Professional Paper 1794–D

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Status and Trends of Land Change in the 

Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

3

Status and Trends of Land Change 

in the Eastern United States—

1973 to 2000

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

Professional Paper 1794–D

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2016

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural 

and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit http://www.usgs.gov/ or call 

1–888–ASK–USGS (1–888–275–8747). 

For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, 

visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod/.

To order this and other USGS information products, visit http://store.usgs.gov/.

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may 

contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items 

must be secured from the copyright owner. 

ISSN 1044-9612 (print) 

ISSN 2330-7102 (online) 

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/pp1794D

Suggested citation:

Sayler, K.L., Acevedo, W., and Taylor, J.L., eds., 2016, Status and trends of land 

change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 1794–D, 195 p., http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/pp1794D.

Cover:

Forest landscape along Blue Ridge Parkway south of Blowing Rock, North Carolina. Photograph by Thomas R. 

Loveland, 2006.

Inside cover:

Agriculture and forest landscape southeast of Frenchville, Maine. Photograph by Thomas R. Loveland, 2002.
Foreword

This Professional Paper is the first multitemporal assessment of late-20th-century land change in 

the conterminous United States across all regions and all land-use and land-cover sectors. The work is the 

culmination of nearly 10 years of research and development by the U.S. Geological Survey, with support from 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, as well 

as university collaborators. It represents the most complete and comprehensive analysis of the rates, types, 

distribution, and drivers of recent changes in land use and land cover. The study bridges the gap between 

coarse-scale continental and global assessments and fine-scale local and regional case studies. 

Land-change studies attempt to explain the “what, where, when, how, and why” of changes to the 

vegetation and to the use of the land. Land-change research is aimed specifically at measuring where 

change is occurring (and where it is not occurring); which land-use and land-cover classes are changing (and 

what they are changing to); how much land is changing (and how fast); and what drivers are responsible 

for the measured changes. The goal is not only to understand the scope of change but also to provide the 

information base necessary to evaluate, predict, and manage the consequences of change.

Like many key issues in climate change and ecosystem functioning, land use and land cover are 

both drivers and indicators of environmental quality. The National Research Council has identified the 

understanding of land-use dynamics as one of the grand challenges for environmental research—no other 

global-change parameter is so tightly intertwined with issues of past, present, and future land-use practices, 

weather patterns, soil and carbon dynamics, ecosystem health and diversity, economic development and 

policy, technology issues, human population size and distribution, and overall human health. People and 

their use of the land are interrelated in complex ways, and the effects of land-use and land-cover change 

can have a huge impact on their quality of life, on the goods and services that they can expect from the 

land, and on the hazards that they may face. Despite these profound consequences, the Intergovernmental 

Panel on Climate Change’s Third Assessment Report has cited the lack of scientific understanding about the 

timing, magnitude, and direction of response of ecological, social, and economic systems to the combined 

effects of climate change and land-use and land-cover change as a key uncertainty in determining societal 

vulnerabilities and predicting both regional and global impacts of climate change.

Prior to this study, only sectorally specific or spatially limited assessments and inventories had been 

conducted to categorize land change in the United States. These efforts often included only certain land-use 

and land-cover classes or ownership categories, or they were conducted over short time intervals only, and 

integrating these various assessments into a comprehensive and consistent national synthesis of land change 

was not possible. The research presented in this Professional Paper has been specifically designed to provide 

the first comprehensive measurement of land-cover change in the conterminous United States. 

Relying on Landsat satellite imagery—the longest continuous and consistent dataset of synoptic Earth 

observations—the authors characterize changes across 11 primary land-use and land-cover classes spanning 

four time periods between 1973 and 2000. For each of these time periods and classes, estimates of change are 

developed for each of 84 distinct ecological regions—or ecoregions—across the conterminous United States.

The results provide useful, if not essential, information for understanding climate change, biodiversity, 

resource management and planning, resource security, and disaster planning. A significant conclusion is 

that no single profile of land-use and land-cover change exists. Numerous different, and often complex, 

interactions between an ecoregion’s socioeconomic drivers and its biological and physical characteristics 

have produced widespread regional and temporal variability in the rates, types, and total extent of land 

change. Among the scientific findings presented are estimates of overall forest decline in response to 

increased rates of disturbance, urbanization, and agricultural intensification. 

This research provides a critical ecoregional to national perspective of U.S. land change in the 

conterminous United States. With the completion of the 1973–2000 assessment, this study lays a foundation 

for understanding the Nation’s land-change dynamics and makes possible a new era for analyzing the 

consequences of land change, as well as for modeling future land changes.

Director, USGS

iii
Preface

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Professional Paper 1794–D is the fourth in a four-volume series on the 

status and trends of the Nation’s land use and land cover, providing an assessment of the rates and causes 

of land-use and land-cover change in the Eastern United States between 1973 and 2000. Volumes A, B, and 

C provide similar analyses for the Western United States, the Great Plains of the United States, and the 

Midwest–South Central United States, respectively. The assessments of land-use and land-cover trends are 

conducted on an ecoregion-by-ecoregion basis, and each ecoregion assessment is guided by a nationally 

consistent study design that includes mapping, statistical methods, field studies, and analysis. Individual 

assessments provide a picture of the characteristics of land change occurring in a given ecoregion; in 

combination, they provide a framework for understanding the complex national mosaic of change and also 

the causes and consequences of change. Thus, each volume in this series provides a regional assessment 

of how (and how fast) land use and land cover are changing, and why. The four volumes together form the 

first comprehensive picture of land change across the Nation.

Geographic understanding of land-use and land-cover change is directly relevant to a wide variety of 

stakeholders, including land and resource managers, policymakers, and scientists. The chapters that follow 

present brief summaries of the patterns and rates of land change observed in each ecoregion in the Eastern 

United States, together with field photographs, statistics, and comparisons with other assessments. In 

addition, a synthesis chapter summarizes the scope of land change observed across the entire Eastern 

United States. The studies provide a way of integrating information across the landscape, and they form a 

critical component in the efforts to understand how land use and land cover affect important issues such as 

the provision of ecological goods and services and also the determination of risks to, and vulnerabilities of, 

human communities. Results from this project also are published in peer-reviewed journals, and they are 

further used to produce maps of change and other tools for land management, as well as to provide inputs 

for carbon-cycle modeling and other climate change research.

This report is only one of the products produced by USGS on land-use and land-cover change in the 

United States. Other reports and land-cover statistics are available online at http://landcovertrends.usgs.gov.

Acknowledgments

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Research and Development and the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration provided initial funding to support this project. 

The U.S. Geological Survey’s (USGS) Geographic Analysis and Monitoring Program and Climate 

and Land Use Change Research and Development Program provided long-term support for this research.

Adam Davis (USGS) provided extensive support in the production of figures and tables.

All photographs contained within this Professional Paper were taken by various members of the 

Land Cover Trends research project while conducting field investigations between 1999 and 2010.

Thomas R. Loveland

Thomas R. Moreland, Jr.

Darrell E. Napton

Kristi L. Sayler

Terry L. Sohl

Michael P. Stier

Janis L. Taylor

William Acevedo

Roger F. Auch

Mark S. Brooks

Mark A. Drummond

Beverly A. Friesen

Rachel M.K. Headley

Steven Kambly

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

South Dakota State University

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

Stinger Ghaffarian Technologies

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

Author Affiliations

iv
Contents

Foreword...................................................................................................iii

Preface......................................................................................................iv

Acknowledgments..........................................................................................iv

Author Affiliations..........................................................................................iv

Regional Synthesis

Land-Cover Trends in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 .................................. 3

By Thomas R. Loveland, William Acevedo, and Kristi L. Sayler

Northeastern United States Ecoregions

1. Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion.........................................................19

By Thomas R. Moreland, Jr.

2. Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion............................................................27

By Steven Kambly 

 3. Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion..................................... 35

 By Janis L. Taylor 

Mid-Atlantic Coast Ecoregions

4. Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion...................................................... 45

By Roger F. Auch

5. Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion......................................................53

By Terry L. Sohl

6. Northern Piedmont Ecoregion ..................................................................61

By Roger F. Auch

Appalachian Mountains Ecoregions

7. Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion....................................71

By Mark S. Brooks

8. North Central Appalachians Ecoregion......................................................79

By Kristi L. Sayler

9. Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion ......................................................87

By Kristi L. Sayler

10. Central Appalachians Ecoregion...............................................................93

By Kristi L. Sayler

11. Ridge and Valley Ecoregion..................................................................101

By Beverly A. Friesen and Michael P. Stier

 12. Interior Plateau Ecoregion.....................................................................109

 By Mark A. Drummond

 13. Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion ...................................................117

By Terry L. Sohl

 14. Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion............................................................125

By Janis L. Taylor, Rachel M.K. Headley, and Darrell E. Napton

v
Southeastern United States Ecoregions

 15. Piedmont Ecoregion...........................................................................135

By Darrell E. Napton

 16. Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion ................................................143

By Janis L. Taylor

 17. Southeastern Plains Ecoregion...............................................................151

By Terry L. Sohl

 18. Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion...................................................159 

By Roger F. Auch

 19. Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion.........................................................167

By Mark A. Drummond

 20. Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion ................................................175

By Steven Kambly

Appendix 1. Map of Ecoregions in Conterminous United States ..................................185

Appendix 2. Abbreviations for Ecoregions in the Eastern United States .........................188

Appendix 3. Land-Cover Classification System Used in “Status and Trends 

 of Land Change” Study ................................................................................189

Appendix 4. Methodology Used in “Status and Trends of Land Change” Study .................190

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to SI Multiply by To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2)

acre 0.004047 square kilometer (km2)

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) 

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows: °F=(1.8×°C)+32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows: °C=(°F-32)/1.8

vi
Regional Synthesis9

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Land-Cover Trends in the Eastern 

United States—1973 to 2000

By Thomas R. Loveland, William Acevedo, and Kristi L. Sayler

Introduction 

Studies of land-use and land-cover change attempt to 

explain (1) where such change is occurring, (2) what land-use/

land-cover classes are changing, (3) what types of transformations are occurring, (4) what the rates and (or) amounts of 

change are, and (5) what the driving forces and proximate 

causes of land-use/land-cover change are. The reasons for 

studying land-use/land-cover change include the following: to 

understand trends in land change, to evaluate and manage the 

consequences of land change, and to define future scenarios of 

land change. Challenging issues associated with studying 

land-use/land-cover change include the measuring, gathering, 

and documenting of the characteristics of such change. 

The Federal Government has many programs that address 

land-use/land-cover change. Although excellent programs exist 

for inventorying forest (Gillespie, 1999) and agriculture land 

uses (Nusser and Goebel, 1997), the sum of these programs 

cannot be combined to provide a comprehensive picture of 

land change across the Nation because of the differences in 

design, definitions, and geographic coverage of each inventory 

program. Thus, it has been very difficult to draw conclusions 

or assess the consequences of contemporary land change in the 

United States. 

To provide estimates of the rates of land-cover and 

land-use change for the United States, without regard to land 

ownership or land-use/land-cover class, the U.S. Geological 

Survey, with support from the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, initiated a study of the rates, causes, and consequences 

of contemporary land-use and land-cover change. The “Status 

and Trends of Land Change” study used land-use/land-cover 

mapping derived from Landsat satellite imagery (and 

supported by higher resolution aerial photography), a statistical 

sampling strategy (Stehman and others, 2003), and geographic 

regionalization to provide information on the types, amounts, 

and rates of land change in the United States (Loveland and 

others, 2002). Level III ecoregions (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 1999) were selected as the geographic 

framework for the study because they have homogenous 

conditions and similar biotic and abiotic characteristics. The 

ecoregions collectively represent both the resource potential and 

probable responses to natural and anthropogenic disturbances. 

The defining ecoregion characteristics (for example, climate, 

topography, geology, soils, natural vegetation) will determine 

the types of land cover that can exist within an area and also 

will influence the range of land-use practices that are possible. 

Estimates of land change are based on the interpretation of five 

study dates (1973, 1980, 1986, 1992, and 2000) of Landsat 

Multispectral Scanner, Thematic Mapper, and Enhanced 

Thematic Mapper Plus data for a set of 10 × 10 km (or, in some 

cases, 20 × 20 km) sample blocks randomly selected for each 

ecoregion. The goal was to provide estimates that are within one 

percent of the actual land change at an 85-percent confidence 

level. This approach—explained in detail in Loveland and others 

(2002), Sohl and others (2004), and Gallant and others (2004)—

provides clear evidence of the geographic variability in the rates, 

types, and causes of land change across ecoregions. 

Regional Synthesis

As part of a national assessment of land change, the U.S. 

Geological Survey completed an analysis of 20 ecoregions 

in the Eastern United States (fig. 1A). The 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions, as defined by the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (Omernik, 1987; U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 1999), span about 1,653,852 km2 (638,555 

mi2). For purposes of discussion, the 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions have been divided into four main groups, 

within which the ecoregions share many similar physical, 

biological, and land-use characteristics: the Northeastern 

United States Ecoregions, the Mid-Atlantic Coast Ecoregions, 

the Appalachian Mountains Ecoregions, and the Southeastern 

United States Ecoregions (fig. 1B).

Areal percentages for all land-use/land-cover classes 

for all five study dates (1973, 1980, 1986, 1992, and 2000) 

are presented in table 1. The predominant land-cover class in 

the Eastern United States in 2000 was forest (52.3 percent); 

however, the amount of forest land cover declined between 

1973 and 2000. Agriculture (21.6 percent) also declined 

between 1973 and 2000, whereas developed (10.6 percent) 

increased during that time. Wetland (7.5 percent) and water 

(4.1 percent) stayed relatively consistent in area between 1973 

and 2000.
90° 85° 80° 75° 70° 65°

SEP

P

SCOP

IP

RV

NEH

EGLHL

WAP

CA

MVLP

LPH

BRM

NECZ

SWA

NAPU

NP

NEH

SFCP

NCA

MACP

NEH

NCA

ACPB

CANADA

Atlantic

Ocean

0 200 400 MILES

0 200 400 KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

State boundary

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Transitional

EXPLANATION

50°

45°

40°

35°

30°

25°

Northeastern United States Ecoregions

EGLHL - Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion

LPH - Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion

NEH - Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion

Southeastern United States Ecoregions

MACP - Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion

MVLP - Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion

P - Piedmont Ecoregion

SEP - Southeastern Plains Ecoregion

SCOP - Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion

SFCP - Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion

Mid-Atlantic Coast Ecoregions

ACPB - Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion

NECZ - Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion

NP - Northern Piedmont Ecoregion

Appalachian Mountains Ecoregions

BRM - Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion

CA - Central Appalachians Ecoregion

IP - Interior Plateau Ecoregion

NAPU - Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion

NCA - North Central Appalachians Ecoregion

RV - Ridge and Valley Ecoregion

SWA - Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion

WAP - Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion

EXPLANATION

B

C

Northeastern

United States

Mid-Atlantic

Coast

Appalachian

Mountains

Southeastern

United States

A

Figure 1. A, Map of all 20 ecoregions in Eastern United States, showing landuse/land-cover classes from 1992 National Land-Cover Database (Vogelmann 

and others, 2001); note that, for this “Status and Trends of Land Change” study, 

transitional land-cover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed and 

nonmechanically disturbed classes. B, Map showing four main Eastern United 

States ecoregion groups, modified from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s 

(2010) Level II Ecoregions for Eastern United States. Within each ecoregion 

group, individual ecoregions share many similar physical, biological, and landuse characteristics. C, List of four main Eastern United States ecoregion groups 

depicted in figure 1B; also listed are individual ecoregions included in each 

ecoregion group, as well as ecoregion abbreviations used in figure 1A.

4 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000
Table 1. Areal percentages of land-use/land-cover classes in all 20 Eastern United States ecoregions for 

each of five study years (1973, 1980, 1986, 1992, 2000) and corresponding margin-of-error values for 85-percent 

confidence interval (in brackets). 

[Percentages are of total area in all Eastern United States ecoregions. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover 

classifications]

Land-use/land-cover class

1973

[margin of error] 

(% of area)

1980

[margin of error] 

(% of area)

1986

[margin of error] 

(% of area)

1992

[margin of error] 

(% of area)

2000

[margin of error] 

(% of area)

Water 4.0 [0.7] 4.0 [0.7] 4.0 [0.7] 4.0 [0.7] 4.1 [0.7]

Developed 8.4 [2.0] 8.8 [2.0] 9.2 [2.1] 9.8 [2.1] 10.6 [2.1]

Mechanically disturbed 1.0 [0.2] 1.2 [0.2] 1.5 [0.3] 2.0 [0.3] 2.3 [0.3]

Mining 0.4 [0.1] 0.5 [0.2] 0.5 [0.2] 0.4 [0.1] 0.4 [0.1]

Barren 0.1 [<0.1] 0.1 [<0.1] 0.1 [<0.1] 0.1 [<0.1] 0.1 [<0.1]

Forest 54.6 [1.9] 53.8 [1.9] 53.2 [1.9] 52.8 [1.9] 52.3 [1.8]

Grassland/Shrubland 0.7 [0.2] 0.8 [0.2] 1.0 [0.2] 1.2 [0.3] 1.2 [0.3]

Agriculture 23.1 [1.7] 23.0 [1.8] 22.7 [1.8] 22.0 [1.7] 21.6 [1.6]

Wetland 7.8 [0.8] 7.7 [0.8] 7.6 [0.8] 7.7 [0.8] 7.5 [0.8]

Nonmechanically disturbed <0.1 [<0.1] <0.1 [<0.1] <0.1 [<0.1] <0.1 [<0.1] 0.1 [0.1]

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 2. Overall spatial change from 1973 to 2000 for all 20 

Eastern United States ecoregions. Each horizontal set of bars 

shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, two, 

three, or four time periods (1973–1980, 1980–1986, 1986–1992, 

1992–2000). Ecoregions that have larger numbers of changes 

typically have active forest-harvesting cycles, whereas 

ecoregions that have low numbers of changes usually are 

characterized by increased urban development. See appendix 2 

for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Eastern United States 

ecoregions between 1973 and 2000 was 12.5 percent (table 2), 

meaning that 207,177 km2 of 1,653,852 km2 changed one or 

more times. However, the overall amount of change masks the 

geographic variability of change, which ranged from a low 

of 2.0 percent in the Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion to a 

high of 24.6 percent in the Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion 

(fig. 2). The highest amounts of change generally were in 

ecoregions that have active timber harvesting, whereas the 

lowest amounts of change were in ecoregions in which 

urbanization was the leading driver of land change (table 2). 

In the Southeastern United States Ecoregions, where change 

in forest land-cover class was dominant, the overall amount 

of change was 18.9 percent. In the Appalachian Mountains 

Ecoregions, where change was far more heterogeneous, 

the amount of change was 5.8 percent. In the Mid-Atlantic 

Coast Ecoregions, where urban development dominated land 

change, the overall amount of change was 5.9 percent. The 

overall amount of change in the Northeastern United States 

Ecoregions (8.2 percent) was associated with forest land use.

