AAF WAC leaders later agreed that no

especial difficulty would result, since there

were only about 800 Wasps, roughly one

third of the number of Air WAC recruits

the AAF absorbed monthly; and the

group would have no special needs, except

needs as women, which would be met by

the WAC organization, or needs as pilots,

which would be met by the regular pilottraining authorities.

In the next two months the AAF reversed its decision. In June 1943, Gen.

Henry H. Arnold sent a memorandum to

General Marshall, undated, "Incorporation of Women Civilian Pilots and Trainees

into AAF." General Arnold opposed putting pilots in the WAC because of the

"need for undivided administrative and

functional control which would not be

possible if the WAAF was serving two

masters, i. e., the WAAC and the AAF." A

reply from G-1 Division, 20 June 1943,

opposed the establishment of a separate

Corps of women pilots on the grounds that

"We have endeavored to keep the

women's organization as simple and flexible as possible," and that it would be

wasteful to have two women's corps.2

General Arnold's change of opinion was

closely related to the fact that Miss

Jacqueline Cochran had been appointed

Director of Women Pilots on June 28, and

was opposed to enrollment of women

pilots in the WAC, preferring a separate

corps headed by a female colonel similar

to the WAC, WAVES, SPARS, and

Marine heads.3 This the War Department

steadily opposed, since there were no separate corps for male pilots and all other

male Air Corps officers. Nevertheless, on

20 September 1943, a bill was introduced

in Congress by Representative John M.

Costello to militarize a separate WASP.

This ran into trouble because the AAF by

this time already had a surplus of pilots. It

was defeated in June of 1944, and Congress

recommended that the WASP be abolished. Miss Cochran still opposed placing

1

 SPWA 314.7 (1-7-43) (1) sec 1. 2

 SPWA 324.5 CAP (3-25-43). 3

 Hist Recs Rpt 319, History of the Air Transport

Command: Women in the Air Transport Command.

USAF Hist Div.
APPENDIX D 785

the group in the WAC, and preferred instead that it be inactivated, which it was,

in December 1944.4

Many members of the WASP wrote and

came to Washington to see members of the

Air Staff and members of Congress to beg

that they be taken into the WAC, assigned

to the AAF, and thus given military status,

and later veterans' benefits. This matter

was presented by the Air WAC Officer to

the Air Staff for a policy decision. The decision was made that women pilots would

not be commissioned in the WAC. The

Commanding General, AAF, felt that in

view of Congress' decision such subterfuge would be extremely poor diplomacy

in Congressional relations. All inquiries

were therefore answered to the effect that

members of the WASP could, if qualified,

enlist in the WAC for duty with the AAF,

but that they would not be assigned as

pilots, or promised flying duty of any sort,

or commissioned unless they qualified as

other Wacs did through selection by officer

candidate boards, or allowed to pilot

planes even if they were commissioned.

4

 Ibid.
Appendix E

(See Chapter XXXII.)

Course Content

HOURS DEVOTED TO TRAINING

a

 Malaria Control. b

 Sanitation only. c

 Including Personal Hygiene.

Source: Men: MTP 21-3, 1 May 44, cited on p. 38 of "Unit and Replacement Training," ASF MTD. OCMH.

WAC: ASF Hist of WAC Training, p. 77-78.
APPENDIX E 787

CLERKS COURSE

MTP 35-10, COOKS COURSE, 1 JULY 1944

MTP 35-10, MOTOR VEHICLE OPERATORS COURSE, 1 JULY 1944

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TECHNICIANS COURSE

(C-1 TO MTP 35-10)
788 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TECHNICIANS COURSE—Continued

MEDICAL CLERKS COURSE

(C-1 TO MTP 35-10)

OFFICER CANDIDATE COURSES

(BY HOURS)
APPENDIX E 789

OFFICER CANDIDATE COURSES—Continued

a

 Military Law.

 d Training Management. b

 Law.

 e Morale only. c

 Instruction.

 f Inspection only.

Source: This comparison is compiled from ASF Hist of WAC Tng and ASF Hist of OCT. An accurate comparison is impossible, since men's subjects listed under Miscellaneous or Technical were at times comparable to WAC subjects which appear to have no parallel, such as Administrative Problems.
790 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

CADRE TRAINING COURSE

MTP 35-1, UNIT TRAINING PROGRAM FOR WAC UNITS IN FIELD, AUGUST 1943

MTP 35-2, MOBILIZATION TRAINING PROGRAM FOR WAC DETACHMENTS IN THE FIELD,

15 OCTOBER 1944
Bibliographical Note

The materials for a history of the

Women's Army Corps in World War II

are widely scattered. Unlike the histories

of some units and campaigns, the history

of the WAC must cover most of the areas

of the world—Europe, North Africa, the

Middle East, Southeast Asia, and the

Southwest Pacific, as well as the three

major commands in the United States—

the Army Air Forces, Army Ground

Forces, and Army Service Forces. Unlike

the histories of technical services, it must

tell the story of Wacs employed in not one

but almost all branches of the Army.

During a good part of its wartime existence, the Corps had no centralized files to

which automatically came all memoranda

and other papers concerning the Corps.

For the first year of its existence, as a separate Auxiliary, the WAAC had its own

historian, 1st Lt. Virginia Smithson, and

maintained complete records, as a project

of the WAAC Control Division, which had

hoped the material could "be referred to

20 to 30 years from now and a new

women's organization built up on the experience we have learned from this experiment." Collections had been made of

Army, WAAC, ASF, and AGO regulations, printed legislative records, headquarters policies, and other documents

pertaining to the WAAC, and it was intended that the historian would set each

WAAC company to collecting historical

materials.

After conversion of the WAAC to full

military status in the summer of 1943,

however, work on the WAAC history was

stopped, no separate historical program

was permitted, and the WAAC files at the

Office of the Director were broken up and

scattered. From September of 1943 on,

there were no centralized WAC records,

and companies in the field did not forward

any historical materials to headquarters.

Responsibility for keeping historical

records was delegated to the various commands to which Wacs were assigned, but

at the end of the war it was discovered

that few Army commands had prepared

any final record of their scattered and

often tiny WAC minorities. In particular,

it was impossible to obtain from Army histories, published or unpublished, the data

on which the future planning for the efficient employment of women must be

based. The present study, when commissioned, was thus handicapped by a late

start, at a time when records and files

were already intermixed with those of

Army commands over four continents,

and when many Wacs had already returned to civilian life.

The Women's Army Corps was created

in wartime, and ran its course during

months when the Army's primary mission

was combat, not research. The WAC was

not regarded by the Army as an experimental group on which it could collect

valuable data, much to the disappointment of civilian agencies desirous of obtaining complete statistics on the WAC.

The lack of wartime field studies has

made necessary a rather heavy documentation, since a chapter cannot be based on

a single field study, or several, but must
792 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

ordinarily be based on previously unworked files and be laboriously footnoted

with hundreds of separate letters and

memoranda.

Primary Sources

The bulk of materials on the history of

the WAAC and WAC is in the WAACWAC files, now in the G-1 Area, Departmental Records Branch, Adjutant General's Office (DRB AGO), under several

file designations:

WA : before 9 March 1942

SPWA : 9 March 1942-29 February

1944 (the period during

which the WAAC-WAC

was under the Army Service

Forces)

WDWAC: 1 March 1944-(after the

WAC's transfer to G-1 Division of the War Department

General Staff)

This collection contains the WAAC historical files (a series of looseleaf notebooks), the WAAC planning files (of Miss

B. Eugenia Lies and other consultants),

the WAAC Planning Service files, the

stayback files of Lt. Col. Gilman C. Mudgett, first WAAC Pre-Planner, and of Lt.

Col. Harold P. Tasker, as well as Colonel

Tasker's personal files.

At the same location are the Hobby files,

formerly at the Office of the Director,

WAC, comprised of Director Hobby's personal files and of the WAAC Daily Journal—the latter consisting of a manila

folder labeled "Staff Conferences for the

Period August-October 1942," and two

loose-leaf notebooks (Volumes I and II)

for the period November 1942-August

1943.

There is also a small file of WAACWAC material, cited as WAC files, OCMH.

This material was collected by the author

during research for this volume and is filed

at OCMH as supporting documents. Some

material on the Wacs in the Army Air

Forces is at the U.S. Air Force Historical

Division, Air University, Maxwell Air

Force Base, Alabama. Some papers concerning the WAAC-WAC under the Army

Service Forces are in the file of the Director of Personnel, ASF, Special Collections,

DRB AGO. Also useful were the files of

the Chief of Staff, and General Marshall's

personal files, made available to the

author by his secretary.

For all other information on the WAC,

it is necessary to go directly to the files of

the command, branch, or theater concerned, as indicated in "Secondary

Sources," below.

Materials on the plans for the use of

women in the Army before World War II

are to be found principally in the War Department collection in the National

Archives, and in the G-1 files at DRB

AGO.

Secondary Sources

The secondary sources for a history of

the WAC consist principally of manuscripts prepared by the historians of various WAC units, or by historians of other

branches of the Army that employed

Wacs. These histories are of uneven

quality and degree of thoroughness of coverage. The story of Wacs in the Army Air

Forces, for instance, is thoroughly covered

in Lt. Col. Betty Bandel's history, The

WAC Program in the Army Air Forces,

while the corresponding manuscript for

the Army Service Forces consists of a tenpage summary. The history of Wacs in
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 793

some services and branches—for example,

the Chemical Warfare Service—was not

recorded in detail, because of the secrecy

of the work that Wacs performed. In other

cases, material on Wacs quite probably

exists in uncatalogued files of various commands and theaters, but obviously it was

not possible for one writer-researcher to

sift through all Army records for such

material.

Army Air Forces

The WAC Program in the Army Air

Forces, a 97-page typescript prepared in

November of 1946, by Colonel Bandel,

the Air WAC Officer, represents a summary of material then on file in the Air

WAC Division, Headquarters, AAF.

Copies are now on file at the Office of the

Chief of Military History and at the U.S.

Air Force Historical Division, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. This study is cited in footnotes as

AAF WAC Hist.

The history of Wacs in the Air Transport Command is partly covered in two

manuscript studies: History of the Air

Transport Command: Women Pilots in

the Air Transport Command, and Historical Records Report 315c, Wacs in the

European Division, Air Transport Command, both on file at the U.S. Air Force

Historical Division. Most of the latter appears to be the work of Pfc. Mary E.

Asseltyne of the Historical Unit. Information on Wacs in the Air Forces in Europe

is contained in the History of the U.S.

Strategic Air Forces. Statistics on Wacs in

the Air Forces are found in the AAF Statistical Digest, World War II, prepared by

the Office of Statistical Control, Headquarters, Army Air Forces.

Army Ground Forces

The history of Wacs in the Army

Ground Forces is told in The WAC in

Army Ground Forces, World War II, prepared by the AGF WAC Officer, Lt. Col.

Emily E. Davis. It consists of two bound

volumes of typescript: Volume I, Summary of WAC Program in the AGF (87

pages), and Volume II, Copies of Documents Cited (28 documents). This study

is now on file at OCMH, and the documents that compose Volume II are on file

in Folder "WAC" in the AGF files, Special

Collections, DRB AGO. It is cited in footnotes as AGF WAC Hist.

Army Service Forces

Unlike the AAF and the AGF, the

Army Service Forces did not prepare any

history of its WAC program at the end of

the war, because of its objections to separate statistics for women. The only document resembling a history is a ten-page

summary entitled "Distribution, Versatility, and Excellence of Wacs Serving With

Army Service Forces," which was prepared by the ASF WAC Officer, Lt. Col.

Katherine R. Goodwin a year before the

end of the war. It is now on file at OCMH

and is cited in footnotes as ASF WAC Summary.

Also at OCMH are: (1) History: Office

of the Director of Personnel, Army Service

Forces, 20 July 1942-1 September 1945,

prepared by Maj. Margaret Perry. (2)

History of Military Training: WAAC/

WAC Training, Army Service Forces, prepared by Maj. Lavinia L. Redd, WAC, 5

February 1946, cited in footnotes as ASF

Hist of WAC Tng.

253164 O—54——53
794 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Theater Histories

North African and Mediterranean Theaters.

No history of the WAC in the North

African or Mediterranean theaters was

written, but material on this subject has

been found in the History of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, December

1943-1 September 1944, by Headquarters, MAAF, and in the WAC Redeployment Summary, a memorandum from the

WAC public relations officer, Headquarters, MTOUSA, for the WAC Group, War

Department Bureau of Public Relations,

12 September 1945. The most important

materials on the WAC in North Africa

and the Mediterranean are in the WAACWAC files and in a collection of important

theater memoranda in the personal

possession of Lt. Col. Dorothea A. Coleman, WAC Staff Director, North African

Theater of Operations, cited as Coleman

file.

European Theater. The European theater

was the only overseas theater that attempted any final written evaluation of

its WAC program. This was Report of the

General Board, U.S. Forces, European

Theater, "Study of the Women's Army

Corps in the European Theater of Operations," (G-1 Section, Study 11), a threevolume mimeographed study, on file at

OCMH, cited in footnotes as ETO Bd Rpt.

The members of the board were Col.

Charles Van Way, Jr., GSC, Lt. Col. Anna

W. Wilson, WAC, and Capt. Martha Selvik, WAC. The Historical Section, Headquarters, European Theater of Operations, prepared a manuscript, History of

WAAC-WAC in ETO, 1942-44, a copy

of which is at OCMH, cited in footnotes as

ETO WAC Hist.

Middle East Theater. Unusually complete

historical reports were brought back from

the Middle East theater by Dr. T. H. Vail

Motter, of the Middle East Section,

OCMH. These are: (1) Historical Data,

WAC Detachment, Middle East Service

Command, Camp Huckstep, 11 September 1944, by Lt. Jane A. Riebesell, WAC

Historical Officer, with appendixes for

July, August, September, and October of

1944, cited as Unit Hist Camp Huckstep.

(2) Historical Review, WAC Detachment,

Cairo Military District, 28 August 1945,

cited as Unit Hist Cairo Det. The last thirteeen pages pertain to the WAC Unit at

Camp Huckstep, September 1944 to April

1945. (3) Summary: WAC AMET

[Women's Army Corps in the AfricaMiddle East Theater], prepared for Dr.

Motter by Sgt. Birdie Weisbrod, June

1945, based on files of the G-2 Historical

Section, AMET, and cited as WAC AMET

Summary.

Southeast Asia Command. No records of

the WAC in this area were found, with the

exception of a memorandum from Maj.

Margaret D. Craighill for The Surgeon

General, 6 April 1945, on medical and

social conditions of women in military

service in Ceylon, now on file at the Historical Division, Surgeon General's Office.

China-Burma-India Theater. The report

on the China-Burma-India theater is the

best documented of all overseas theater

reports, since the entire files of the WAC

sections of the theater headquarters were

brought back to the United States by

special courier and deposited in G-1 Division of the War Department General Staff,

at the Office of the Director, WAC. These

are bound in several indexed folders, referred to as CBI WAC files.

There are also two official reports on

the WAC in the China-Burma-India

theater: (1) A report by AAF headquarters, India-Burma theater, to The Adju-
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 795

tant General, in answer to a Congressional

inquiry, on Wac health and living conditions in the India-Burma theater, 5 July

1945, now in the WAC files, cited as AAF

IBT Rpt. (2) A report by Maj. Margaret

D. Craighill to The Surgeon General, 30

March 1945, on medical and social conditions of women in military service in the

India-Burma theater, cited as Craighill

IBT Rpt. Some information on the WAC

is also contained in the History of the

India-Burma Theater, 25 October 1944-

23 June 1945, prepared by the CBI Section, OCMH.

Southwest Pacific Area. No official history

of the WAC in the Southwest Pacific theater has been written. Because of differences

of opinion in the records, research has

been carried to the unit records level, although time and facilities did not permit

this to be done for other theaters. Besides

thirty folders of theater files now at Field

Records Division, Kansas City Records

Center, Kansas City, Mo., the account of

the WAC in the Southwest Pacific is based

on the following reports: (1) The "Griffith

Account," an unsigned, undated typescript

presented to the author by the War Department Bureau of Public Relations.

Authorship of this document is reliably attributed to Capt. Velma P. Griffith, WAC

Public Relations Officer, Southwest

Pacific Area, who was an eyewitness to

many events described therein, and who

had access to theater WAC data. It is in

agreement with other accounts and offers a

valuable narrative of experiences of WAC

detachments, although not employed as

an authority for statistics or policy. (2)

WAC Draft AFPAC Reply, draft prepared

by the WAC Staff Director, Army Forces

in the Pacific, in response to a War Department request for an investigation of

WAC conditions in the Southwest Pacific.

This draft was approved by the WAC

Staff Directors, Army Forces in the West

Pacific and Far East Air Forces. It contains much material deleted by Headquarters, AFPAC, from the final version of

the report. (3) AFPAC Reply, the official

report, based on the above draft, from

Headquarters, U.S. Army Forces in the

Pacific, to The Adjutant General, 1 November 1945, on WAC personnel in the

Southwest Pacific Area. (4) Boyce Rpt, an

official report by Col. Westray Battle

Boyce, Director WAC, to the Chief of

Staff, USA, on her visit to WAC personnel

in overseas theaters. (5) Craighill SWPA

Rpt, a memorandum prepared by Major

Craighill on medical and social conditions

of women in military service in SWPA.

Attached is a list of interviews with more

than 200 individuals in SWPA, including

chief nurses, WAC detachment commanders, hospital commanders, Army commanders, inspectors; also a table of

comparative rates of medical evacuation

for Wacs and Nurses, 1 July 44 to 1 April

45. (6) Approximately twenty-five interviews between the author and persons

who had been in the Southwest Pacific

Area during the war, and comments by

some of them on Chapter XXII:

Theater Authorities:

Baird, Col. Harry H., wartime G-1,

USAFFE until 1 June 1945; interview and written statement, 29

July 1948; comments on chapter,

23 April 1951.

Campbell, Brig. Gen. William F., Chief

Quartermaster, USASOS; interview, 24 July 1947.

Davis, Col. Merle H., Deputy Chief

Ordnance Officer, USASOS, Chief

Ordnance Officer, AFWESPAC;

interview, 24 July 1947.
796 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Denit, Brig. Gen. Guy B., Chief Surgeon, USASOS; interview, 24 July

1947.

Dunn, Lt. Col. Charles, Personnel

Policy Board (SWPA Replacement

Study), Office of the Secretary of

Defense; interview, 13 August

1947.

Ginsburgh, Col. A. Robert, G-1 and

G-3, USASOS; interview, 25 July

1947; comments on chapter, 13

August 1947.

WAC Advisers:

Brown, Lt. Col. Mary-Agnes, Staff Director, SWPA and AFPAC, March

1944-May 1945; interview, June

1945 and 5 June 1947.

Costello, Dorothy Pat, a sergeant at

AFPAC headquarters; interview, 4

August 1948.

Foushee, Capt. Fay, Transportation

Corps, USASOS; interview, 27

July 1947.

Galloway, Lt. Col. Mera, Staff Director,

AFPAC, September 1945-1946;

interview, 6 November 1946; comments on chapter, 22 May 1951.

Gardiner, Maj. Annie V., Staff Director,

WESPAC, September 1945-January 1946; interview, 22 July 1947.

Kelly, Maj. Charlee L., Assistant Staff

Director, SWPA and AFPAC,

1944-45, and Acting Staff Director,

May-September 1945; interview,

28 July 1947.

Kersey, Maj. Mary L., Staff Director,

FEAF, October 1944-December

1945; interview, 23 July 1947; comments on chapter, 21 April 1951.

Letallier, Capt. Jeanne, IG Section,

USAFFE; interview, 9 January

1946.

Shields, Capt. Rita, Ordnance,

USASOS; interview, 27 July 1947.

War Department WAC Advisers:

Boyce, Col. Westray Battle, Director,

WAC, July 1945-May 1947.

Craighill, Lt. Col. Margaret, MC, SGO.

Ludwigsen, Maj. Marjorie, Staff Inspection Section, Air WAC Division,

Headquarters, AAF.

Theater Historians:

A draft of Chapter XXII was the subject of a seminar at which were present

Colonels Brown and Ginsburgh and members of the Pacific Section, Historical Division, SSUSA (later OCMH), including

Dr. Louis Morton, Mr. Samuel Milner,

Capt. Robert Ross Smith, and Maj.

Nelson L. Drummond, Jr., who furnished

written and oral comments.

Wacs in the Technical and Administrative

Services

None of the technical or administrative

services prepared any final summary of its

employment of Wacs. The nearest approach to such a survey is the typescript

Narrative History of the Military Personnel Branch, Office of the Chief Signal

Officer: Activities in Connection with

WAAC or WAC Personnel for Signal

Corps Duty, October 1943. The Office of

the Chief of Chaplains included a section,

"Ministrations to WAC," in its official

history, Military History of the Second

World War: The Corps of Chaplains. A

chapter of the history of the Hampton

Roads Port of Embarkation is devoted to

the activities of the Transportation Corps

Wacs.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 797

Other Women's Services

The WAVES

No official history of the WAVES has

ever been published. There is on file at the

Office of the Director of Naval History a

manuscript, First Draft Narrative, U.S.

Naval Administration in World War II:

Bureau of Naval Personnel, Women's

Reserve, 18 January 1946, cited as WAVES

Hist.

The Army Nurse Corps

Comparisons with the experiences of the

Army Nurse Corps are based upon: (1)

Organized Nursing and the Army in

Three Wars; a Political and Administrative History of the Army Nurse Corps, by

Mary W. Standlee, Walter Reed Hospital,

in collaboration with Florence A. Blanchfield, R. N., Col., ANC, a copy of which

was furnished the author in manuscript.

(2) A pamphlet, The Army Nurse., published by the Army Nurse Corps.