No single story of land-use/land-cover change in 

the Eastern United States during the 27-year study period 

(1973–2000) has emerged. Instead, 20 distinct stories in the 20 

ecoregions can be told. Generally speaking, most change was 

associated with forest harvesting and regrowth, agricultural 

abandonment, and development. However, in certain 

ecoregions that have unique natural resources, other conversion 

mechanisms that correspond to those unique resources were in 

play. For example, coal mining was an important contributor 

to land change in the Central Appalachians, Southwestern 

Land-Cover Trends in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 5
Table 2. Overall spatial change in each Eastern United States ecoregion (in square kilometers and as 

percent of ecoregion) for entire study period (1973 to 2000) and corresponding margin-of-error values for 

85-percent confidence interval (in brackets).

Ecoregion Ecoregion

area (km2)

Overall spatial change [margin of error]

(km2) (% of ecoregion)

Northeastern United States Ecoregions

Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion 50,153 4,714 [802] 9.4 [1.6]

Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion 127,107 11,313 [4,195] 8.9 [3.3]

Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion 60,591 3,393 [788] 5.6 [1.3]

Totals 237,851 19,420 [4,281] 8.2 [1.8]

Mid-Atlantic Coast Ecoregions

Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion 37,158 2,118 [334] 5.7 [0.9]

Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion 19,230 1,115 [404] 5.8 [2.1]

Northern Piedmont Ecoregion 30,120 1,867 [331] 6.2 [1.1]

Totals 86,508 5,101 [606] 5.9 [0.7]

Appalachian Mountains Ecoregions

Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion 29,919 718 [209] 2.4 [0.7]

North Central Appalachians Ecoregion 30,522 1,892 [610] 6.2 [2.0]

Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion 84,738 5,169 [1,102] 6.1 [1.3]

Central Appalachians Ecoregion 59,738 5,436 [896] 9.1 [1.5]

Ridge and Valley Ecoregion 111,043 6,107 [1,221] 5.5 [1.1]

Interior Plateau Ecoregion 127,810 5,751 [1,406] 4.5 [1.1]

Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion 35,341 4,877 [1,308] 13.8 [3.7]

Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion 47,791 956 [239] 2.0 [0.5]

Totals 526,901 30,907 [2,634] 5.8 [0.5]

Southeastern United States Ecoregions

Piedmont Ecoregion 165,460 23,992 [7,611] 14.5 [4.6]

Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion 43,775 6,041 [1,488] 13.8 [3.4]

Southeastern Plains Ecoregion 336,141 68,573 [13,109] 20.4 [3.9]

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion 89,686 16,143 [4,036] 18.0 [4.5]

Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion 145,123 35,700 [5,370] 24.6 [3.7]

Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion 22,407 1,300 [515] 5.8 [2.3]

Totals 802,591 151,749 [15,249] 18.9 [1.9]

All Eastern United States ecoregions 1,653,852 207,177 [1,654] 12.5 [1.0]

Appalachians, and Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregions, as 

was phosphate mining in the Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion.

Estimates of gross spatial change and net areal change for 

each land-cover class in the 20 Eastern United States ecoregions 

are found in table 3. Both net- and gross-change statistics must 

be taken into account when considering land change. The net 

change in a given land-cover class is the result of the losses in 

that land-cover class subtracted from the gains, thus, representing 

the difference in land-cover area between two study dates. On 

the other hand, gross change is the total area gained and lost in a 

particular land-cover class (for example, the sum of increases and 

decreases in forest land-cover class), representing the total area 

modified between study dates. Gross change is important because 

it provides a clear indication of the overall amount of change that 

affected specific land-cover classes, rather than at just two points 

in time of a specific land-cover class.

The five land-cover classes that had the largest net areal 

change (either gains or losses) over the entire study period 

(1973–2000) are as follows (table 3):

• Forest, –37,271 km2 (margin of error, 7,003 km2) 

• Developed, 36,807 km2 (margin of error, 5,156 km2) 

• Agriculture, –24,947 km2 (margin of error, 5,009 km2) 

• Mechanically disturbed, 20,369 km2 (margin of error, 

4,055 km2) 

• Grassland/Shrubland, 8,215 km2 (margin of error, 

2,412 km2) 

6 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000
Table 3. Gross spatial changes and net areal changes in land-use/land-cover classes in all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions during entire study period (1973 to 2000) and corresponding margin-of-error values for 85-percent 

confidence interval (in brackets).

Land-use/land-cover class

Gross spatial change (1973–2000)

[margin of error]

Net areal change (1973–2000)

[margin of error]

(km2) (% of area) (km2) (% change)

Water 3,965 [1,111] 0.2 [0.1] 2,340 [770] 3.6

Developed 37,282 [6,049] 2.3 [0.4] 36,807 [5,156] 26.6

Mechanically disturbed 116,623 [24,564] 7.1 [1.5] 20,369 [4,055] 119.9

Mining 14,241 [4,030] 0.9 [0.2] −467 [1,876] −6.8

Barren 154 [86] <0.1 [<0.1] 4 [24] 0.4

Forest 172,872 [30,572] 10.5 [1.8] −37,271 [7,003] −4.1

Grassland/Shrubland 30,531 [5,220] 1.8 [0.3] 8,215 [2,412] 71.2

Agriculture 51,429 [10,068] 3.1 [0.6] −24,947 [5,009] −6.5

Wetland 13,000 [3,092] 0.8 [0.2] −6,053 [2,208] −4.7

Nonmechanically disturbed 1,971 [1,200] 0.1 [0.1] 1,002 [1,124] 620.1

Table 4. Net areal changes in land-use/land-cover classes in all 20 Eastern United States ecoregions during each of 

four time periods and corresponding margin-of-error values for 85-percent confidence interval (in brackets). 

[See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications]

Land-use/land-cover class Net change [margin of error] (km2)

1973–1980 1980–1986 1986–1992 1992–2000

Water 465 [255] 758 [469] −7 [384] 1,119 [473]

Developed 7,275 [1,615] 6,826 [1,098] 9,289 [1,487] 13,353 [2,180]

Mechanically disturbed 2,733 [3,242] 5,761 [3,060] 7,991 [4,040] 3,848 [4,325]

Mining 1,114 [781] −37 [520] −738 [828] −805 1,461]

Barren −10 [24] −13 [14] 6 [9] 20 [27]

Forest −12,113 [4,462] −10,109 [3,097] −7,125 [6,050] −7,858 [5,597]

Grassland/Shrubland 2,246 [787] 2,924 [1,353] 2,803 [1,504] 228 [1,881]

Agriculture −447 [1,656] −4,822 [1,950] −12,005 [3,297] −7,629 [2,299]

Wetland −1,246 [1,084] −1,609 [638] 82 [683] −3,270 [1,169]

Nonmechanically disturbed −18 [215] 321 [350] −297 [242] 993 [1,133]

The five land-cover classes that had the highest gross 

spatial change over the entire study period (1973–2000) are as 

follows (table 3):

• Forest, 172,872 km2 (margin of error, 30,572 km2)

• Mechanically disturbed, 116,623 km2 (margin of 

error, 24,564 km2)

• Agriculture, 51,429 km2 (margin of error, 10,068 km2)

• Developed, 37,282 km2 (margin of error, 6,049 km2)

• Grassland/Shrubland, 30,531 km2 (margin of error, 

5,220 km2)

A summary of net areal change in each land-cover class 

for each time period can be found in table 4. Discussions of 

individual land-cover classes follow.

Forest Land-Cover Class

Forest experienced the largest amount of change of any 

land-cover class in the 20 Eastern United States ecoregions 

during the 27-year study period. Between 1973 and 2000, 

105,562 km2 converted to forest land cover, whereas 142,833 

km2 of forested land converted to other land-cover classes, 

resulting in a net loss of 37,271 km2 (table 3), a 4.1 percent 

decrease. This amount of net change, however, masks the 

true amount of change (that is, turnover) in forested land. 

The gross change in forest in the Eastern United States was 

172,872 km2 (table 3), meaning that 10.5 percent experienced 

a conversion either to or from the forest land-cover class. 

Land-Cover Trends in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 7
A

C

B

D

8 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 3. Forested areas in Eastern United States. A, Young pine plantation southwest of Augusta, Georgia, in Southeastern Plains 

Ecoregion. B, Pine plantation north of Jackson, Mississippi, in Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion. C, Pine plantation that has 

both young and old trees northeast of Panama City, Florida, in Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion. D, Forest landscape in west-central 

Maine, in Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion.

Timber production is very important throughout the 

20 Eastern United States ecoregions. The Southeastern 

United States Ecoregions, especially the Southeastern Plains, 

Southern Coastal Plain, Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain, and 

Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregions, contain vast 

expanses of industrial-scale pine plantations (fig. 3). These 

ecoregions have a climate advantage that permits harvest 

cycles of 20 to 25 years for loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) and 

other southern pine species (Gresham, 2002). Large-scale 

timber production also is important in the Northeastern 

United States Ecoregions, especially in the Northeastern 

Highlands Ecoregion and, to a lesser extent, the Laurentian 

Plains and Hills Ecoregion.

Only the Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion 

experienced an increase in forest (0.6 percent increase); 

all other Eastern United States ecoregions experienced 

a decrease. The Piedmont and Southern Coastal Plain 

Ecoregions experienced the greatest loss of forest (–4.8 and 

–4.2 percent, respectively). Other ecoregions that experienced 

significant losses in forest were the Northeastern Highlands 

(−3.9 percent), Northeastern Coastal Zone (−3.7 percent), 

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain (−3.4 percent), and Central 

Appalachians (−3.3 percent) Ecoregions (fig. 4C).

The principal conversion from forest was to 

mechanically disturbed, which consists of clearcut and 

recently harvested forest. More than 31,000 km2 of forest 

changed to this transitional land-cover class (fig. 5), 

suggesting that forest change is very dynamic and cyclic in 

nature. Southern pine-forest land when harvested or clearcut 

is classified as mechanically disturbed. The cleared land 

typically remains in a mechanically disturbed state for a 

brief period and then is replanted with trees; in some cases, 

however, the land is left alone for natural regeneration. In 

much of the South, planted pine trees can reach heights of 

2 m within two years. Thus, the conversion from forest to 

mechanically disturbed is indicative of extensive timber 

production in the South. In the northern ecoregions and in 

certain marginal areas in other ecoregions, slower growth 

rates can result in a longer forest-cutting-and-regrowth cycle; 

in such areas, the typical conversion cycle is from forest 

to mechanically disturbed, then to grassland/shrubland and 

back to forest.
0 200 400 MILES

0 200 400 KILOMETERS

0 to 0.4

0.4 to 1.1

1.1 to 1.9

1.9 to 2.8

Net increase in 

mechanically disturbed 

area, in percent 

of ecoregion

-4.8 to -3.5

-3.5 to -2.3

-2.3 to -1.1

-1.1 to 0

0 to 1.0

Net change in 

forest area, in 

percent of ecoregion

-6.8 to -5.0

-5.0 to -3.3

-3.3 to -1.6

-1.6 to 0

0 to 0.1

Net change in 

agriculture area, in 

percent of ecoregion

0 to 1.5

1.5 to 3.2

3.2 to 4.8

4.8 to 6.2

Net increase in 

developed area, in 

percent of ecoregion

Level II ecoregion 

boundary

A B

C D

Figure 4. Maps showing net change for (A) developed, (B) agriculture, (C), forest, and (D) mechanically disturbed land-cover 

classes, for all 20 Eastern United States ecoregions.

Land-Cover Trends in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 9
Approximately 19,000 km2 of forest converted to 

developed (fig. 5); in addition, 7,900 km2 of agricultural land 

either converted to forest (for example, in Southeastern Plains 

Ecoregion and in Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion) 

or were abandoned, resulting in afforestation (for example, in 

Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion and in 

Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion). Most 

conversions from agriculture to forest were motivated by the 

relative difference in profitability between timber and agricultural 

uses. After 1986, however, conversion from agriculture to forest 

and subsequent gains in forest area were often caused by the 

Conservation Reserve Program, which removed sensitive areas 

of farmland from production to reduce soil loss.

Forest land use (that is, land managed for the production 

of forest products or maintained as woody vegetation for 

indirect benefits such as protection of watersheds or for 

recreational purposes) declined less rapidly than forest land 

cover (that is, land covered with trees). Note that harvested 

forest, where trees may be replanted or regenerated, can be 

classified as forest land use, even though no trees are present. 

Although harvested areas generally are replanted with timber, 

the cycles of forest land use have caused a net decline in 

the total area of forest land cover. Consider that, in the 

Eastern United States ecoregions, 78 percent of mechanically 

disturbed and 73 percent of grassland/shrubland converted 

back to forest during the study period, implying that the 

land is continuing to be used for forest production. If those 

proportions of mechanically disturbed land and grassland/

shrubland revert to forest, then the net loss of forest land use 

in the Eastern United States ecoregions is 15,387 km2.

Developed Land-Cover Class

Developed land-cover class includes all the built-up 

surfaces in the 20 Eastern United States Ecoregions. Most are 

associated with urban and exurban growth, but this land-cover 

class also includes transportation systems and many other lowdensity built-up lands (fig. 6). The net increase in the developed 

land-cover class (36,807 km2; table 3), a 26.6 percent net 

increase, was almost equal to the loss in the forest land-cover 

class (−37,271 km2; table 3). The gross change in the developed 

land-cover class was fairly similar (37,282 km2; table 3) owing 

to the unidirectional nature of urban growth. Between 1970 and 

2000, population in counties within the 20 Eastern United States 

ecoregions increased by 32.6 percent, from 93.3 million to 

123.8 million people (U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various 

years]). The Eastern United States ecoregions that experienced 

the largest increase in the developed land-cover class during 

the study period were the Southern Coastal Plain (6.2 percent), 

Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens (4.7 percent), Northern Piedmont 

(4.6 percent), Piedmont (4.5 percent), Mississippi Valley 

Loess Plains (4.3 percent), and Northeastern Coastal Zone 

(4.0percent) Ecoregions (fig.4A). 

Most newly developed land converted from forest (19,145 

km2) or agriculture (11,879 km2) during the study period (fig. 7). 

In the Northeastern United States Ecoregions, where agricultural 

A

land preservation is important, conversions to developed from 

forest were more common than those from agriculture. For

example, in the Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion, more 

forest converted to developed than did agriculture, by a 4-to-1 

margin, and, in the Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion, the ratio 

was 10 to 1. However, in the Mississippi Valley Loess Plains 

Ecoregion, more development occurred on agricultural land 

than forested land, by a nearly 3-to-1 margin, and in the Atlantic 

Coastal Pine Barrens and Northern Piedmont Ecoregions, the 

ratio was 2 to 1. It is important, however, to recognize that 

changes over the entire 27-year study period often mask the 

variability and specific margins of conversion that occurred 

during each of the four time periods.

−20

−16

−12

−8

-4

4

0

8

12

16

18

20

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Area changed, in thousands of square kilometers 

10 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 5. Gross change (area gained from, and lost to, other 

land-cover classes) in forest land-cover class in all 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions during entire study period (1973–2000). 

Colored bars above zero axis indicate land-cover classes that lost 

area to forest and amounts of area lost, whereas colored bars 

below zero axis indicate land-cover classes that gained area from 

forest and amounts of area gained.
A

C

B

D

Figure 6. Developed areas in Eastern United States. A, Parkwood Estates housing development northwest of Atlanta, Georgia, in 

Piedmont Ecoregion. B, Subdivision northeast of Memphis, Tennessee, in Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion. C, New subdivision 

in New Jersey, south of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion. D, Interstate 87, just south of Keeseville, 

New York, in Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion.

0

2

4

6

10

8

12

14

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Area changed, in thousands of square kilometers 

Figure 7. Estimated area gained in developed land-cover class from other landcover classes in all 20 Eastern United States ecoregions during entire study period 

(1973–2000). Colored bars indicate land-cover classes that lost area to developed and 

amounts of area lost. 

Land-Cover Trends in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 11
The amount of developed land increased at an accelerating 

rate over the 27-year study period (fig. 7). In each of the 

four time periods between 1973 and 2000, the percentage of 

developed land increased, having average annual increases 

of 0.06 percent (1973–1980), 0.07 percent (1980–1986), 0.09 

percent (1986–1992), and 0.10 percent (1992–2000). Although 

the percentage gains in developed land are relatively small in 

relation to the overall area, the increasing rate of development 

may have large effects, such as altering hydrological processes, 

contributing to urban heat-island effects, threatening biodiversity, 

and resulting in many other environmental consequences.

Agriculture Land-Cover Class

Agriculture was the second most common land-cover 

class in the 20 Eastern United States ecoregions (fig. 8), with 

an estimated 21.6 percent of the total area in 2000 (table 1). 

Agriculture declined almost everywhere, experiencing a 6.5 

percent net loss (−24,947 km2) between 1973 and 2000. Gross 

change in agriculture was 51,429 km2 (table 3). The only 

ecoregion that did not experience a loss of agricultural land 

was the Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion (fig. 4B). 

Note that this ecoregion experienced a significant increase in 

agricultural land between 1973 and 1980 because of the need 

to replace the sugar cane whose import from Cuba had been 

banned (Walker and Solecki, 2004). Even in this ecoregion, 

however, agricultural land declined after 1980, and the net gain 

over the entire 27-year study period was less than 0.1 percent. 

Conversions from agriculture to developed were some 

of the most common conversions in the Eastern United States 

ecoregions (11,878 km2) (fig. 9), although conversions to 

forest were more common in the Southeastern United States 

Ecoregions, where timber production is high. Two ecoregions 

that experienced substantial conversions from agriculture to 

developed were the Northern Piedmont and Atlantic Coastal 

Pine Barrens Ecoregions (3.4 and 3.0 percent, respectively; 

fig. 4B). Although the drivers behind the higher rates of 

conversions from agriculture to developed must still be 

determined for each individual ecoregion, they likely include 

lower costs to develop relatively level sites that have better 

soil-engineering properties. 

A

C

B

D

12 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 8. Agricultural areas in Eastern United States. A, Soybean fields with poultry barns in background west of Pageland, South 

Carolina, in Piedmont Ecoregion. B, Cattle in clover pasture southeast of Sayre, Pennsylvania, in Northern Appalachian Plateau and 

Uplands Ecoregion. C, Cornfield northeast of Dyersburg, Tennessee, in Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion. D, Sugar cane field 

near housing development west of Pahokee, Florida, in Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion.
Substantial conversions from agriculture to forest (more 

than 12,000 km2) occurred in the Mississippi Valley Loess 

Plains and Southeastern Plains Ecoregions. Note that the rate 

of agriculture loss accelerated between 1986 and 1992 (fig. 9), 

indicating that an important driver of change was the enrollment 

of marginal croplands in the Conservation Reserve Program 

during that time period. An additional factor that was important 

in the Northeastern and Southeastern United States Ecoregions 

(for example, in the Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands 

Ecoregion and in the Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion) is 

the abandonment of agricultural land. Nearly 4,500 km2 of 

agricultural land reverted to grassland/shrubland following 

cropland abandonment; these lands likely will revert to forest.

−14

−12

−10

−8

−6

–4

0

–2

2

4

14

12

10

8

6

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Area changed, in thousands of square square kilometers 

Figure 9. Gross change (area gained from, and lost to, other 

land-cover classes) in agriculture land-cover class in all 20 

Eastern United States ecoregions during entire study period 

(1973–2000). Colored bars above zero axis indicate land-cover 

classes that lost area to agriculture and amounts of area lost, 

whereas colored bars below zero axis indicate land-cover classes 

that gained area from agriculture and amounts of area gained.

Transitional Land-Cover Classes

A less obvious dimension of change in the 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions involves the transitional landcover classes—mechanically disturbed, nonmechanically 

disturbed, and grassland/shrubland—that represent 

transitional stages of land-use/land-cover change (fig. 10). 

For example, forest that is harvested, whether planned for 

replanting or regeneration, goes through a transitional stage: 

in the Southeastern United States Ecoregions, this stage 

typically is mechanically disturbed; in the Northeastern 

United States Ecoregions, the typical conversion is from 

mechanically disturbed to grassland/shrubland. In addition, 

afforestation associated with abandoned agricultural land 

typically experiences a grassland/shrubland stage. 

At any one time during the 27-year study period, the 

amount of grassland/shrubland or mechanically disturbed 

was relatively small. For example, the amount of grassland/

shrubland in 1980 was 13,792 km2, whereas the amount 

of mechanically disturbed was 19,724 km2. Between 

1973 and 2000, the net change in grassland/shrubland 

and mechanically disturbed was 8,215 and 20,369 km2, 

respectively (table 3); together, the net gain in these 

two transitional land-cover classes was 28,584 km2, the 

third largest net land-cover change. The gross amount 

of transitional land during the 27-year study period was 

147,154 km2 (table 3), the second largest gross change in the 

20 Eastern United States ecoregions.

All mechanically disturbed lands are transitional, 

with 78 percent destined for forest land cover. Most of 

the remaining mechanically disturbed lands reverted to 

wetlands, primarily owing to timber harvesting of wooded 

wetlands in the Southeastern United States Ecoregions, 

although a smaller percentage converted to developed. 

Approximately 73 percent of grassland/shrubland reverted 

to forest, and most of the remaining grassland/shrubland 

converted to agriculture.

The nonmechanically disturbed land-cover class reflects 

changes associated with wildfires, insect infestations, 

storms, and other similar naturally occurring events. Overall, 

very few instances of nonmechanical disturbance occurred 

in the 20 Eastern United States ecoregions. The major 

examples of nonmechanical disturbance were fires in the 

Southern Coastal Plain and Southern Florida Coastal Plain 

Ecoregions, as well as tornado damage in the North Central 

Appalachians Ecoregion.

Transitional land-cover classes represent short- to 

medium-term land disturbances. Mechanically disturbed 

land is particularly prone to erosion, causing the 

sedimentation of nearby streams. Mechanical disturbances 

also affect weather and climate variability by increasing 

surface albedo (Barnes, 2008). They also can alter regional 

carbon balances, owing to the removal of significant carbon 

stocks, and they can adversely affect habitat conditions and, 

ultimately, biodiversity. 

Land-Cover Trends in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 13
A

C

B

D

14 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 10. Mechanically disturbed areas in Eastern United States. A, Newly clearcut area in southeastern Mississippi, in Southeastern 

Plains Ecoregion. B, Large clearcut area southwest of Jackson, Mississippi, in Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion. C, Clearcut 

hillside east of Lebanon, Virginia, in Ridge and Valley Ecoregion. D, Cleared land west of Crossville, Tennessee, in Southwestern 

Appalachians Ecoregion.

Water and Wetland Land-Cover Classes

The water and wetland land-cover classes (fig. 11) covered 

4.1 and 7.5 percent, respectively, of the 20 Eastern United States 

ecoregions in 2000. During the 27-year study period, water 

increased by 0.1 percent, whereas wetland declined by 0.3 

percent (table 1). The largest increases in surface water occurred 

in the Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion (0.6 percent) and in the 

Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion (0.4 percent). In both 

ecoregions, dredging or other forms of excavation of wetlands 

for waterfront residential developments were significant reasons 

for the increase. In the Piedmont Ecoregion (0.2 percent), the 

increase was associated with the development of reservoirs to 

meet the needs of the expanding population base; the Piedmont 

Ecoregion has limited groundwater resources, thus, the 

municipal- and industrial-water supply relies on surface-water 

impoundments (Daniel and Dahlen, 2002). 

About one-third of the 20 Eastern United States 

ecoregions experienced essentially no change in area of 

wetlands. The ecoregions that experienced a significant 

loss of wetlands were the Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion 

(–2.4 percent), the Southern Florida Coastal Plain 

Ecoregion (–1.6 percent), and the Middle Atlantic Coastal 

Plain Ecoregion (–1.3 percent). All three ecoregions have 

extensive wetland areas. Agricultural development and 

urbanization contributed to wetland loss in the Middle 

Atlantic Coastal Plain and Southern Florida Coastal Plain 

Ecoregions, whereas urban growth was the primary factor in 

the Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion.

Mining Land-Cover Class

Although the area of the mining land-cover class (fig. 12) 

remained essentially unchanged across the 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions between 1973 and 2000 (table 1), it actually 

represents the balance between ecoregions that experienced 

expanded mining operations and several ecoregions that had 

mining losses. For example, the mining land-cover class 

increased by 1.5 percent in the Central Appalachians Ecoregion 

because of expanding coal-mining operations, but it shrunk 

by 1.2 percent in the Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion owing 
Figure 11. Water and wetland areas in Eastern United States. 

A, Lake Howell (formerly called “Coddle Creek Reservoir”), 

constructed in 1992–93 west of Kannapolis, North Carolina, in 

Piedmont Ecoregion. B, Wooded wetland in The Everglades, in 

Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion.

to a reduction in phosphate mining. Declines in coal mining 

in the Southwestern Appalachians and Western Allegheny 

Plateau Ecoregions resulted in a loss of 0.9 and 0.4 percent, 

respectively, in the mining land-cover class. It is also notable, 

although to a lesser degree, that rapidly urbanizing ecoregions 

such as the Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion usually had an 

increase in aggregate (sand and gravel) mining during the study 

period. Mined lands in which resources have been exhausted 

typically were restored to grassland/shrubland or forest. 

Barren Land-Cover Class

No significant changes in the barren land-cover class 

were found in the 20 Eastern United States ecoregions.

Summary

Land change in the Eastern United States during the 

study period was connected primarily to timber harvesting 

and urban growth. The climate in the Southeastern United 

States provides the foundation for forest activity: short 

harvest cycles mean that a substantial amount of land is 

cycling from forest to cleared conditions (mechanically 

disturbed) and back to forest. Across the East, agricultural 

land either is being converted to forest (for example, in 

the Southeastern United States Ecoregions) or is reverting 

to forest (for example, in the Northeastern United States 

Ecoregions) owing to agricultural abandonment. Urban 

growth, as measured by the increase in the developed landcover class, is expanding and accelerating across the East. 

All ecoregions are experiencing substantial increases in 

developed land. Agricultural lands are being lost to urban 

growth and to forestry practices. Also associated with timber 

harvesting and expanded urban development is the large 

amount of transitional, disturbed lands. Timber harvesting 

and replanting has resulted in conversions from forest 

to mechanically disturbed to forest in the Southeastern 

United States Ecoregions and from forest to mechanically 

disturbed to grassland/shrubland in the Northeastern United 

States Ecoregions. Transitional land-cover classes represent 

significant amounts of disturbance that may have adverse 

consequences for environmental and ecological systems. 

A

A

B

B

Land-Cover Trends in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 15

Figure 12. Mining activities in Eastern United States. A, Coal mine 

in Kentucky, in Central Appalachians Ecoregion. B, Quarry in northcentral Tennessee, in Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion.
Other land-cover classes such as mining, water, and wetland 

are changing, but the rates of change are modest. The local 

importance of such changes may be significant, and they 

are best understood at the ecoregion level. The diversity in 

the mosaic of change in the Eastern United States is lost 

when viewed as a composite. The remaining chapters in this 

report, which contain summaries of change for each of the 20 

Eastern United States ecoregions, document the rates, types, 

and drivers of late-20th century land-use/land-cover change 

in the Eastern United States. 

References Cited

Barnes, C.A., and Roy, D.P., 2008, Radiative forcing over the 

conterminous United States due to contemporary land cover 

land use albedo change: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 

35, no. 9, L09706, doi:10.1029/2008GL033567.

Daniel, C.C., III, and Dahlen, P.R., 2002, Preliminary 

hydrogeologic assessment and study plan for a regional 

ground-water resource investigation of the Blue Ridge and 

Piedmont Provinces of North Carolina: U.S. Geological 

Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 02–4105, 

60 p., available at http://nc.water.usgs.gov/reports/abstracts/

wri024105.html.

Gallant, A.L., Loveland, T.R., Sohl, T.L., and Napton, D.E., 

2004, Using a geographic framework for analyzing land 

cover issues: Environmental Management, v. 34, no. S1, 

p. 89–110.

Gillespie, A.J.R., 1999, Rationale for a national annual forest 

inventory program: Journal of Forestry, v. 97, no. 12, 

p. 16–20.

Gresham, C.A., 2002, Sustainability of intensive loblolly pine 

plantation management in the South Carolina Coastal Plain, 

USA: Forest Ecology and Management, v. 155, p. 69–80.

Loveland, T.R., Sohl, T.L., Stehman, S.V., Gallant, A.L., 

Sayler, K.L., and Napton, D.E., 2002, A strategy for 

estimating the rates of recent United States land cover 

changes: Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 

v. 68, no. 10, p. 1,091–1,099.

Nusser, S.M., and Goebel, J.J., 1997, The national resources 

inventory—A long-term multi-resource monitoring 

programme: Environmental and Ecological Statistics, v. 4, 

no. 3, p. 181–204.

Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United 

States: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 

v. 77, no. 1, p. 118–125.

Sohl, T.L., Gallant, A.L., and Loveland, T.R., 2004, The 

characteristics and interpretability of land surface change 

and implications for project design: Photogrammetric 

Engineering & Remote Sensing, v. 70, no. 4, p. 439–448.

Stehman, S.V., Sohl, T.L., and Loveland, T.R., 2003, Statistical 

sampling to characterize recent United States land-cover 

change: Remote Sensing of Environment, v. 86, no. 4, 

p. 517–529.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

accessed April 29, 2015, at http://www.census.gov/prod/

www/decennial.html.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999, Level 

III ecoregions of the continental United States: U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency National Health 

and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, scale 

1:7,500,000, available at ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/

usgs/useco_March 1999_v5.pdf.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010, North American 

terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency database, accessed April 29, 2015, 

at http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.

htm#Downloads.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Walker, R.T., and Solecki, B., 2004, Theorizing land cover 

and land use change—The case of the Florida Everglades 

and its degradation: Annals of the Association of American 

Geographers, v. 94, no. 2, p. 311–328. 

16 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000
Northeastern United States Ecoregions

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 1

Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion 

By Thomas R. Moreland, Jr.

Ecoregion Description 

The Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion, which is 

located in the northeastern corner of the conterminous United 

States, lies entirely within the state of Maine, covering roughly 

about 50,153 km2 (19,364 mi2) in its east half (fig.1). It is 

bounded to the north and east by Canada, to the west by 

the more rugged Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion, and to 

the south and southeast by the Northeastern Coastal Zone 

Ecoregion and the Atlantic Ocean. Glacial processes have 

shaped the entire Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion, 

creating many lakes and wetland areas, and forests cover 

nearly three-quarters of the ecoregion (fig. 2). The trees mostly 

are spruce (Picea spp.) and fir (Abies spp.), with some maple 

(Acer spp.), beech (Fagus spp.), and birch (Betula spp.) trees 

(Wiken and others, 2011). Timber harvesting is one of the most 

significant activities in the ecoregion; other human-induced 

alterations to the landscape include agriculture (fig. 3), which is 

concentrated on the plains in the northern part of the ecoregion, 

and development. The average annual precipitation in the 

ecoregion ranges from 1,041 mm (41 in.) in the north to about 

1,168 mm (46 in.) in the south. July temperatures average 

about 15° to 21°C; temperatures are usually warmer along the 

coast than in inland areas, and they are progressively cooler to 

the north. Average January temperatures vary from about –8° 

to –5°C along the coast, becoming increasingly cooler to the 

north. In the northernmost part of the ecoregion, the average 

January temperature is below –23°C. 

69° 68° 67° 66°

70°

47°

46°

45°

44°

Northeastern

Highlands

NECZ ATLANTIC OCEAN

CANADA

0 50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Land-use/land-cover class

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

EXPLANATION

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Wetland

Ice/Snow

Penobscot

River

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Bucksport

AROOSTOOK

COUNTY

MAINE

CANADA

Laurentian

Plains and Hills

Ecoregion

MAINE

Figure 1. Map of Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion and 

surrounding ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover classes 

from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann and others, 

2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be depicted on map; note also that, for 

this “Status and Trends of Land Change” study, transitional 

land-cover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed 

and nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate 

locations of 10 x 10 km sample blocks analyzed in study. Index 

map shows locations of geographic features mentioned in text. 

Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed 

in appendix 2. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/landcover classifications.
20 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Laurentian Plains and 

Hills Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 9.4 

percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States 

ecoregions, change in the Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion 

was moderate (fig. 4): about 3.3 percent of the total land area 

changed only one time, 4.8 percent changed two times, and 

1.3 percent changed three times. Most of the change is cyclic 

in nature, resulting from the harvesting of timber (fig. 5) and 

subsequent forest regrowth. 

Change per time period increased throughout the entire 

study period. Total change increased over the study period 

from 2.2 percent between 1973 and 1980 to 5.8 percent 

between 1992 and 2000 (table 2). When normalized to an 

average annual rate to account for unequal time periods, the 

average annual change increased from 0.3 percent between 

1973 and 1980 to 0.6 percent between 1980 and 1986, peaking 

at 0.9 percent between 1986 and 1992 and then decreasing 

slightly to 0.7 percent between 1992 and 2000 (table 2; fig. 6).

Figure 2. Vista of wetlands in foreground and forested hills in 

distance, in Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion.

Figure 3. Potato field in Aroostook County, Maine.

Forest was the predominant land-cover class, covering 

an estimated 72.2 percent of the ecoregion in 1973 and 

decreasing slightly to 70.1 percent by 2000 (table 3). The 

area covered by water was very stable, remaining at about 

12.0 percent throughout the study period. Agriculture 

decreased very slightly between 1973 and 2000, from 7.8 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 4. Overall spatial change in Laurentian Plains and Hills 

Ecoregion (LPH; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of 

bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, 

two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in 

Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled 

for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each time period. See 

appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

Figure 5. Logs being stacked at edge of forest, in Laurentian 

Plains and Hills Ecoregion.
Chapter 1—Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion 21

to 7.5 percent of the ecoregion. The amount of developed 

land increased slightly, from 1.8 percent of the ecoregion in 

1973 to 2.1 percent in 2000. The estimated percentage of the 

ecoregion covered by mechanically disturbed land increased 

steadily, from 0.9 percent in 1973 to a high of 2.4 percent in 

1992, then decreasing slightly to 2.2 percent in 2000. During 

the study period, mechanically disturbed land cover almost 

always was linked to timber harvesting rather than clearing 

for developed or agriculture.

Net land-cover change in each time period is shown 

in figure 7. Water, wetland, mining, and barren land-cover 

classes changed very little in any particular time period, 

as well as throughout the 27-year study period. Developed 

increased slightly in each time period, and agriculture 

decreased gradually in each time period. The amount of 

forest decreased in each time period except the last, when a 

slight increase occurred. This change in forested land was 

mirrored by the increase in the amount of mechanically 

disturbed land and grassland/shrubland in each time period 

except the last, when a slight decrease also occurred. 

Forest harvesting and regeneration was responsible for 

most of the change in the ecoregion (table 4). The conversion 

of forest to mechanically disturbed, an estimated 3,709 km2

between 1973 and 2000, was the leading change throughout 

the study period. Much of the timber was harvested to 

provide pulpwood for the paper industry (Colgan and others, 

1986; Irland, 2004) (fig. 8). The conversion of mechanically 

disturbed to forest, an estimated 1,811 km2 between 1973 

and 2000, was the second leading change overall, and the 

second leading change in the last two time periods. The 

third leading change overall, as well as the second leading 

change in the first two time periods, was the conversion of 

mechanically disturbed to grassland/shrubland, an estimated 

1,258 km2 between 1973 and 2000. The conversion of 

grassland/shrubland to forest, an estimated 1,015 km2 

between 1973 and 2000, was the fourth leading change over 

the entire study period. A minor change in comparison to the 

other changes was the conversion of an estimated 109 km2 of 

forest to developed between 1973 and 2000. The conversion 

of forest to developed increased in each time period. 

Between 1973 and 2000, the predominately wooded 

landscape of the Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion 

experienced a moderate amount of land-cover change. 

Average annual change increased from the first time period 

through the third time period, and then it decreased slightly. 

Although very little of this change resulted in an increase 

in developed land, about 90 percent of the change can be 

attributed to the cyclic harvesting of woodlands and their 

eventual regrowth.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 6. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Laurentian 

Plains and Hills Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each 

time period.

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 7. Normalized average net change in Laurentian Plains 

and Hills Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. Bars 

above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.
22 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 8. Paper mill along Penobscot River, in Bucksport, Maine.