The British Women's Services

Comparisons between American and

British women's services are based principally on a 58-page pamphlet, Report of the

Committee on Amenities and Welfare Conditions

in the Three Women's Services, presented to

Parliament, August, 1943, printed and

published by His Majesty's Stationery

Office. Other information is contained in

D. Collett Wadge (ed.), Women in Uniform

(London: S. Low, Marston [1946]).
List of Abbreviations

A-1 Assistant Chief of Air Staff for Personnel

A-4 Assistant Chief of Air Staff for Materiel

AAA Antiaircraft artillery

AAB Army air base

AACS Army Airways Communications Service

AAF Army Air Forces

ACofAS Assistant Chief of Air Staff

ACofS Assistant Chief of Staff

AFHQ Allied Forces Headquarters (North Africa)

AFPAC Army Forces in the Pacific

AFWESPAC Army Forces in the West Pacific

AG Adjutant general

AGCT Army General Classification Test

AGD Adjutant General's Department

AGF Army Ground Forces

AGO Adjutant General's Office

AMET Africa-Middle East Theater

ANC Army Nurse Corps

AR Army Regulations

ASC Air Service Command

ASF Army Service Forces

Asgmt Assignment

ASTP Army Specialized Training Program

ASW Assistant Secretary of War

ATC Air Transport Command

ATS Auxiliary Territorial Service

AUS Army of the United States

AWS Aircraft Warning Service

AWVS American Women's Volunteer Services

Bd Board

Bn Battalion

CBI China-Burma-India theater

Cbl Cablegram

CDD Certificate of Disability for Discharge

Cen Center
LIST OF ABBREVIATION ABBREVIATIONS 799

CFTC Central Flying Training Command

CG Commanding General

CIC Counterintelligence Corps

CID Criminal Investigation Division

CinC Commander-in-Chief

Cir Circular

Classif Classification

CM-IN Classified Message sent into Pentagon

CM-OUT Classified Message sent out of Pentagon

CO Commanding Officer

Co Company

Cof Chief of (in combinations)

CofS Chief of Staff

CofT Chief of Transportation

Com Committee

Comd Command

Comdr Commander

Comdt Commandant

Comptr Comptroller

Conf Conference

Contl Control

CSigO Chief Signal Officer

CT China Theater

CWS Chemical Warfare Service

DCofS Deputy Chief of Staff

Def Defense

Dep Deputy

Det Detachment

D/F Disposition Form

Dir Director

Div Division

DRB AGO Departmental Records Branch, Adjutant General's Office

EDC Eastern Defense Command

EFS Extended Field Service

EM Enlisted men

Engr Engineer

Enl Enlisted

Enlmt Enlistment

ESCTC Eastern Signal Corps Training Center

ETO European Theater of Operations

ETOUSA European Theater of Operations, U.S. Army
800 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

EW Enlisted women

Exec Executive, executive Officer

FA Field Artillery

FEAF Far East Air Forces

FEASC Far East Air Service Command

Fin Finance

Fld Field

G-1 Assistant Chief of Staff for Personnel

G-2 Assistant Chief of Staff for Military Intelligence

G-3 Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations and Training

G-4 Assistant Chief of Staff for Supply and Evacuation

Gen General

GO General Orders

Gp Group

GS General Staff

HD SSUSA Historical Division, Special Staff, U.S. Army

Hist Historical

HR House of Representatives (before bill numbers)

HRPOE Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation

IBT India-Burma theater

I&E Information and Education

IG Inspector general

IGD Inspector General's Department

Ind Indorsement

Insp Inspection, inspector

Int Intelligence

Interv Interview

IOS Intermediate Officer's School

IPD Industrial Personnel Division

JA Judge Advocate

JAG The Judge Advocate General

Leg Legislative

Ln Liaison

Ltr Letter

MAAF Mediterranean Allied Air Forces

MAT Mental Alertness Test

MC Medical Corps
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 801

MD Medical Department

MDW Military District of Washington

Med Medical

MI Military Intelligence

MID Military Intelligence Division

Mil Military

Min Minutes

MIS Military Intelligence Service

MOS Military Occupational Specialty

MPB Military Personnel Branch

MPD Military Personnel Department

M/R Memo for Record

Msg Message

MT Motor Transport

M/T Manning Tables

MTD Military Training Division

Mtg Meeting

MTO Mediterranean Theater of Operations

MTOUSA Mediterranean Theater of Operations, U.S. Army

NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored

People

NATO North African Theater of Operations

NATOUSA North African Theater of Operations, U.S. Army

NCAC National Civilian Advisory Council

NYPOE New York Port of Embarkation

O Office (in combinations)

1st O, 2d O, 3d O First Officer, Second Officer, Third Officer

OC Officer Candidate

OCMH Office of the Chief of Military History

OCofOrd Office, Chief of Ordnance

OCofS Office, Chief of Staff

OCS Officer Candidate School

OCSigO Office, Chief Signal Officer

Off Officer

OPD Operations and Planning Division, War Department

General Staff

Opn(s) Operation(s)

OQMG Office of The Quartermaster General

Ord Ordnance

Orgn Organization

OSS Office of Strategic Services

OTI Office of Technical Information
802 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

OWI Office of War Information

OWM Office of War Manpower

P&A Personnel and Administration

Par Paragraph

Pers Personnel

PL Public Law

Plng Planning

PM Provost marshal

PMG Provost Marshal General

POE Port of Embarkation

PRO Public Relations Officer

Proj Project

QM Quartermaster

QMC Quartermaster Corps

QMG The Quartermaster General

Rctg Recruiting

Rec Record

Reg Regulation

Rep Representative

Repl Replacement

Reqmt Requirement

R&I Recruiting and Induction

RPB Recruiting Publicity Bureau

S Senate (before bill numbers)

Sch School

SEAC Southeast Asia Command

Sec Section

Serv Service

SFPOE San Francisco Port of Embarkation

SG Surgeon General

SGO Surgeon General's Office

SHAEF Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force

SigC Signal Corps

SigO Signal Officer

SN Secretary of the Navy

SO Special Order

SOS Services of Supply

Sp Special

SPARS Women's service in the U.S. Coast Guard

SPD Special Planning Division
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 803

SPOBS Special Observer Group (American Mission in Britain)

SS Selective Service

SSN Specification Serial Number

SSUSA Special Staff, U.S. Army

Stat Statistical

Stf Staff

Sub Subject

Surv Survey

SvC Service Command

SW Secretary of War

SWPA Southwest Pacific Area

Tab Table

TAG The Adjutant General

TC Transportation Corps

T/E Table of Equipment

Tech Technical

Telg Telegram

TIG The Inspector General

Tng Training

T/O Table of Organization

Tp Telephone

USAF U.S. Air Forces

USAFBI U.S. Army Forces in the British Isles

USAFFE U.S. Army Forces in the Far East

USAFI U.S. Armed Forces Institute

USAFIME U.S. Army Forces in the Middle East

USAFPAC U.S. Army Forces, Pacific

USAFWESPAG U.S. Army Forces, West Pacific

USASOS U.S. Army Services of Supply (Southwest Pacific)

USFCT U.S. Forces, China Theater

USFET U.S. Forces, European Theater

Redesignation of ETOUSA after 1 Jul 45.

USMA U.S. Military Academy

USN U.S. Navy

USO United Service Organizations

USSTAF U.S. Strategic Air Forces (in Europe)

VA Veterans' Administration

WAAC Women's Army Auxiliary Corps

Waac A member of the WAAC

WAAF Women's Army Auxiliary Force (proposed name for

WAAC)
804 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

WAAF Women's Auxiliary Air Force (British)

WAC Women's Army Corps

Wac A member of the WAC

WAF Women in the Air Force

WASP Women Air Service Pilots

WAVES Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (the

women's service in the U.S. Navy)

Wave A member of the WAVES

WCT Women's Classification Test

WD War Department

WDBPR War Department Bureau of Public Relations

WDC Western Defense Command

WDGS War Department General Staff

WFTC Western Flying Training Command

WIRES Women in Radio and Electrical Service

WMC War Manpower Commission

WO Warrant Officer

WPD War Plans Division, of the War Department General Staff

ZI Zone of Interior
UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II

The following volumes have been published or are in press:

The War Department

Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations

Washington Command Post: The Operations Division

Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare: 1941-1942

Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare: 1943-1944

Global Logistics and Strategy: 1940-1943

Global Logistics and Strategy: 1943-1945

The Army and Economic Mobilization

The Army and Industrial Manpower

The Army Ground Forces

The Organization of Ground Combat Troops

The Procurement and Training of Ground Combat Troops

The Army Service Forces

The Organization and Role of the Army Service Forces

The Western Hemisphere

The Framework of Hemisphere Defense

Guarding the United States and Its Outposts

The War in the Pacific

The Fall of the Philippines

Guadalcanal: The First Offensive

Victory in Papua

CARTWHEEL: The Reduction of Rabaul

Seizure of the Gilberts and Marshalls

Campaign in the Marianas

The Approach to the Philippines

Leyte: The Return to the Philippines

Triumph in the Philippines

Okinawa: The Last Battle

Strategy and Command: The First Two Years

The Mediterranean Theater of Operations

Northwest Africa: Seizing the Initiative in the West

Sicily and the Surrender of Italy

Salerno to Cassino

Cassino to the Alps

The European Theater of Operations

Cross-Channel Attack

Breakout and Pursuit

The Lorraine Campaign

The Siegfried Line Campaign

The Ardennes: Battle of the Bulge

The Last Offensive
The Supreme Command

Logistical Support of the Armies, Volume I

Logistical Support of the Armies, Volume II

The Middle East Theater

The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia

The China-Burma-India Theater

Stilwell's Mission to China

Stilwell 's Command Problems

Time Runs Out in CBI

The Technical Services

The Chemical Warfare Service: Organizing for War

The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field

The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat

The Corps of Engineers: Troops and Equipment

The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Japan

The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Germany

The Corps of Engineers: Military Construction in the United States

The Medical Department: Hospitalization and Evacuation; Zone of Interior

The Medical Department: Medical Service in the Mediterranean and Minor Theaters

The Ordnance Department: Planning Munitions for War

The Ordnance Department: Procurement and Supply

The Ordnance Department: On Beachhead and Battlefront

The Quartermaster Corps: Organization, Supply, and Services, Volume I

The Quartermaster Corps: Organization, Supply, and Services, Volume II

The Quartermaster Corps: Operations in the War Against Japan

The Quartermaster Corps: Operations in the War Against Germany

The Signal Corps: The Emergency

The Signal Corps: The Test

The Signal Corps: The Outcome

The Transportation Corps: Responsibilities, Organization, and Operations

The Transportation Corps: Movements, Training, and Supply

The Transportation Corps: Operations Overseas

Special Studies

Chronology: 1941-1945

Military Relations Between the United States and Canada: 1939-1945

Rearming the French

Three Battles: Arnaville, Altuzzo, and Schmidt

The Women's Army Corps

Civil Affairs: Soldiers Become Governors

Buying Aircraft: Materiel Procurement for the Army Air Forces

The Employment of Negro Troops

Manhattan: The U.S. Army and the Atomic Bomb

Pictorial Record

The War Against Germany and Italy: Mediterranean and Adjacent Areas

The War Against Germany: Europe and Adjacent Areas

The War Against Japan
Index

AAF. See Army Air Forces.

A-1 Division, AAF, 283

Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md., 134, 329

Abortion, 502-03

Absence without leave, 116-17, 399, 419, 447, 505

Accidents, 626-27

Adams, Maj. Charity, 599

Adjusted Service Rating System, 451, 723, 727

Adjutant General, The, 18, 27, 31, 42, 53, 61, 83, 113,

128, 130n, 246, 258, 265, 281n, 305, 357-58, 648,

652, 655, 714, 743. See also Adjutant General's

Department,

and administration of WAAC (WAC), 26, 259, 260,

261

and conversion, WAAC to WAC, 221, 222, 222n,

256

draft estimates, 231

and enlistment standards, 173, 174, 176, 615

estimates Army jobs for women, 92, 93-94, 95

and housing for WAAC recruits, 180

and officer assignments, 564, 570, 573

and officer selection, 34, 680

and overseas requisitions, 583, 584

and psychiatric screening, 605

and publicity, 170

and recruiting, 26, 143, 169-70, 173, 176, 178, 181-

82, 183, 184, 239, 276, 684, 686-88, 692-99, 756.

See also Recruiting Service, Army; Recruiting

Service, WAC.

rulings on military status of WAAC, 113-14

specialist schools, 70, 126-27, 336, 660, 714

testing procedures of, 56, 56n, 651. See also Army

General Classification Test scores,

and training, 641

Adjutant General, ETO, 394

Adjutant General's Department (AGD), 192, 308,

336, 573

Adjutant General's Office (AGO). See Adjutant General, The.

Administration, WAC (WAAC), 91, 635. See also

Company officers; Headquarters, WAAC; Office

of the Director WAC; School for WAC Personnel

Administration; Staff directors.

AAF handbook on, 284

The Adjutant General responsible for, 26

and British precedent, 100

and command channels, 87-88

corps proposed, 571-72

and grade allotments, 258

job assignments in, 92-93, 101-102, 101n, 293, 316,

318, 321, 324, 344, 393, 433-34, 434, 453, 559

and WAAC status, 113-15, 119-20

Administrative Services, SOS, 51

Administrative Services, ASF, Chief of. See Chief of

Administrative Services, ASF.

Advertising, 170, 181, 756

for All-States Campaign, 235-36, 237-38, 242

cost of, to armed forces, 687

for Women-in-War Campaign, 254-55

by Young & Rubicam, 184, 187-88, 242

Africa-Middle East Theater, 474-78

Age limit, 182, 220, 746

AGF. See Army Ground Forces.

AGF WAC Officer, 296, 302-03, 482, 716. See also

Davis, Lt. Col. Emily E.

Air Corps, 42. See also Army Air Forces.

Air Medal, 286, 469

Air raids, 385

Air Surgeon, 283, 446

Air Transport Command, 252, 392, 425n, 558, 713,

783

and flying duty for Wacs, 286

job assignments in, 289

"leave shuttles," 450

number of Wacs overseas in, 294n

Wacs in overseas theaters, 286, 294, 294n, 384, 423,

478, 479

Air WAC Division, 282-94

Air WAC Officer, 281-82, 285, 286, 297, 572, 785. See

also Bandel, Lt. Col. Betty.

liaison with Office of the Director WAC, 482

and officer refresher training, 716

position created, 132

Air WAC Plan. See Station-job recruiting.

Air Wacs, 251, 252, 259, 281-95, 656. See also Army

Air Forces.

Aircraft Warning Service, 24, 26, 29, 41, 58, 58n, 61,

63, 87, 110, 154, 268, 281n, 292

AAF responsible for, 26, 27, 59

first WAAC companies, 26, 78-82, 90

in Hawaii, 478

officers, 58, 59

and uniform supply, 99-100, 103

Waacs replace civilians in, 24, 94

WAAC units eliminated, 129

Alaska, 277, 294, 425n, 478, 479

Algiers, 361, 365, 372

Allied Translator and Intelligence Service, SWPA,

433, 435

Allied women's services, 541-42. See also British

women's services; Canadian WAC.

Allotments, dependents', 97, 120, 220, 265

All-States Recruiting Campaign, 236-46, 247, 251,

252, 255, 256, 655, 686, 696, 719
808 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

American Association of University Women, 485, 742

American Red Cross, 60, 189, 335, 415, 600, 783

liaison with WAC, 485

and maternity care for Wacs, 509

nurses' aide program, 345, 351, 352-53

in overseas theaters, 376, 377, 421, 450, 464, 467

Antiaircraft Artillery (AAA), 62n, 104, 110, 191, 301-

02, 305

Antiaircraft Command, 62n, 297, 299

Antilles Department, 478

Appointment and Induction Branch, AGO, 260n, 688

Arlington Hall, 316, 317, 319, 558

Armed Services Committee, House of Representatives, 746, 747, 748

Armored Replacement Training Center, AGF, 229,

302

Armstrong, Brig. Gen. George Ellis, 747

Army Air Forces, 27n, 31, 36, 42, 83, 88, 93, 94, 125,

130n, 198, 224, 229, 250, 297, 304, 334, 341, 526,

579, 658, 719, 725. See also Air Transport Command; Aircraft Warning Service.

accidents surveyed by, 627

Air WAC Division of, 282-83

attitude to WAC (WAAC), 24, 79, 97, 191, 281-83,

408

CBI Wacs (Waacs), 284, 294, 294n, 464-71

China Theater Wacs, 471-74

command channels, 43-44, 284, 453

company officers, 284, 284n, 295, 670

continuation training, 662, 664, 666, 667, 667-68,

668

contributions to WAC program, 283-85

and conversion, WAAC to WAC, 228-29

and courts-martial, 504

and demobilization, 731, 732, 733

ETO Wacs (Waacs), 284, 294, 294n, 380, 383, 384,

387, 388, 390, 407, 408, 479

flying jobs for women, 285-86

friction with ASF, 271

on furnace firing, 552

and grade allotments, 257-59

grades and ratings, 293-94, 357, 756

handicaps in employing Wacs, 281

hospital Wacs, 292, 339

housing, 284, 520, 521

and insignia, 539-40, 540

job assignments, 161, 285-93, 365, 549

liaison with Director WAC, 270, 271-72

liaison with training centers, 657

menstrual disorders surveyed by, 613, 614, 614-15

MTO Wacs (Waacs), 294n, 365-66, 368-69

NATO Wacs (Waacs), 294, 365, 479

Negro Wacs in, 595-96, 596, 599

number of Wacs in, 277, 281, 281n, 294

officer assignment in, 293, 565, 570

officer promotions in, 271, 574-76, 576

on officers quarters, 524

and officer training, 572, 714, 718

and peacetime WAC, 741, 742

Army Air Forces—Continued

receives first Waacs, 132

and recruiting, 80, 81, 238-39, 242, 245, 249-55,

282, 283, 304-05, 340, 692, 697

and screening for overseas service, 583

share of Waacs determined, 129-30

specialist training, 127, 286-88, 311, 314-15, 338,

641, 642, 660

staff directors, 130, 281, 284

and supply, 541

SWPA Wacs, 284, 434-35. See also Far East Air

Force; Far East Air Service Command,

and uniform, 164, 270-71, 283, 396, 535-36, 538

utilization of Wacs in, 562, 563

WAC handicaps in, 281

and WAC public relations, 262

Wacs (Waacs) requisitioned by, 62n, 407, 567

and WASP, 557, 784-85

Army Airways Communications System, 290-91, 294,

479

Army Commendation Ribbon, 328

Army General Classification Test (AGCT) scores, 56,

65, 181-82, 301, 643-44, 651

AGF, 299, 301

ETO, 390

Medical Department, 341, 344, 351, 354, 356

Negro, 592, 593, 595, 596, 599

statistics on placement of Waacs (Wacs) in, 59, 77,

174, 193, 390, 478, 559

and recruiting standards, 173, 174, 180, 183-84

and selective service for women, 760

Signal Corps, 314, 315

Wacs with low, 59, 174, 180, 182, 183-84, 299, 332,

345-46, 563, 592, 593, 595, 599, 643, 645, 646-

48, 731

Army Ground Forces (AGF), 31, 62, 124, 254, 257,

262, 350, 520, 538, 539, 559, 641, 719, 743

attitude to WAAC, 132-34, 228-29, 305-06, 741,

741-42

and continuation training, 662, 666-67, 667, 668

and demobilization, 731

grade allotments, 259, 302-03

and insignia, 539-40, 541

integration problems, 302-04

liaison with Director WAC, 270, 271-72

job assignments, 296-302

number of Wacs in, 297

and officer promotions, 576

and officer refresher training, 714, 718

and peacetime WAC, 306, 741, 741-42

receives first Waacs, 134

and recruiting, 239, 251, 254, 299, 300, 304-05, 696

requests Wacs, 250

relation to ASF, 271, 296

share of Waacs determined, 130

staff directors, 130

Wacs overseas, 304, 368-69, 579

Army Nurse Corps (ANC), 6, 17, 18, 191, 197, 223n,

335, 351, 352, 356, 385, 663, 730, 754, 759
INDEX 809

Army Nurse Corps (ANC)—Continued

Army status for, 6, 219n

dependency allowances, 114, 265

hours of work, 349, 358

and marriage, 510

and maternity care, 509

military training, 631, 654

on nurses' aides, 353

in overseas theaters, 367, 423, 427, 439, 450, 463.

464

peacetime, 742

and pregnancy discharge, 500-501, 501

strength limitation, 350-51

uniform, 37, 158, 528, 531

and WAAC (WAC) nurses, 556-57

Army of Occupation, 402, 406-07, 409, 457

Army Service Corps. See Army Service Forces.

Army Service Forces (ASF), 31, 126, 134, 148, 192,

224, 257, 259, 274, 281, 296, 307-38, 392, 400,

551, 553, 556, 657, 660, 721, 734, 739. See also

Adjutant General's Department; Chemical Warfare Service; Corps of Chaplains: Corps of Engineers; Finance Department; Medical Department; Ordnance Department; Provost Marshal

General's Department; Quartermaster General;

Signal Corps; Transportation Corps.

Administrative Services, 50-51

AGF relation to, 296

Chief of Administrative Services, 51, 53, 61, 76-77,

93, 182, 183

on command channels, 263, 311

and continuation training, 348, 666-67, 667-68

Control Division, 53, 86, 145, 184, 260n, 261, 668

and demobilization, 730-31

difficulties of WAC location in, 270-72

Director of Materiel, 528

Director of Personnel, 260, 307, 412, 553, 569

and hospital orderlies, 347-48, 350

Information and Education Division, 677, 680, 731,

737

and insignia, 539-40, 540

International Division, 542

and job assignments, 545-46, 553-54, 753

and medical technician grades, 351, 356-58

Military Personnel Division, 31, 51, 53, 70, 231,

259-60, 260n, 271-72, 442, 478, 505, 539, 547-

48, 563, 566, 582, 605, 667, 668, 712-13

Military Training Division, 32, 75, 259-61, 260n,

602, 618, 631, 632. 635-36, 636-38, 640-41, 643,

646, 647, 650, 652, 653, 655, 657, 658, 660-61,

662, 664-68, 713-14, 714

Mobilization Division, 260n, 412

Morale Services Division, 261, 271, 275

Negro Wacs, 597, 599

number of Wacs in, 277

and officer assignment, 564-65, 567, 568-69, 569

Office of the Director WAC, relations with, 167,

182-83, 259-63, 263-64, 269-71, 272, 274, 275-

77, 527

Army Service Forces (ASF)—Continued

and officer commissions, 566-67

on officer-enlisted association, 513

and officer promotions, 131-32, 271, 574-75, 576

and officer refresher training, 713-14, 714, 715-16,

718

and officer selection, 681

and overseas theaters' requisitions, 317-18

and peacetime WAC, 741-42

Personal Affairs Division, 509

physical training investigated by, 640

and processing overseas shipments, 584-87

on purpose of WAAC, 182-83

and recruiting, 169, 182-83, 231, 239, 251, 253-54,

314, 686, 694, 696-97

and Regulations (WAC), 263-65

reports on first Waacs, 192

Requirements Division, 82, 99, 101, 124, 150-51,

158, 162-64, 165, 210, 271, 520, 529, 537

on rotation, 712-13

and slander campaign, 197, 201

Special Services Division, 60, 126, 171, 181, 260n,

261, 271, 275

specialist services receive Waacs, 134-35

staff directors, 130, 712

on technical services requisitions for Wacs, 309-10,

331

time-in-grade rules, 131

and uniform, 165-66, 200, 275-76, 528, 535, 537,

538, 541-42, 654. See also Requirements Division,

ASF.

and unit messes, 264, 526

utilization of Wacs in, 562, 563

WAAC Headquarters relations with, 86, 145, 222-

23

WAC Officer created, 307

WAC (WAAC) organization in, 145, 259-62, 269-

70, 307-08

and WAC service in.Washington, 558

Wacs overseas, 368-69, 390, 579

Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP), 661

Army status. See Military status.

Arnold, Gen. Henry H., 132, 228, 250, 252, 282, 465,

470, 701.784

Articles of War, 65, 115, 116, 635, 636

Asbury, Maj. Laura, 331

ASF WAC Officer, 307, 326, 328, 346, 482, 668, 716,

732, 735. See also Goodwin, Lt. Col. Katherine R.