Table 1. Percentage of Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion 

land cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (90.6 percent), whereas 9.4 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 3.3 0.5 2.8 3.8 0.4 11.0

2 4.8 1.0 3.8 5.8 0.7 14.3

3 1.3 0.5 0.9 1.8 0.3 22.9

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 40.0

Overall 

spatial 

change

9.4 1.6 7.8 11.0 1.1 11.7

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion land cover, computed for 

each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 2.2 0.6 1.6 2.8 0.4 19.0 0.3

1980–1986 3.6 0.9 2.7 4.6 0.6 16.9 0.6

1986–1992 5.3 1.3 4.0 6.6 0.9 16.2 0.9

1992–2000 5.8 1.2 4.6 7.0 0.8 14.1 0.7

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 1,086 305 781 1,391 206 19 155

1980–1986 1,827 458 1,369 2,285 310 17 305

1986–1992 2,664 638 2,026 3,302 431 16 444

1992–2000 2,896 602 2,294 3,498 407 14 362
Chapter 1—Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion 23

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion, calculated five times 

between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed

Mechanically 

disturbed

Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 12.0 7.0 1.8 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 72.2 2.9 0.2 0.1 7.8 2.3 5.0 1.0 0.0 0.0

1980 12.0 7.0 1.8 0.6 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 71.4 2.9 0.8 0.3 7.8 2.3 4.9 1.0 0.0 0.0

1986 12.0 7.0 1.9 0.6 1.9 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 70.5 2.8 0.9 0.3 7.7 2.3 4.9 1.0 0.0 0.0

1992 12.0 7.0 1.9 0.7 2.4 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 69.8 2.7 1.1 0.3 7.6 2.3 4.8 1.0 0.0 0.0

2000 12.0 7.0 2.1 0.7 2.2 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 70.1 2.6 0.9 0.5 7.5 2.3 4.9 1.0 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 1.3 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 –2.1 0.8 0.7 0.5 –0.2 0.1 –0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 5.3 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 5.9 1.4 2.8 0.9 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 6,007 3,499 903 307 440 195 47 26 48 65 36,215 1,470 108 56 3,897 1,167 2,488 524 0 0

1980 6,003 3,499 922 314 525 160 81 50 48 65 35,834 1,479 387 135 3,892 1,166 2,460 509 0 0

1986 6,005 3,500 945 324 938 297 91 55 48 65 35,366 1,426 448 151 3,858 1,144 2,455 507 0 0

1992 6,006 3,500 974 332 1,215 341 122 87 48 65 35,008 1,377 532 152 3,819 1,144 2,430 498 0 0

2000 5,996 3,500 1,034 347 1,083 286 112 69 50 65 35,175 1,298 476 244 3,782 1,134 2,446 503 0 0

Net

change –11 9 131 43 643 353 65 60 2 2 –1,040 398 368 245 –115 70 –42 62 0 0

Gross

change 21 10 131 43 2,637 647 103 102 2 2 2,965 715 1,381 467 255 79 125 98 0 0
24 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin 

of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall 

study period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of 

all changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mechanically disturbed 521 158 107 1.0 47.9

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 276 133 90 0.5 25.4

Mechanically disturbed Forest 160 111 75 0.3 14.8

Wetland Mining 28 40 27 0.1 2.6

Forest Developed 17 9 6 0.0 1.6

Other Other 84 n/a n/a 0.2 7.7

Totals 1,086 2.2 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mechanically disturbed 927 293 198 1.8 50.8

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 278 133 90 0.6 15.2

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 252 117 79 0.5 13.8

Mechanically disturbed Forest 234 94 64 0.5 12.8

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 30 24 16 0.1 1.7

Other Other 106 n/a n/a 0.2 5.8

Totals 1,827 3.6 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 1,202 334 226 2.4 45.1

Mechanically disturbed Forest 557 229 155 1.1 20.9

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 366 146 99 0.7 13.7

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 335 145 98 0.7 12.6

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 56 33 22 0.1 2.1

Other Other 149 n/a n/a 0.3 5.6

Totals 2,664 5.3 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mechanically disturbed 1,059 282 191 2.1 36.6

Mechanically disturbed Forest 861 250 169 1.7 29.7

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 414 143 97 0.8 14.3

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 339 241 163 0.7 11.7

Agriculture Forest 50 33 22 0.1 1.7

Other Other 174 n/a n/a 0.3 6.0

Totals 2,896 5.8 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 3,709 777 526 7.4 43.8

Mechanically disturbed Forest 1,811 497 336 3.6 21.4

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 1,258 490 331 2.5 14.9

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 1,015 318 215 2.0 12.0

Forest Developed 109 38 26 0.2 1.3

Other Other 570 n/a n/a 1.1 6.7

Totals 8,473 16.9 100.0
Chapter 1—Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion 25

References Cited

Colgan, C.S., Irland, L.C., and Benson, J., 1986, The natural 

resource industries of Maine—An assessment and statistical 

portrait: Augusta, Financial Authority of Maine and Maine 

State Planning Office, 135 p.

Irland, L.C., 2004, Maine’s forest industry—From one era to 

another, in Barringer, R.E., ed., Changing Maine, 1960–

2010: Gardiner, Maine, Tilbury House, p. 362–387.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 2

Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion

By Steven Kambly

Ecoregion Description 

The Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion is 

composed of four physically separate areas that cover 

127,107 km2 (49,076 mi2) in Maine, New Hampshire, 

Vermont, New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New 

Jersey, and Pennsylvania (fig. 1). The easternmost 

part of the ecoregion, the largest, is bounded on the 

east-southeast by the Laurentian Plains and Hills, 

Northeastern Coastal Zone, and Northern Piedmont 

Ecoregions, and, on the west-northwest, by the Ridge 

and Valley and the Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson 

Lowlands Ecoregions. Both the next largest and the 

smallest parts of the ecoregion are entirely surrounded 

by the Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands 

Ecoregion; the remaining part of the ecoregion, 

southwest of Albany, New York (fig. 1), is bounded 

by the North Central Appalachians, the Northern 

Appalachian Plateau and Uplands, and the Eastern 

Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregions.

The Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion is, for 

the most part, sparsely populated and characterized by 

nutrient-poor soils covered with northern hardwood 

forests and spruce–fir (Picea spp. and Abries spp., 

70° 68°

76° 74° 72°

48°N

46°

44°

42°

40°

Ridge

and Valley

EGLHL

NP

Northeastern

Coastal Zone

LPH

ACPB

NAPU

NCA NCA

Atlantic Coastal

Pine Barrens

MACP

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Lake

Ontario

CANADA

0 50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block 

(10 x 10 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

CANADA

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

CANADA

Springfield

New York

Hartford

Albany Boston

Montpelier

MAINE

MA

NJ

VT

NH

PA

CT RI

NEW

YORK

WHITE

MTNS

GREEN

MTNS

CATSKILL

MTNS

ADIRONDACK

MTNS

ADIRONDACK

STATE PARK

ADIRONDACK

STATE PARK

Figure 1. Map of Northeastern Highlands 

Ecoregion and surrounding ecoregions, 

showing land-use/land-cover classes from 

1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann 

and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/

land-cover classes shown in explanation 

may be depicted on map; note also that, for 

this “Status and Trends of Land Change” 

study, transitional land-cover class was 

subdivided into mechanically disturbed and 

nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares 

indicate locations of 10 x 10 km sample 

blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows 

locations of geographic features mentioned in 

text. Abbreviations for Eastern United States 

ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. See 

appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/landcover classifications.
28 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

respectively) forests (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

2013). Landforms in the ecoregion vary from mountains in 

the southwestern and central parts to open high hills in the 

northeastern part. Many mountain ranges—including the 

White Mountains in New Hampshire, the Green Mountains in 

Vermont, and the Catskill and Adirondack Mountains in New 

York—lie within the ecoregion. The ecoregion also shows many 

remnants of glaciation, including rocky soils, glacial lakes, 

and wetlands (fig. 2). Annual average rainfall ranges from 940 

to 1,397 mm (37–55 in.), with significantly higher amounts in 

mountainous areas. Average daily temperatures range from less 

than –7°C in January to between 16° and 21°C in July. 

Although the ecoregion was heavily forested at the 

beginning of European settlement, much of it was cleared for 

farmland in the 19th century. Farmland abandonment, beginning 

in the mid-1800s and continuing through the 20th century, has 

led to a natural regrowth of forest. Forest harvesting for wood 

products has been an ongoing activity since the early 1800s, 

and clearcutting of forests still is evident in western Maine, 

where timber companies control large tracts of land. Paper and 

pulp processing is the leading manufacturing activity in Maine. 

Further south, in New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, 

tourism and small-scale farming are more prevalent. 

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Northeastern Highlands 

Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 8.9 

percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States 

ecoregions, change in the Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion 

was moderate (fig. 3): about 3.0 percent changed only one 

time, whereas 3.0 percent and 2.9 percent changed two and 

three times, respectively. About one-tenth of one percent of 

the ecoregion’s area changed four times (table 1). Total change 

Figure 2. Wetlands area in Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion, 

many of which are result of glaciation.

per time period increased from 2.2 percent between 1973 and 

1980 to 6.2 percent between 1992 and 2000 (table 2). When 

normalized to an average annual rate to account for uneven 

time periods, land-cover change increased steadily (from 0.3 

to 0.9 percent) in the first three time periods (1973–1980, 

1980–1986, 1986–1992) and then slowed to 0.8 percent during 

the last time period (1992–2000) (fig. 4). 

Forest harvesting and regrowth was the dominant 

pattern of change observed (fig. 5). Both selective cutting and 

clearcutting of forested land created mechanically disturbed 

land, which, in turn, became grassland/shrubland. Eventually, 

grassland/shrubland areas tended to revert to forest. This 

cycle of change involving mechanically disturbed land and 

grassland/shrubland occurred over an increasing area in the 

first three time periods (1973–1980, 1980–1986, 1986–1992) 

but then decreased in area in the last time period (1992–2000).

Primarily as a result of clearcutting and some selective 

harvesting, forest decreased during the 27-year study period 

by an estimated 3.9 percent of the ecoregion, or about 4,904 

km2 (table 3). However, forest remained the dominant 

land-cover class, occupying an estimated 81.4 percent of 

the ecoregion in 2000. As the amount of tree harvesting 

increased, the percentage of mechanically disturbed land also 

increased, from 0.6 percent of the ecoregion in 1973 to 2.1 

percent in 2000 (table 3). The estimated amount of grassland/

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 3. Overall spatial change in Northeastern Highlands 

Ecoregion (NEH; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of 

bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, 

two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial change 

in Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled 

for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each time period. See 

appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations. 
Chapter 2—Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion 29

shrubland increased in the first three time periods (1973–1980, 

1980–1986, 1986–1992), from 0.2 to 2.2 percent, and then it 

decreased slightly to 2.1 percent in the last time period (1992–

2000). Developed land increased from 1.8 to 2.3 percent 

during the study period (1973–2000), whereas agricultural 

land remained unchanged during the same period (about 

3.3 percent). Forest, mechanically disturbed, and grassland/

shrubland were, by far, the most actively changing land-cover 

classes, accounting for most of the net change in the ecoregion 

during the study period (table 4; fig. 6). 

In terms of individual conversions, forest to mechanically 

disturbed was the most common conversion overall in all four 

time periods (table 4). An estimated 9,322 km2 converted 

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 4. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for 

Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion are represented by red bars in 

each time period.

Figure 5. Logging road out of clearcut area in Maine, in 

Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion. Most land-cover change in 

ecoregion is due to extensive clearcutting.

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 6. Normalized average net change in Northeastern 

Highlands Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.

Figure 7. Road into Adirondack State Park, New York, which 

is example of reserved lands where restrictions are placed on 

timber harvesting and development.
30 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

from forest to mechanically disturbed between 1973 and 2000. 

The second most common conversion both overall and in the 

first three time periods was from mechanically disturbed to 

grassland/shrubland, with 6,983 km2 converted. Grassland/

shrubland to forest was the third most common conversion: 

about 4,641 km2 of grassland/shrubland converted to forest 

during the study period. 

Although 150 years of farmland abandonment has led to 

regrowth of forests in the Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion, 

forest harvesting clearly was the dominant type of land-cover 

change during the 27-year study period. The success of the 

forest-products industry was affected by regional, national, 

and global market conditions, in addition to the modernization 

of production processes, the support from State and Federal 

programs, and the overall health and quality of forested 

land (Colgan and others, 1986; Irland, 1999). In State- and 

Federally owned reserved lands, forestry practices are 

restricted or disallowed altogether, and this may have played a 

role in limiting forest harvesting (fig. 7). In general, farming, 

which was scattered and on a small scale, did not change 

significantly in the ecoregion during the study period (fig.8). 

The slight increase in developed land, in the form of new 

residential communities and tourist resorts, primarily resulted 

in the conversion of forest to developed. 

Figure 8. Farm in Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion. Although 

many farms in ecoregion are prosperous, amount of land in 

agriculture remained relatively stable during study period 

(1973–2000).
Chapter 2—Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion 31

Table 1. Percentage of Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion land 

cover that changed at least one time during study period (1973 to 

2000) and associated statistical error. 

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (91.1 percent), whereas 8.9 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 3.0 0.9 2.1 3.9 0.6 20.6

2 3.0 1.3 1.7 4.3 0.9 29.8

3 2.9 1.4 1.5 4.3 1.0 33.8

4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 58.9

Overall 

spatial 

change

8.9 3.3 5.6 12.2 2.2 24.8

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion land cover, 

computed for each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error 

at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period

Total 

change

(% of 

ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper 

bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average 

rate

(% per 

year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 2.2 1.3 1.0 3.5 0.9 38.5 0.3

1980–1986 3.9 1.7 2.2 5.7 1.2 29.9 0.7

1986–1992 5.5 2.1 3.4 7.7 1.5 26.5 0.9

1992–2000 6.2 2.4 3.8 8.7 1.6 26.4 0.8

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 2,855 1,617 1,239 4,472 1,098 38 408

1980–1986 5,010 2,208 2,803 7,218 1,500 30 835

1986–1992 7,006 2,733 4,273 9,738 1,856 26 1,168

1992–2000 7,921 3,076 4,845 10,998 2,090 26 990
32 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion, calculated five times 

between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically 

disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 5.1 1.9 1.8 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 85.2 2.5 0.2 0.2 3.3 1.4 3.6 0.7 0.0 0.0

1980 5.1 1.9 1.9 0.8 1.4 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 83.9 2.6 0.7 0.4 3.3 1.3 3.6 0.7 0.0 0.0

1986 5.1 1.9 2.0 0.9 2.0 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 82.3 2.8 1.6 1.1 3.3 1.3 3.6 0.7 0.0 0.0

1992 5.1 1.9 2.1 0.9 2.0 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 81.6 2.8 2.2 1.2 3.3 1.3 3.6 0.7 0.0 0.0

2000 5.1 1.9 2.3 1.1 2.1 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 81.4 2.7 2.1 1.1 3.3 1.3 3.6 0.7 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.3 1.5 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 –3.9 1.5 1.9 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.3 6.7 2.7 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.4 2.7 5.3 2.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 6,479 2,436 2,317 1,006 773 485 66 24 142 98 108,323 3,187 243 202 4,210 1,750 4,554 945 0 0

1980 6,482 2,434 2,419 1,074 1,716 1,148 77 27 142 98 106,701 3,304 852 516 4,165 1,715 4,553 946 0 0

1986 6,496 2,442 2,499 1,126 2,532 1,211 85 30 142 98 104,562 3,597 2,090 1,401 4,165 1,702 4,535 937 0 0

1992 6,498 2,444 2,674 1,174 2,553 1,264 104 42 142 98 103,670 3,535 2,768 1,477 4,157 1,707 4,541 938 0 0

2000 6,491 2,441 2,950 1,380 2,622 1,205 122 61 142 98 103,419 3,475 2,688 1,389 4,160 1,706 4,514 931 0 0

Net

change 12 25 632 417 1,849 882 56 49 0 0 –4,904 1,903 2,445 1,292 –51 235 –40 36 0 0

Gross

change 60 37 633 417 8,487 3,381 67 49 0 0 9,389 3,423 6,683 3,081 394 250 74 53 0 0
Chapter 2—Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion 33

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin of 

error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study 

period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent 

of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mechanically disturbed 1,715 1,148 780 1.3 60.1

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 724 488 331 0.6 25.3

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 127 133 90 0.1 4.4

Forest Developed 85 53 36 0.1 3.0

Agriculture Forest 80 107 73 0.1 2.8

Other Other 125 n/a n/a 0.1 4.4

Totals 2,855 2.2 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,519 1,211 823 2.0 50.3

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 1,684 1,149 781 1.3 33.6

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 481 298 202 0.4 9.6

Forest Agriculture 81 65 44 0.1 1.6

Forest Developed 67 52 35 0.1 1.3

Other Other 179 n/a n/a 0.1 3.6

Totals 5,010 3.9 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,517 1,264 859 2.0 35.9

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 2,266 1,226 833 1.8 32.3

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 1,619 1,011 687 1.3 23.1

Mechanically disturbed Forest 244 146 99 0.2 3.5

Forest Developed 161 116 79 0.1 2.3

Other Other 199 n/a n/a 0.2 2.8

Totals 7,006 5.5 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,571 1,205 819 2.0 32.5

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 2,413 1,265 859 1.9 30.5

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 2,309 1,278 868 1.8 29.1

Forest Developed 194 140 95 0.2 2.4

Mechanically disturbed Forest 160 112 76 0.1 2.0

Other Other 274 n/a n/a 0.2 3.5

Totals 7,921 6.2 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 9,322 3,787 2,572 7.3 40.9

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 6,983 3,262 2,216 5.5 30.6

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 4,641 2,384 1,619 3.7 20.4

Forest Developed 506 293 199 0.4 2.2

Mechanically disturbed Forest 454 250 170 0.4 2.0

Other Other 887 n/a n/a 0.7 3.9

Totals 22,793 17.9 100.0
34 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

References Cited

Colgan, C.S., Irland, L.C., and Benson, J., 1986, The natural 

resource industries of Maine—An assessment and statistical 

portrait: Augusta, Financial Authority of Maine and Maine 

State Planning Office, 135 p.

Irland, L.C., 1999, The Northeast’s changing forest: 

Petersham, Mass., Harvard Forest [distributed by Harvard 

University Press], 427 p.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2013, Primary 

distinguishing characteristics of Level III Ecoregions of the 

continental United States: U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects 

Research Laboratory, available at ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/

ecoregions/us/Eco_Level_III_descriptions.doc.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 3

Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion

By Janis L. Taylor

Ecoregion Description

The Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands 

Ecoregion, a glaciated region of irregular plains bordered 

by hills and lakes, is located mostly in New York, but it 

also extends eastward into western Vermont, including 

Lake Champlain; in addition, a long, thin finger extends 

southwestward along Lake Erie into Pennsylvania and Ohio 

(fig. 1). The ecoregion, which covers about 60,591 km2 (23,394 

mi2), primarily is a mix of forested land, agricultural land, and 

developed land. Water bodies and rivers are a dominant feature 

of this forested ecoregion (fig. 2): Lake Champlain makes up 

much of the far-eastern part of the ecoregion, and Lake Erie and 

Lake Ontario (along with Canada) form the northern boundary 

74°

82° 80° 78° 76°

80° 78°

46°

44°

42°

40°

Ridge and Valley

Erie

Drift Plains

WAP

Northeastern

Highlands

NEH

NEH

NEH

NP

ACPB

North Central

Appalachians

NCA

NAPU

MACP

NECZ

ACPB

CA

ECBP

SMNIDP

HELP

 LAKE

ERIE 

LAKE

HURON

CANADA

LAKE ONTARIO

PA

NY

OH

VT

NJ

Eastern Great Lakes

and Hudson Lowlands

Ecoregion

0 50 100 150 MILES

Land-use/land-cover class 0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

Water

Developed

Transitional

EXPLANATION

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Ice/Snow

CANADA

P E N N S Y LVA N I A

NEW YORK VT

MA

CT

NJ

OHIO

CANADA

LIVINGSTON

COUNTY

New York State

Canal System

Black River

Mohawk River

LAKE

HURON

LAKE ONTARIO

LAKE ERIE

Hudson River

Lake

Champlain

Niagra River

Conesus Lake Finger Lakes Otisco Lake

Saint Lawrence River Cleveland

Erie

Rochester

Auburn

Syracuse

Buffalo

Utica

Burlington

Albany

Cambridge

Figure 1. Map of Eastern Great 

Lakes and Hudson Lowlands 

Ecoregion and surrounding 

ecoregions, showing land-use/

land-cover classes from 1992 

National Land Cover Dataset 

(Vogelmann and others, 2001); note 

that not all land-use/land-cover 

classes shown in explanation 

may be depicted on map; note 

also that, for this “Status and 

Trends of Land Change” study, 

transitional land-cover class was 

subdivided into mechanically 

disturbed and nonmechanically 

disturbed classes. Squares 

indicate locations of 10 x 10 km 

sample blocks analyzed in study. 