Assignment, power of, 263. See also Command channels; Job assignments.

and command, 83-84, 87-88, 128, 453-54, 543-44

ETO, 395

SWPA, 455

Atlanta Quartermaster Depot, 154, 155

Atomic bomb projects, 326

Aurand, Brig. Gen. Henry S., 689

Austin-Wadsworth bill, 247-49, 270

Australia, 277, 410, 412, 414, 418, 422, 425, 426, 443

WAC units arrive in. 418, 422
810 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Australia—Continued

WAC units leave for New Guinea, 420

Auxiliary status, 6. See also Military status.

administrative handicaps of, 43, 52-54, 113-15,

119-20

Army insists on, 34

and command channels, 88

disciplinary difficulties of, 43, 90, 115-17, 120

and duplication of Army agencies, 52-53, 53-54,

145

early plans and, 12, 14

military privileges limited by, 113-15, 118, 120

protections lacking in, 96-97, 106

and replacement of soldiers, 148

and Signal Corps, 309, 311

and Table of Organization (WAAC), 146-47

Auxiliary Territorial Services (British), 16, 33, 34,

369, 376-77, 405, 712, 760, 780

Ayer & Son, N. W., 170, 184

Bailey, Maj. Ellen, 424

Baird, Brig. Gen. Harry H., 411n, 415, 416, 423, 443,

451, 454, 460

Bandel, Lt. Col. Betty, 91, 137, 229, 282, 284, 285,

307, 459, 596

aide to Director, 75

Air WAAC Officer, 132

on company officers, 757

on continuation training, 663, 667

and discharge of Air Wacs, 732, 734

discharged, 734, 735

establishes AAF training center liaison, 657

on flying duty for Wacs, 286

on grade allotments, 257, 258, 281-82, 293

on officer-enlisted association, 754

on peacetime WAC, 731-32, 748

promoted to lieutenant colonel, 574-76

on remaining AAF problems, 294-95

on staff directors, 757

on WAC control tower operators, 291

and WASP, 285, 785

Bartholomew, Capt. Lavern, 416

Basic Allowances, Tables of, 26, 52-53, 150

Basic training, 63, 66-67, 75. See also Training.

course content, 635-38

evaluated, 651-54, 656-58

in expansion period, 140-43

physical, 638-40

processing, 634-35

technical, 640-48

Battle of the Bulge, 305, 350, 356, 389, 697, 705

Benefits, military, 96-97, 114-15, 120, 220, 265-66

Berry, Maj. Robert W., 17

Bethune, Dr. Mary McLeod, 59, 590, 592

Bevans, Maj. Gen. James M., 283, 688

Biak, 432, 435, 438, 443, 458, 462

Blanchfield, Col. Florence A., 356

Blanding, Miss Sarah, 56, 555

Boiling Field, Washington, D. C., 104, 289, 558

Bolton, Representative Frances P., 747

Bonesteel, Maj. Gen. Charles H., 512

Boutell, Maj. Hortense M., 368, 370

Bowley, Brig. Gen. Albert J., 15, 274

Boyce, Col. Westray Battle, 356, 483, 538, 707, 716

and demobilization, 459-60, 728-29, 732-33, 733,

734n, 735

Deputy Director WAC, 715-16

Director WAC, 722, 723-24

final recommendations, 753, 753-54, 755-56, 756,

757

and Interim WAC, 743, 745

on medical evacuation rate, SWPA, 440

on Negro Wacs, 601

and officer-enlisted relationships, 374-75, 753-54

overseas theaters inspected by, 379, 452, 456, 458-

59, 459-60, 473, 477, 732, 732-33

and peacetime WAC, 740, 741, 742, 748

on privacy, 521

promoted to lieutenant colonel, 576

and public relations, 491

on recruiting, 755-56, 756

resigns, 746

on rotation, 587-88

on safeguards necessary to well-being, 437, 462

on soldier opposition to WAC, 753

Staff Director, Fourth Service Command, 88, 722

Staff Director, NATO, 363-64, 722

on standards for enlistment, 756

on Table of Organization units overseas, 588

Bradley, Gen. Omar N., 739, 747

Branch, Lt. Col. Robert F., 111, 175

Branch recruiting, 696-97

AAF, 283, 697

AGF, 304-05

ASF, 314

Signal Corps, 314

Bride ships, Wacs on, 335-36

British women's services, 7, 10, 16-17, 33, 143, 290,

381. See also Auxiliary Territorial Service (British).

command system, 87

company officers in, 571

and direct commissions, 55

expansion difficulties, 61

and gynecological care, 611-12, 612

Hobby visits, 91

housing policy, 101, 517-20

leadership, 680

liaison with WAC, 484

mess duty, 550

morale, 712

morbidity rate, 610-11

in MTO, 369, 372-73, 376-77

need for dayrooms, 522

and noncommissioned officer privileges, 547-48

Office of the Director, 758

officer policy, 34, 55

and officer refresher training, 713, 718
INDEX 811

British women's services—Continued

precedent for WAC, 12, 26, 32-34, 100, 182, 263,

301

pregnancy, 193, 780

psychiatric care, 622

recruiting, 188, 232

slanders against, 191, 780-81

and selective service, 246, 248, 759-60, 761

in Southeast Asia Command, 463

in World War I, 6, 7, 10

Bronze Stars, 367, 409, 436, 452, 728

Brown, Col. Hobart, 102

Brown, Lt. Col. Mary-Agnes

discharged, 735

Executive Officer, WAC, 266

on peacetime WAC, 461

promoted to lieutenant colonel, 576

Regional Director, Eighth Service Command, 88

Staff Director, SWPA, 414-18, 422, 423, 425, 427,

429, 441, 443, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454-56,

457, 458, 458-59, 461

in Veterans' Administration, 735, 739

Brown, Maj. Robert S., 231

Buck, Rear Adm. Walter A., 748

Bulk Allotment system, 41, 147, 148

Bureau of Naval Personnel, 140, 359, 490, 498, 759

and WAVES courts-martial, 504

on WAVES housing, 520

and WAVES job assignments, 543-44

on WAVES training, 641

Bureau of Public Relations, War Department, 28, 30,

48, 49, 52, 98, 260n, 275, 351, 573, 700, 762

and publicity, 193-94, 262, 271, 705-06

and recruiting, 685

WAC Group in, 276, 701-02, 703, 704, 705, 708

Bureau of the Budget, 20, 21, 22, 113, 114

Burial, 26, 115, 118, 510-11

Buzz bombs, 385, 387

Byrnes, Justice James F., 235, 243

Byron, Brig. Gen. Joseph W., 261

Cadet Nurse Corps, U.S., 350, 356, 557

Cadre, 303, 319, 333, 567. See also Company officers,

leadership training of, 650-51

male, 60, 61, 63, 65, 101

overseas theaters, 363, 366, 369, 387

postwar recommendations on, 756-57

shortage of grade allotments for, 257-58, 756-57

training center, 101-02, 136, 137, 307, 631-32

Cairo, 474, 474-78

Cairo Conference, 312

Calcutta, India, 464-65, 467

Campbell, Brig. Gen. William F., 416, 419, 443

Camp Adair, Oreg., 305

Camp Beale, Calif., 735

Camp Breckenridge, Ky., 545

Camp Croft, S. C., 348

Camp Crowder, Mo., 312, 315

Camp Detrick, Md., 322

Camp Gordon, Ga., 266

Camp Holabird, Md., 317, 645

Camp Hood, Tex., 134

Camp Knight, Calif., 595

Camp Lee, Va., 201, 226, 330, 596

Camp Monticello, Ark., 124. See also Fifth WAAC

Training Center.

Camp Patrick Henry, Va., 474

Camp Pickett, Va., 305

Camp Polk, La., 124, 136. See also Fifth WAAC

Training Center.

Camp Russell B. Huckstep, 474-77

Camp Ruston, La., 124. See also Fifth WAAC Training Center.

Camp Shanks, N. Y., 474

Camp Stoneman, Calif., 334

Camp Upton, N. Y., 551

Camp Wheeler, Ga., 348

Canada, 32, 478

Canadian women's services, 32, 484, 758. See also

Canadian WAC.

Canadian WAC, 32, 33, 188, 381. See also Canadian

women's services.

"Capitol Stuff" attack on WAAC, 201-05

Cartoons, anti-WAC, 274

Casablanca Conference, 361

Caserta, Italy, 366, 368

Catron, Col. Thomas B., 88, 122, 124, 266, 269, 549,

575

on conversion re-enlistment, 219, 227-28

Executive Officer, WAAC Headquarters, 86-87

on officer quality, 102

on recruiting standards, 169

and supply shortages, 100

and uniform, 152

WAAC Headquarters reorganized by, 111

CBI. See China-Burma-India Theater.

Central Postal Directory, NATO, 362, 364

Central Postal Directory, SWPA, 418, 420-21, 435,

445

Ceremonies, 60, 70, 140, 141, 367, 736

Certificates of Military Service, 114

Ceylon, 463

Chance, Capt. Patricia Lee, 481, 483, 489-90

Chaplains, Chief of. See Chief of Chaplains.

Chaplains, Corps of. See Corps of Chaplains.

Chaplains' assistants, 337, 596

Chemical Warfare, courses in, 638, 649, 663

Chemical Warfare Center, Edgewood Arsenal, Md.,

322

Chemical Warfare Service (CWS), 194, 318, 536, 743

job assignments, 93, 324-26

job performance, 324, 326

number of Wacs in, 321-22

staff director, 134, 326

WAC problems in, 325-26

Chief of Administrative Services, ASF, 53, 61, 76-77,

93, 182: 183

Headquarters, WAAC, placed under, 51
812 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Chief of Administrative Services, ASF—Continued

and recruiting, 182

Chief of Chaplains, 337, 508, 509

Chief of Finance, 26, 28, 60, 114

Chief of Engineers, 8, 27, 124, 517, 520, 522, 524-25,

551

Chief of Military Personnel, ASF. See Dalton, Maj.

Gen. Joseph N.

Chief of Military Personnel, ETO, 402

Chief of Ordnance, 8, 134, 329

Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, 16, 31, 270, 413, 753. See

also Marshall, General of the Army George Catlett.

Chief of Staff, Office of. See Office of the Chief of

Staff.

Chief Signal Officer, 249, 309, 311, 316, 317, 318, 408

Chief of Transportation, 114, 336, 583, 587

Chief, WAC Branch, G-1, 480

China-Burma-India Theater (CBI), 412

advance preparations for Wacs, 465, 467

Air Wacs, 284, 294n

health, 465, 468-69, 469

living conditions, 465-68, 469, 471

job assignments, 465, 469-70

job performance, 470

morale, 470

restrictions on Wacs, 469

screening for, 465

suitability for Wacs, 464, 471

supply, 467-68

uniform, 441

China Theater, 471-74

Chungking, China, 471-73

Circulars, War Department

Circular 169, 51, 83

Circular 289, 264, 271, 528

Circular 344, 87, 88, 89, 90

Circular 462, 403, 415n, 455

on hospital Wac hours, 354, 358

on marriage, 510

on maternity care, 508-09

prohibiting permanent kitchen police, 547-48

on screening for overseas WAC service, 580

on travel orders, 556

on WAAC command channels, 83

Civil Service, 24, 27, 220, 544

ferry pilots, 285

and re-employment rights of Waacs, 114

Civil Service Commission, U.S., 8, 21

Civilian Conservation Corps, 15, 26

Civilian Personnel Division, SOS, 51

Civilians with the Army, 4, 5, 129, 301

in Aircraft Warning Service, 81

and allotments, 114

in CBI, 470

efficiency of, compared to Waacs, 79

in ETO, 400-402

friction with Wacs, 81-82, 129, 227, 295, 317, 345,

348, 376, 400-402

and manpower crisis of 1943, 249, 250

Civilians with the Army—Continued

misbehavior of, attributed to Waacs, 198

in MTO, 376

replacement of, by Wacs (Waacs), 27, 93, 265, 310,

324, 330, 544-46

in World War I, 5-8

Clague, Maj. Betty, 465, 471

Clark, Col. Howard F., 111, 154, 209, 551

Clark, Lt. Gen. Mark W., 367, 379

Class II installations, 308, 310, 331, 336

Classification survey teams, 60, 545, 546, 562-63

Clergy's attitude to WAAC, 195, 207, 216-17

Clerical Aptitude Test, 651

Clerical Platoon, 41, 41n

Cleveland Plan, 188-90, 200, 233

Cochran, Miss Jacqueline, 285, 557, 784-85

Code and cipher officers, 393

Code of Conduct, WAAC, 498-99

Coleman, Lt. Col. Dorothea A., 364, 367, 371

College training, 139, 324-25, 661

and Army Specialized Training Program, 661

of officer candidates, 58, 61

Medical Department, 340

Collins, Maj. Gen. J. Lawton, 690

Command and General Staff School, 100, 228, 393,

660

Command channels

AAF, 284, 284n

Air Transport Command, 479

Circular 344 defines, 87-88

conflict over, 83, 85, 89-90, 258, 310-11, 453-54

ETO, 394-95, 453

and integration problems, 266-68

for Interim WAC, 744

and minimum safeguards for women, 263, 479

NATO, 364

and officer selection, 681

publication of, 82-84, 85, 86-88

and rotation, 712-13

and screening for overseas service, 580

and sick book entries, 610

and Signal Corps, 43-44, 309, 310-11

SWPA, 453-54, 461

WAAC Headquarters to field, 127-28

women not to command men, 220, 264, 748-49

Commission on the Organization of the Executive

Branch of the Government. See Hoover Commission.

Commissions, direct, 54-55, 169, 173, 264, 271, 273,

274, 393, 413-14, 477, 574, 746

Commissions, direct, in Medical Department, 220,

573. See also Women's Medical Specialist Corps.

Communications Platoon, 41, 41n

Company officers

AGF, 296

Chemical Warfare Service, 326

and command channels, 258, 284, 284n, 453-54,

455-56, 676-77

and continuation training, 647, 666

and conversion losses, 226-27
INDEX 813

Company Officers—Continued

ETO, 393, 406

fatigue of, 452-53, 454, 711-12, 715

grade allotments for, 258

inexperience of, 137

in Interim WAC, 744

job defined in AAF, 284, 284n

leadership, 669-81

MTO, 373, 377

NATO, 363-64

Negro, 597

quality affects company behavior, 621

quality during expansion, 137

quarters, 524

postwar recommendations on, 756-57

Signal Corps, 320

shortage, 569-71

refresher training for, 713-19

screen Wacs for overseas service, 412, 419, 580

and sick book entries, 610

Southeast Asia Command, 463

special service for, proposed, 571-73

SWPA, 444-45, 447, 451-54, 455

Transportation Corps, 333

War Department policy slow to reach, 285

Comptroller General, 13, 113, 120

on legal status of Waacs, 96, 114, 265

on longevity pay, 222-23

Confinement for misbehavior, 115, 116-17, 267, 505-

07

Congress, 6, 8, 13, 14, 16, 17, 22, 29, 52, 58, 97, 123,

168, 206, 252, 344, 409, 501, 557, 591, 750, 761

Austin-Wadsworth bill considered in, 248

complaints of, 263, 270, 347, 409, 457, 529-30, 532,

551-52, 556, 567-68, 619, 653, 697-98, 734

and direct commissions, 414, 574

and discipline, 116-17, 120-21

and job assignments, 220, 544

and military benefits for Wacs, 45, 114, 120, 220,

265, 782-83. See also Dependency allotments,

and military status of WAAC, 33-34, 44-45, 114,

117-18, 200-201

nurses draft proposed to, 350-51

Office of the Director WAC liaison with, 486-87,

490

pay (WAAC) authorized by, 50, 118

and peacetime WAC, 409, 731, 732, 739-40, 742,

746, 746-49

rank limited by, 118, 220, 283, 721

and recruiting, 530, 686

and registration of women, 97

and Regulations (WAC), 264-65

and selective service for women, 95-96, 122, 247,

759-60

and slanders against WAAC, 205, 217-18

and uniform, 166, 270, 529-30, 532

WAAC established by, 24-25, 33-35, 44-45, 48.

See also WAAC bill.

WAC established by, 220-21. See also WAC bill,

and WAC Reserve, 655n, 737, 747-48, 748-49

Congress—Continued

Women Air Service Pilots opposed in, 285, 784-85

Consultant for Women's Health and Welfare. See

Craighill, Maj. Margaret D.

Consultation Service, 622-25, 636, 651

on opportunity school, 647, 647-48

on training, 642, 645

Continental invasion, WAC participation in, 385-90

Continuation training, 348, 661-68

Contraceptives, 82, 201-05, 207, 616-17, 618

Contracts for WAAC uniforms, 150-55

Control Division, ASF, 53, 568

on continuation training, 668

duties taken over by, 260n, 261

and officer assignments, 564-65

and recruiting, 184

reorganizes WAAC Headquarters, 86, 145

Control Division, WAAC, 260n, 593

Conversion, WAAC to WAC, 14, 231, 339-40, 411,

567. See also Integration, WAC into U.S. Army.

and benefits, 266

and enlistment, 221-29, 296-97, 330, 363-64

instruction on, 221-23

and medical examinations, 223

in NATO, 363-64

and Office of the Director WAC, 259-63, 266

and Regulations, 256, 263-65

and unresolved problems of WAAC status, 223

Cooks and bakers school, 75, 147, 175, 660

Corps areas, 26-27, 42, 55, 56, 58, 93-95. See also

Service commands.

Corps of Chaplains, 337-38, 418, 541

Corps of Engineers, 8, 27n, 60, 81, 93, 110, 135, 326-

29, 388. See also Chief of Engineers; Manhattan

District.

Costello, John M., 784

Courtesies, 60, 67, 635, 636, 638, 647, 648, 662

Courts-martial, WAC, 43, 115, 116, 265, 267, 372,

399, 548, 599

legal status of, 115-17

WAC representation on boards, 264, 503

Craighill, Maj. Margaret D., 221n, 537, 716

Consultant for Women's Health and Welfare, 178

on dayrooms, 521

on health in ETO, 398, 399

on health in MTO, 371

health program organized by, 602-604

on health in SWPA, 440, 440-41, 449-51

and hospital Wac uniforms, 537

on housing, 754-55

inspects overseas theaters, 456-57, 463-64, 468,

469, 476-77

inspects veterans' hospitals, 739

and medical care, 608-09, 610, 611, 611-12, 614,

615, 618, 621, 630

and medical standards for enlistment, 602-04, 605-

06, 607

and physical training, 665

on privacy, 521, 754, 755

and psychiatric care, 622
814 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Craighill, Maj. Margaret D.—Continued

on rotation, 587

on screening for overseas service, 581

Dalton, Maj. Gen. Joseph N., 249, 260, 263, 270, 271-

72, 307, 558, 571, 692, 713, 714, 742

and ASF Wacs in Washington, D. C., 558

on continuation training, 667, 668

on hospital Wacs, 346, 359

on insignia, 539, 540

and kitchen police for noncommissioned officers,

547-48

on recruiting, 231, 232, 238, 244, 245, 251, 687,

688, 693

and unit messes, 264, 526

Dating, 48, 187, 263

in CBI, 468-69

in ETO, 401, 402-03

in MTO, 373-74, 374-76

in SWPA, 421, 425-26, 447-49

Davis, Lt. Col. Emily E., 307, 732, 748

AGF WAC (WAAC) Officer, 228, 296, 297

assigned to Executive Office, WAAC Headquarters, 73

on grade allotments, AGF, 303

promoted to lieutenant colonel, 576

Dayrooms, 263, 521-22, 524

Daytona Beach, Fla., 77-78, 208-11, 554, 632. See

also Second WAC (WAAC) Training Center.

Death gratuity, 96, 106, 265

DEBUNK, Axis radio station, 214

Decorations, 257, 265, 286, 385, 565

and Auxiliary status, 114

CBI, 469

ETO, 385, 409

Manhattan District, 328-29

MTO, 367, 373

SWPA, 436-37, 458

Demobilization, 276, 457, 716

eligibility for, 726-27, 732, 733, 734

medical examination, 630

of overseas Wacs, 378-79, 406-08, 409, 459-60

rate debated, 727, 730-32, 733-34

separation procedure, 735-37

Veterans' Administration and, 737-39

Denfeld, Adm. Louis E., 748

Denit, Brig. Gen. Guy B., 439-40, 440, 441

Dependency benefits, 97, 120, 220, 265, 736

Dependent ships, Wacs on, 335-36

Deputy Chief of Air Staff, 281

Deputy Chief of Staff, 336. See also McNarney, Lt.

Gen. Joseph T.

Deputy Director, WAC. See Boyce, Col. Westray Battle; Rice, Lt. Col. Jessie P.; Woods, Lt. Col.

Helen H.

Des Moines, Iowa, 62-63, 63-65, 197, 206, 590, 642,

645

Devers, Lt. Gen. Jacob L., 364, 374, 402, 409, 733,

750

Director of Materiel, ASF, 528

Director of Personnel, ASF, 260, 307, 412, 553, 569

Director of Women's Relations, War Department,

11-12

Director WAAC. See also Hobby, Col. Oveta Culp;

Headquarters, WAAC.

Hobby takes oath, 46

pay of, 118

powers and responsibilities, 42-44, 51, 53, 82-84

Director WAC. See also Hobby, Col. Oveta Culp; Office of the Director WAC.

duties, 259, 260-61, 262, 270, 277, 480, 484-91

liaison with War Department divisions, 260-62,

480-81

location in War Department organization, 269-70,

271, 272, 277, 307, 480-81

postwar recommendations on, 758

rank of, 50, 102, 721

and recruiting, 688

status, 262-63

Director WASP, 285, 557, 784-85. See also Odium,

Mrs. Jacqueline Cochran.

Discharge, 42-43, 79, 82, 115, 127, 128, 223, 260n,

284, 284n, 480, 736, 758

for age, 725, 730

blue, 116, 496, 502-03, 711

and command, 83, 88

and conversion, WAAC to WAC, 256

credit towards Auxiliary service, 737

dependency, 497-98, 696

disability, 175, 390, 551-52, 604, 606, 607-08, 613,

614-15, 615, 654

ETO, 395, 409

honorable, 80, 128, 219

for inadaptability, 500

of married Wacs, 730

medical, 711

for misconduct, 498-500

NATO, 364

numbers granted, 729-30, 732, 733, 743

pregnancy, 256, 500-503, 620-21

psychiatric, 623

problems after integration, 496-503

replaces long-term confinement, 506-07

SWPA, 457-58

types of, in WAAC, 128

of unassignables, 647

Discharge Review Board, 496

Discipline, 79, 89, 284n, 341, 717, 758. See also Courtsmartial.

and command channels, 42, 83, 258

and conversion problems, 267-68

and difficulties under Auxiliary system, 115-17,

119-20, 120n

ETO, 1076-78

and leadership qualities, 672, 672-73, 675

in MTO, 372

and minimum safeguards for well-being, 757

in NATO, 191, 364
INDEX 815

Discipline—Continued

problems after integration, 503-05

in SWPA, 446-49, 453-54

Dispensary care, 610, 613

Distinguished Service Medal, 721

Distribution Division. SOS, 152

District Engineer, 327, 329

Donovan, Maj. Gen. Richard, 690

Doolittle, Maj. Gen. James H., 374, 405

Douglas Army Airfield, Ariz., 596

Drill, 60, 65, 70, 76, 141, 635, 636, 638, 647, 649, 650,

662

Dugway Proving Ground, Utah, 322, 325

Durfee, Dr. Hildegarde, 672-74, 675, 677, 679-80,

680

Dyer, Capt. Josephine, 474

Eaker, Lt. Gen. Ira C., 379, 380, 382-83, 383, 405,

408, 409, 733, 741-42, 750

Eastern Defense Command, 301, 304

Edgewood Arsenal, Edgewood, Md., 322, 325

Edlund, Maj. Harold A., 98, 169, 170, 183, 186

Education, 183-84, 293, 562

college training, 58, 139, 324-25, 661

and disability discharge, 606-07

Medical Department requirements, 340-41, 344,

351, 354

officer, 58, 139, 577

requirements, 173, 174-75, 183

Educational reconditioning by Wacs, 342

Edwards, Maj. Gen. Idwal H., 122, 124

Eighth Air Force, 135, 284, 289, 311, 380, 384, 405

Eighth Army, 438

Eighth Service Command, 126, 174, 176, 266, 307,

414-15, 690

Eisenhower, General of the Army Dwight D., 120,

361, 362, 364, 373, 374, 380, 394, 405, 409, 701,

734, 743, 750

and direct commissions, 393-94, 393n, 413, 414

evaluates Wacs (Waacs) overseas, 379, 408

on marriage in ETO, 403

on officer-enlisted relationships, 402-03

and peacetime WAC, 733, 742, 742-43, 746, 747-

48

requests staff director for NATO, 363

requests Waacs for ETO, 96

requests Waacs for NATO, 84, 106, 191, 211, 360

Engineers, Chief of. See Chief of Engineers.

Engineers, Corps of. See Corps of Engineers.

England, 16, 32, 55, 84, 135, 284, 360, 383, 388, 412.

See also European Theater of Operations.

living conditions in, 395-96

slanders about Waacs in, 211, 215

uniforms supplied from, 396-97

Wacs in, 284, 294, 311, 312, 380-85, 395-96

Enlistment, fraudulent, 496

Enlistment of Waacs in WAC, 221-24, 228-29, 296,

330, 363-64

Enrollment and enlistment standards, 256, 756. See

also Recruiting,

character, 178-79

education and intelligence, 174-76, 183-84, 340-

41, 351, 593

medical, 27, 55-59, 176-78, 181-82, 222, 223, 227,

602-04

ETO. See European Theater of Operations.