Index map shows locations of 

geographic features mentioned 

in text. Abbreviations for Eastern 

United States ecoregions are 

listed in appendix 2. Also shown 

are parts of four Midwest–South 

Central United States ecoregions: 

Erie Drift Plains, Eastern Corn 

Belt Plains (ECBP), Huron/Erie 

Lake Plains (HELP), and Southern 

Michigan/Northern Indiana Drift 

Plains (SMNIDP). See appendix 

3 for definitions of land-use/landcover classifications.
36 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

of the ecoregion. The ecoregion is surrounded by, clockwise 

from east-northeast to west-southwest, the Northeastern 

Highlands, Ridge and Valley, North Central Appalachians, 

Northeastern Highlands (again), Northern Appalachian 

Plateau and Uplands, Erie Drift Plains, Eastern Corn Belt 

Plains, and Huron/Erie Lake Plains Ecoregions; in addition, 

it completely surrounds two outliers of the Northeastern 

Highlands Ecoregion (fig. 1). The Eastern Great Lakes and 

Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion has less surface irregularity, more 

agricultural activity, and higher population density than the 

adjacent Northeastern Highlands and Northern Appalachian 

Plateau and Uplands Ecoregions (Wiken and others, 2011).

The Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion 

has a severe continental climate that has warm summers, 

during which temperatures range from 16° to 19°C, and cold, 

snowy winters, during which temperatures range from −7° to 

−2°C. Yearly precipitation in the ecoregion ranges from 720 

mm (28 in.) to more than 1,200 mm (47 in.). The spodosol soils 

of the river valleys in the ecoregion, which have developed on 

glacial deposits, are heavier and of better quality than soils in 

the higher elevations of adjacent ecoregions, and they provide 

a strong foundation for agriculture. Major crops grown in the 

ecoregion include apples, grapes, tart cherries, pears, plums, 

corn, hay, wheat, oats, barley, soybeans, cabbage, and potatoes 

(fig. 3). Vineyards and wineries thrive along the shores of Lake 

Erie and in the Finger Lakes region because these areas have 

a longer growing season, more winter cloudiness, and greater 

snowfall amounts than the rest of the ecoregion. 

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land that 

changed at least one time) in the Eastern Great Lakes and 

Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is 

estimated at 5.6 percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern 

United States ecoregions, change in the Eastern Great Lakes 

and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion was fairly low (fig. 4): about 

4.8 percent changed one time, and 0.7 percent changed two 

times (table 1). Total change in each of the four time periods 

was very similar, ranging from 1.3 to 2.1 percent (table 2). 

Figure 2. Homes and farm fields on hills surrounding Otisco 

Lake, east of Auburn, New York.

Figure 3. Corn field surrounded by forest, near Cambridge, New 

York.

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 4. Overall spatial change in Eastern Great Lakes and 

Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion (EGLHL; darker bars) compared with 

that of all 20 Eastern United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each 

horizontal set of bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed 

during one, two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial 

change in Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion (four 

time periods) labeled for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by 

each time period. See appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.
Chapter 3—Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion 37

When normalized to an average annual rate to account for 

unequal time periods, the rates ranged from a low of 0.2 

percent per year in the first two time periods (1973–1980, 

1980–1986) to a high of 0.4 percent per year in the third time 

period (1986–1992) (table 2; fig. 5). 

The amount of area occupied by each land-cover class 

mapped in each of the five study dates is shown in table 3. 

Forest, agriculture, and developed were the predominant landcover classes, accounting for 88.1 percent of the ecoregion in 

2000 (table 3). During the study period, the amount of forested 

land decreased by 0.5 percent, from 39.4 percent of the 

ecoregion in 1973 to 38.9 percent in 2000. Agricultural land 

decreased by 2.1 percent, from 39.7 percent of the ecoregion 

in 1973 to 37.6 percent in 2000. Developed land changed the 

most, increasing 2.4 percent, from 9.2 percent of the ecoregion 

in 1973 to 11.6 percent in 2000. 

The conversion of forest to developed was the most 

common conversion overall during the study period (table 

4). The second most common conversion overall was from 

agriculture to developed. Developed land increased in each 

of the four time periods (fig. 6): in the first two time periods 

(1973–1980, 1980–1986), most new developed land was 

converted from forested land; in the last two time periods 

(1986–1992, 1992–2000), most came from agricultural land 

(table 4). The third most common conversion overall was from 

agriculture to grassland/shrubland. The largest conversion of 

this type occurred between 1986 and 1992, when 243 km2 of 

agricultural land was converted to grassland/shrubland (table 

4). This type of conversion either was driven by agricultural 

abandonment or was an intermediate step in the conversion to 

developed land. Finally, the fourth most common conversion 

overall was from grassland/shrubland to forest. 

The unidirectional land-cover change from agriculture 

or forest to developed (fig. 7) was driven by an increase 

in population in and around several large urban centers 

in the ecoregion, including Albany, Buffalo, Rochester, 

Syracuse, and Utica, New York; Burlington, Vermont; Erie, 

Pennsylvania; and Cleveland, Ohio. In addition, tourism and 

exurban development have increased along rivers and lakes. 

Populated areas across this ecoregion have long been tied to 

waterways, which are important traffic arteries that provide 

easy passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great 

Lakes. For example, the New York State Canal System, which 

replaced the Erie Canal in the early 1900s, links together 

many lakes and rivers in the ecoregion. In addition to being 

transportation routes, the Hudson River, Saint Lawrence River, 

Mohawk River, Black River, and Niagara River also are scenic 

and tourist attractions, as well as sources of hydroelectric 

power. Despite population increases, the Finger Lakes region 

in upstate New York, as well as the Lake Champlain Basin 

in northeastern New York and northwestern Vermont, remain 

important agricultural areas (fig. 8). 

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 5. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Eastern 

Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion are represented by 

red bars in each time period.

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 6. Normalized average net change in Eastern Great Lakes 

and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion by time period for each landcover class. Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars 

below zero represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes 

shown in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 

for definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.
38 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 7. New subdivision southeast of Buffalo, New York. Figure 8. Dairy farm near Conesus Lake, in Livingston County, 

New York.

Table 1. Percentage of Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson 

Lowlands Ecoregion land cover that changed at least one time 

during study period (1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (94.4 percent), whereas 5.6 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 4.8 1.2 3.6 6.1 0.8 17.2

2 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.9 0.1 17.0

3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 32.8

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 71.6

Overall 

spatial 

change

5.6 1.3 4.3 6.9 0.9 15.4
Chapter 3—Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion 39

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion land cover,

computed for each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent 

confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each time period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 1.3 0.3 1.0 1.6 0.2 16.8 0.2

1980–1986 1.3 0.4 1.0 1.7 0.2 18.1 0.2

1986–1992 2.1 0.6 1.5 2.7 0.4 20.1 0.4

1992–2000 1.7 0.4 1.2 2.1 0.3 17.9 0.2

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 778 193 585 971 130 17 111

1980–1986 805 215 590 1,021 146 18 134

1986–1992 1,283 381 902 1,665 258 20 214

1992–2000 1,008 267 741 1,276 181 18 126

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion, 

calculated five times between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically 

disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 6.8 4.3 9.2 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 39.4 4.6 0.5 0.3 39.7 5.0 3.9 1.1 0.0 0.0

1980 6.9 4.3 9.6 3.1 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 39.2 4.6 0.5 0.2 39.5 5.0 3.9 1.1 0.0 0.0

1986 6.9 4.3 10.0 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 38.9 4.6 0.6 0.2 39.2 5.0 3.9 1.1 0.0 0.0

1992 6.9 4.3 10.9 3.4 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 38.9 4.6 0.7 0.3 38.3 5.0 3.9 1.1 0.0 0.0

2000 7.0 4.3 11.6 3.7 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 38.9 4.7 0.7 0.3 37.6 5.0 3.8 1.1 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.1 0.1 2.4 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 –0.5 0.9 0.2 0.3 –2.1 0.6 –0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.1 0.1 2.4 1.0 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 2.4 0.7 0.9 0.3 2.7 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 4,147 2,624 5,560 1,817 15 13 233 124 1 1 23,863 2,792 310 161 24,080 3,059 2,382 666 0 0

1980 4,155 2,624 5,810 1,872 35 30 246 129 1 1 23,739 2,793 299 137 23,932 3,048 2,375 664 0 0

1986 4,180 2,622 6,078 1,910 28 19 254 130 1 1 23,579 2,808 334 121 23,779 3,057 2,359 658 0 0

1992 4,204 2,621 6,578 2,042 35 26 259 130 1 1 23,561 2,807 421 158 23,192 3,056 2,340 654 0 0

2000 4,214 2,621 7,015 2,213 37 18 272 130 1 1 23,545 2,845 404 172 22,778 3,058 2,325 653 0 0

Net

change 67 31 1,455 596 22 14 39 32 0 0 –318 575 94 161 –1,302 340 –57 38 0 0

Gross

change 81 45 1,455 596 158 72 102 39 0 0 1,443 450 521 179 1,627 330 75 49 0 0
40 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion, showing amount of area 

changed (and margin of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and 

also during overall study period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” class are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Agriculture Forest 180 90 61 0.3 23.1

Forest Agriculture 174 66 45 0.3 22.4

Forest Developed 160 108 73 0.3 20.6

Agriculture Developed 77 47 32 0.1 9.8

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 57 33 23 0.1 7.4

Other Other 130 n/a n/a 0.2 16.7

Totals 778 1.3 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Developed 168 135 92 0.3 20.9

Forest Agriculture 147 66 45 0.2 18.2

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 122 58 39 0.2 15.2

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 89 68 46 0.1 11.1

Agriculture Forest 85 48 32 0.1 10.6

Other Other 194 n/a n/a 0.3 24.1

Totals 805 1.3 100.0

1986–1992 Agriculture Developed 304 120 81 0.5 23.7

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 243 99 67 0.4 18.9

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 180 80 54 0.3 14.0

Forest Developed 172 90 61 0.3 13.4

Agriculture Forest 124 56 38 0.2 9.6

Other Other 260 n/a n/a 0.4 20.3

Totals 1,283 2.1 100.0

1992–2000 Agriculture Developed 213 87 59 0.4 21.1

Forest Developed 185 130 88 0.3 18.3

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 164 58 39 0.3 16.3

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 149 75 50 0.2 14.7

Agriculture Forest 76 40 27 0.1 7.6

Other Other 221 n/a n/a 0.4 21.9

Totals 1,008 1.7 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Developed 685 391 265 1.1 17.7

Agriculture Developed 664 225 152 1.1 17.1

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 554 184 125 0.9 14.3

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 491 190 128 0.8 12.7

Forest Agriculture 478 176 119 0.8 12.3

Other Other 1,004 n/a n/a 1.7 25.9

Totals 3,875 6.4 100.0
Chapter 3—Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion 41

References Cited

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.

Mid-Atlantic Coast Ecoregions

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 4

Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion 

By Roger F. Auch

Ecoregion Description 

The Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion is a 

northeast-to-southwest-trending ecoregion that covers 

about 37,158 km2 (14,347 mi2) in eight states (Maine, 

New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 

Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey) (fig. 1). The 

ecoregion is bounded on the far northeast by the Laurentian 

Plains and Hills Ecoregion; on the north-northwest, by the 

Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion; on the far southwest, 

by the Northern Piedmont Ecoregion; and on the south 

and east, by two parts of the Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens 

Ecoregion, as well as by the Atlantic Ocean.

The Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion’s glaciated 

past is the reason for its irregular topographic relief, which 

is more irregular than the neighboring Atlantic Coastal Pine 

Barrens Ecoregion to the south and east but not as hilly 

and mountainous as the Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion 

to the north-northwest. The soils in the Northeastern 

Coastal Zone Ecoregion tend to be rocky and poor in 

nutrients (Wiken and others, 2011). Natural vegetation 

is dominated by hardwood and mixed forests, but it also 

includes more limited coastal and inland wetlands. The 

Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion has cold winters and 

warm summers, with 1,000 to 1,500 mm (40–60 in.) of 

precipitation occurring in an average year.

Together, forested land and developed land accounted 

for more than 70 percent of the ecoregion during the 

27-year study period (table 1; figs. 2A,B). Large areas 

of developed land are found in the northern part of the 

Northeastern

Highlands

NEH

LPH

ACPB

EGLHL

NEH

RV

ACPB

NP

71°

44°

43°

42°

41°

70°

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

0 50 100 150 MILES

0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

74° 73° 72°

44°

VERMONT

NEW

HAMPSHIRE

NEW YORK

ME

MA

CT

NJ

RI

Portland

New Haven

New York

Hartford

Providence

Boston

Nashua

Manchester

Lowell

Portsmouth

Long Island Sound

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

River

Connecticut

Hudson River

Worchester

Cape

Cod

Southbridge

Springfield

Bridgeport

Long Island

Stamford

Figure 1. Map of Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion and 

surrounding ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover classes 

from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann and others, 

2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown in 

explanation may be depicted on map; note also that, for this 

“Status and Trends of Land Change” study, transitional landcover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed and 

nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate locations 

of 10 x 10 km sample blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows 

locations of geographic features mentioned in text. Abbreviations 

for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. See 

appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
46 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

New York metropolitan area, as well as eastward along Long 

Island Sound to New Haven, Connecticut, northward to 

Hartford, Connecticut, and then along the Connecticut River 

to Springfield, Massachusetts (fig.1) (Vogelmann and others, 

2001). Other areas of developed land in the ecoregion include 

metropolitan Providence, Rhode Island, which lies in a ring 

encircling the upper reaches of Narragansett Bay, and also the 

radial lines of urbanization that extend from greater Boston, 

Massachusetts, west to Worchester, Massachusetts, northwest 

to Nashua, New Hampshire, and south-southeast toward Cape 

Cod, Massachusetts. Portland, Maine, forms the last urban node 

in the extreme northeastern part of the ecoregion. According 

to aggregated county-level data, the ecoregion’s population 

increased by more than 1 million people between 1970 and 

2000, reaching 15,269,068 by 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 

1970–2000 [various years]). Water, wetland, and agriculture are 

the other common land-cover classes in the ecoregion, but they 

are smaller and less concentrated than the forest and developed 

land-cover classes (table 1; figs. 3A,B). The only notable 

concentration of agricultural land is found in the Connecticut 

River valley, north of Hartford, Connecticut.

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land 

area that changed at least one time) in the Northeastern 

Coastal Zone Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated 

at  5.7 percent (table 2). Compared to other Eastern United 

States ecoregions, change in the Northeastern Coastal Zone 

Ecoregion was moderately low (fig. 4). The estimated amount 

of change in the first two time periods (1973–1980, 1980–

1986) was considerably lower than that of the last two time 

periods (1986–1992, 1992–2000) (table 3). When normalized 

to an annual rate to account for unequal time periods, landcover change was highest between 1986 and 1992, at 0.3 

percent (table 3; fig. 5). The variability in land-cover change 

across the ecoregion was low and relatively steady during the 

study period, as indicated by the low margin of error in the 

statistical estimates, which range from about 0.2 to about 0.4 

percent at an 85-percent confidence level (table 3). 

A

B

Figure 2. Forest and developed land in Northeastern Coastal 

Zone Ecoregion. A, Forest along old stone fence in eastern 

Connecticut. B, Typical scene in ecoregion of older housing with 

forest beyond, on outskirts of Southbridge, Massachusetts.

A

B

Figure 3. Water and agricultural land in Northeastern Coastal 

Zone Ecoregion. A, Marina on Long Island Sound, near Stamford, 

Connecticut. B, Farmhouse and fields, in southeastern New 

Hampshire.
 Chapter 4—Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion 47

The dominant land-cover classes, forest and developed, 

experienced the most net change during the study period 

(table 1; fig. 6). Developed land increased by an estimated 

4.0 percent (1,502 km2) to about 27.2 percent of the 

ecoregion, one of the highest percentages of developed land 

of any Eastern United States ecoregion. Much of the new 

development came from forest land, which decreased by about 

3.7 percent (1,361 km2) during the study period (table 1; 

fig.7). Agricultural land decreased by about 0.8 percent, and, 

although this may appear to be a small amount of farmland 

loss, it represents a loss of about 10.1 percent of the estimated 

agricultural land present in the ecoregion in 1973 (fig. 8). 

Other, more minor land-cover changes include slight decreases 

in wetland and slight increases in mechanically disturbed 

and mining (fig. 9). Increase in developed was the primary 

reason for these changes, as wetlands and forested lands were 

developed and demand for construction aggregates increased 

mining operations.

The ecoregion gained an estimated 1,502 km2 of 

developed land between 1973 and 2000. Most (about 87 

percent) of the net decrease in forest, agriculture, and wetland 

land-cover classes was due to losses to developed land (table 

1; fig. 10). An additional 115 km2 of forests were converted 

to mining land uses between 1973 and 2000, mostly for 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 4. Overall spatial change in Northeastern Coastal Zone 

Ecoregion (NECZ; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 

Eastern United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal 

set of bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during 

one, two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial 

change in Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion (four time 

periods) labeled for clarity. See table 3 for years covered by each 

time period. See appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 5. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for 

Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion are represented by red bars 

in each time period.

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 6. Normalized average net change in Northeastern 

Coastal Zone Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.
48 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 7. Home site being cleared from forest, in rural 

southeastern New Hampshire. 

Figure 8. New housing subdivision built on former farmland, 

about 16 km northeast of Hartford, Connecticut.

Figure 9. Aggregate mining operation, in south-central 

Massachusetts. 

construction aggregates to help maintain or increase the builtland infrastructure, although this change did not rank in the top 

five conversions for every time period (table 4). Conversions 

from forest to mining are not always a permanent loss because 

some of these areas revert back to grassland/shrubland or even 

forest once mining operations cease. The changes from forest 

to mechanically disturbed mapped in the Northeastern Coastal 

Zone Ecoregion primarily were driven by the clearing of land 

for new development, although, in a few locations, some forest 

harvesting for wood products occurred. 

Other changes in the ecoregion include conversion of 

grassland/shrubland to forest in the middle two time periods 

(1980–1986, 1986–1992), which may have been related to 

vegetation succession either on abandoned farmland or on land 

that had been logged in the past (fig. 11). Minor changes from 

forest to agriculture and agriculture to forest also occurred, 

but they were among the top five changes during only two of 

the four time periods (1973–1980, 1986–1992) (table 4). In 

both cases, the conversion was from forest to agriculture, as 

conversions from agriculture to forest did not place among the 

top five changes during any time period (table 4).

The main story of land-cover change in the Northeastern 

Coastal Zone Ecoregion during the 27-year study period 

was increased urbanization, primarily through unidirectional 

conversion to developed land uses. The amount of change was 

relatively low, but it was steady across time. Most of this new 

developed land came from forested land and, to a lesser extent, 

from farmland.

1,123 km2

79 km2 19 km2

280 km2

Forest

Agriculture

Wetland

Other

EXPLANATION

Source Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 10. Net areal losses, in square kilometers, of forest, 

agriculture, wetland, and other land-cover classes to developed 

land cover in Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion during study 

period (1973–2000).
 Chapter 4—Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion 49

Figure 11. Old farm field undergoing succession to grassland/

shrubland, about 16 km west of Portland, Maine. Left undisturbed, 

this field eventually will revert to forest.

Table 1. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion, calculated five times 

between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically 

disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 10.6 4.8 23.2 5.6 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.2 50.6 5.6 0.3 0.1 8.2 1.5 6.5 1.3 0.0 0.0

1980 10.7 4.7 23.9 5.6 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.2 49.8 5.5 0.4 0.1 8.0 1.5 6.4 1.3 0.0 0.0

1986 10.7 4.7 24.5 5.5 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.2 49.2 5.4 0.4 0.1 7.9 1.5 6.4 1.3 0.0 0.0

1992 10.7 4.7 25.9 5.5 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.2 48.2 5.3 0.4 0.1 7.5 1.5 6.4 1.3 0.0 0.0

2000 10.7 4.7 27.2 5.4 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.2 0.2 46.9 5.2 0.4 0.1 7.3 1.4 6.4 1.3 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.8 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 –3.7 0.6 0.1 0.1 –0.8 0.3 –0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.1 0.0 4.0 0.8 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 3.7 0.6 0.4 0.1 1.0 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 3,956 1,765 8,607 2,078 27 10 147 38 88 64 18,791 2,068 107 55 3,037 572 2,399 472 0 0

1980 3,961 1,765 8,893 2,064 49 16 172 46 87 63 18,492 2,039 135 55 2,981 561 2,388 473 0 0

1986 3,960 1,764 9,106 2,052 41 15 183 47 90 66 18,299 2,014 154 55 2,940 558 2,386 472 0 0

1992 3,962 1,764 9,622 2,040 55 18 197 47 89 66 17,902 1,987 149 51 2,802 542 2,380 472 6 9

2000 3,962 1,764 10,108 2,025 104 30 205 53 87 63 17,430 1,948 159 53 2,731 527 2,372 469 0 0

Net

change 6 7 1,502 282 77 28 58 34 –1 1 –1,361 234 52 32 –307 129 –27 12 0 0

Gross

change 21 10 1,502 282 183 41 109 30 6 8 1,369 234 149 37 383 117 37 14 0 0
50 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 2. Percentage of Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion 

land cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (94.3 percent), whereas 5.7 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 5.1 0.8 4.2 5.9 0.6 11.2

2 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.1 18.7

3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 27.5

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 74.4

Overall 

spatial 

change

5.7 0.9 4.8 6.6 0.6 11.0

Table 3. Raw estimates of change in Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion land cover, 

computed for each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 

85-percent confidence level

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period] 

Period

Total change

(% of

ecoregion)

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average 

rate

(% per 

year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 1.3 0.3 0.9 1.6 0.2 16.9 0.2

1980–1986 1.1 0.2 0.9 1.3 0.1 12.6 0.2

1986–1992 2.1 0.4 1.7 2.4 0.2 11.8 0.3

1992–2000 2.0 0.4 1.6 2.4 0.3 13.0 0.2

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 470 118 353 588 79 16.9 67

1980–1986 405 76 329 481 51 12.6 67

1986–1992 774 135 639 909 91 11.8 129

1992–2000 743 143 600 886 97 13.0 93
 Chapter 4—Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion 51

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion, showing amount of area 

changed (and margin of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time 

periods and also during overall study period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: 

n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

(km2)

Margin 

of error

(+/− 

km2)

Standard 

error

(km2)

Percent 

of

ecoregion

Percent 

of all 

changes

1973–1980 Forest Developed 223 73 50 0.6 47.5

Agriculture Developed 52 22 15 0.1 11.0

Forest Mechanically disturbed 40 14 10 0.1 8.5

Forest Mining 31 15 10 0.1 6.7

Forest Agriculture 26 13 9 0.1 5.6

Other Other 98 n/a n/a 0.3 20.8

Totals 470 1.3 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Developed 162 44 30 0.4 40.1

Agriculture Developed 38 19 13 0.1 9.4

Forest Mechanically disturbed 36 15 10 0.1 8.9

Forest Mining 23 12 8 0.1 5.7

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 22 8 6 0.1 5.5

Other Other 123 n/a n/a 0.3 30.5

Totals 405 1.1 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Developed 368 85 58 1.0 47.5

Agriculture Developed 119 36 24 0.3 15.4

Forest Mechanically disturbed 45 17 12 0.1 5.8

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 38 15 10 0.1 4.9

Forest Agriculture 31 18 12 0.1 4.0

Other Other 173 n/a n/a 0.5 22.3

Totals 774 2.1 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Developed 369 83 56 1.0 49.7

Forest Mechanically disturbed 95 29 20 0.3 12.7

Agriculture Developed 71 29 20 0.2 9.6

Forest Mining 32 12 8 0.1 4.3

Mechanically disturbed Developed 22 8 6 0.1 2.9

Other Other 154 n/a n/a 0.4 20.8

Totals 743 2.0 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Developed 1,123 227 153 3.0 47.0

Agriculture Developed 280 87 59 0.8 11.7

Forest Mechanically disturbed 215 59 40 0.6 9.0

Forest Mining 115 35 23 0.3 4.8

Forest Agriculture 96 35 24 0.3 4.0

Other Other 563 n/a n/a 1.5 23.5

Totals 2,392 6.4 100.0
52 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

References Cited

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

accessed May 9, 2013, at http://www.census.gov/prod/

www/decennial.html.

Vogelmann, J.M., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 5

Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion 

By Terry L. Sohl

Ecoregion Description 

The Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens 

Ecoregion is a disjunct ecoregion that 

covers about 19,230 km2 (7,425 mi2) of 

the coastal plain of New Jersey, as well 

as Long Island in New York and Cape 

Cod, Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket, and 

other nearby islands in Massachusetts (fig. 

1). The ecoregion is bounded by, from 

northeast to southwest, the Northeastern 

Coastal Zone, Northern Piedmont, and 

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregions.

The ecoregion has a wide variety 

of ecological systems, including Atlantic 

white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) 

swamps, stunted forests of pitch pine 

(Pinus rigida) and oak (Quercus spp.), 

sphagnum (Sphagnum spp.) bogs, coastal 

salt ponds, dune systems, and the only 

maritime grasslands in the Nation (Wiken 

and others, 2011). Because of generally 

acidic soils, agricultural activity often 

is limited to acid-loving crops such as 

blueberries and cranberries, although 

some areas of the ecoregion support 

cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and 

other crops (fig. 2). Although parts of the 

ecoregion represent some of the bestpreserved natural habitat in the Eastern 

United States, other parts are among the 

most highly developed in the country. 

The climate is marked by hot summers 

and cold winters, with an average annual 

precipitation of about 1,141 mm (45 

in.), which is fairly evenly distributed 

throughout the year.

74° 72° 70°

42°

40°

Northeastern

Coastal Zone

Northeastern

Highlands

NEH NAPU

Northern

Piedmont

RV

EGLHL

NCA

MACP

NEH

A T L A N T I C O C E A N

LONG ISLAND

A T L A N T I C O C E A N

NEW JERSEY 

PINELANDS 

NATIONAL 

RESERVE

Hampton Bays

Sagaponack

Cape

Cod

Nantucket

Martha’s

Vineyard

CONNECTICUT

NEW

YORK

NEW

JERSEY

MASSACHUSETTS

RI

PA

PA

DE

PA

NY

NJ

MA

CT RI

Atlantic Coastal Pine

Barrens Ecoregion

0 50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

EXPLANATION

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (20 x 20 km)

Ice/Snow

Figure 1. Map of Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion and surrounding ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover classes from 

1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown in explanation 

may be depicted on map; note also that, for this “Status and Trends of Land Change” study, transitional land-cover class was subdivided 

into mechanically disturbed and nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate locations of 20 x 20 km sample blocks analyzed 

in study. Index map shows locations of geographic features mentioned in text. Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are 

listed in appendix 2. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
54 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Contemporary Land-Cover Change

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Atlantic Coastal Pine 

Barrens Ecoregion between 1973 to 2000 is estimated at 5.8 

percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States 

ecoregions, change in the Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens 

Ecoregion was fairly low (fig. 3): about 5.5 percent changed 

one time, and 0.3 percent changed two times (table 1). Total 

change per time period was relatively constant, hovering at 

around 1.5 percent (table 2). When normalized to an average 

annual rate to account for unequal time periods, the rates of 

change peaked in the second time period (1980–1986) and 

then decreased in the remaining two time periods (1986–1992, 

1992–2000) (fig. 4). Although overall change rates were low, 

significant trends in land-cover change are apparent. 

The Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion experienced 

a 14.6 percent increase in population between 1970 and 2000, 

from 9.6 to 11.0 million people (U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–

2000 [various years]). Locally, population increases have been 

more dramatic; for example, Cape Cod doubled in population 

over the same time period. Accommodation of this growth was 

the primary driver of land change, as developed land increased 

steadily from 25.5 to 30.3 percent of the ecoregion between 

1973 and 2000 (table 3; fig. 5). Most newly developed land 

occurred at the expense of agricultural and forested lands, 

both of which decreased significantly in all four time periods 

(fig.6). More than 900 km2 of land was developed between 

1973 and 2000, resulting in the loss of 315 km2 of forest land 

and 529 km2 of agricultural land (tables 3,4). The proportion 

of all change caused by development steadily increased 

throughout the study period (table 5). 

Agriculture dropped from the third most common land 

cover in the ecoregion in 1973 to the fifth most common land 

cover by 2000 (table 3). The decrease in the relative abundance 

Figure 2. Vineyards in Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion, 

a common sight in parts of ecoregion where variety of fruit and 

vegetable crops are grown. 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 3. Overall spatial change in Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens 

Ecoregion (ACPB; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 

Eastern United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal 

set of bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during 

one, two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial 

change in Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion (four time 

periods) labeled for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each 

time period. See appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 4. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Atlantic 

Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion are represented by red bars in 

each time period.
Chapter 5—Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion 55

of agricultural land is related to a strong effort to protect native 

ecosystems within the region, especially the unique pine barren 

forest. As less forested land was available for development, the 

proportion of developed land originating from agricultural land 

increased steadily and significantly (table 5). 

In addition to development pressures, high tax rates have 

driven many farmers to switch from vegetable and fruit crops to 

higher valued products such as nursery stock, flowers, and sod 

(Hart, 1991). These factors prompted the American Farmland 

Trust organization to name parts of the ecoregion on Long Island 

and Cape Cod as one of the 20 most threatened agricultural areas 

in the United States (Sorensen and others, 1997).

Forested land also decreased steadily between 1973 

and 2000. However, efforts to conserve these unique habitats 

slowed the rate of decrease in the latter half of the 27-year study 

period. For example, parts of the New Jersey Pine Barrens were 

designated as the Nation’s first National Reserve (the New Jersey 

Pinelands National Reserve) in 1978 and later (1983) as a U.S. 

Biosphere Reserve (Mason, 1992; Walker and Solecki, 1999). 

Forms of land-cover change other than conversion to 

developed were relatively minor (tables 3,4). Furthermore, 

changes in the next two most affected land-cover classes 

(mechanically disturbed and mining) often were driven by 

the demands of development. The mapping of mechanically 

disturbed land indicates a temporary, transitory state for a 

given area, which often leads to permanent development in the 

ecoregion. 

The mining land-cover class showed a small increase 

during the study period, but most of that increase likely 

was related to the increased demand for sand and stone 

aggregates used in construction. Although urban development 

has occurred throughout the Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens 

Ecoregion, recreational opportunities and desire for other 

coastal amenities also has resulted in concentrations of 

development along most coastlines in the ecoregion (fig. 7). 

These and other development pressures likely will continue to 

drive land-use conversions in the Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens 

Ecoregion for the foreseeable future. 

Figure 5. Coastal development on Long Island (Hampton Bays, 

New York), in Atlantic Coastal Plain Pine Barrens Ecoregion.

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 6. Normalized average net change in Atlantic Coastal 

Pine Barrens Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.

Figure 7. Coastal housing and sand-dune-stabilization fences 

on Long Island (Sagaponack, New York), in Atlantic Coastal Pine 

Barrens Ecoregion.
56 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 1. Percentage of Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion 

land cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (94.2 percent), whereas 5.8 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 5.5 2.0 3.5 7.5 1.2 22.6

2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.1 29.5

3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 42.1

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 57.6

Overall 

spatial 

change

5.8 2.1 3.8 7.9 1.3 22.5

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion land cover, computed for 

each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 1.5 0.5 0.9 2.0 0.3 23.2 0.2

1980–1986 1.7 0.6 1.2 2.3 0.4 20.3 0.3

1986–1992 1.4 0.5 0.9 1.9 0.3 22.2 0.2

1992–2000 1.6 0.8 0.8 2.4 0.5 31.1 0.2

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 285 105 180 391 66 23.2 41

1980–1986 333 107 225 440 67 20.3 55

1986–1992 272 96 176 368 60 22.2 45

1992–2000 312 155 157 467 97 31.1 39
Chapter 5—Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion 57

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion, calculated five 

times between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed

Mechanically 

disturbed

Mining Barren Forest

Grassland/

Shrubland

Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 16.9 7.4 25.5 8.3 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.8 0.6 23.3 6.3 0.1 0.1 17.4 8.5 15.3 5.8 0.0 0.0

1980 17.0 7.4 26.5 8.4 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.8 0.6 22.8 6.1 0.1 0.2 17.0 8.3 15.2 5.9 0.0 0.0

1986 17.0 7.4 27.8 8.4 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.8 0.5 22.2 6.1 0.2 0.2 16.2 7.8 15.2 5.9 0.0 0.0

1992 17.0 7.4 28.9 8.4 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.8 0.5 21.9 6.1 0.1 0.1 15.4 7.5 15.2 5.9 0.0 0.0

2000 17.1 7.4 30.3 8.4 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.8 0.5 21.5 6.0 0.1 0.1 14.5 6.9 15.1 5.9 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.1 0.1 4.7 1.8 –0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 –1.8 0.6 0.0 0.0 –3.0 1.9 –0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.2 0.1 4.7 1.8 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.9 0.5 0.1 0.1 3.0 1.9 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 3,259 1,429 4,908 1,604 38 20 77 32 153 107 4,482 1,216 19 17 3,350 1,631 2,944 1,122 0 0

1980 3,270 1,425 5,105 1,619 7 4 91 40 152 107 4,385 1,182 27 29 3,266 1,589 2,926 1,127 0 0

1986 3,278 1,425 5,344 1,619 20 19 110 50 147 105 4,270 1,169 29 30 3,112 1,507 2,920 1,129 0 0

1992 3,278 1,423 5,555 1,615 17 15 122 51 147 105 4,202 1,168 21 19 2,971 1,437 2,916 1,126 0 0

2000 3,282 1,423 5,820 1,612 18 13 124 52 146 102 4,127 1,148 20 18 2,782 1,320 2,911 1,126 0 0

Net

change 22 23 913 345 –19 22 47 26 –7 12 –355 111 1 2 –568 369 –34 21 0 0

Gross

change 42 19 913 345 75 50 54 27 21 17 371 104 21 26 577 366 47 23 0 0
58 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and 

margin of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during 

overall study period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Developed 88 45 28 0.5 30.9

Agriculture Developed 81 76 47 0.4 28.5

Mechanically disturbed Developed 22 18 11 0.1 7.7

Forest Mining 12 7 5 0.1 4.1

Wetland Agriculture 11 16 10 0.1 3.8

Other Other 71 n/a n/a 0.4 25.0

Totals 285 1.5 100.0

1980–1986 Agriculture Developed 138 86 54 0.7 41.4

Forest Developed 98 32 20 0.5 29.5

Forest Mining 17 13 8 0.1 5.0

Agriculture Forest 10 6 4 0.1 3.1

Agriculture Mechanically disturbed 10 11 7 0.1 3.0

Other Other 60 n/a n/a 0.3 17.9

Totals 333 1.7 100.0

1986–1992 Agriculture Developed 130 68 43 0.7 47.8

Forest Developed 61 25 16 0.3 22.4

Mechanically disturbed Developed 14 17 11 0.1 5.2

Agriculture Mechanically disturbed 9 11 7 0.0 3.2

Agriculture Forest 8 7 5 0.0 2.8

Other Other 50 n/a n/a 0.3 18.6

Totals 272 1.4 100.0

1992–2000 Agriculture Developed 180 132 83 0.9 57.7

Forest Developed 68 24 15 0.4 21.9

Mechanically disturbed Developed 12 12 8 0.1 3.8

Agriculture Mechanically disturbed 8 11 7 0.0 2.6

Forest Mechanically disturbed 6 4 2 0.0 1.9

Other Other 38 n/a n/a 0.2 12.2

Totals 312 1.6 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Agriculture Developed 529 340 213 2.8 44.0

Forest Developed 315 89 56 1.6 26.2

Mechanically disturbed Developed 49 40 25 0.3 4.0

Forest Mining 36 24 15 0.2 3.0

Agriculture Forest 28 17 11 0.1 2.3

Other Other 245 n/a n/a 1.3 20.4

Totals 1,202 6.2 100.0
Chapter 5—Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion 59

Table 5. Areal percentage of all land-cover classes, and 

percentage of agriculture land-cover class, that changed to 

developed land-cover class in Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens 

Ecoregion during each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000.

[Percentage of all conversions to developed land-cover class increased 

between 1973 and 2000, whereas percentage of developed land-cover class 

that converted from agriculture land-cover class also steadily increased]

Period

Developed 

Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Change

from agriculture 

(% of ecoregion)

1973–1980 68.9 41.2

1980–1986 72.1 57.5

1986–1992 77.9 61.5

1992–2000 84.8 69.5

References Cited

Hart, J.F., 1991, The perimetropolitan bow wave: Geographical Review, v. 81, no. 1, p. 35–51.