European Theater of Operations (ETO), 380-409,

410-11, 412, 703-04, 756-57, 758

AAF Wacs, 284, 294, 294n, 380, 383, 384, 387, 388,

389-90, 406-07, 407, 408, 479

command channels, 394-95, 453

dating and marriage, 402-04, 753-54

demobilization, 406-08, 730

first WAAC shipment to, 104-09

health, 388-89, 397-99, 663

job assignments, 311, 381, 383, 384-85, 387-88,

390-93, 402, 453

job performance, 383

living conditions, 387-88, 388-90, 395-97, 408-09

morale, 384-85, 388-90, 399-402, 408-09, 600

Negroes, 599-600

number of Wacs employed in, 294n, 380, 384, 388,

389

requests Waacs, 96-97, 135, 249-50, 380, 383-84

Signal Corps Wacs, 312, 318

supply, 381, 396, 397

Wacs appraise experience in, 408-09

Expansion, WAAC, 92-112, 155-56, 760

General Staff approves, 122-24

plans, 61-63, 84-85, 91, 92-99, 110-12, 113, 122-

24

recruiting problems of, 168-90

standards lowered during, 174-75, 180-81, 593

and supply problems, 123-24, 152-54

Expense, 353, 750-52

expansion, 760

food, 526-27, 750

housing, 517, 524-25

publicity, 694, 696

recruiting, 238, 246, 248, 708

SWPA Wacs, 437-38

training, 750

uniform, 158, 166, 531, 532

Extended Field Service Training Battalion, 584-87

Faith, Brig. Gen. Don C., 50, 73, 77, 84, 126, 192, 208,

260, 575, 631, 649-50, 662

and basic training courses, 59-60, 635

Commandant, First WAAC Training Center, 36, 60

commander, WAAC Training Command, 102

Distinguished Service Medal awarded to, 266

officer candidate standards, 138, 139

on officer quality, 102

and officer reclassification, 568

and Second WAC Training Center, 78, 101-02,

511

on specialist training, 147
816 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Faith, Brig. Gen. Don G,—Continued

supply and shortages, 75, 100, 101

on Table of Organization, 41

Training and Field Inspection Division headed by,

144, 517, 545

Far East Air Forces (FEAF), 294n, 413, 422-23, 426-

27, 429, 430, 432-33, 438, 442, 451-52, 454, 458,

460

Far East Air Service Command (FEASC), 427, 433,

434, 435, 436, 439, 440, 445-46, 449, 454, 460

Fatigue, 627-30

in closing months of war, 711-12

company officer, 711-12, 715-16

in drivers school, 645

hospital ship, 334-35

and housing, 724

of MTO Signal Corps Wacs, 369-70

and officer refresher training, 713-19

and rotation, 712-13, 724-25

and Transportation Corps rest camps, 334

Fatigue duty, 335, 378, 663. See also Kitchen police

duty.

AAF, 291

ETO, 396, 408

hospital Wacs, 348

MTO, 369

SWPA, 438

training center, 141, 634, 653-54, 654

and unit messes, 525-26

FEAF. See Far East Air Forces.

FEASC. See Far East Air Service Command.

Federal Bureau of Investigation, 201, 206

Federal Industrial Reformatory for Women, Alderson, W. Va., 506

Female Medical Technicians Campaign, 340-41,

343, 351

Ferrying Division, AAF, 614

Field duties. See Job assignments.

Field Inspection Service, 517, 545

Fifteenth Air Force, 368

Fifth Air Force, 411

Fifth Army, 365, 366-68, 373, 376, 376-77, 462, 743

Fifth Army Plaque, 367

Fifth Service Command, 138, 180, 188, 307, 699

Fifth WAAC Training Center, Camp Monticello,

Ark., Camp Polk, La., Camp Ruston, La., 78,

124, 124-26, 155, 198, 208, 632

Files, WAAC, 83

Films, 181, 187, 254, 274-75, 692, 693, 705-07

Filter boards, Aircraft Warning Service, 59, 78, 79

Finance, Chief of. See Chief of Finance.

Finance Department, 28, 93, 94, 333, 337, 552

First aid training, 66, 636, 638, 648

First Air Force, 281, 289

First Service Command, 46n, 177, 180, 266, 307

First WAC (WAAC) Training Center, Fort Des

Moines, Iowa, 36, 52, 58, 59, 78, 87, 98, 104, 138,

140, 141, 143, 156, 166, 174, 183, 191, 192, 203,

238, 337, 568, 582, 612

First WAC (WAAC) Training Center—Continued

chosen as permanent, 658

in closing months of the war, 632

Consultation Service, 622-25

drivers school, 643, 645

Extended Field Service Training Battalion, 584,

585, 587

first classes trained, 63-72, 75-77, 84

first graduates assigned to, 75

leadership school, 650

living conditions, 60, 123, 516, 654

Negroes, 591-92, 593, 597

Opportunity School, 646-47

prepared for first Waacs, 59-61, 62-63

separation center, 735, 736

slanders about, investigated, 207-08

and supply shortages, 75-76, 91, 99-100, 151-54,

163-64

Fitzsimmons General Hospital, Denver, Colo., 355

Fleming, Lt. Charles L., 30n

Flikke, Maj. Julia, 18

Fling, Third Officer Marjorie D., 26, 55, 73

Flying jobs for women, 285-86, 557, 614

Food. See also Mess.

Aircraft Warning Service, 81, 90

CBI, 467, 471

ETO, 387, 388, 390, 396

master menu (WAC), 526-27

Southeast Asia Command, 463-64

SWPA, 420, 428, 432, 438, 444, 458

training center, 71, 658

Forrestal, James V., 747

Fort Benning, Ga., 134, 300

Fort Bragg, N. C., 165, 735

Fort Des Moines, Iowa, 36, 632, 654. See also First

WAC (WAAC) Training Center.

Fort Devens, Mass., 124, 632. See also Fourth WAC

(WAAC) Training Center.

Fort Dix, N.J., 149, 551, 735

Fort Huachuca, Ariz., 87, 103, 596, 597

Fort Jackson, S. C., 346

Fort Knox, Ky., 134, 229, 545

Fort Leavenworth, Kans., 100, 660

Fort Meade, Md., 299, 305

Fort McClellan, Ala., 316, 595

Fort Monmouth, N.J., 226, 312, 315, 316, 321

Fort Monroe, Va., 306

Fort Moultrie, S. C., 267

Fort Oglethorpe, Ga., 102, 625, 632, 645, 646, 654.

See also Third WAC (WAAC) Training Center.

Fort Riley, Kans., 134, 136, 268, 296, 595

Fort Robinson Quartermaster Depot, 330

Fort Sam Houston, Tex., 103, 735

Fort Sheridan, 111., 239, 595, 735, 736

Fort Sill, Okla., 134

Forward Echelon, Communications Zone, ETO, 387

Foster,Capt. Cora M., 366, 376-77

Foulkes, Lt. William W., 30n

Fourth Air Force, 281, 289
INDEX 817

Fourth Service Command, 139, 174, 209, 210, 267,

307, 363, 451, 512, 545, 576, 585, 632, 652, 653

Fourth WAC (WAAC) Training Center, Fort

Devens, Mass., 124, 126, 199, 381, 593, 632

slander campaign at, 207

supply shortages, 154, 155, 164

France, 294, 385

Freeman, Lt. Col. Mary, 735n

French women's services, 376, 377, 484, 541

Frink, Maj. Gen. James L., 426

Furloughs. See Leaves.

Furnace firing, 551-52

G-1 Division, AFPAC, 457

G-1 Division, AGF, 134, 303

G-1 Division, ETO, 394-95

G-1 Division, NATO, 364, 365

G-1 Division, USAFFE, 415, 416, 417, 429, 433, 455

G-1 Division, USASOS SWPA, 437

G-1 Division, War Department, 11, 12, 14n, 15, 16,

21, 25, 36, 114, 122, 223, 230n, 231, 412, 526,

569, 575, 577, 737

choice of Director WAC (WAAC), 27, 29-30, 721-

22

and commissions, 413-14, 566, 573

and demobilization, 727, 728, 730, 734

on dependency discharge, 498

and hospital companies, 353-54, 356-57

and insignia, 540

and job assignments, nonmilitary, 94, 545-46

and maternity care, 508-09

on military benefits for WAC, 782

and nonvolunteers for overseas service, 582-83

Office of the Director WAC removed to, 270, 271,

272, 277, 480-81, 580

and officer assignments, 570

on officer-enlisted association, 513

and peacetime WAC, 740-41, 741

Preplanners (WAAC) appointed by, 25

and public relations, 701

and recruiting, 123, 251, 685-86, 698

Regulations (WAAC, WAC), 42, 264

and selective service for women, 247

on Transfer Day, 222

and uniform, 529, 532

and unit messes, 526

and WAAC bill, 17-18, 20

WAAC transferred from, 31

and WAC use of weapons, 553

on Wacs vs. nurses' aides, 353

G-2 Division, USAFFE, 418

G-2 Division, War Department, 12, 16, 94, 270, 320,

480

2d Signal Service Battalion in, 316, 319

slanders investigated by, 201, 203-04, 205-11, 214-

16

Wacs employed in, 316, 319, 557, 558

G-3 Division, AGF, 134, 303

G-3 Division, USAFFE, 418

G-3 Division, War Department, 12, 26, 35, 93, 129,

150, 152, 154, 239, 338, 412, 587, 657. See also

Operations Division, War Department,

on Antiaircraft Artillery jobs for Wacs, 302

on command channels, 43

and demobilization, 727

and expansion plan (September 1942), 84-85, 91,

92, 93, 95, 97, 110, 122, 123, 124

and Office of the Director WAC, 269-70, 480

and officer refresher training, 714-15, 716

and peacetime WAC, 740

and recruiting, 684, 695

Regulations (WAAC) written by, 27-28

and training, 26, 124-25, 634, 658

WAC Antiaircraft Artillery units disbanded by,

302

G-4 Division, USAFFE, 418

G-4 Division, War Department, 12-13, 18, 26, 36

and housing, 26, 27, 28, 524-25

and peacetime WAC, 740

and uniform, 528, 536, 537

Galloway, Lt. Col. Mera, 331, 458

Gallup, Dr. George, 184, 231-32

Gallup reports, 143, 245, 273

on mess duty and recruiting, 549-50

on opposition to WAAC, 186

on peacetime WAC, 746

on uniform, 166, 529

on women's attitude to draft, 247

Gannett, Deborah Sampson, 3

Gardiner, Maj. Annie V., 424, 433

Gardiner General Hospital, Chicago, 346, 598

Gasser, Maj. Gen. Lorenzo D., 263, 632

General Council, War Department, 97, 129, 247, 336,

357

General Hospital Recruiting Campaign, 354-56,

697-98, 705, 707

General Staff, War Department, 6, 84, 111, 124, 126,

128, 129, 134, 153, 246, 269, 305, 350-51, 407,

569, 730, 750, 758. See also Chief of Staff; G-1

Division, War Department; G-2 Division, War

Department; G-3 Division, War Department;

G-4 Division, War Department; Marshall, General of the Army George Catlett.

and Army status, 110, 112, 113

on direct commissions, 55

Director WAC, liaison with, 31, 264, 271, 272, 277,

528. See also Marshall, General of the Army

George Catlett.

directs Waacs to count against Troop Basis, 148

and expansion, 77, 98, 110, 112, 122-24. See also

G-3 Division, War Department,

and kitchen police, 548

on Medical Department ratings, 351, 358

and peacetime WAC, 740-41, 741-42

Phipps plan rejected by, 12

and recruiting, 172, 173, 684, 684-85, 686, 694,

695, 698, 708

and Regulations (WAC), 264, 265
818 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

General Staff", War Department—Continued

reorganized, 31

on requisitions for SWPA, 412, 413

rules on credits for WAAC service, 265

selects new Director WAC, 721-22

Wacs with, 558-59

Germany, 385, 390

Gibson, Truman, 594

Giles, Maj. Gen. Barney McK., 281

Giles, Maj. Gen. Benjamin L., 475

Ginsburgh, Col. A. Robert, 423, 436, 460

Going Back to Civilian Life, 736-37

Good Conduct Medal, 114, 265

Goodwin, Lt. Col. Katherine R., 71, 307, 359, 459,

568, 732

ASF WAC Officer, 307

and continuation training, 663, 664, 667

discharged, 734

on hospital Wacs, 346, 354, 359

personnel officer, Office of the Director WAC, 266

promoted to lieutenant colonel, 576

Regional Director, First Service Command, 88

on staff directors, 757

Governors. See State Governors.

Governors' Conference, 238

Grade allotments, WAC, 103, 257-59, 302-03, 387

Grice, Col. Letcher Ogle, 37

Grades, 126-27, 328, 474, 562. See also Promotion;

Rank.

AAF, 283, 293-94

AGF, 302-03

hospital company, 343-44, 346-47, 351, 354, 356-

58

and integration of WAC into Army, 283. See also

Grade allotments.

officer, 50, 89, 102, 130-32, 220, 264, 271, 276, 283,

293-94, 408-09, 436, 570, 574-77, 578

overseas theaters, 367-68, 373, 392, 408-09, 436,

475-76, 756

postwar recommendations on, 756-57

recruiters, 686, 692-93, 694

Signal Corps, 319, 320, 373

Gross, Maj. Gen. Charles P., 336, 583

Ground Forces Replacement Depot, 299

Ground Wacs, 656. See also Army Ground Forces.

Groves, Maj. Gen. Leslie R., 326, 328-29

Gruber, Brig. Gen. William R., 50

Gruber, Mrs. William R., 50, 52, 719

Grunert, Maj. Gen. George, 51, 83, 86, 87, 94, 102,

112, 131, 151, 201. See also Chief of Administrative Services.

on drill, 76-77

on military status of WAAC, 113, 114

and rank of Director WAC, 102

on recruiting, 179, 182

on service clubs for Second WAC (WAAC) Training Center, 210

Gynecological care, 602-04, 604, 605, 608-09, 610,

611-15, 630

Gynecological care—Continued

and medical screening, 176, 177, 412-13

overseas, 399, 427, 440, 468, 477

and separation, 735

H. R.4906, 18-23

H. R.6293, 24-25, 33-34, 42, 44-45, 82, 84

Hairdressing facilities, 430, 475, 522

Hall, Brig. Gen. William E., 282

Hallaren, Col. Mary A., 746

Director WAC, 746

Staff Director, ETO, 395, 403

Halloran General Hospital, New York City, 346

Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation, 134, 200, 201,

221, 331, 333

Han, Capt. Clara G., 259

Handy, Lt. Gen. Thomas T., 352, 701

Hansen, Capt. Zelma, 320

Harbord, Maj. Gen. James G., 7

Hardesty, Maj. Elizabeth, 735n

Hart, Lt. Helen E., 323

Hastie, William H., 597

Hawaii, 277, 294, 294n, 423, 589

Hawaiian Department, 478

Headquarters, AGF, 305-06

Headquarters, U.S. Army Forces, Pacific (AFPAC),

455

Headquarters companies, 41, 103-04, 307, 308, 368-

70, 384. See also WAC units; WAC Detachment,

General Headquarters, USAFFE.

Headquarters, WAAC, 28, 30, 36, 49-54, 71, 82, 94,

96, 102, 104, 106, 145, 195, 269, 381, 539, 660.

See also Hobby, Col. Oveta Culp; Office of the

Director WAC.

and Aircraft Warning Service assignments, 80

and AWOL problems, 116-17

becomes Office of the Director WAC, 259-63

and Bulk Allotment system, 147-48

command functions of, 43-44, 82-84, 86-88, 127-

28

and conversion of WAAC to WAC, 221-23, 224

and direct commissions, 54-55

Director's schedule, 51-52

and expansion plans, 79, 84-85, 93, 98

on furnace firing, 551

and housing standards, 516-17, 517

and job assignment restrictions, 94, 329, 338, 550-

51

and legal status of WAAC discipline, 116-17

location of in War Department organization, 31-32

and medical examinations, 176-77, 621

and mess companies, 549

and Negro Waacs, 591, 592

and officer standards, 58-59, 138-39

and officers quarters, 524

operating duties, 52-54, 60

and Ordnance Wacs, 329

organization of, 31-32, 86, 86n, 111, 145

organized, 30-31
INDEX 819

Headquarters, WAAC—Continued

personnel shortage, 144-45

receives first WAAC officers, 73-75

and recruiting, 169, 171, 173, 178, 181-83, 184-90

regional directors assigned by, 88

SOS and ASF, relations with, 32, 82-84, 85-88,

145, 338

and screening for overseas service, 578-79

and sex hygiene, 204, 616, 617

and Signal Corps, 309-11

and slander campaign, 199, 200, 201, 201-03, 204-

05, 209, 211

and supply shortages, 99-101, 150-55

Training and Field Inspection Division in, 144

and training centers, 60-61, 70, 83-84, 87, 99-102,

143-44, 216

and uniform, 36-37, 99, 157-58, 159, 162, 166,

199-200

WAC bill drafted by, 118-19

Health, 89, 90, 319, 320-21, 333, 736. See also Medical

care; Medical Evacuation Rate,

in CBI, 465, 468-69

in China Theater, 471-72

dysentery, 432, 468, 477

enlistment standards, 602-08

in ETO, 388-89, 397-99, 663

fatigue, 627-29

gynecological, 176, 177, 427, 440, 468, 477, 602-04,

604, 605, 608-09, 610, 612-15, 630

hepatitis, 468, 477

and hospital orderly work, 348-49, 358-59

injuries, 626-27

malaria, 416, 441, 444, 464, 477

in Middle East Theater, 476-77

and morbidity rate, 610-11

in MTO, 367-68, 371-72, 378

in NATO, 191, 361

pregnancies, 620-21

provisions for, in Interim WAC, 744

psychiatric, 57-58, 141, 176, 177, 178, 213-14, 227,

319, 320-21, 392, 398, 419, 423, 435-36, 449,

468-69, 477, 581-82, 602-04, 622-26, 642-43,

645, 653, 716, 738

respiratory diseases, 76, 141, 154, 361, 396, 397,

439, 441, 444, 468, 476-77

skin diseases, 421, 426, 439, 440-41, 444, 456, 464,

535

Southeast Asia Command, 463

SWPA, 419-20, 427-28, 432-33, 435, 439-41, 445,

446, 449-51, 456-57, 458

and training program, 652-54

and uniform shortages, 75-76, 78-79, 270-71

venereal disease, 193, 264, 372, 398, 447, 469, 477,

581, 604, 608-09, 618-19

weight and diet, 627

Heidelberg, Germany, 390

Henry, Maj. Gen. Stephen G., 514, 587, 722, 724, 729

Herrick, Mrs. Genevieve Forbes, 30. 48

Hershey, Maj. Gen. Lewis B. 233, 605

Hilldring, Brig. Gen. John H., 20, 22, 24, 25, 28, 31,

32, 47, 54

Hines, Brig. Gen. Charles, 604-05

Hoag, Col. John, 78, 99, 100, 126, 151, 152, 154

Hobby, Col. Oveta Culp, Director WAC (WAAC),

13n, 42, 52, 53, 54, 58, 72, 75, 86, 88, 89, 95, 99,

104, 110, 111, 113, 121, 132, 139, 167, 172, 194,

229, 237, 261, 269, 277, 285, 302, 309, 329, 330,

340, 344, 353, 372, 411, 414, 481, 483, 484, 486

497, 501, 556, 587, 625, 702, 711, 735, 762. See

also Headquarters, WAAC; Office of the Director WAC.

appointed Director WAAC, 28-30, 46

and Army of Occupation Wacs, 407

British and Canadian women's services studied by,

32-34

and command channels, 43-44, 82-84, 85, 87, 88-

89, 268, 309, 362, 412, 482

and conversion of WAAC to WAC, 220, 221-22,

223, 229-30, 230n, 256

correspondence with public, 487-91

demobilization policy, 726-28, 731, 734

on direct commissions, 54-55, 394, 413-14, 477,

573, 574

and discharge, 498-500, 500, 501, 502, 502-03, 621

and discipline, 338, 503, 504

and disciplinary confinement, 505, 506-07

Distinguished Service Medal awarded to, 721

duties after integration, 262-63, 264, 489, 490

in England (fall, 1942), 91, 93, 96, 152

and enlistment, fraudulent, 496

and enlistment into WAC, 219

on enlistment standards, 174, 176, 178, 179, 183,

602, 605, 606, 615, 746

ETO visited by, 249

on expansion, 61, 122

fatigue survey requested by, 627-28

final recommendations, 724-25, 753, 753-54, 754,

756, 759, 762

first press conference, 46-49

on furnace firing, 551

and hairdressing facilities, 522

Headquarters, WAAC, organized by, 30-31

on Headquarters, WAAC, personnel shortage, 144,

145

and hospital Wacs' problems, 339, 339n, 340, 345-

46, 349, 351-52, 352, 353, 357, 358

on housing, 39-41, 180, 517, 520, 754

and insignia, 39, 540

on job assignments, 310, 545-46, 753

on kitchen police, 547-48

on leadership of women, 140, 673, 674, 675, 679

liaison with operations, 260-62

liaison with other women's services, 759

on location of Office of the Director WAC, 270,

272, 480, 482

on marriage, 510

and maternity care, 507-09

and medical care, 177-78, 608, 611
820 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Hobby, Col. Oveta Gulp, Director—Continued

on medical screening for enlistment, 223, 223n

and Meek Report, 272-74

and mess companies, 549, 550

on military benefits, 265-66, 732-33

on military strictness at Headquarters, 73

and minimum safeguards for well-being, 263-64,

744

on moral standards, 178

and Negro Wacs, 58-59, 592, 594, 597, 598, 599,

722

Office of the Director WAC reorganized by, 266

and officer candidate school, 59, 66, 566

on officer-enlisted association, 511, 513-14, 753-54

officer policies, 34, 54-55, 58, 59, 102, 131-32, 138-

39, 564, 565, 566, 568, 571, 575, 680

and officer refresher training, 713-16

and overseas service for Wacs, 96, 106, 135, 411-

13, 419, 461, 580, 582-83

and peacetime WAC, 740, 748

and personal appearances, 486

on promotions, 131-32, 575

registration of women proposed by, 97

and public opposition to WAAC (WAC), 170-71,

200-01, 204, 205, 216, 271, 753 on public relations specialists, 701

and publicity, 194, 374, 404

rank of, 50, 102, 220, 721

and recruiting, 99, 123, 179, 180, 181, 182-83, 232-

33, 236-37, 238, 239, 240, 242, 243, 245, 251,

252, 351-52, 356, 687, 688, 691, 693, 694, 696,

697, 756

and recruiting promises, 239, 357

reforms approved by Marshall, 273-77

and Regulations, 83, 85, 256, 263-65

relations with SOS and ASF, 82-84, 85-87, 264,

268, 270-74, 275-77

on reorganization of WAAC Headquarters, 127

and replacement of soldiers by Wacs, 93-94

resigns, 456, 457, 698, 705, 719-20, 721, 722-24,

725

on Rice, Lt. Col. Jessie P., 719

on rotation, 378, 587, 713

schedule, 51-52

and selective service for women, 85, 246, 247

serial number, 46n

and sex hygiene, 203, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619

sworn in as first Wac, 221, 231

SWPA trip canceled, 456

and theatricals, 554, 555, 556

time-in-grade rule protested by, 131

and training, 631, 632, 634, 635, 636, 638, 640, 648,

649, 653, 654, 657, 658, 661, 662, 665, 666, 668

and training centers, 60, 77-78, 101, 125-26, 139,

144, 208, 210

and uniform, 36, 37, 39, 76, 99-100, 150-51, 153,

154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 162, 164, 166, 200, 271,

284, 354, 400, 400-401, 527-30, 531, 538, 541-

42, 711

Hobby, Col. Oveta Culp, Director—Continued

and unit messes, 525-26

on use of weapons, 552-53

WAAC bill pushed by, 21-22

and WAC bill, 220, 220n

Hobby, Governor William P., 29

Hodges, Col. Duncan, 312

Holabird Signal Depot, Md., 316

Hollandia, 426-28, 442, 443, 449, 450, 458

Homosexuality, 625

Hoover Commission, 762-63

Horak, Maj. Henriette, 404

Hospital orderlies, 135, 175, 345-49, 354, 356, 357-

59, 752. See also Hospitals, Army.

Hospital ships, Wacs on, 334

Hospitalization, of Waacs (Wacs), 115

Hospitals, Army. See also Hospital orderlies; Medical

Department.

hours of work in, 347-49, 354, 358-59

job assignments in, 341-48, 357-59

job performance in, 358

living conditions in, 341, 358-59, 520-21

recruiting campaigns for, 340-41, 344, 346, 347,

349-50, 351-52, 354-56

Table of Organization companies in, 94, 353-54,

356-58

uniform in, 164-65, 537

WAC care in, 610

Wacs vs. nurses' aides in, 345, 352-53

Hours of work

and fatigue, 628

hospital orderlies, 346-47, 348-49, 354, 358-59

Ministry of Labour, 348

NATO, 361

of Signal Corps Wacs, 369-70

Southeast Asia Command, 463-64

SWPA, 445-46, 456-57, 458

House of Representatives

WAAC bill in, 24-25, 44-45

WAC bill in, 120-21, 220

Housing, 26, 89, 90, 110, 256, 260, 284, 758. See also

Mess.

AAF, 80-81, 90, 294-95

AGF, 296

CBI, 465-67

China Theater, 471

and disability discharge, 654

ETO, 380, 381, 387, 388, 388-89, 390, 395-96, 408

and fatigue, 628

and flying duty, 286

hospital, 358-59. 520-21

latrines, 36, 60, 90, 124-25, 420, 432, 515, 516, 524

Medical Department schools, 341

in Middle East Theater, 475

MTO, 366-67, 370-71, 378

NATO, 361

Quartermaster Wacs, 330

recommendations for future, 753, 754-55

of recruits, 180, 181
INDEX 821

Housing—Contin ued

segregation and, 591, 591-92

separation centers, 735, 736

and Signal Corps shift work, 319, 320-21

Southeast Asia Command, 463

SWPA, 411n, 419-20, 423, 426-27, 430, 432, 432-

33, 433, 438, 458, 459

training center, 36, 39-41, 60, 101, 634-35

War Department policy on, 264, 310, 314, 5 15-25

Hughes, Maj. Everett S., 13-15, 14n, 362, 363, 364,

374

Huntsville Arsenal, Ala., 324

Hygiene, 66-67

continuation training in, 662

mental, 636

social, 615-20, 636

Hyssong, Brig Gen. Clyde L., 688

India, 277, 284, 294, 463-70

India-Burma theater, 579

Induction centers, 55-56

Industrial Hygiene Laboratory, U.S. Army, 348

Infantry, 27, 27n, 299

Infantry Replacement Training Center, AGF, 252

Information and Education Division, ASF, 677, 680,

731, 737

Information and Education Division, ETO, 394, 406

Information and Education Division, USAFFE, 418

Ingles, Maj. Gen. Harry C., 316

Injuries, 626-27, 653

Inoculations, 65

Insignia, WAC (WAAC), 26, 39, 71-72, 302, 309.

480, 539-41, 650

Inspection, 90-91, 728. See also Inspector General,

The.

AAF, 283, 284, 294, 521, 524

of Army Nurse Corps, SWPA, 423

ASF report, May 1943, 192

in CBI by staff director, 471

in CBI by War Department, 468

of Chemical Warfare Service, 323-24

in China Theater by War Department, 473

conversion losses investigated, 224-27

in ETO by staff directors, 394, 395

in ETO by War Department, 390

of Extended Field Service Training Battalion, 585,

586

of general hospitals, 346, 347-48, 358

of health by The Surgeon General, 371-72, 399,

440, 449-51 456, 463-64, 468, 469, 476-77, 739

of homosexual practices, by The Inspector General, 625

of housing, 520-21

and integration problems, 266-67

of job assignments, 545, 546

and menopause difficulties, 614-15

in Middle East Theaters by War Department, 476-

77

in MTO by War Department, 371

Inspection—Continued

of Negroes in ETO, 600

and recruiting guarantees, 656

of Signal Corps, 318-20

slanders investigated at training centers and field

stations, 197-98, 206-11

in Southeast Asia Command by War Department,

463-64

in SWPA by Inspector General, USAFFE, 435-36,

451, 452

in SWPA by staff directors, 416, 425, 435, 446

in SWPA by War Department, 456-57, 458-60,

461

of training centers and program, 139-40, 653-54,

657-58

of uniform supply by The Inspector General, 529

Inspection, monthly physical, 608-09

Inspection manual, WAC, 284

Inspector General, ETO, 394

Inspector General, Fourth Service Command, 653.

653-54, 654

Inspector General, USAFFE, 418, 435-36, 447, 451-

52, 452-53

Inspector General, The, War Department, 8, 347

on homosexual practices, 625

insignia, 539

on training program, 654

on uniform, 529, 654

Instruction, WAC training center, 61, 70, 136, 639,

645, 649, 650, 651-52, 657-58

Insurance, 96, 97, 113-14, 118

Integration of WAC into Army. See also Conversion;

Military status; Regulations, WAC.

in AAF, 256-68, 282-83, 293

in AGF, 259, 302-04

in ASF, 259

difficulties of, 266-68

and discharge regulations, 264-65, 496-503

and discipline regulations, 503-05

of grade allotments, 256-59

and man-woman problem, 682-83

and Office of the Director WAC, 259-63, 266

and rights and benefits of Wacs, 265-66

in Signal Corps, 309-10, 311

and special regulations for well-being, 263-65, 495.

See also Well-being of women, minimum requirements for.

of WAC officers, 573-74

Intermediate Officers School, 649-50

Intermediate Section, USASOS (Intersec), 424, 434.

435, 445

International Division, ASF, 542

Italy, 277, 284, 412. See also Fifth Army; MTO.

Janeway, Maj. Margaret, 716

Japan, 378, 457, 458

Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, 132

Jepson, Maj. Florence, 260
822 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Job assignments, 27, 273, 274, 711. See also Bulk allotment system; Job performance; Job utilization;

Occupational specialties; Table of Organization.

AAF, 78, 79, 228, 283, 285-93

AGF, 296-97, 299-302

ASF, 308

CBI, 465, 469-70

and command channels, 83-84, 87-88, 309. See also

Assignment, power of.

Chemical Warfare Service, 93, 324-26

decentralization of, 543-44, 559-63

ETO, 311, 381, 383, 384-85, 387, 390-93, 402, 453

and expense of Wacs, 750-52

food service, 548-50, 559

and furnace firing, 551-52

headquarters companies, 73-75

and health, 712. See also Fatigue.

Hoover Commission on, 762

hospital, 341-48, 357-59

Interim WAC, 744

kinds, 41-42, 192-93, 285-93, 299-302, 318, 324-

25, 327-28, 329, 330, 331, 332-34, 335, 336, 337-

38, 340-41, 344, 390-92, 433-34, 599. See also

Occupational specialties.

limitations, 24, 27, 93-94, 129, 148, 264, 265, 310,

323-24, 337-38, 544-50, 556-57

for low-grade personnel, 174-76, 182, 183, 332,

646-48

Medical Department, 341-49, 351-52, 354, 356.

357-58, 359

Middle East Theater, 475

MTO, 366-67, 368-69, 369, 369n, 372

NATO, 311-12, 362, 364, 365

Negro, 545, 593-97

officer, 283, 293, 393, 564-66

Ordnance Department, 329

and recruiting, 301, 688

results of Army-wide policies on, 559-63

service command, 307-08

Signal Corps, 309, 310-18, 365

suitable for women, 92-95, 104

SWPA, 420-21, 433-37

Table of Organization, 146-47

and theatricals, 553-56

training center, 75, 140

Transportation Corps, 332-36

administrative, 93, 101-02, 101n, 293, 316, 318,

321, 324, 344, 393, 433-34, 453, 559. See also Administration; Company officers; Staff directors.

and use of weapons, 552-53

Washington, D. C., 557-59

Job performance, 88

Adjutant General's Department, 336

Aircraft Warning Service, 79

Chemical Warfare Service, 324, 326

ETO, 383

excellence during first year, 119, 191-93

and fatigue, 628

hospital, 358

Job performance—Continued

Middle East theater, 477-78

MTO, 367, 379

NATO, 312, 362

service command, 192

Signal Corps, 312, 321

Southeast Asia Command, 465

SWPA, 423, 434, 435-36, 439, 460-62

Transportation Corps, 336

Job utilization

CBI, 470

and conversion losses, 226, 227, 228

ETO, 390

and fatigue, 629

and health, 629

and integration of WAC grade allotments, 257-59

and morale, 146-47, 226, 227, 372, 545, 752, 753

surveyed, 562-63

SWPA, 436

and Table of Organization units overseas, 588

Johns, Lt. Col. John F., 688, 692, 695-96

Johnson, Representative Leroy, 747

Joint Army-Navy Personnel Board, 483, 759

Joint Policy Committee of the Women's Reserves, 759

Joint Supply and Survey Board, SWPA, 434

Jones, Lt. Gordon C., 60

Judge Advocate General, War Department (JAG),

31, 44, 110, 219, 265, 301, 577, 599, 652

on Army status for WAAC, 18, 113, 114, 115-116

and courts-martial, 504-05

and insignia, 540-41

on legal status of Waacs, 96

maternity care in Army hospitals approved by, 508

Regulations (WAAC) prepared by, 26, 27

Julius Rosenwald Fund, 591

Kansas City Quartermaster Depot, 155

Katz, Capt. Roslyn, 467

Kelly, Capt. Charlee L., 416

Kenney, Lt. Gen. George C., 411, 413, 430, 442, 452,

460, 472

Kenworthy, Dr. Marion, 458

Kersey, Maj. Mary, 451, 452, 454

King, Brig. Gen. Campbell, 13

King, Brig. Gen. Henry L. P., 309, 310-11, 312

Kirk, Maj. Gen. Norman T., 351

Kitchen police duty, 265, 378, 653. See also Fatigue

duty.

in AAF, 291

hospital Wacs, 346, 347, 356

MTO, 369

restrictions on, 546-48

SWPA, 438

Kunming, China, 470

Labrador, 294, 425n, 479

Labor shortage, 16, 20, 21, 33, 605

and AGF demand for Wacs, 304-06

and Austin-Wadsworth Bill, 247-49
INDEX 823

Labor shortage—Continued

effect of WAAC on, 95

and Medical Department, 339-40

of 1943, 231, 249-50

and recruiting, 232-35

and WAAC expansion, 61-62, 84-85

World War I, 6-7

Las Vegas Army Air Base, 226

Lathrope, Maj. Frances M., 584

Latrines, 36, 60, 90, 420, 432

modifications of, for Wacs, 125, 515, 516, 524

Laundry, 67, 380, 390, 420, 430, 446, 471, 515, 524

job assignments, 129, 175, 544, 545, 546

Leaders, 104-06

Army officers as, 140, 681-83

and conversion losses, 226-27

enlisted women's courses for, 650-51

importance to morale, 226-27, 671

and officer refresher training, 714-19

problems peculiar to women, 672, 676-77

qualities of, 672-76, 677-80

selection and training, 57-58, 284, 571, 648-49,

680-81

and voice in command, 138

women's capacity to be, 4, 669-72

League of Women Voters, 11

Leaves

CBI, 467

ETO, 406

hospital, 348

hospital ship, 334

Middle East Theater, 476

MTO, 370, 372

Signal Corps, 319, 370

SWPA, 421, 450

Lee, Lt. Gen. John C. H., 405, 408

Legion of Merit, 257, 328, 373, 409, 458, 469, 565,

719

Length of service

and demobilization, 726, 728, 728-29, 729, 730, 734

and fatigue, 628

and pregnancy rate, 621

Leyte, Wacs on, 435, 443

Lichty, Maj. Marion, 716, 728

Lies, Miss B. Eugenia, 111

Lieutenant colonels, WAC, 271, 276, 283, 570-76

Living conditions. See also Fatigue duty; Food; Hours;

Housing; Medical care; Mess; Recreation.

CBI, 465-68, 469, 471

China Theater, 471

ETO, 387-88, 388-90, 395-97, 408

Extended Field Service Training Battalion, 584-85

hospital, 358-59, 520-21

Middle East Theater, 475

MTO, 366-67, 370, 372, 378

NATO, 361

Southeast Asia Command, 463

SWPA, 411n, 419-20, 420, 421-22, 423, 426-27,

430, 432-33, 438, 444, 459

Living conditions—Continued

specialist schools, 127

and recruiting, 181, 688, 689

training center, 36, 39-40, 60, 62-63, 77-78, 101,

123, 634-35, 658

Longevity pay, 222-23, 265, 782, 783

Lord, Mrs. Oswald, 693, 763

Los Alamos, N. Mex., 327, 328

Lovell General Hospital, Framingham, Mass., 207,

598-99

Lowry Field, Colo., 127, 288

Lutes, Maj. Gen. LeRoy, 153

McAfee, Capt. Mildred, 490, 759

MacArthur, General of the Army Douglas, 12, 411,

413, 427, 457, 458, 472

defends sending Wacs forward in SWPA, 423

praises Wacs, 480

welcomes Wacs to SWPA, 416-18

McCarthy, Col. Frank, 393n

McCoach, Maj. Gen. David, Jr., 690

McCoskrie, Col. Frank U., 191, 594, 632, 634, 650,

657, 658, 673, 745, 745n

Machine Records Platoon, 41, 41n

Machine records units, 93, 299, 333, 445

McMullen, Maj. Gen. Clements, 435, 446, 449, 460

McNair, Lt. Gen. Lesley J., 133, 228

McNarney, Lt. Gen. Joseph T., 76, 82, 87, 91, 99,

128, 129, 269, 270, 336, 373, 413, 514, 557-58,

565

McNutt, Paul V., 233, 243, 248, 249

McQuatters, Maj. Geneva, 735n

Macy, Col. J. Noel, 30, 32, 84

Magazine recruiting publicity, 187, 255

Malaria, 416, 441, 444, 464, 477

Malassignment, 228-29, 545-46, 761

AGF, 296, 300-301

Chemical Warfare Service, 325-26

and conversion losses, 226, 227

Corps of Engineers, 328

in hospitals, 346-49, 357-58, 359

overseas, 364, 372, 392, 436

Signal Corps, 317

and Table of Organization, 146-47, 296

Manhattan District, Wacs in, 326-29

Manila, Philippine Islands, 432-33, 449, 453, 455, 458

Man-woman problem, 54, 71, 682-83

and courts-martial, 503-05

and male officers commanding WAAC, 139-40

and officer candidate selection, 138

in training centers, 139-40

Manpower Board, War Department, 263, 566, 632,

720

Map reading, course in, 66, 635, 638, 648, 649, 663

Marine Corps. See Women's Reserve, Marine Corps.

Marriage, 187, 376

CBI, 469

ETO, 403-04

Middle East Theater, 476
824 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Marriage—Continued

SWPA, 446, 449

War Department policy on, 510-11

Marshall, General of the Army George Catlett, 16,

17, 46, 48, 50, 58, 59, 62, 72, 84, 94, 96, 97, 104,

110, 135, 221, 231, 301, 353, 357, 358, 361, 364,

393n, 457, 462, 473, 481, 490, 577, 681, 721, 724,

746, 752. See also Chief of Staff, U.S. Army.

on AAF women's corps, 97

adjudicates conflict, SOS and ASF vs. Director

WAC (WAAC), 44, 82-83, 85, 86, 87, 183, 271,

272, 273, 274-77. See also Meek Report.

appointed Chief of Staff, 15

Army status for WAAC requested by, 118, 119-20

on command system, WAAC, 44

on demobilization, 727

Director WAC to report to, 31

and directorship of WAC (WAAC), 28-30, 722

and employment of Wacs in Washington, D. C.,

557-58

and expansion of WAAC, 61, 62

at first WAAC press conference, 47, 48, 48n

on Hobby's service, 725

and hospital Wacs, 352-53, 355

Hughes plan considered by, 14-15

on manpower shortage, 84, 248

moves WAC to G-1 Division, 272

and Negro Wacs, 590

on officer-enlisted association, 724

on officer promotions, 271, 575, 575-76

and officer refresher training, 713, 714-15, 716

pay raise pushed by, 117-18

and peacetime WAC, 741

and public relations, 194, 271, 700-701, 704, 705

and recruiting, 182, 183, 236, 239, 240, 242, 244,

250, 355, 684, 688, 693, 694

and Regulations, WAC, 264

on Third WAAC Training Center location, 102

on training, 631, 640

on uniform, 82, 150, 158, 275, 530, 530-32

WAAC praised by, 218

WAAC bill pushed by, 20-22, 25

WAC bill pushed by, 220

Marshall, Maj. Gen. Richard J., 413, 455, 456

Master menu, 627. See also Food.

Matejka, Brig. Gen. Jerry V., 317, 360

Maternity care, 284, 507-09

Maxwell, Maj. Gen. Russell L., 707

Mayo General Hospital, 345

Medical Administrative Corps, 344

Medical care, 26, 33, 256, 284, 602-31, 711, 758. See

also Health.

and discharge, 630

and enlistment standards, 176, 222, 223, 227, 602-

07

gynecological, 176, 177, 427, 440, 468, 477, 603-

04, 604, 605, 608-09, 610, 611-15, 630, 735

injuries, 627

monthly physical inspection, 608-09

Medical care—Continued

and morbidity rate, 610-11

overseas, 371-72, 388, 399

pregnancy, 620-21

psychiatric, 622-26

rejection rates, 607-08

and social hygiene, 615-20

sick call, 610

weight and diet, 627

Medical Corps, 6, 8, 220n, 22In, 308

Medical Department, 37n, 339-59, 573, 783. See also

Hospitals; Surgeon General, The.

attitude toward WAAC, 27, 249, 339

commissions, 220, 220n, 759

estimates Wacs needed, 339-40

hospital assignments, 343-49, 351-52, 354, 356,

357-59

on insignia, 541

number of Wacs in, 339, 359n

on nurses' aides vs. Wacs, 352-53

recruiting, 340-41, 344, 345-46, 347, 349-52, 354-

56

requisitions Wacs (Waacs), 135, 339-40, 351

training, 341, 356

Women's Medical Specialist Corps, 220n, 742, 759

Medical evacuation rate, CBI, 464, 468

Medical evacuation rate, SWPA, 439-51

Medical technicians, 334, 335, 341, 342-45, 346-49,

351, 352, 354, 356, 357-58, 359, 392, 645-46. See

also Female Medical Technicians Recruiting

Campaign; General Hospital Recruiting Campaign; Hospital orderlies.

Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, 368

Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), 277

AAF in, 284, 294n, 365, 368-69

discipline, 372

health, 367-68, 371-72, 377-78

job assignments, 366, 368-69, 372

job performance, 367, 379

living conditions, 367, 370, 370-71, 372, 378

morale, 367-68. 369-70, 372-74

number of Wacs (Waacs) in, 294n, 369, 372

officer-enlisted association, 374-76

other women's groups in, 376-77

requests Wacs, 249

rotation and demobilization, 377-79

Signal CorpsWacs, 318, 320, 369-70

supply, 370-71

Meek Report, 272-74, 276-77, 529, 688, 701

Meek, Samuel W., 272, 273

Menninger, Brig. Gen. William C., 605, 609, 622,

623, 624, 753, 754, 761, 762-63

Menopause, 176, 203, 614-15

Menstruation, 5, 203, 371, 398, 602-04, 612-14, 645

Mental Alertness Test, 56n, 651

Meritorious Service Unit Plaque, 328, 367, 435, 437

Mess, 525-26. See also Food; Kitchen police duty.

Aircraft Warning Service, 81

companies, 93, 94
INDEX 825

Mess—Continued

courses in management of, 66, 75, 635, 638, 648

job assignments in, 293, 299, 318, 330, 546-50

master menu, 526-27

Quartermaster, 330

SWPA, 438

training center, 634-35

unit, 264, 525-26

War Department policy on, 525-26

Middle East Service Command, 475

Middle East Theater, Wacs in, 474-78

Military Affairs Committee, House of Representatives, 8, 24-25, 120-21, 220

Military Affairs Committee, Senate, 248

Military and Naval Welfare Service, 485

Military Censorship Detachment, SWPA, 434, 435

Military District of Washington, 162, 301, 307

Military Intelligence Language School, 589

Military Intelligence Service, 139, 197, 558

slanders investigated by, 205-16

Military occupational specialty numbers, 559. See also

Occupational specialties.

Military Personnel, ASF, Chief of. See Chief of Military Personnel, ASF.

Military Personnel Branch, Office of the Chief Signal

Officer, 309

Military Personnel Division, AAF, 283, 293-94

Military Personnel Division, ASF, 31, 51, 53, 70, 231,

260n, 412, 478, 505

commissions limited by, 566

and continuation training, 667, 668

and insignia, 539

and kitchen police for noncommissioned officers,

547-48

and nonvolunteers for overseas service, 582

personnel policy (WAC) taken over by, 259-60

and psychiatric screening, 605

on rotation proposals, 712-13

on SWPA WAC allotment, 411, 412

on WAC military police, 505

and Wacs of low AGCT ratings, 563

Military Personnel Division, SOS. See Military Personnel Division, ASF.

Military police, 117, 338, 505

Military status, 15, 16, 79, 128, 192, 245, 383. See also

Auxiliary status.

in Canadian and British women's services, 33

Congressional action on, 33-34, 44-45, 97, 118-21,

200-201, 219-21

conversion to, 220-30

desirability of, 52-54, 96, 113-17, 119, 145, 148

disadvantages of, 266-68

earliest examples, 8-10, 13

in Hughes plan, 14

and overseas service, 96-97, 106, 579-80, 580-81

in Phipps plan, 12

and recruiting appeals, 232

rejected for WAAC bill, 17

Judge Advocate General requests, 18

Military status—Continued

War Department supports, 113, 118-21

Military Training Division, ASF, 32, 75, 260n

and Army Specialized Training Program, 661

and basic training, 632, 635-36, 638, 640, 655, 657

and closing of Third WAC Training Center, 658

and continuation training, 662, 664-68

liaison with Office of the Director WAC, 261

liaison with training centers, 652, 656

and medical training, 602

and officer training, 648, 713-14, 714

and social hygiene, 618

and technical training, 640, 640-41, 641, 643, 646,

647, 650, 660

training (WAC) taken over by, 260, 631

Military Training Division, SOS. See Military Training Division, ASF.

Minority groups, 36, 589-601, 761. See also Negroes;

Nisei Wacs; Puerto Rican Wacs.

Mobilization Division, ASF, 260n, 412

Mobilization Training Program, 662, 662-64

Montgomery, Field Marshal Sir Bernard L., 405

Morale, 67, 120, 192, 258, 271, 284n, 286, 390, 480,

614, 757. See also Man-woman problems.