Mason, R.J., 1992, Contested lands—Conflict and compromise in New Jersey’s Pine Barrens: Philadelphia, Pa., 

Temple University Press, 257 p.

Sorensen, A.A., Greene, R.P., and Russ, K., 1997, Farming on 

the edge: American Farmland Trust, Center for Agriculture 

in the Environment, Northern Illinois University.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

accessed May 9, 2013, at http://www.census.gov/prod/

www/decennial.html.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Walker, R.T., and Solecki, W.D, 1999, Managing land use and 

land cover change—The New Jersey Pinelands Biosphere 

Reserve: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 89, no. 2, p. 220–237. 

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 6

Northern Piedmont Ecoregion

By Roger F. Auch

Ecoregion Description 

The Northern Piedmont Ecoregion, 

which trends northeast to southwest, covers 

about 30,120 km2 (11,629 mi2) in New Jersey, 

Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, the District 

of Columbia, and Virginia (fig. 1). The Northern 

Piedmont Ecoregion includes the western 

parts of metropolitan areas of New York, New 

York; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Baltimore, 

Maryland; and Washington, D.C. The ecoregion 

is surrounded by (counterclockwise, from 

the northeast) the Northeastern Coastal Zone, 

Northeastern Highlands, Ridge and Valley, Blue 

Ridge Mountains, Piedmont, Southeastern Plains, 

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain, and Atlantic 

Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregions.

The Northern Piedmont Ecoregion lies 

between the topographically flatter coastal areas 

to the southeast and the more mountainous 

regions to the west and north. The landforms 

include low, rounded hills, irregular plains, 

and open valleys (Wiken and others, 2011). 

Soils vary across the ecoregion, ranging from 

thin, stony soils on prominent ridges and 

low mountains to fertile, limestone-derived 

soils in some plains and valleys. The climate 

includes moderate winters and warm, humid 

summers, with more than 1,000 mm (40 in.) of 

precipitation falling in an average year. 

Although the population density typically 

decreases from east to west across the Northern 

Piedmont Ecoregion, its population grew by 

nearly 2 million people between 1970 and 

2000, reaching 11,434,000 in 2000, according 

to aggregated county-level data (U.S. Census 

Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years]). Land use 

varies from busy urban and suburban areas 

to intensively farmed and densely populated 

locales to relatively quiet, pastoral places. The 

predominant land-cover classes form a mosaic of 

agricultural, forested, and developed lands, but 

the mixture varies, depending on local conditions 

(figs. 2A,B,C). Agricultural lands range from 

intensively cultivated cornfields and horticultural 

78° 76° 74°

40°

38°

Ridge and Valley

Piedmont

SEP

SEP

SEP

MACP MACP

Atlantic

Coastal

Pine Barrens

NCA

BRM

NAPU

CA

CA

ACPB

NEH NEH

NECZ

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

P E N N S Y LVA N I A

NEW

JERSEY

MARYLAND

DELAWARE

VIRGINIA

WV

VA

NY

LANCASTER CO

CHESTER CO

FREDERICK CO

FAUQUIER CO

322

New York

Philadelphia

Baltimore

Frederick

King of

Prussia

New Holland

Charlottesville

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Warrenton

Washington, D.C.

0 50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (20 x 20 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Figure 1. Map of Northern Piedmont Ecoregion and surrounding ecoregions, 

showing land-use/land-cover classes from 1992 National Land Cover 

Dataset (Vogelmann and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover 

classes shown in explanation may be depicted on map; note also that, for 

this “Status and Trends of Land Change” study, transitional land-cover class 

was subdivided into mechanically disturbed and nonmechanically disturbed 

classes. Squares indicate locations of 20 x 20 km sample blocks analyzed in 

study. Index map shows locations of geographic features mentioned in text. 

Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. 

See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
62 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

A

B

C

Figure 2. Agricultural, forested, and developed lands in Northern 

Piedmont Ecoregion. A, Typical farm in Northern Piedmont 

Ecoregion, near Frederick, Maryland. B, Road through forested 

area in northern Virginia. C, Traffic at intersection in commercial 

area in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, about 25 km northwest of 

downtown Philadelphia. 

nurseries to less intensively used hayfields and pasturelands 

(figs. 3A,B). Forest typically is on land that has marginal 

utility for agricultural use, such as that which has steep slopes 

and poor-quality soils. Forested areas also are often used as 

various public resources (Morel and Gottmann, 1961, p. 362, 

371–383; Marsh and Lewis, 1995, p. 27; Matlack, 1997). 

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Northern Piedmont 

Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 6.2 percent 

(table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States ecoregions, 

change in the Northern Piedmont Ecoregion was fairly low, 

but it placed nearly in the median position (fig. 4). Most of the 

A

B

Figure 3. Agricultural lands in Northern Piedmont Ecoregion. A, 

Corn field on outskirts of New Holland, in intensively cultivated 

Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. B, Horse fence in pasture, 

nestled among forested hills near Charlottesville, Virginia. 

Thoroughbred horse breeding is long-standing tradition in 

Northern Piedmont Ecoregion.
Chapter 6—Northern Piedmont Ecoregion 63

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in three time periods

Figure 4. Overall spatial change in Northern Piedmont Ecoregion 

(NP; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of bars shows 

proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, two, three, 

or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in Northern 

Piedmont Ecoregion (three time periods) labeled for clarity. See 

table 2 for years covered by each time period. See appendix 2 for 

key to ecoregion abbreviations.

Figure 5. Land being cleared for new development along U.S. 

Route 322, in southeastern Chester County, Pennsylvania. Houses 

in background likely were built during study period (1973–2000).

land-cover change (about 70 percent) was to newly developed 

land (fig. 5). The amount of change per time period was 

relatively low, and it was similar over time until the period 

between 1992 and 2000, which experienced a noticeable 

increase (table 2). When normalized to an average annual rate 

to account for uneven time periods, the period between 1992 

and 2000 was still the most dynamically changing period 

(fig. 6). Although rates of change are not very high, they 

correspond to a steady increase in developed land, a nearpermanent type of change. The margin of error in the study’s 

statistical estimates was relatively low, ranging from about 

0.3 to about 0.6 percent at an 85-percent confidence interval, 

indicating that land-cover change was more or less evenly 

distributed across the ecoregion (table 2). 

The Northern Piedmont Ecoregion’s predominant 

land-cover classes—agriculture, forest, and developed—

experienced the greatest amounts of net change across the 

study period (table 3). Although change was comparatively 

low in the ecoregion, most change was to newly developed 

land, and, by the end of the study period, the developed 

land-cover class gained 4.6 percent, occupying more than 27 

percent of the ecoregion area (table 3; fig. 7). This was one of 

the highest percentages of increase in the developed landcover class among all 20 Eastern United States ecoregions.

The Northern Piedmont Ecoregion, along with the 

Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion to the east and 

the Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion to the northeast, 

constitute most of Gottmann’s (1961) “Megalopolis” region 

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 6. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Northern 

Piedmont Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each time 

period.
64 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

−4

−2

0

2

4

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 7. Normalized average net change in Northern Piedmont 

Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. Bars above 

zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero represent 

net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown in explanation 

may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for definitions of 

land-use and land-cover classifications.

Figure 8. Interface between developed and agricultural land in 

Frederick County, Maryland, an increasingly common scene in 

Northern Piedmont Ecoregion.

(that is, the northeastern United States urbanizing corridor). 

The Northern Piedmont Ecoregion’s continued urbanization 

can be seen in the large gains in absolute population (19.9 

percent increase), occupied housing units (43.8 percent 

increase), and employment (39.5 percent increase) during the 

27-year study period (Auch, 2002). The ecoregion continues 

its transformation from a once-prominent agricultural area 

to an urban area. In 1997, the American Farmland Trust 

declared the Northern Piedmont Ecoregion as the second most 

“endangered” farming region in the United States (Sorensen 

and others, 1997) (fig. 8).

The leading land-cover conversions in the Northern 

Piedmont Ecoregion are shown in table 4. The ecoregion 

gained an estimated 1,396 km2 of newly developed land 

between 1973 and 2000 (table 3); most of it came from 

agriculture (866 km2), but a considerable amount also came 

from forest (465 km2) (table 4). An additional 59 km2 of 

developed came from mechanically disturbed, probably the 

bulldozing or leveling of forested land or farmland for new 

construction. Less significant changes included conversions 

back and forth between agriculture and forest (agriculture to 

forest conversions were more prevalent in earlier time periods) 

and between forest and mechanically disturbed (likely related 

to either timber harvesting and regrowth, the clearing of forest 

for development, or a conversion to agriculture) (fig. 9).

The main story of land-cover change in the Northern 

Piedmont Ecoregion during the study period was increased 

urbanization, primarily through the unidirectional land-cover 

conversion to developed land. The amount of change was 

comparatively low but steady over time. Most of this newly 

developed land came at the expense of agricultural land and, 

to a lesser extent, forested land.

Figure 9. Young stand of planted pines southeast of Warrenton, 

in Fauquier County, Virginia.
Chapter 6—Northern Piedmont Ecoregion 65

Table 1. Percentage of Northern Piedmont Ecoregion land cover 

that changed at least one time during study period (1973–2000), 

and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (93.8 percent), whereas 6.2 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period. Two dashes (--) indicate that, 

because zero pixels changed four times during study period, relative error is 

not calculable]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 5.6 1.0 4.6 6.7 0.7 11.8

2 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.1 22.1

3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 35.7

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 --

Overall 

spatial 

change

6.2 1.1 5.1 7.3 0.7 11.0

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Northern Piedmont Ecoregion land cover, computed for each of 

four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 1.4 0.5 0.9 1.9 0.3 22.9 0.2

1980–1986 1.5 0.3 1.2 1.9 0.2 14.2 0.3

1986–1992 1.3 0.3 1.0 1.6 0.2 15.1 0.2

1992–2000 2.6 0.6 2.1 3.2 0.3 13.3 0.3

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 420 151 268 571 96 22.9 60

1980–1986 460 103 357 563 66 14.2 77

1986–1992 380 91 290 471 58 15.1 63

1992–2000 792 166 626 958 105 13.3 99
66 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Northern Piedmont Ecoregion, calculated five times between 

1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically 

disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 1.5 0.5 22.7 11.7 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 36.9 7.2 0.1 0.1 37.7 9.4 0.8 0.4 0.0 0.0

1980 1.5 0.5 23.6 11.6 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 36.7 7.2 0.1 0.1 36.9 9.1 0.7 0.4 0.0 0.0

1986 1.5 0.5 24.5 11.7 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 36.5 7.2 0.0 0.1 36.1 9.0 0.7 0.4 0.0 0.0

1992 1.5 0.5 25.2 11.6 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 36.3 7.2 0.0 0.0 35.5 8.8 0.7 0.4 0.0 0.0

2000 1.5 0.5 27.3 11.5 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 35.4 7.0 0.0 0.0 34.4 8.6 0.7 0.4 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.0 0.0 4.6 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 –1.5 0.5 0.0 0.1 –3.4 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.0 0.0 4.6 1.1 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.5 0.0 0.1 3.4 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 457 154 6,826 3,509 38 33 83 29 0 0 11,102 2,156 21 29 11,365 2,818 228 121 0 0

1980 460 155 7,100 3,492 47 32 89 28 0 0 11,059 2,163 19 24 11,120 2,733 226 118 0 0

1986 460 155 7,384 3,509 69 31 102 33 0 0 10,985 2,166 15 18 10,880 2,703 225 115 0 0

1992 465 154 7,604 3,502 70 27 112 35 0 0 10,930 2,171 13 15 10,702 2,666 225 115 0 0

2000 465 153 8,222 3,466 75 47 119 35 0 0 10,656 2,110 9 13 10,350 2,605 224 115 0 0

Net

change 8 7 1,396 343 37 43 36 15 0 0 –446 141 –12 16 –1,015 348 –4 7 0 0

Gross

change 14 7 1,396 343 153 45 46 17 0 0 523 142 14 16 1,029 338 7 6 0 0
Chapter 6—Northern Piedmont Ecoregion 67

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Northern Piedmont Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin of error, 

calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study period. 

See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications..

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Agriculture Developed 192 151 96 0.6 45.7

Forest Developed 79 45 29 0.3 18.9

Agriculture Forest 43 34 22 0.1 10.3

Mechanically disturbed Forest 27 27 17 0.1 6.4

Forest Mechanically disturbed 20 13 9 0.1 4.9

Other Other 58 n/a n/a 0.2 13.8

Totals 420 1.4 100.0

1980–1986 Agriculture Developed 186 77 49 0.6 40.4

Forest Developed 89 35 22 0.3 19.3

Agriculture Forest 54 26 17 0.2 11.7

Forest Mechanically disturbed 39 19 12 0.1 8.5

Mechanically disturbed Forest 22 18 11 0.1 4.7

Other Other 71 n/a n/a 0.2 15.4

Totals 460 1.5 100.0

1986–1992 Agriculture Developed 129 47 30 0.4 33.9

Forest Developed 76 36 23 0.3 20.2

Mechanically disturbed Forest 37 23 15 0.1 9.8

Forest Mechanically disturbed 35 21 13 0.1 9.1

Agriculture Forest 29 19 12 0.1 7.6

Other Other 75 n/a n/a 0.2 19.7

Totals 380 1.3 100.0

1992–2000 Agriculture Developed 360 136 87 1.2 45.5

Forest Developed 221 73 46 0.7 27.9

Forest Mechanically disturbed 61 42 27 0.2 7.7

Mechanically disturbed Developed 34 17 11 0.1 4.3

Forest Agriculture 34 19 12 0.1 4.3

Other Other 82 n/a n/a 0.3 10.3

Totals 792 2.6 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Agriculture Developed 866 332 211 2.9 42.2

Forest Developed 465 135 86 1.5 22.7

Forest Mechanically disturbed 156 80 51 0.5 7.6

Agriculture Forest 148 74 47 0.5 7.2

Mechanically disturbed Forest 108 75 48 0.4 5.3

Other Other 309 n/a n/a 1.0 15.1

Totals 2,052 6.8 100.0
68 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

References Cited

Auch, R.F., 2002, Land use/land cover change in the Northern 

Piedmont Ecoregion, 1970–2000: Brookings, South Dakota 

State University, Master’s thesis, 211 p.

Gottmann, J., 1961, Megalopolis—The urbanized northeastern 

seaboard of the United States: New York, The Twentieth 

Century Fund, 810 p.

Marsh, B., and Lewis, P., 1995, Landforms and human 

habitat, in Miller, E.W., ed., A geography of Pennsylvania: 

University Park, Pennsylvania State University Press, p. 

17–43.

Matlack, R.G., 1997, Four centuries of forest clearance and 

regeneration in the hinterland of a large city: Journal of 

Biogeography, v. 24, p. 281–295.

Morel, H., and Gottmann, J., 1961, The woodlands—Their 

uses and wildlife, in Gottmann, J., Megalopolis—The 

urbanized northeastern seaboard of the United States: New 

York, The Twentieth Century Fund, p. 341–383.

Sorensen, A.A., Greene, R.B., and Russ, K., 1997, Farming on 

the edge: DeKalb, Ill., American Farmland Trust, Center for 

Agriculture in the Environment, 29 p.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

accessed May 9, 2013, at http://www.census.gov/prod/

www/decennial.html.

Vogelmann, J.M., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.
Appalachian Mountains Ecoregions

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 7

Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion 

By Mark S. Brooks

Ecoregion Description 

The Northern Appalachian 

Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion, 

which is located in south-central New 

York and northeastern Pennsylvania, 

covers about 29,919 km2 (11,552 mi2) 

(fig. 1). The ecoregion is bounded 

on the north by the Eastern Great 

Lakes and Hudson Lowlands 

Ecoregion; on the east, by the 

Northeastern Highlands and North 

Central Appalachians Ecoregions; on 

the south, by the Ridge and Valley 

and North Central Appalachians 

Ecoregions; and on the far west, by 

the Erie Drift Plains Ecoregion. The 

ecoregion spans the area between 

the less irregular, more agricultural 

and urbanized ecoregions to the 

north and west and the more 

mountainous and forested, less 

populated ecoregions to the south 

and east (Wiken and others, 2011). 

The landscape is rural, with rolling 

hills and fertile stream valleys. 

The climate in the ecoregion is 

temperate: average temperature in 

January is –6.1°C and, in July, is 

20.7°C; average annual precipitation 

is more than 940 mm (37 in.) 

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, 2002).

Forest and agriculture are 

the dominant land-cover classes 

in the Northern Appalachian 

Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion 

(fig. 2). The forest is composed of 

northern hardwoods that include 

sugar maple (Acer saccharum), red 

maple (Acer rubrum), white ash 

(Fraxinus americana), American 

beech (Fagus grandifolia), northern 

red oak (Quercus rubra), sweet 

cherry (Prunus avium), and eastern 

76° 75°

79° 78° 77°

43°

42°

41°

Ridge and Valley NEH

RV

North Central

Appalachians

NCA

Eastern Great

Lakes and

Hudson Lowlands Northeastern

Highlands

Erie

Drift Plains

LAKE ONTARIO

 LAKE

ERIE

CANADA

PA

NY

ME

VT

NJ

MA

NH

CT

RI

Northern

Appalachian

Plateau and

Uplands

Ecoregion

0 50 MILES

0 50 KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Rochester

Cortland

Ithaca

Binghamton

Elmira

NEW YORK

NEW JERSEY

CATSKILL

MOUNTAINS

ALLEGHENY

MOUNTAINS

P E N N S Y LVA N I A

Lake Ontario

Figure 1. Map of Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion and surrounding 

ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover classes from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset 

(Vogelmann and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown in 

explanation may be depicted on map; note also that, for this “Status and Trends of Land 

Change” study, transitional land-cover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed 

and nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate locations of 10 x 10 km sample 

blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows locations of geographic features mentioned 

in text. Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. Also 

shown is part of one Midwest–South Central United States ecoregion, Erie Drift Plains. 

See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
72 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) (Smallidge, 1998). Dairy and 

cattle farming, along with the production of corn, wheat, and 

hay, are the major agricultural activities in the ecoregion (Fick 

and Cox, 1995) (fig. 3). 

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Northern Appalachian 

Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is 

estimated at 2.4 percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern 

United States ecoregions, change in the Northern Appalachian 

Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion was very low (fig. 4): an 

estimated 1.8 percent changed land cover one time, and only 

0.7 percent changed multiple times (table 1). 

The estimated change per time period varied modestly 

during the 27-year study period (fig. 5). The first two time 

Figure 2. Typical farm in Northern Appalachian Plateau and 

Uplands Ecoregion.

Figure 3. Cattle grazing in open pasture, in Northern 

Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion.

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 4. Overall spatial change in Northern Appalachian 

Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion (NAPU; darker bars) compared 

with that of all 20 Eastern United States ecoregions (lighter bars). 