AGF, 303-04 and Army hostility, 226, 373-74, 753

Chemical Warfare Service, 323-24

and civilian competition, 400-402

in closing months of war, 711-13, 715, 717-18

company officer, 715, 717-18

and conversion losses, 226, 227-28, 363-64

and demobilization policies, 728-29

and direct commissions, 414

and Director's visits, 719-20

ETO, 385, 389, 400-402, 408, 600

during expansion, 141

of first units in field, 103

and flying duty for Wacs, 286

and Hobby's resignation, 723-24

job assignment important to, 146-47, 226, 227, 372,

545, 752-53

and leadership, 226-27, 669-72, 674, 675

in Manhattan District, 327, 328

in Medical Department schools, 341, 356

in Middle East Theater, 474, 475-76, 477-78

MTO, 367-68, 369-70, 372-73

NATO, 361, 363-64

Negro, in ETO, 600

and officer-enlisted association, 511, 511-12, 753-

54

officer pool, 567-68

officer refresher training in, 717

of overseas units awaiting shipment, 104-06

and posthostilities letdown, 406

recruiting, 181, 242

Signal Corps, 319-21

slander affects, 191, 204-05, 762

SWPA, 426, 444-45, 446

training center, 65-72, 76-77, 141-43, 210, 656
826 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Morale—Continued

Transportation Corps, 333

and unit messes, 525-26

Morale Services Division, ASF, 261, 271, 275

Morality. See also Pregnancy; Venereal Disease.

in British women's services, 32-33, 780-81

Director WAC, on, 178

ETO, 398-99

exceeds civilian average, 193, 207-08, 210

and leadership, 676

slanders about, 195-218

SWPA, 446-47

Morbidity rate, 610-11

Morhman, Lt. June, 143n

Motor transport school, 75, 147, 162, 175

Mountbatten, Vice-Admiral Lord Louis, 463

MTO. See Mediterranean Theater of Operations.

Mudgett, Lt. Col. Gilman C., Pre-Planner, WAAC,

25, 26, 27, 29, 34, 41

Munson, Lt. Henry L., 30n

National Association for the Advancement of Colored

People, 78, 486, 590, 591, 594, 599

National Civilian Advisory Committee, 358, 458,

484-85, 509, 623, 629, 748, 756, 763

assistance to veterans, 738-39, 739

helps recruiting, 693-94

on physical education, 639-40

National Federation of Business and Professional

Women's Clubs, 11, 485, 738

National Federation of Press Women, 405, 485

National Negro Council, 58, 59

National Press Club, 486

National Research Council, 616

National Service Life Insurance, 113-14, 118

NATO. See North African Theater of Operations.

Naval Personnel, Bureau of. See Bureau of Naval Personnel.

Navigation School, AAF, 290

Navy Department, 35, 81, 220, 234, 336, 342, 349. See

also WAVES.

circular on maternity care, 509

employs Waves in Washington, 559

job assignment policies, 562

on officer-enlisted association, 512, 513

ratings for recruiters, 693

WAAC bill opposed by, 24

WAVES bill, 44

World War I experience with enlisted women, 8-

10, 12

Negroes, 338, 619, 722

admitted to WAAC, 34

AGCT scores, 592, 593, 595, 596, 599

AGF refuses, 296-97

ASF, 596, 599

alleged discrimination against, 123, 589-92, 593-

94, 598

Negroes—Continued

evaluated, 600, 601

in Headquarters, WAAC, 73. See also West, Capt.

Harriet.

job assignments, 545, 593-97

number in WAC, 596

officer candidates, 58-59

and Opportunity School, 647

overseas, 388, 599-600

post headquarters company, Fort Huachuca, 104

recruiting of, 592-93, 594

segregation of, 591-92, 599-600

special problems, 597-99

Neilson, Maj. Louise, 735n

New Caledonia, 412, 478

New Delhi, 463

New England Plan, 605

New Guinea, 277, 410, 416, 418, 419, 420-22, 425,

438, 449, 456, 462

New York City, 55

News stories, 3, 27, 47-49, 50, 52, 58, 60, 63, 170, 187,

192, 194-95, 219, 232, 233, 238, 241-42, 243,

254-55, 404-06, 459, 465, 695, 699-700, 703-04

Newsome, Maj. Florence T., 576, 701

Nichols, Brig. Gen. Kenneth D., 327

Niles, Capt. Donna, 639, 665, 666

Ninth Air Force, 284, 384

Ninth Service Command, 198, 199, 307, 328, 690, 691

Nonvolunteers for overseas service, 582, 583

Nisei Wacs, 435, 589

Norfolk Air Defense Wing, 90

Normandy, 385, 388, 389, 412, 462

Normandy Base Section (Supreme Headquarters,

AEF), 388

North Africa Theater of Operations (NATO), 119,

122, 277, 360-65, 381, 390, 412

administrative problems, 362-64

Air Transport Command Wacs in, 294, 479

invasion, 96, 106, 206

job assignments, 311-12, 362, 365

job performance, 312, 362

living conditions. 361

misconduct, 200, 205, 207, 211, 214

morale, 361, 363-64

number of Wacs (Waacs) in, 365

publicity, 699, 703

requests Waacs, 135, 191

Signal Corps Wacs in, 311, 312

supply, 361, 365

WAC shipments to, 96, 106, 360-61, 364-65

Norton, Representative Mary, 205

Nurses, 556-57. See also Army Nurse Corps; United

States Cadet Nurse Corps.

Nurses' aides, 345, 346, 348, 350, 351, 352-53

Oak Ridge, Tenn., 135, 327

Occupational specialties, WAC (WAAC), 146-47,

182-83. See also Job assignments.
INDEX 827

Occupational specialties, WAC (WAAC)—Cont.

Air Crew Member, 286

armament specialists, 292

armorers, 288

bacteriologists, 340, 344

bombsight maintenance specialists, 288, 293

Braille instructors, 343

carpenters, 292

cartographers, 293

censors, 393, 420-21, 435-36

chaplains' assistants, 288, 337-38, 596

chemists, 293, 324, 327, 344

classification specialists, 292

clerical workers, 4, 7, 13, 27, 63, 84, 93, 135, 147,

288-89, 292, 299, 300, 301, 305, 312, 316, 324,

327, 329, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 343, 356, 365,

366, 369, 390, 392, 410, 411, 413, 418-19, 422,

425, 432, 433-34, 463, 465, 465n, 559, 595, 600,

629, 641-42, 698

code instructors, 290

communications workers, 311-18, 362, 368-69,

369, 387, 388, 390, 408, 434, 435, 559

control tower operators, 288, 290-91, 300

cooks, 27, 63, 147, 434, 548-50, 596, 642-43

cryptographers, 288, 290, 314, 315, 321, 327

dental hygienists, 146, 343

dietitians, 146, 292

dog trainer, 293

draftsmen, 314, 325, 329, 391-92

drivers, 12, 63, 75, 135, 147, 162, 292, 299, 324,

393, 418-19, 433-34, 434, 596, 629, 643-45

editorial workers, 292

electrical specialists, 288

flight clerks, 286

food service workers, 548-50, 559

geodetic computers, 293

hearing aid technicians, 343

historians, 292

interpreters, 292, 293, 390-91

laboratory technicians, 325, 340, 343

librarians, 292, 596

Link trainer instructors, 288, 291

lip reading instructors, 340, 343

machine records workers, 146, 289, 291, 299, 314,

333

mathematicians, 300

mechanics, 135, 286, 291-92, 299, 329, 333, 392,

419, 434, 559

medical technicians, 292, 334, 335, 343-45, 346-49,

351, 352, 354, 356, 357-58, 359, 392, 645-46

message center clerks, 321, 434

military secretaries, 393

motion picture projectionists, 300, 333, 596

motor transport workers, 12, 63, 75, 93, 135, 147,

162, 291-92, 299, 318, 324, 333, 393, 419, 434,

559, 596, 629, 643-45, 750-52

neurologists, 324

occupational therapists, 292, 342, 359

Occupational specialties, WAC (WAAC)—Cont.

optometrists, 340, 343

opticians, 146

orthopedic mechanics, 340

parachute riggers, 288, 300, 596

personnel clerks, 292

pharmacists, 340, 343

pharmacologists, 324

photographers, 286, 325, 327

photographic technicians, 288, 292, 300, 314, 333,

392

photointerpreters, 288, 393

physical training instructors, 288

physiotherapists, 342, 344, 359

postal directory workers, 332, 334, 336, 362, 368,

388, 418, 420-21, 435-36, 445, 595, 599-600

proofreaders, 300

psychiatric social workers, 340, 342

radar operators, 292

radio mechanics, 288, 290, 300, 314

radio operators, 93, 127, 286, 290, 300, 311, 314,

317, 321, 334, 365, 419, 436, 647, 738

sanitary inspectors, 293

serologists, 344

sheet metal workers, 288

stenographers, 12, 296, 300, 305, 327, 336, 343, 365,

366-68, 369, 390, 392, 393, 407, 413, 422, 434,

436, 465, 465n, 475, 595, 600

supply experts, 292

surgical technicians, 344-45, 351, 352, 356

telephone operators, 4, 6, 12, 106, 161, 292, 311,

312, 314, 321, 327, 362, 365, 366-68, 383, 388,

422, 435, 475

teleprinters, 383

teletypists, 288, 292, 312, 314, 316, 321, 327, 365,

388, 435, 475, 596

topographers, 293

toxicologists, 324

translators, 146, 300, 435

typists, 4, 106, 296, 300, 305, 327, 336, 365, 366-68,

383, 388, 390, 392, 407, 422, 434, 435, 465, 465n,

475, 642

vocational advisers, 292

weather forecasters, 288, 290

weather observers, 147, 288, 289-90, 392

X-ray technicians, 146, 343

Odium, Mrs. Jacqueline Cochran, 285, 557, 784-85

Office of Censorship, War Department, report on soldier opposition, 211-19

Office of Civilian Defense, 17

Office of Naval Intelligence, 214

Office of Naval Officer Procurement, 169

Office of Psychological Warfare, NATO, 362

Office of Strategic Services, 377, 384, 479, 589

Office of Technical Information, ASF, 260n, 262

Office of Technical Information, WAAC Headquarters, 194, 260n, 262

Office of the Chief, Chemical Warfare Service, 324
828 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Office of the Chief of Staff, 353

Office of the Director WAC, 61, 235, 252, 259-62,

269, 409, 414, 573, 604. See also Director WAAC;

Director WAC; Headquarters, WAAC; Hobby,

Col. Oveta Culp.

Army General Classification Test for WAC approved by, 651

ASF relations with, 167, 182, 259-64, 269-71, 272,

273-77, 480-81, 527

command power, 227, 260, 262

and demobilization, 276, 729, 737

on dependency discharge, 498

duties, 259, 260-61, 262, 264, 270, 277, 480, 483-91

and hospital Wacs, 347, 349, 351-52, 353-54, 357,

358

liaison with Congress, 486-87

liaison with civilian organizations, 484-86

liaison with field, 262-63, 267

liaison with operating agencies, 260-62

liaison with private citizens, 487-91

liaison with other women's services, 483-84, 758-59

and limiting of WAC commissions, 566-67

location in War Department organization, 269-70,

271, 272, 277, 307, 480-81, 527

and Meek Report, 272-74, 276, 277

objects to Interim WAC, 733-34

on officer-enlisted association, 753-54

and officer refresher training, 713-14

operating functions moved to Army departments,

259-60, 481-83

and peacetime WAC, 741-42

postwar recommendations on, 757-58

powers after the war, 744

public relations specialists requested by, 276, 701

and recruiting, 231, 235-39, 243, 251, 252, 274,

276, 411, 688

and Regulations, WAC, 263-64

on screening for overseas service, 578, 581

on soldier attitude to WAC, 271, 274-75

staff changes in, 266, 409, 735

and uniform, 275, 755

Office of The Quartermaster General, 100, 330-31,

761-62. See also Quartermaster General, The.

Office of The Surgeon General. See Surgeon General's

Office, The.

Office of War Information, 170, 187, 233, 234, 242,

243

and recruiting, 254-55, 695-96

Officer candidate school, 28, 63-72, 75, 138, 220n,

284, 320, 329, 566-67, 567, 569, 570, 648-49

Officer-enlisted association, 48, 295, 304, 374-76, 401,

402-03, 447-49, 469, 638

and War Department policy, 511-14, 753, 753-54

Officer Procurement Service, 340, 343, 344

Officer refresher training, 713-19

Officers, Army

assigned to WAAC, 61, 65, 71, 101-02, 145

as leaders of women, 681-83

quality affects WAAC officers, 139-40

Officers, noncommissioned. See also Cadre.

and kitchen police, 546-48

refresher schools for, 725

Officers, WAC (WAAC), 130n, 229, 267, 373

AAF, 283, 293

Chemical Warfare Service, 324

company, 137, 226-27, 284, 284n, 293, 326, 333,

373, 377, 392, 393, 451-53, 463, 524, 569-73,

610, 669-81, 711-12, 744

direct commissions, 54-55, 264, 271, 273, 274, 393,

413-14, 477, 574, 746

discharge, 725, 729, 733, 734-35

educational level, 577

enlist in WAC, 228

ETO, 393, 406

grades, 50, 89, 102-03, 131, 220, 264, 271, 276,

293-94, 408-09, 436, 570, 574-77

in Headquarters, WAAC, 86, 145

and integration into Army, 573-74

job assignments, 283, 293, 344, 393, 564-65

leadership, 104-06, 669-81

Medical Department, 344

NATO, 363-64

Negro, 59, 73, 589-90, 591, 594, 596, 597

numbers limited, 566-67

in Office of the Director WAC, 261-62

in officers pool, 567-69, 649-50

and Ordnance Department, 329

peacetime, 746

promotions, 130-31, 271-76, 283, 294, 436, 570,

574-77. See also Grades; Rank.

Quartermaster Corps, 330-31

Reserve, 740

restrictions on assignment of, 564-66

rotation, 652

selection, 34, 54-55, 128, 132-39, 284, 295, 680-81

Signal Corps, 317, 320

specialists, 261, 271, 275, 277, 283-84, 336, 481, 761

SWPA, 419-20, 436, 451-53

training, 63-72, 648-50, 713-19

training center, 63, 101n, 669

Transportation Corps, 335

uniform, 532-33

Officers pool, 228, 567-68, 649-50

Olmstead, Maj. Gen. Dawson, 312

On The Double, 554

Operating Service, WAAC Headquarters, 111

Operations Division, War Department, 317, 474, 478,

558. See also G-3 Division, War Department.

on SWPA WAC allotment, 411, 412, 413, 416, 461

on Wacs for Middle East Theater, 474

on WAC supply to SWPA, 441

Opportunity School, 175, 646-47

Orderlies, personal, 545, 546

Ordnance, Chief of. See Chief of Ordnance.

Ordnance Department, 6, 93, 329, 388, 743. See also

Chief of Ordnance.

Organization, Army, course in, 67, 275, 635, 636,

648-49, 649
INDEX 829

Organization Manual, SOS, 83

Orlando, Fla., 281, 291, 292

Oro Bay, New Guinea, 423-26

Osborn, Maj. Gen. Frederick H., 261

Overseas replacement depots, AGF, 299

Overseas service

AAF, 284, 294, 294n, 365, 368, 369, 380, 383, 387-

88, 388, 389-90, 406-07, 407, 408, 434-35, 464-

71, 471-74, 479

AGF, 304, 369, 579

ASF, 369, 389-90

and Auxiliary status problems, 96-97

and demobilization, 730

and discharge, 728, 729

nonvolunteers for, 186, 582-83

Negro, 599-600

screening for, 284, 412, 419-20, 465, 578-82, 583,

588

Signal Corps Wacs, 311, 312, 317-18, 320, 369-70,

435

Overseas theaters, 741. See also China-Burma-India;

China Theater; European Theater of Operations; Middle East Theater; Mediterranean

Theater of Operations; North African Theater of

Operations; Southeast Asia Command; Southwest Pacific Area.

grades, 259, 367-68, 373, 392, 408-09, 436

number of Wacs in, 277, 294n

publicity on, 374, 404-06, 699, 703-04

requisitions for, 84, 93, 94, 96-97, 106, 135, 191,

249, 317, 380, 383-84, 392-93, 407-08, 410-12

rotation from, 457, 587-88

shipments processed for, 104-06, 332-33, 412-13,

584-87, 588

slanders about Waacs in, 211-13

Table of Organization units, 588

War Department inspects, 371, 379, 390, 452, 456-

57, 458-59, 459-60, 461, 463, 468, 473, 476-77,

600, 732

Parades, 555-57

Paris, 318, 388, 390

Participation of Women in War, 360

Patterns, WAAC uniform, 156-58, 159

Patterson, Acting Secretary of War Robert P., 722

Paul, Maj. Gen. Willard S., 408, 732, 733, 734

and Interim WAC, 743, 744-45

and peacetime WAC, 741, 742, 747

evaluates WAC, 752-53, 753

Pay, WAC, 96, 115, 117, 193, 343, 401, 688, 689, 783

Pearson, Brig. Gen.Madison, 86, 100, 122, 155, 171,

182

Pearson, Col. William, 30, 50, 52, 53, 83, 83n

Peninsular Base Section, MTO, 365

Pensions, 115

Perry, Maj. Margaret, 735n

Pershing, Gen. John J., 6

Personal Affairs Division, ASF, 509

Personnel Board, War Department, 576

Personnel Branch, WAAC, 86, 260n

Personnel Distribution Command, AAF, 289

Personnel Policy Branch, G-1 Division, War Department, 354, 722

Persons, Brig. Gen. Wilton B., 97

Philadelphia Quartermaster Depot, 36, 37, 65, 151,

153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 528

Philippine Base Section, SWPA, 433, 453

Philippines, 410, 428-33, 462

Phipps, Miss Anita, 11-13

Phipps plan, 12-13, 15

Physical examinations, 264

for enlistment, 27, 176-78, 181-82, 222, 223, 227,

602-04

for officer candidates, 56

for overseas duty, 412-13, 440, 580-81

Physical reconditioning, 342

Physical training, 636, 638-40, 648

basic, 67

in the field, 662, 664-66

Pilots, 557, 614. See also Women Air Service Pilots.

Pine Bluff Arsenal, Ark., 322, 323-24

Plan for Increasing the Rate of Enrollment in the WAAC,

A, 170

Planning Board for WAC Recruiting, War Department, 688, 694

Planning Branch for WAC Recruiting, AGO, 489,

687-88, 688, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 698, 702,

708

Planning Service, WAAC, 111, 175, 181, 183

Plans Section, AGF, 133

Point system, demobilization, 726-30, 732, 733

Porter, Maj. Gen. William N., 324

Port Moresby, New Guinea, 416, 418, 420-22, 425,

432, 435, 443, 584

Port Wacs, 252, 331-33, 656. See also Transportation

Corps.

Postal Directory, ETO, 388

Post exchanges, 62n, 113

ETO, 380, 396

job assignments in, 129, 226, 326, 544, 545, 546

supplies, 90, 203, 205, 371, 380-81, 397, 443, 467,

475

Potsdam Conference, 312

Pregnancy, 49, 176, 193, 214, 216, 264, 372, 413, 521,

620-21. See also Morality,

in British women's services, 780

discharge, 264, 495-96, 500-503

illegitimate, 33, 621

and leadership of company officers, 671

medical screening for, 176, 412-13, 580-81

overseas theaters, 191, 398, 398-99, 446, 449, 469,

477

rumors, 201, 207, 208, 209, 211, 214, 215

Preplanning, WAAC, 25-28, 30-44, 61, 67, 131, 339

Auxiliary vs. Army status, 34, 44-45

and British precedent, 32-34

Director and her office, 28-32

early organizing, 26-28
830 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Preplanning, WAAC—Continued

first preplanners appointed, 25-26

housing, 39-41

recruiting, 34-35, 56

Regulations, 42-44

training center, 35-36

uniform, 36-39, 161

unit allocation, 41-42

Preston, Maj. Albert, Jr., 582, 585, 612, 622-25, 636,

716

Prisoner-of-war camps, 124-26, 143

Prisoner-of-war rights, 96

Privacy, importance of, 39-40, 67, 368, 370, 449, 521,

623, 754

Promotion, 42, 79, 127, 128, 284n, 629. See also

Grades; Rank.

and command channels, 83, 88

and man-woman problems, 71

officer, 271, 276, 283, 293-94, 436, 570-71, 574-77,

overseas theaters, 364, 395, 436, 455

and time-in-grade, 130-31

Prophylaxis, rumors about, 203-05, 616-17, 618. See

also Contraceptives.

Protective custody overseas, 421, 425-26, 427, 433,

437, 440, 449-51, 469, 621

Proving Ground Command, AAF, 281

Provost Marshal General, ETO, 394

Provost Marshal General, USAFFE, 418

Provost Marshal General, War Department, 102, 125,

169, 173, 179, 182, 505

Provost Marshal General's Department, 338

Psychiatric disorders, 227, 604, 622

and job assignments, 642-43, 645

and medical examinations, 57-58, 176, 177, 178,

581-82, 603-04, 622-25

overseas, 392, 398, 419, 423, 435-36, 449, 468, 477,

582

postwar, 738

refresher training, lectures on, 716

Signal Corps, 320

and slander, 213-14

and training program, 141, 653

Psychological Warfare Board, SWPA, 434

Public Health Service, U.S., 349, 557

Public Law 554, 45

Public opinion, 5-6, 47-49, 761. See also Public relations; Slander campaign,

apathetic to recruiting campaigns, 186-87, 244-45,

254-55, 274

improves towards WAC, 704-05

and peacetime WAC, 742, 746-47

and postwar adjustment for Wacs, 738

resistance diagnosed, 688-92

on selective service for women, 246, 247

slander campaign, 195-218

surveys, 143-44, 166, 186-87, 245, 247, 272-73,

529, 746

Public relations, 30, 33, 89, 123, 761-62. See also Public opinion; Publicity; Slander campaign.

Public relations—Continued

AAF, 90, 283, 293

ASF handling of, 262, 271 and British women's services, 32-33

co-ordinated, 701-05

and demobilization, 728-29, 733

and direct commissions in WAC, 414, 574

Meek Report criticizes, 272

and Office of the Director WAC, 487-90

and officer assignments, 565

and officers pool, 567-68

problems of company officers, 676

and recruiting, 143, 179-80, 181, 354-55, 699-707.

See also Advertising; News stories; Publicity.

special group for WAC, 276, 700-05

staff directors' role in, 307, 381, 415

SWPA, 414, 415, 459

training in, 648-49, 717

and uniform, 76, 527-28, 529-30

and use of weapons, 552, 553

WAAC Headquarters and, 52

Public Relations, Bureau of. See Bureau of Public Relations.

Publicity, 27, 52, 170. See also Advertising; News

stories; Public Relations.

ASF handling of, 270-71

Director WAC reports on, 273

films and stage shows, 187, 705-07

first press conference, 46-49

ideas behind, 702-03

Meek Report criticizes, 272-73

recruiting, 170, 171, 181, 188, 233-34, 237-38,

239-42, 243-44, 245, 254-55, 301, 354-55, 692,

693-94, 695-96

training center, 3, 60, 63, 143,

unfavorable, 227, 262, 271, 404-06, 414, 453, 530,

699-700, 704

War Department machinery, 193-94. See also WAC

Group, Bureau of Public Relations.

on Wacs overseas, 374, 404-06, 699, 703-04

Puerto Rican Wacs, 332, 478, 589

Pugh, Rear Adm. Herbert L., 748

Purdue University, 56, 716, 718, 725

Purple Heart, 385

Quartermaster, ETO, 394

Quartermaster Board, 330

Quartermaster Corps, 27n, 200, 329-31, 388. See also

Quartermaster General, The.

Quartermaster General, Office of The. See Office of

The Quartermaster General.

Quartermaster General, The, 6, 7-8, 26, 27, 31, 36,

72, 82, 110, 166, 167, 199, 542, 648, 762

improvements in uniform, 155-61, 270-71, 275-76,

528, 531, 533, 536, 537, 538

lend-leases WAAC uniforms, 200

master menu established by, 526-27

on military burial, 115, 510

plans WAAC uniform, 26, 36-39
INDEX 831

Quartermaster General, The—Continued

and postwar uniform, 755

on Quartermaster Wacs, 330, 331

and supplies for ETO Wacs, 397

and uniform shortages, 75-76, 99, 150-55

and uniforms for SWPA, 441-42

and work uniform, 162-63, 164-65

Quartermaster Replacement Training Center, 330

Quartermaster School, Camp Lee, Va., 330, 596, 660

Quebec Conference, 312

Quotas, recruiting, 98, 110, 123-24, 170, 173-74, 236,

239, 691, 692-93, 698

Radford, Vice Adm. Arthur W., 748

Radio recruiting publicity, 170, 233, 242, 243, 254,

693, 695, 699, 702, 703

Radio and Radar Unit, SWPA, 434

Rank, 59, 118. See also Grades; Promotions.

of The Adjutant General's School graduates, 126-

27

colonels, 220, 264

Congress on, 118, 220, 283, 721

of Director WAC (WAAC), 50, 102, 220, 721

and integration of WAC into Army, 256-59, 283

lieutenant colonels, 89, 220, 271, 276, 283, 574-77

regional directors, 89

staff directors, 131

and time-in-grade, 131

Ratings. See Grades.

Reclassification, WAC officer, 568-69

Recreation, 42, 90, 264, 284, 319, 321, 334, 553-54.

628, 758

and dayrooms, 296, 521-22, 524

CBI, 464, 467, 468-69

ETO, 390, 394-95, 406, 408

Middle East Theater, 476

MTO, 372-73, 373-74, 374-76

officer refresher training in, 717

and pregnancy rate, 621

Second WAAC Training Center, 78, 101, 208, 210

SWPA, 421, 425-26, 433, 445, 458

Recruiting, 26, 28, 45, 48, 110, 171, 191, 192, 231-55,

485, 752, 760-61. See also Adjutant General, The;

Recruiting Service, Army; Recruiting Service,

WAC.

AAF, 80, 81, 238-39, 242, 245, 249, 250, 251, 252,

254, 282, 283, 304, 340, 692, 697

AGF, 239, 251, 254, 299, 300, 304-05, 696

ASF, 251, 254, 314

All-States Campaign, 235-46

branch, 283, 304-05, 314, 697

British women's services, 33, 188, 232

cessation of, 727

Cleveland Plan, 188-90, 233

and conversion, WAAC to WAC, 231

in England, 383-84

evaluated, 708

and expansion, 97-99, 136, 170, 173, 174, 184. See

also individual campaigns.

Recruiting—Continued

expense, 238, 245, 246, 248

failures, 179-81, 184-90, 274

Female Medical Technicians Campaign, 340-41,

343, 347, 350, 351

of first officer candidates, 34-35, 55-59

General Hospital Recruiting Campaign, 354-56,

697-98, 705, 707

and housing, 81, 181

for Interim WAC, 743, 744, 745

and job assignments, 301, 688

last days of, 696-99

in last year of the war, 684-86

liaison with The Adjutant General, 694

limitations on (WAAC), 172

machinery improved, 686-88

for Manhattan District, 327

Marshall investigates, 270

Medical Department, ASF, 340-41, 344, 345-46,

347, 349-50, 351-52, 354-56, 697-98. See also

Hospitals; Hospital orderlies. Meek Report criticizes, 272-73

and mess duty, 550

and Negroes, 591-93, 594

personnel, 236-37, 686-87

promises, 238-39, 250-51, 340, 343, 655, 691, 755-

56, 761. See also Station-job recruiting,

promises violated, 252, 347, 351-53, 354, 356-57,

358, 359, 656

public relations support of, 170, 354-55, 699-707.

See also Advertising; News stories; Publicity,

in Puerto Rico, 478-79

quotas, 98, 110, 123-24, 170, 173-74, 188, 236, 239,

691, 692-93, 698

recommendations for future, 755-56

and resistance to enlistment, 688-91

service command, 177, 180, 187, 188, 233, 237, 240,

244, 688-92, 693

Signal Corps, 314-15, 319-20

and size of WAAC, 122, 123-24

slander affects, 32-33, 231

slogans, 231-33

social hygiene affects, 616, 617, 618

soldier opposition affects, 170-71, 186, 211-13, 228,

374, 385, 406, 689-91

standards, 56-59, 116, 169, 173-79, 181-84, 192-

93, 222, 223, 227, 264, 340-41, 354, 602-07, 635,

693, 756

station-job, 238-39, 250-54, 273, 314-15, 332, 340,

582, 655-57, 691, 696-97. See also Medical Department, recruiting,

stations, 55, 56, 179-81, 245

techniques, 691-93

and theatricals, 554

training hardships affect, 143-44, 655-57

training in, 648-49, 691-92, 693

Transportation Corps, 252, 331-32, 340

uniform affects, 81, 153, 156, 165, 166-67, 181, 527,

529, 531-32, 688, 689, 693
832 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Recruiting—Continued

and War Manpower Commission, 123, 171-72,

232-35, 254-55

WAVES effort compared, 167, 169

Women-in-War Campaign, 254-55

Recruiting Publicity Bureau, AGO, 170, 187, 237,

692

Recruiting Section, WAAC Headquarters, 98, 169

Recruiting Service, Army, 28, 686-87

controversy over recruiting goals, 181-83

early success, 123

expansion quotas not met by, 173-74, 184

pre-expansion effort, 168-69

and recruiting standards, 176-79

sales methods, 169, 179-81

tradition, 168-69

and WAAC recruiters, 180-81

WAC (WAAC) recruiting removed from, 181, 183,

188, 276, 694-96

WAC recruiting returned to, 184, 260, 260n, 698,

756

Recruiting Service, WAC, 188, 347, 350, 694-99, 708,

731

Reebel, Capt. Natalie, 424, 425

Reeder, Jack, 690

Re-employment, female veteran, 97, 223, 726, 728,

738, 739

Re-enlistment. See Enlistment of Waacs in WAC.

Regional directors, 42, 79, 80, 83. See also Service

command directors; Staff directors,

character, 88

functions, 88-89

memorandum on field visits, 90-91

place in command channel, 88

rank, 89, 102-03

Registration of women, 97, 122, 759-60

Regulations, Army, 12, 44, 80, 89, 116, 120, 568. See

also Circulars, War Department; Regulations.

WAAC; Regulations, WAC.

differences from WAAC, 43, 263-66

and hairdressing facilities, 522

and hospitalization, 613

and medical inspection, 608

and marriage, 510-11

on pregnancy, 620-21

and social hygiene, 618

special rules for Wacs needed in, 256, 263-66, 495-

96

on transports, 335-36

and WAC discharge, 496-503, 613, 614-15, 723

and WAC discipline, 503-05

and WAC uniform, 256, 433, 472-73, 527-43

Regulations, WAAC, 26, 27, 28, 44, 50, 51, 89, 90,

110, 310, 311, 364, 498-99. See also Circulars,

War Department; Regulations, Army; Regulations, WAC.

AWOL, 116-17

and command channels, 42, 85, 87-88

difference from Army Regulations, 43, 263-66

Regulations, WAAC—Continued

and difficulties in Auxiliary system, 120

and officer-enlisted association, 511

pregnancy discharge, 500-501

publication of, 79, 82-84, 85, 87-88

Regulations, WAC, 262, 316, 498, 503-04. See also

Circulars, War Department; Regulations, Army;

Regulations, WAAC.

Chemical Warfare Service violates, 326

and command channels, 453

discharge, 496-503

Hoover Commission on, 762-63

Manhattan District violates, 328

on marriage, 510

and Quartermaster Corps, 330

special rules needed for WAC well-being, 256, 495-

96, 636-38. See also Well-being of women, minimum safeguards,

staff directors required by, 265, 415n

and WAC unit messes, 526

Rejection rate, medical, 606-08, 615

Replacement and School Command, AGF, 297, 303

Replacement depots, AGF, 299, 303, 305

Replacement training centers, AGF, 299, 583-84

Requirements Division, ASF, 124

on housing, 517, 520

and Second WAAC Training Center equipment,

101, 210

and uniform, 82, 99, 150-51, 158, 162, 164, 165,

271, 528-29, 537

Requirements Division, SOS. See Requirements Division, ASF.

Requisitions for Wacs (Waacs), 62, 62n, 324, 331

AAF, 62n, 97, 191

AGF, 249-50, 304, 305-06

Medical Department, 135, 339-40, 351

overseas theaters, 84, 96-97, 106, 135, 191, 249,

317, 380, 383-84, 392-93, 407-08, 409, 413

Signal Corps, 62n, 309-10

Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC), 740, 746

Reserve Policy Committee, General Staff, 740

Reserve, WAC, 409, 739-41, 742, 747-48, 749

Rest camps, 334, 372-73

Restricted installations

Chemical Warfare Service, 325-26

Manhattan District, 327-29

Signal Corps, 319-21

Retail Credit Company, Inc., 173, 182n

Retraining and Re-employment Administration, 738

Rice, Lt. Col. Jessie P., 90, 199, 252, 456, 688, 748

All-States Recruiting Campaign organized by,

235-36, 237, 239, 243, 244, 245

and credit for WAAC service, 737

on dependency discharge, 497

Deputy Director WAC, 266, 272, 481, 482, 490,

491, 576

and directorship, 719, 722, 722n

discharged, 734

on future of WAC, 761
INDEX 833

Rice, Lt. Col. Jessie P.—Continued

on Hobby's resignation, 724

and hospital Wacs, 347, 353-54

Legion of Merit awarded to, 719

Regional Director, Third Service Command, 88, 90

and School for WAC Personnel Administration.

714, 715, 717, 718-19, 722

on WAAC Table of Organization, 146

Robinson, Brig. Gen. Clinton F., 260, 568

Robinson Report, 758

Rodes, Capt. Barbara, 320

Rogers, Representative Edith Nourse, 14, 18, 20, 46,

72

on direct commissions, 54

Hobby recommended by, 28-29

and remedial legislation for WAAC, 118

on slander against WAAC, 205

sponsors bills for a women's corps, 16-18, 21, 24,

118

Rogers, Capt. Martha, 364

Roosevelt, Mrs. Franklin D., 17, 91, 203, 204, 205,

354, 608, 742

Roosevelt, President Franklin D., 45, 58, 203, 204,

221, 701

Rosenberg, Mrs. Anna, 738

Rotation, 267

AGF, 304

from MTO, 377-78

proposals, 587-88, 712-13, 724-25

and training efficiency, 651-52

from SWPA, 457-58

Royall, Kenneth C., 747

Royce, Maj. Gen. Ralph, 474, 477

Rumbough, Maj. Gen. William S., 408

Ryan, Maj. Gen. William O., 423

Sailor, Col. Vance L., 688, 691

San Francisco, 134, 234, 331, 332, 425

San Francisco Unit Supply Office, 332

Sanitary Corps, 325, 344, 573

Sawyer, Col. Bickford, 50

Scheidenhelm, Capt. Arlene G., 328

School of Applied Tactics, AAF, 281, 292

School for WAC Personnel Administration, 714-19,

722. See also Officer refresher training.

Second Air Force, 281, 289

Second Army, 134

Second Service Command, 46n, 180, 307, 551, 574,

693-94, 739

Second WAC (WAAC) Training Center, Daytona

Beach, Fla., 103, 104, 177

closed, 632

living conditions, 77-78, 101, 123

man-woman problem at, 139-40

officer candidates from, 137-38

officer-enlisted association, 511

recreation facilities at, 77-78, 101, 208, 210

site, 77-78, 102

Second WAC (WAAC) Training Center—Continued

slanders about, investigated, 208-11

supply, 91, 101, 149, 154

Training Command removed from, 144

trains Waacs with low AGCT scores, 174

Segregation, 591-92, 599-600

Selective Service Boards, 178, 605

Selective service for women, 33, 95-96, 102, 122, 182,

245, 246-47, 759-62

Senate, U.S.

and WAAC bill, 25, 34, 45

and WAC bill, 120, 121, 220

Separation centers, 266, 729, 730-31, 735-37

Serial numbers, 46n

Service command directors, 88-89, 128, 130-31. See

also Regional directors; Staff directors.

Service commands, 88, 224, 262, 305, 307, 310, 741

and AWOL, 117

command channels, 89-90, 127-28

Director WAC inspects Wacs in, 728-29

job assignments, 307-08

job performance, 192

numbers of Waacs requisitioned by, 62n

numbers of Wacs in, 307

and recruiting, 177, 180-81, 187, 188-89, 233, 237,

240, 244, 688-92, 693

regional directors for, 88-91

soldier opinion in, 170-71, 688-90

training centers taken over by, 260, 632

on uniform, 529

WAC (WAAC) units in, 110, 132-35, 316

Service Platoon, 41, 41n

Servicemen's Dependents Allowance Act, 114

Services of Supply (SOS), 14, 31, 296. See also Army

Service Forces (ASF).

Army status recommended by, 44, 45

and expansion plans, 62, 92, 93, 122

and Regulations, WAAC, 79, 83-84, 85, 87, 88

relations with WAAC Headquarters, 31-32, 42,

50-51, 53-54, 82-84, 85-88, 100-01, 144-45,

194

selective service for women proposed by, 95-96

share of Waacs determined, 130

on training centers, 77-78, 124-26, 208

on Training Command, 144

and uniform, 91, 99, 150-55, 158-61

and WAAC pay, 117-18

on Waacs in Washington, D. C., 94, 144

Services of Supply, ETO, 384

Services of Supply, MTO, 368

Services of Supply, NATO, 380

Services of Supply, U.S. Forces, China Theater, 470-

71

Seventh Service Command, 83, 207, 241, 307, 632,

652, 690

Sex Hygiene, 203-04

Sex Hygiene. See Social hygiene.

Shanghai, 469, 473

Shaver, Miss Dorothy, 156, 537
834 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Short, Representative Dewey, 747

Shortages, supply, 75-76. 78-79, 99-101, 124, 141,

149-55, 270-71, 397, 412, 416, 419-20, 421, 424-

25, 430, 433, 440-44, 456, 462, 743-44

Sick call, 90, 610-11, 642, 645

Signal Corps, 8, 27, 83, 88, 97, 130n, 187, 308, 558,

571-72, 707, 743. See also Chief Signal Officer.

and command channels, 43-44, 309, 310-11

estimates Waac jobs, 93

grades, 319, 320, 373

health of Wacs in, 319, 320, 464

job assignments, 309, 310-11, 311-18, 365

job performance, 192, 321

and military status for WAAC, 309, 310-11, 314

number of Wacs in, 318

recruiting, 314-15, 319-20

requisitions Waacs, 62n, 309-10

standards, 314-15

training, 127, 309, 315. See also Women in Radio

and Electrical Service.

WAC problems in, 318-21

Wacs (Waacs) overseas, 318, 362, 365, 366-69,

369-70, 372, 373, 377, 380, 387-88, 435, 463,

464, 475

Wacs in service and air command posts, 316-17

WIRES plan, 135, 310, 311, 314, 368-69

Signal Intelligence Division, SWPA, 422, 435

Signal Intelligence Section, Signal Corps, 318

Signal officers, 393

Signal Operations Group, GHQ, SWPA, 435

Simpson, Maj. Beryl, 471

Sixth Army, 438

Sixth Service Command, 177, 201, 307, 689

Slander campaign, 32-33, 231, 236, 245, 616, 611. See

also Soldier opposition to WAC (WAAC).

about British women's services, 32-33, 780-81

counteracted, 255

denials ineffective, 216-18

early gossip, 195-98

described to Marshall, 274

Military Intelligence investigates, 197, 205-16

organized rumors, 200-206

and uniformed civilians, 198-200

Slogans, 184, 231-32, 691

Smith, Lt. Col. Elizabeth C., 260, 631, 655, 657, 658,

665, 666, 668

Smith, Maj. Gen. John P., 51

Smith, Representative Margaret Chase, 746, 747

Smith, Maj. Gen. Walter Bedell, 360, 405

Smithson, Lt. Virginia, 261

Social association, enlisted personnel and officers. See

Dating; Officer-enlisted association.

Social hygiene, 615-20, 636

Soldier opposition to WAC (WAAC), 81, 181, 752,

761

Arnold denounces, 282

cartoons, 195

and direct commissions in WAC, 414

and French "WAAC", 200

grows, 170-71

Soldier opposition to WAC (WAAC)—Continued

morale of WAC affected by, 226, 373-74, 753 and myth of WAC expensiveness, 437

overseas, 360, 373-74, 388, 405-06, 447

to peacetime WAC, 746-47

problem presented to Marshall, 274-76

recruiting affected by, 170-71, 186, 212-13, 227-

28, 374, 406, 688-91

rumors of Waacs' immorality, 206-08, 211-13

Soldier's Medal, 373

Somervell, Lt. Gen. Brehon B., 53, 96, 97, 111, 135,

145, 159, 174, 178, 192, 204, 223, 275, 490, 505,

528, 604 632, 668, 692, 701. See also Army Service Forces; Services of Supply,

attributes slander to Axis, 205

bars Waacs from Washington, D. C., 94, 155

and command powers of Director WAAC, 85

on demobilization, 727

and direct commissions, 271

on Faith, Brig. Gen. Don C., 266

and Meek Report, 272, 276-77

and officer assignments, 569

on officer grades, 102-03, 576

recommends establishing National Civilian Advisory Committee, 276, 484

and recruiting, 181, 182-83, 238, 240

relation to ASF WAC Officer, 307

relations with Office of the Director WAC, 270,

272, 276-77. See also Meek Report,

relations with WAAC Headquarters, 85-87

on soldier opposition to WAAC, 171

on SWPA WAC allotment, 412

on Third WAC Training Center commandant,

271, 276

urges WAC bill before Congress, 220

on WAC public relations, 262, 275, 276, 701

Songs, WAC (WAAC), 77, 141-43, 488, 643

SOS. See Services of Supply.

Southeast Asia Command, 320, 463-64, 464

Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA), 277, 464, 467. See

also United States Army Forces in the Far East;

United States Army Forces, Pacific; United

States Army Services of Supply, SWPA; United

States Army Forces, Western Pacific.

AAF in, 284, 479. See also FEAF; FEASC.

command channels, 453-56

company officers, 452-53, 453-54, 455-56

decision to advance Wacs, 423

and demobilization, 459-60

discipline, 446-49, 453-54, 455-56

expense of WAC in, 437-38

hours of work, 445-46, 458

job assignments, 418, 420-21, 433-37

job performance, 423, 434, 435-36, 439, 460-62

leadership, 451-53

living conditions, 411n, 419-20, 420, 421-22, 423,

426-27, 430, 432-33, 438, 444, 458, 459

medical evacuation rate, 439-41, 445, 446, 449,

451, 458

morale, 425-26, 444-45, 446-47
INDEX 835

Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA)—Continued

Negroes, 600

number of Wacs in, 410

problems of uniform and supply, 411n, 412, 416,

420, 421, 424-25, 433, 440-44, 456, 458, 462

protective custody, 421, 425-26, 427, 433, 437, 440,

449-51

publicity on, 704

requests Wacs, 410-12

screening for, 412-13, 419

Signal Corps Wacs, 318, 435

staff directors, 414-18. See also Brown, Lt. Col.

Mary-Agnes.

suitability for WAC employment, 460-62

WAC Detachment, General Headquarters,

USAFFE, 415, 422, 426, 427, 429-30, 430, 432-

33, 434, 435, 438, 439, 443, 449, 455

Wacs in Australia, 418-20, 422-23

Wacs in Hollandia, 426-28

Wacs in New Guinea, 420-22

Wacs in Oro Bay, 423-26

Wacs in Philippines, 428-30, 432-33

Wacs at other bases, 430-32

War Department investigation of, 456-59

Spaatz, Lt. Gen. Carl, 374, 383, 384, 408, 409, 733,

742

SPARS, 56, 167, 223n, 245, 738, 784

demobilization, 728, 734

discharge for serious offenders, 506-07

liaison with WAC, 483-84, 759

maternity care, 509

officer-enlisted association, 512

officer refresher training, 718

pregnancy discharge, 502-03

recruiting, 173, 234

training centers, 125

uniform, 157, 166, 528, 529

Special Planning Division, War Department, 726-27,

741

Special Services Division, ASF, 60, 126, 260, 271, 275

on soldier opposition to the WAC (WAAC), 170-

71, 181, 261

Special Services Division, ETO, 394, 409

Special Services Division, SOS. See Special Services

Division, ASF.

Special Services Division, USAFFE, 418

Special Training Unit, 646, 647-48, 696

Specialist schools, Army, 70, 75, 87, 98, 126, 283-84,

288, 290, 299-300, 311, 315, 317, 335, 338, 341,

342, 660-61. See also Technical training.

Specialist schools, WAC (WAAC), 63, 75, 126-27,

147, 632

Specialists, WAC officer, 261, 271, 274-75, 277, 283,

335, 481-82, 606, 761-62. See also WAC Group,

Bureau of Public Relations.

Specification Serial Numbers, 286, 292, 293, 293n

Staff directors, WAC (WAAC), 505, 526. See also Regional directors; Service command directors.

AAF, 291, 292

Staff directors, WAC (WAAC)—Continued

AGF, 134, 228, 297, 300, 303

Air WAC Division letters to, 285

ASF, 134-35, 307-08, 712

CBI, 465, 470, 471-72, 473

China Theater, 471

conferences, 267, 268

on continuation training, 663-64, 666-67

created, 130

ETO, 333, 380-81, 389-90, 392, 393, 394-95, 397,

406

importance to well-being of Wacs, 265, 415n, 462,

479, 753, 757-58

Interim WAC, 744

on low AGCT scores, 175-76

MTO, 364, 367, 368, 371, 373, 377-78

NATO, 362-64, 365, 371

rank, 574-77

and recruiting, 169, 180, 307

required where WAC employed, 265, 415n

rotation recommended by, 712-13

screen Wac officers for overseas service, 579, 580

SWPA, 412, 414-18, 422, 423, 424, 425, 446, 451,

452, 454, 454-56, 458, 459-60

technical services, 134-35, 316, 320, 321, 323, 324-

25, 326, 327, 328, 331, 349

wartime, discharged, 734-35, 734n

Stars and Stripes, 405

State governors in All-States Campaign, 236, 238,

239-42

Station-Job Assignment, 250. See also Station-job recruiting.

Station-Job Plan, 255. See also Station-job recruiting.

Station-job recruiting, 238-39, 250-54, 273, 582, 696-

97

AAF, 250-54, 697

AGF, 299, 300, 305

ASF, 253, 254, 314

disadvantages, 252-54, 655-57

and Medical Department promises, 347, 351-52,

354, 357, 358

Signal Corps, 314-15

success, 254

Transportation Corps, 252, 332, 340

Sterling, Warrant Officer Margaret, 428-29

Stilwell, Lt. Gen. Joseph W., 464-65, 465, 470

Stimson, Henry L., Secretary of War, 204-05, 248,

685

Stivers, Maj. Gen. Charles P., 411n, 453, 454

Stone, Rear Adm. Earl E., 748

Stoner, Maj. Gen. Frank, 316

Stratemeyer, Maj. Gen. George E., 464-65, 465, 469,

470, 471, 472, 472-73, 784

Stratton, Capt. Dorothy C., 56, 716-17, 738

Strayhorn, Lt. Col. Elizabeth H.

Commandant, Third WAC Training Center, 271,

632, 652, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658

discharged, 735

and peacetime WAC, 748

promoted to lieutenant colonel, 576
836 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Streeter, Col. Ruth, 717, 718

Strength, WAC (WAAC)

AAA, 62n, 302

AAF, 62n, 277, 281, 28In, 294n, 359n

AGF, 277, 297

Air Transport Command, 294n, 479

Army Nurse Corps, 350-51

ASF, 277, 307

CBI, 294n, 463, 465n

Chemical Warfare Service, 321-22

China Theater, 471

Corps of Chaplains, 338

December 1942, 110, 121

ETO, 294n, 380, 384, 388, 389

FEAF, 294n

January 1943, 268

January 1944, 268

June 1943, 121

June 1944, 277

Manhattan District, 326

May 1944, 277

Medical Department, 339, 359n

Middle East Theater, 473-74

Military District of Washington, 302, 307

MTO, 294n, 369, 372

NATO, 365

officer, 62, 63, 566-67

Ordnance Department, 329

overseas, 277, 294n, 478

Pacific Ocean Areas, 294n

plans, 28, 62-63, 62n, 84-85, 97-99, 110, 123-24,

130

Quartermaster Corps, 331

September 1942, 77

service commands, 62n, 307

Signal Corps, 62n, 318

Southeast Asia Command, 463

SWPA, 410

Transportation Corps, 331

War Department, 277

Washington, D. C., 294n, 302, 307

Strictly Personal, 638

Strother, Brig. Gen. Dean C., 748

Styer, Maj. Gen. Wilhelm D., 100-01, 145, 153, 154,

459, 480

Sultan, Lt. Gen. Daniel I., 469

Superintendant, Army Nurse Corps, 50, 356

Supply, 26, 79, 88, 89, 191, 260, 264, 284n, 411n, 757.

See also Shortages, supply.

Aircraft Warning Service, 78-79, 90

CBI, 467-68

courses, 66, 649, 650

depots, 541

ETO, 381, 396, 397

job assignments in, 293, 332-33, 334, 434, 559

NATO and MTO, 361, 365, 371

SWPA, 411n, 412, 416, 419, 421, 424-25, 430, 433,

440-44, 456, 462

training center, 61, 75-76, 99-100, 101, 124, 151-

55, 162, 541, 658

Supply—Continued

uniform, 75-76, 78-79, 91, 99-101, 141, 149-55,

264, 270-71, 397, 412, 416, 421, 424-25, 430,

433, 440-44. 456, 467-68, 529, 658, 711, 744

Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force,

395

Surgeon General, The, 8, 18, 27, 220n, 329, 344, 349,

358, 359, 508, 587, 762. See also Craighill, Maj.

Margaret D.; Medical Department; Surgeon

General's Office, The.

decision to employ Waacs, 339-40

on grades, 352

on housing, 515, 516, 520

and medical care, 26, 608-09, 611-12, 613, 614-15,

620, 621, 627, 628, 630

on medical evacuation rate, SWPA, 451

and medical screening for WAC, 169, 176, 177-78,

223, 412-13.580-81, 602, 604-08

on medical training, 646, 661

on nurses' aides vs. Wacs, 352-53

and psychiatric care, 141, 622, 623, 626

and recruiting, 341, 350-51

and social hygiene, 82, 615-18, 619

on Table of Organization units, 358

training program studied by, 652-54

and unassignable Wacs, 345, 595

Women's Medical Specialists Corps requested by,

359

Surgeon General's Office, The, 343, 346, 354, 356,

357-58, 763

Surles, Maj. Gen. Alexander D., 48, 98, 194, 276, 514,

701. See also Bureau of Public Relations, War

Department.

Sutherland, Lt. Gen. Richard K., 411-12, 411n, 413

Swift, Col. Ira P., 24

SWPA. See Southwest Pacific Area.

Table of Basic Allowances, 26, 52, 150

Table of Organization, 27, 28, 41, 78, 94, 137, 148,

281, 296, 301, 302, 387, 549, 593, 613, 698, 721.

See also Bulk allotment system,

in Army hospitals, 352, 353-54, 356-58

and malassignment of Wacs, 146-47

and nonmilitary assignments, 545

in overseas theaters, 366, 588, 599-600

Tactical units (AAA), 301-02

Tasker, Lt. Col. Harold P., 30, 32, 42, 43, 60, 61, 83,

86, 100, 111, 517

Taylor, Col. James, 17

Technical training, 309, 315, 640-48, 658. See also

Specialist schools, Army; Specialist school, WAC

(WAAC). Theater WAC Executive Officer, NATO, 364

Theatricals, 553-56, 690, 702, 705

Third Air Force, 281, 289, 512

Third Service Command, 35, 134, 199, 235, 307, 574

Third WAC (WAAC) Training Center, Fort Oglethorpe, Ga., 102, 103, 154, 174, 176, 203, 333,

474, 551-52, 576, 632-34. See also Fort Oglethorpe.
INDEX 837

Third WAC (WAAC) Training Center—Continued

commandant, 271, 276, 632. See also Hoag, Col.

John; Strayhorn, Lt. Col. Elizabeth H.

Extended Field Service Training Battalion at,

584-87

health, 652

living conditions, 654

medical technicians training at, 355-56, 645-46

and recruiting promises, 656

slander campaign against WAAC at, 208

supply shortages, 154

This Is The Army, 554-55

Training, 26, 48, 191, 256, 284, 631-68. See also

Training centers.

Army specialist schools, 660

Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP), 661

basic, 63, 66-67, 78, 634-40, 651-54, 656-58

continuation, 661-68

evaluated, 651-54, 656-58

hygiene, 612

leadership, 650-51, 756

liaison with recruiting, 232, 654-56, 696-97

Military Training Division takes over, 260n, 261

officer, 63-72, 648-50, 713-19

technical, 127, 309, 315, 640-48, 658

Waacs with low AGCT scores, 174-76, 183-84. See

also Opportunity School.

Training centers, 28, 50, 98, 102, 110, 193, 242, 261,

267, 317, 506, 567, 752. See also Fifth, First,

Fourth, Second, Third WAAC (WAC) Training

Center; Training; Training Command, WAAC,

chaplains for, 337

clergymen inspect, 216

closed, 231, 632, 658

Director WAC inspects, 728-29

and expansion, 98, 123, 136-37

liaison with Office of the Director WAC ceases,

482

living conditions, 36, 39-41, 60, 62-63, 77-78, 101,

123, 634-35, 658

and officer-enlisted association, 513

and physical inspection, 608

and proposals for an administrative corps, 572

replacement, 583

search for, 35-36

and shortage of company officers, 569-70

and slander campaign, 206, 207-11

and supply, 61, 75-76, 99-101, 124, 149, 151-53,

162, 541, 658

transferred to service commands, 259-60

Training Command, AAF, 164, 281, 288, 289

Training Command, WAC (WAAC), 102, 126-27,

138, 143-44, 260, 631

Training Division, The Surgeon General's Office,

353, 357

Transfer, 83, 88, 127, 128, 284n, 304, 309, 480

Transfer Day, 221-22, 224

Transportation, Chief of. See Chief of Transportation.

Transportation Corps, 93, 138, 308, 583, 671, 743.

See also Chief of Transportation.

Transportation Corps—Continued

staff directors assigned to, 134

station-job recruiting, 252, 332, 340

Wacsin, 331-36, 388, 579

Travel orders, 556

Troop Basis, Wacs (Waacs) count against, 128-30,

148, 410-12, 478, 516

Trudeau, Brig. Gen. Arthur G., 667

Truman, President Harry S., 760

Truman Committee, 248, 530

Tully, Brig. Gen. Terence J., 362

Turner, Capt. Susanna, 320

Twelfth Air Force, 365, 368

Uhl, Maj. Gen. Frederick E., 72, 241

Ulio, Maj. Gen. James A., 72, 143, 169, 173, 181-82,

184, 188, 687, 694. See also Adjutant General,

The.

Unification of women's services, 758-59.

Uniform, 8, 26, 27, 28, 36-39, 48, 50, 60, 90, 110, 256,

284, 365, 480, 515-16, 711, 752, 758, 1§\. See a

Quartermaster General, The; Requirements

Division, ASF.

appearance, 37, 65, 153, 155-61, 270, 527-28, 529-

30, 537, 755

aprons, 39

Arctic, 478, 536

bathrobe, 38, 166, 397

brassiere, 397, 443

in British women's services, 33

changes approved by Chief of Staff, 275-76, 530-32

coat, 38, 76, 91, 150-51, 532-33

contracts for, 150-55

coveralls, 38, 39, 162, 164, 165, 416, 421, 433, 441,

442, 535-36, 645

department store, 199

depots, 541

dresses, 39, 65, 79, 158, 161-62, 164-65, 396, 467,

528, 531-32, 755

ETO, 380, 381, 387, 387-88, 396-97, 400, 401, 408

expense of, 158, 166, 438, 531, 532

foundation garments, 38, 48, 65, 7In , 56, 166, 397,

443

handbag, 38, 533-35

hat, 38, 65, 153, 156, 165, 528-29, 530, 532

and health, 440-41, 443-44, 654

for hospital Wacs, 345, 354, 537

insignia, 39, 539-41

jacket, 37-38, 39, 65, 71n, 153, 156, 396-97, 409,

533

Meek Report criticizes, 272-73

NATO and MTO, 367, 368, 371

necktie, 38, 71n, 533-35

of overseas shipments, 412, 418, 424-25, 584-85

overshoes, 38, 153

pajamas, 38, 166, 443

postwar, 755

proposals to improve, 155-61, 270-71, 275-76, 283,

527-30, 531, 531-32, 533
838 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

Uniform—Continued

and recruiting problems, 81, 153, 156, 165, 166-67,

527, 527-28, 529, 532, 689, 693

scarf and gloves, 153, 528, 530

secondhand issues, 527, 532

shirt, 38, 39, 66, 67, 71n, 150, 153, 155, 156, 158-

59, 163, 164, 396, 416, 421, 441, 468

shoes, 38, 155, 159, 166, 396, 397-98, 442, 537-39,

626

skirt, 37-38, 65, 66, 67, 71n, 153, 155, 156, 157,

162, 396, 468, 516

slacks, 38, 153, 163, 396, 416, 421, 433, 442, 468,

536, 645, 755

socks, 164, 538

stockings, 38, 165, 396, 538-39

summer, 164, 528, 531

supply, 75-76, 78-79, 91, 99-101, 141, 149-55, 264,

270, 296, 397, 412, 416, 421, 424-25, 430, 433,

440-44, 456, 458, 467-68, 529, 655, 711, 744

underwear, 48, 63, 65, 71n, 150, 163, 396

work clothing, 161-66, 345, 354, 535-37, 755

worn by non-Wacs, 38, 198-200, 400-401, 541-42

Unit citations, 328, 373, 435

United Service Organizations, 198, 376, 377, 401, 485

United States Armed Forces Institute, 372, 476

United States Army Forces in the Far East

(USAFFE), 411, 415, 418, 422-23, 427, 432, 438,

441, 453, 453-54, 460. See also Southwest Pacific

Area; United States Army Forces, Pacific;

United States Army Services of Supply, SWPA;

United States Army, Western Pacific.

United States Army Forces, Pacific (AFPAC), 455.

See also Southwest Pacific Area; United States

Army Forces in the Far East; United States

Army Services of Supply, SWPA; United States

Army, Western Pacific.

United States Army Services of Supply, SWPA, 411,

415, 418, 422-23, 424, 426, 427, 428, 430, 430-

32, 434, 435, 438, 441, 460. See also Southwest

Pacific Area; United States Army Forces in the

Far East; United States Army Forces, Pacific;

United States Army Forces, Western Pacific.

United States Army Forces, Western Pacific

(AFWESPAC), 453, 458. See also Southwest Pacific Area; United States Army Forces in the Far

East; United States Army Forces, Pacific; United

States Services of Supply, SWPA.

United States Army Industrial Hygiene Laboratory,

348-49

United States Cadet Nurse Corps, 173, 356, 557

Vandenberg, Gen. Hoyt S., 747-48

Venereal disease, 193, 203, 264, 372, 398, 446, 469,

477, 521, 581, 604, 615-20

inspection for, 608-09

rumors of, 207, 208, 209, 217

Veterans, WAC, 737-39

Veterans' Administration, 113-14, 118, 265, 266, 351,

507, 509, 737-39, 782

WAAC. See Women's Army Auxiliary Corps, USA.

WAAC bill, 17-25, 33-34, 44-45, 82, 84. See also

H. R. 4906; H. R. 6293.

WAC. See Women's Army Corps, USA.

WAC bill, 118-21, 181, 219-20

WAC Group, Bureau of Public Relations, 276, 483,

489, 701-02, 703, 704, 705, 708

WAC Integration Act (1947), 746

WAC Newsletter, 483

WAC Public Relations Officer, ETO, 404, 405

WAC Recruiting Service, 188, 347, 350, 694-99, 708,

731

WAC Section, AFPAC, 457. See also WAC Section,

Special Staff, USAFFE.

WAC Section, G-1 Division, ETO, 394

WAC Section, Special Staff, USAFFE, 415-16, 429,

433, 455-56. See also Brown, Lt. Col. MaryAgnes; WAC Section, AFPAC.

WAC (WAAC) units

Casualty Section, SWPA, 445

Central Postal Directory, SWPA, 428, 435, 445

Central Postal Battalion, 6888th, 599

Machine Records Unit, SWPA, 445

Military Censorship Detachment, SWPA, 434,

435-36

Signal Service Battalion, %3341st, 318, 388

Traffic Control Group, 29th, 333

WAC Battalion, 2629th, 368-69

WAC Detachment, General Headquarters,

USAFFE, 415, 422, 426, 427, 429-30, 430, 432-

33, 434, 435, 438, 443, 449, 455

WAC Headquarters Company, 60th, 365

WAC Headquarters Company, 61st, 365

WAC Headquarters Company, 149th, 365

WAC (WAAC) Post Headquarters Company, 42d,

149

WAC (WAAC) Post Headquarters Company,

149th, 361-64

WAC (WAAC) Processing Company, Edgewood

Arsenal, CWS, 322-23

WAC (WAAC) Separate Battalion, 1st, 381-83,

404

WAC Separate Battalion, 2d, 383

Wacs (Waacs)

adjustment to military life, 67-71, 91

character and intelligence, 58, 77, 193, 207-08, 369.

See also AGCT scores; Morality; Recruiting,

standards,

ideal, 368

typical, 192-93, 369

military bearing, 73, 76-77, 472-73

Walmsley, Miss Helen, 485

Walter Reed General Hospital, Washington, D. C.,

358

War Advertising Council, 237, 703

War Council, 747

War, Secretary of, 11, 15, 30, 46, 59, 113, 119, 120,

220n, 328, 350, 351

authority over WAC, 119

on military benefits for WAC, 782-83
INDEX 839

War, Secretary of—Continued

and recruiting quotas, 239

on WAAC bill, 18, 25

WAAC strength increased by, 97-98

War Department, 11, 14, 15, 16, 22, 51, 85-86, 87, 94,

106, 219, 260, 277, 281, 284, 294, 296, 309, 335,

346, 357, 359, 371, 402, 409, 459, 556, 661, 669,

711, 715, 731, 733. See also G-1 Division, War

Department; G-2 Division, War Department;

G-3 Division, War Department; G-4 Division,

War Department; General Staff, War Department; Headquarters, WAAC; Marshall, Gen.

George Catlett; Office of the Director WAC.

on benefits (WAC), 265-66, 782-83

branches take over operations of WAAC Headquarters, 259-62

Bulk Allotment system, 147

decision to count Waacs against Troop Basis, 128-

29, 148

demobilization policies, 378, 406-08, 457-58, 727,

729, 733, 734, 735, 736-37

on direct commissions, 413-14, 414, 574

and Director WAC (WAAC), 46-47, 274-76, 721.

See also Hobby, Col. Oveta Culp.

discharge policy, 284, 496-503

discipline policies, 503-07

and distribution of Wacs, 130, 304-05

and ETO Wacs, 360, 383-84, 392-93, 394

expansion plans, 61-63, 84-85, 91, 92-99, 110, 122-

24. See also G-3 Division, War Department.

final recommendations on WAC, 750-64

and first WAAC press conference, 46-49

housing policy, 264, 310, 314, 515-25, 754

insignia policy, 539-41

job assignment policies, 264-65, 297, 302, 310, 337,

393, 544-50, 556-63

and legal status of WAAC discipline, 115-17

and location of Office of the Director WAC, 269-

72, 277

and manpower crisis, 249, 250

on marriage, 510-11

on maternity care, 507-09

on Medical Department recruiting guarantees, 352,

354, 359

Meek Report to, 272-73, 276-77

on military status, 96-97, 113, 191, 192

on minimum safeguards for well-being, 263-64,

310, 314, 316, 326, 330, 359, 453, 455-56, 461-

62, 757, 762

and Negro Wacs, 58-59, 589-90, 591, 592, 593, 599

and nurses' aides vs. Wacs, 352-53

officer assignment policies, 565-66

officer-enlisted association policy, 512-13, 514, 724,

754

officer selection policy, 284, 295

officer training policies, 572-74, 716

on overseas requisitions, 133-34, 135, 317, 326,

383-84, 389-90, 392-93, 407-08, 409, 410-12,

413, 457

and peacetime WAC, 739-43, 746, 747-48

War Department—Continued

and personnel shortage in Office of the Director

WAC, 490

Planning Board for WAC Recruiting in, 688, 694

and public relations, 706, 707. See also WAC Group,

Bureau of Public Relations,

recruiting policy, 231, 234-35, 238, 239, 243-44,

251, 254, 478, 655, 656

Regulations. See Circulars, War Department; Regulations, Army; Regulations, WAAC; Regulations, WAC.

and remedial legislation on WAAC status, 117-18

and rotation, 378, 457-58

and selective service for women, 95-96, 246-49

and social hygiene films, 618

and slander campaign against WAAC, 193, 201,

204-05, 214, 218, 374, 753

on staff directors, 265, 394, 459

and SWPA Wacs, 419, 442, 456-59, 461

on Table of Organization units overseas, 387

theatricals, policies on, 554-55, 555

training policies, 646, 652, 680

travel order policies, 556

and uniform, appearance of, 155-61, 527, 528, 529,

532

and uniform, distribution of, 400-401, 541

and uniform, items in, 161-66, 442, 528, 528-29,

530-32, 532-39

and uniform, shortages of, 150-55, 529, 536-37, 541

uniform's use by non-Wacs, 400-401, 541-42

on utilization of Wacs, 129, 310, 311, 316, 562

and WAAC bill, 17-25, 34, 44-45

WAAC preplanning in, 25-28, 30-44

and WAC bill, 118-21, 219-20

and WAC grade allotments, 257, 302

War Manpower Commission relations with, 234-35,

238, 243

on Washington, D. C., assignments for Wacs, 250,

277, 289, 557-59

women's auxiliary, World War I, debated in, 7, 8-

10

War Department Signal Center, Washington, D. C.,

315-16, 318

War Manpower Commission, 123, 245, 349, 412, 698,

757

WAAC recruiting obstructed by, 171-72, 233-35,

242-44

and Women-in-War Campaign, 254-55

War Production Board, 37, 156, 157

Warrant officers, WAC (WAAC), 114, 577

Washington, D. C., 16, 55, 201, 250, 296, 301

Wacs (Waacs) assigned to, 94-95, 144, 305-06, 327,

339, 557-59

WAVES, 94, 115, 118, 140, 171, 220, 223n, 245, 273n,

314, 336, 784 See also Navy Department,

demobilization, 728, 730, 734

dependency allowances, 265

and dependency discharge, 498.

direct commissions in, 54

Director's liaison with public, 490
840 THE WOMEN'S ARMY CORPS

WAVES—Continued

discharge for serious offenders, 506-07

discipline, 504

hospital Wave hours, 359

housing, 81, 520

job assignments, 220, 543-44, 562

kitchen police, 547

liaison officer, 262

liaison with WAC, 483-84, 759

maternity care, 509

Meek Report, 272-73

military benefits, 97

military status, 45

Negroes in, 58, 591, 601

Office of the Director, 758

officer-enlisted association in, 513, 754

officers, 566, 577, 654, 718

peacetime, 745

and pregnancy discharge, 501, 502

recruiting, 169, 173, 179, 188, 232, 234, 340, 478,

687, 694, 695, 696, 698, 699

rotation, 712

and social hygiene, 617

standards for enlistment, 183

training, 141, 641, 654, 718

training centers, 70, 125-26

uniform, 157, 158, 161, 164, 166, 167, 528, 529, 530,

755

Weapons, WAC use of, 337, 338, 552-53

Weather Wing, AAF, 289-90, 291, 294, 479

Wedemeyer, Lt. Gen. Albert C., 470, 471, 472, 473

Weight of Wacs, 627

Well-being of women, minimum requirements, 359,

762

WAC company officers required, 263-64, 316, 326,

359, 453, 455-56, 462, 744, 757

separate housing, 264, 310

job assignment policies and, 264-65, 310, 544-50,

744

West, Capt. Harriet, 73, 592, 593

White, Maj. Gen. Miller G., 98, 118, 120, 123, 231,

232, 249, 259, 264, 376, 378, 393n, 413, 414, 481,

482, 514, 566, 688, 721, 761

White, Walter, 590, 591

Wilson, Lt. Col. Anna W., 380-81, 393, 406

discharged, 735

on peacetime WAC, 409, 742

on officer-enlisted association, 403

promoted to lieutenant colonel, 576

Staff Director, ETO, 135, 385, 394-95, 397, 398-

99, 400, 401, 403

WIRES. See Women in Radio and Electrical Service.

Witsell, Brig. Gen. Edward F., 688

Women Air Service Pilots (WASP), 285, 557, 784-85

Women at War, 706

Women in the Air Force (WAF), 755, 759

Women in Radio and Electrical Service (WIRES),

135, 310, 311, 312, 314, 368-69

Women-in-War Campaign, 254-55

Women Ordnance Workers (WOWs), 198-99

Women's Army Auxiliary Corps, USA (WAAC). See

Women's Army Corps.

Women's Army Corps, Canadian, 32, 33, 188, 381, 718

Women's Army Corps, USA (WAC), 6, 6n, 285, 400,

548-49

Auxiliary officially ends, 229-30

Auxiliary service credit for benefits, 265, 266, 737,

781-82

Auxiliary vs. Army status, 33-34, 44-45, 52-54, 79,

88, 90, 96-97, 102, 113-21, 145, 309, 311

controversy over skilled character of, 182-83

conversion, WAAC to WAC, 219-30, 231, 363-64,

383

Director chosen, 28-30, 721-22

evaluated, 79, 119, 191-93, 306, 312, 321, 326,

336, 358, 362, 367, 379, 383, 385, 408-09, 423,

434, 435-36, 439, 460-62, 464, 470, 473, 477-78,

588, 600, 651, 748, 752

first summer, 46-72

interim status, 733-50

legal status after conversion, 782-83

location in War Department organization, 31-32,

42, 50-51, 53-54

number of recruits admitted, December 1942-January 1943, 124

postwar recommendations, 752-64

preplanning, 25-44

record, December 1942, 110

record, December 1943, 268

record of first year, 191-93

record of second year, 277

size of, 26, 28, 62, 62n, 77, 84-85, 97-99, 110, 121,

123-24, 268, 277

voluntary nature of, 623-24

Women's Classification Test, 651

Women's Interests Section, Bureau of Public Relations, 21, 29, 276, 721

Women's Medical Specialist Corps, 220n, 359, 573,

742, 759

Women's Reserve, Marine Corps, 167, 223n, 245,

273n

Commandant's letter on behavior towards, 275,

275n

demobilization, 728, 730, 734

liaison with other women's services, 759

maternity care, 509

officer refresher training, 717, 718

peacetime, 746

recruiting, 173, 234

relations with WAC, 483-84

uniform, 157, 164, 166, 528, 529, 755

Women's Reserve Representative, WAVES, 577

Women's Service Corps, early plans, 12-23

Women's services, British. See British women's services.

Wood, Maj. Gen. Leonard, 10

Wood, Brig. Gen. Walter A., Jr., 153

Woods, Lt. Col. Helen Hamilton, 31, 55, 89, 91, 111
INDEX 841

Woods, Lt. Col. Helen Hamilton—Continued

Acting Director, 732

assigned to Control Division, WAAC Headquarters, 73

and demobilization, 732

discharged, 734

on morale of first Waacs in field, 103

and peacetime WAC, 741, 748

World War I, women in, 4, 6-10, 17-18, 32, 96, 168

Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, 281, 535

Writers' War Board, 187

Yank, 275

Young, Col. Robert N., 46

Young & Rubicam, 231-32, 242, 272, 273, 688, 690

Young Women's Christian Association, 10, 26, 415,

591

Yount, Lt. Gen. Barton K., 288

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1991 261-877/20016

PIN : 039017-000