Each horizontal set of bars shows proportions of ecoregion that 

changed during one, two, three, or four time periods; highest level 

of spatial change in Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands 

Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled for clarity. See table 2 for 

years covered by each time period. See appendix 2 for key to 

ecoregion abbreviations.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 5. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Northern 

Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion are represented by 

red bars in each time period.
Chapter 7—Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion 73

periods (1972–1980, 1980–1986) experienced a change of 

0.7 percent. The third time period (1986–1992) had the only 

increase in change, from 0.7 to 1.0 percent. Finally, in the 

last time period (1992–2000), the change was 0.8 percent. 

The margin of error at the 85-percent confidence level was 

very low during all time periods, ranging from about 0.2 to 

about 0.3 percent. When normalized to an average annual 

rate to account for uneven time periods, the average annual 

rate of change for each time period was 0.1 percent, with the 

exception of the third time period (1986–1992), which had a 

rate of change of 0.2 percent (table 2). Overall, the land cover 

in the Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion 

was extremely stable throughout the study period. 

The dominant land-cover classes in the Northern 

Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion in 2000 

−1

−0.5

0

0.5

1

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 6. Normalized average net change in Northern 

Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion by time period for 

each land-cover class. Bars above zero axis represent net gain, 

whereas bars below zero represent net loss. Note that not all 

land-cover classes shown in explanation may be represented in 

figure. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use and land-cover 

classifications.

were forest (60.0 percent), agriculture (33.9 percent), and 

developed (3.3 percent) (table 3). Net change for all landcover classes, with the exception of agriculture, was modest

during the study period (1973–2000). Agriculture had the 

largest net change, with a 0.9 percent loss of ecoregion area 

between 1973 and 2000. Land-cover classes that gained 

ecoregion area at the expense of agriculture included 

developed (0.5 percent increase) and grassland/shrubland 

(0.3 percent increase) (table 3; fig. 6). 

The top two land-cover conversions during the study 

period pointed to the overall loss of agricultural land in 

the ecoregion: an estimated 161 km2 of agricultural land 

converted to grassland/shrubland, and 159 km2 converted 

to forest (table 4). The third-leading conversion was from 

grassland/shrubland to forest (136 km2). The secondand third-leading conversions resulted from the natural 

progression of abandoned agricultural land reverting back to 

forest. Principal factors that contribute to the abandonment 

of agricultural lands are hilly topography, poor road access, 

poor drainage, and poor soil (Flinn and others, 2005). The 

fourth- and fifth-leading conversions involved the clearing 

of forest for agricultural land (125 km2) and the mechanical 

disturbance of forested land because of timber harvesting (85 

km2) (table 4).

Land cover in the Northern Appalachian Plateau and 

Uplands Ecoregion was stable throughout the study period 

(1973–2000). The loss of agricultural land was the most 

significant land-cover change, as farmland decreased in each 

time period. The greatest amount of agricultural land was 

abandoned during the period between 1986 and 1992, with 

an estimated 148 km2 converting to forested land, grassland/

shrubland, or developed land (table 4; fig. 7).

Figure 7. Abandoned agricultural land (pasture) reverting to 

grassland/shrubland, a common type of land-cover change in 

Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion.
74 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 1. Percentage of Northern Appalachian Plateau and 

Uplands Ecoregion land cover that changed at least one time 

during study period (1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (97.6 percent), whereas 2.4 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 1.8 0.5 1.3 2.4 0.4 19.6

2 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.2 30.4

3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 30.0

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 94.8

Overall 

spatial 

change

2.4 0.7 1.8 3.1 0.4 18.4

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion land cover, 

computed for each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent 

confidence level

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 0.7 0.3 0.4 1.0 0.2 29.7 0.1

1980–1986 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.1 17.4 0.1

1986–1992 1.0 0.3 0.7 1.3 0.2 20.4 0.2

1992–2000 0.8 0.3 0.5 1.1 0.2 24.0 0.1

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 215 94 121 310 64 29.7 31

1980–1986 196 50 146 246 34 17.4 33

1986–1992 294 89 206 383 60 20.4 49

1992–2000 236 84 152 319 57 24.0 29
Chapter 7—Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion 75

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion, 

calculated five times between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 0.9 0.2 2.8 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 60.1 2.3 0.1 0.0 34.9 2.4 1.2 0.4 0.0 0.0

1980 0.9 0.2 2.9 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 60.0 2.3 0.2 0.1 34.7 2.5 1.2 0.4 0.0 0.0

1986 0.9 0.2 3.0 0.8 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 60.0 2.3 0.2 0.1 34.5 2.5 1.2 0.4 0.0 0.0

1992 0.9 0.2 3.1 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 60.0 2.2 0.4 0.2 34.1 2.5 1.2 0.4 0.0 0.0

2000 0.9 0.2 3.3 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 60.0 2.2 0.3 0.1 33.9 2.5 1.2 0.4 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.1 –0.9 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.3 0.7 0.3 1.6 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 264 55 829 234 14 12 29 13 0 0 17,973 697 17 11 10,429 733 365 128 0 0

1980 267 55 866 246 6 5 34 15 0 0 17,954 693 56 26 10,373 747 364 128 0 0

1986 269 56 885 245 23 9 40 17 0 0 17,958 688 51 22 10,331 744 362 128 0 0

1992 271 56 932 256 27 13 44 19 1 1 17,958 673 116 51 10,208 753 362 128 0 0

2000 274 56 975 269 39 22 47 20 1 1 17,966 662 101 43 10,155 755 361 128 0 0

Net

change 10 4 146 74 24 25 18 10 1 1 –7 97 84 39 –273 177 –3 3 0 0

Gross

change 12 5 146 74 112 30 21 10 1 1 392 90 219 93 466 151 4 3 0 0
76 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion, showing amount of area 

changed (and margin of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and 

also during overall study period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Agriculture Forest 59 48 32 0.2 27.4

Forest Agriculture 49 39 26 0.2 22.9

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 36 23 16 0.1 16.7

Forest Developed 24 15 10 0.1 11.0

Agriculture Developed 13 10 7 0.0 6.1

Other Other 34 n/a n/a 0.1 15.9

Totals 215 0.7 100.0

1980–1986 Grassland/Shrubland Forest 41 24 16 0.1 20.7

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 34 17 11 0.1 17.5

Forest Agriculture 33 18 12 0.1 16.9

Agriculture Forest 32 14 10 0.1 16.1

Forest Mechanically disturbed 20 9 6 0.1 10.4

Other Other 36 n/a n/a 0.1 18.4

Totals 196 0.7 100.0

1986–1992 Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 67 42 29 0.2 22.8

Agriculture Forest 52 24 16 0.2 17.8

Agriculture Developed 29 23 15 0.1 9.9

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 29 14 9 0.1 9.8

Forest Agriculture 27 13 9 0.1 9.2

Other Other 90 n/a n/a 0.3 30.5

Totals 294 1.0 100.0

1992–2000 Grassland/Shrubland Forest 62 39 27 0.2 26.2

Forest Mechanically disturbed 34 19 13 0.1 14.3

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 24 18 12 0.1 10.3

Agriculture Developed 22 13 9 0.1 9.5

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 21 12 8 0.1 8.9

Other Other 73 n/a n/a 0.2 30.9

Totals 236 0.8 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 161 89 60 0.5 17.2

Agriculture Forest 159 60 40 0.5 16.9

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 136 69 47 0.5 14.4

Forest Agriculture 124 68 46 0.4 13.1

Forest Mechanically disturbed 85 25 17 0.3 9.1

Other Other 276 n/a n/a 0.9 29.4

Totals 941 3.1 100.0
Chapter 7—Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion 77

References Cited

Fick, Gary W., and Cox, William J., 1995, The agronomy 

of dairy farming in New York State: Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell 

University, Department of Soil, Crop and Atmospheric 

Sciences, SCAS Teaching Series No. T95-1, 8 p.

Flinn, Kathryn M., Vellend, Mark, and Marks, P.L., 2005, 

Environmental causes and consequences of forest clearance 

and agricultural abandonment in central New York, USA: 

Journal of Biogeography, v. 32, p. 439–452.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2002, 

Monthly station normals of temperature, precipitation, 

and heating and cooling degree days, 1971–2000—New 

York [revised]: National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, National Environmental Satellite, Data, and 

Information Service, Climatography of the United States 

No. 81, 36 p., accessed November 6, 2013, at http://www.

ncdc.noaa.gov/climatenormals/clim81/NYnorm.pdf.

Smallidge, Peter, 1998, New York’s forests—Then and now: 

The New York Forest Owner, v. 36, no. 1, p. 8-9. 

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 8

North Central Appalachians Ecoregion 

By Kristi L. Sayler

Ecoregion Description

The North Central Appalachians Ecoregion is a forested, 

sedimentary upland area punctuated by high hills and low 

mountains (Woods and others, 1996). The ecoregion, which 

covers about 30,522 km2 (11,784 mi2), consists of two parts 

(fig. 1). The unglaciated western part of the ecoregion is 

surrounded by (clockwise, from the north) the Northern 

Appalachian Plateau and Uplands, Ridge and Valley, Central 

Appalachians, Western Allegheny Plateau, and Erie Drift 

Plains Ecoregions. This part of the ecoregion, which lies 

along the headwaters of the Allegheny and Susquehanna 

Rivers in northern-central Pennsylvania, with a small 

fraction in southern New York, is at the northern fringe of 

the Appalachian coal belt and includes substantial 

parts of Pennsylvania’s oil and gas production 

(Woods and others, 1996). This forested landscape 

also supports the major economic activities of 

forestry and recreation (figs. 2,3). The eastern part 

of the ecoregion is surrounded by (clockwise, from the north) 

the Northeastern Highlands, Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson 

Lowlands, Ridge and Valley, and Northern Appalachian 

Plateau and Uplands Ecoregions. This part of the ecoregion 

includes the Pocono Mountains of Pennsylvania and parts 

of the Catskill Mountains of New York and New Jersey, 

which range from low mountains to rolling hills, as well as 

a dissected plateau at the east edge of the Allegheny Front 

(Ackroyd-Kelly, 1987). This area historically has provided an 

accessible, rural recreation oasis for generations of residents of 

nearby New York and Philadelphia. The climate of the North 

Central Appalachians Ecoregion is continental, with cool 

summers and cold winters. The average annual precipitation 

ranges from 825 to 1,250 mm (33 to 50 in.).

75° 74°

80° 79° 78° 77° 76°

43°

42°

41°

Ridge and Valley

Northern Appalachian

Plateau and Uplands

EGLHL

ACPB

EGLHL

NEH Northern

Piedmont

Erie

Drift Plains

Western

Allegheny Plateau

Northeastern

Highlands

NEH

CA

LAKE

ERIE

CANADA

NJ

PA

NY

North Central

Appalachians

Ecoregion

0 50 MILES

0 50KILOMETERS

NEW

DE JERSEY Allegheny R

Tidioute

POCONO

MOUNTAINS

CATSKILL

MTNS

A L L E G H E N Y F R O N T

Lake

Erie

New York

Philadelphia

Port

Jervis

NEW YORK

P E N N S Y LVA N I A

Susquehanna River

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (20 x 20 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Figure 1. Map of North Central 

Appalachians Ecoregion and surrounding 

ecoregions, showing land-use/landcover classes from 1992 National Land 

Cover Dataset (Vogelmann and others, 

2001); note that not all land-use/landcover classes shown in explanation may 

be depicted on map; note also that, for 

this “Status and Trends of Land Change” 

study, transitional land-cover class was 

subdivided into mechanically disturbed 

and nonmechanically disturbed classes. 

Squares indicate locations of 20 x 20 km 

sample blocks analyzed in study. Index 

map shows locations of geographic 

features mentioned in text. Abbreviations 

for Eastern United States ecoregions are 

listed in appendix 2. Also shown is part 

of one Midwest–South Central United 

States ecoregion, Erie Drift Plains. See 

appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/

land-cover classifications.
80 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 2. Area of predominately forest and scattered agriculture, 

in North Central Appalachians Ecoregion.

Figure 3. Recreation area along Allegheny River, near Tidioute, 

Pennsylvania. 

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area that 

changed at least one time) in the North Central Appalachians 

Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 6.2 percent 

(table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States ecoregions, 

change in the North Central Appalachians Ecoregion was fairly 

low (fig. 4): of the 6.2 percent that changed, nearly one-half 

changed multiple times. When normalized to an average annual 

rate to account for uneven time periods, the change per time 

period ranged from 1.5 to 2.9 percent, with margins of error 

ranging from 0.7 to 1.4 percent at the 85-percent confidence 

level (table 2). The average annual rates of change were highest 

during the period between 1980 and 1986, with an average rate 

of 0.4 percent per year (fig. 5; table 2); however, this number 

would have been substantially lower had there not been a 

cluster of about 42 tornadoes on May 31, 1985 (Monfredo, 

1999), which deforested a significant part of the ecoregion. 

The tornado damage and subsequent return of the affected land 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 4. Overall spatial change in North Central Appalachians 

Ecoregion (NCA; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of 

bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, 

two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in 

North Central Appalachians Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled 

for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each time period. See 

appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 5. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for North 

Central Appalachians Ecoregion are represented by red bars in 

each time period.
Chapter 8—North Central Appalachians Ecoregion 81

cover to prestorm conditions constituted about 8.1 percent of the 

total change between 1980 and 2000 in the ecoregion.

Forest constituted 87.4 percent of the ecoregion land 

cover in 1973, and it decreased by only 0.8 percent during the 

study period to 86.6 percent in 2000 (table 3). This decrease 

mostly is attributed to forest clearcutting in the ecoregion and 

also forest loss caused by the tornado activity in 1985 (fig.6). 

These clearcuts, which primarily represent the harvesting of 

hardwood trees for lumber and other wood products, are shown 

as conversions from forest to mechanically disturbed (fig. 7). 

The ecoregion is known for its exceptionally high quality of 

sweet cherry (Prunus avium); other hardwoods commonly 

harvested include yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), 

white ash (Fraxinus americana), red maple (Acer rubrum), and 

sugar maple (Acer saccharum) (Napton and others, 2003).

Both mining and developed had either very small or zero 

percent increases in all time periods. Surface coal mining, 

quarries, gravel pits, and natural-gas-field developments 

−1

−0.5

0

0.5

1

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 6. Normalized average net change in North Central 

Appalachians Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.

Figure 7. Small sawmill in North Central Appalachians 

Ecoregion, about 16 km northwest of Port Jervis, New York.

Figure 8. Modular homes waiting to be transferred to housing 

sites, in North Central Appalachians Ecoregion.

all contributed to the 0.3 percent increase in mining in 

the ecoregion. Developed increased slightly (0.3 percent), 

primarily in the eastern part of the ecoregion where nearness 

to the Pocono and Catskill Mountains enables individuals to 

have second homes and still live and work near New York 

City (fig. 8).

All the leading land-cover conversions were related to 

the vast forests of the North Central Appalachians Ecoregion. 

Forest to mechanically disturbed and also mechanically 

disturbed to forest were the top two land-cover conversions 

during all time periods (table 4). These two conversions 

were related to the forest harvest-and-regrowth cycles of the 

timber industry. The other main agent of land-cover change 

was tornado activity, shown as the conversion from forest to 

nonmechanically disturbed between 1980 and 1986 and then 

the subsequent conversion of nonmechanically disturbed to 

forest as the affected forest areas regenerated (table 4). Overall, 

these conversions accounted for 80.5 percent of the area that 

changed in the ecoregion during the 27-year study period.
82 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 1. Percentage of North Central Appalachians Ecoregion 

land cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (93.8 percent), whereas 6.2 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 3.5 0.9 2.5 4.4 0.6 17.2

2 2.6 1.1 1.5 3.7 0.7 27.4

3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 31.8

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 42.3

Overall 

spatial 

change

6.2 2.0 4.2 8.1 1.3 20.3

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in North Central Appalachians Ecoregion land cover, computed for 

each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 1.5 0.8 0.8 2.3 0.5 31.7 0.2

1980–1986 2.3 1.4 0.9 3.7 0.9 39.2 0.4

1986–1992 2.2 0.7 1.5 3.0 0.5 21.2 0.4

1992–2000 2.9 0.7 2.2 3.7 0.5 16.2 0.4

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 463 231 232 693 147 31.7 66

1980–1986 694 429 266 1,123 272 39.2 116

1986–1992 676 225 451 901 143 21.2 113

1992–2000 898 229 669 1,126 145 16.2 112
Chapter 8—North Central Appalachians Ecoregion 83

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in North Central Appalachians Ecoregion, calculated five 

times between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed

Mechanically 

disturbed

Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 1.5 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.0 0.0 87.4 3.9 0.0 0.0 7.4 3.8 1.0 0.7 0.0 0.0

1980 1.5 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.0 0.0 87.2 3.9 0.0 0.0 7.4 3.8 1.0 0.7 0.0 0.0

1986 1.5 0.9 1.4 1.0 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.0 87.3 3.8 0.0 0.0 7.2 3.8 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.4

1992 1.5 0.9 1.5 1.1 1.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.0 0.0 86.8 3.8 0.0 0.0 7.1 3.8 1.0 0.7 0.1 0.1

2000 1.4 0.9 1.6 1.1 1.5 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.0 0.0 86.6 3.8 0.0 0.0 7.1 3.8 1.1 0.7 0.0 0.0

Net

change –0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.0 –0.9 1.0 0.0 0.0 –0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 1.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.8

Area, in square kilometers

1973 451 284 400 283 297 151 118 93 1 1 26,684 1,203 1 1 2,256 1,157 313 204 0 0

1980 447 282 409 289 358 186 117 94 1 1 2,6621 1,192 1 1 2,252 1,152 315 206 0 0

1986 451 284 426 299 251 102 143 110 1 1 26,638 1,156 1 1 2,186 1,149 312 203 112 117

1992 455 287 452 321 420 146 195 169 1 1 26,490 1,173 1 1 2,171 1,145 309 202 28 28

2000 428 261 481 333 448 137 247 233 1 1 26,418 1,160 1 1 2,175 1,147 321 208 2 3

Net

change –22 25 81 54 151 186 129 159 0 0 –267 297 0 0 –82 97 8 9 2 3

Gross

change 40 38 86 53 522 182 174 150 0 0 845 255 0 0 102 98 27 31 222 232
84 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in North Central Appalachians Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin 

of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study 

period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin

of error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mechanically disturbed 210 115 73 0.7 45.3

Mechanically disturbed Forest 162 81 51 0.5 34.9

Forest Mining 22 16 10 0.1 4.7

Agriculture Forest 16 18 12 0.1 3.4

Mining Mechanically disturbed 14 21 13 0.0 3.1

Other Other 40 n/a n/a 0.1 8.6

Totals 463 1.5 100.0

1980–1986 Mechanically disturbed Forest 268 170 108 0.9 38.6

Forest Mechanically disturbed 162 83 53 0.5 23.3

Forest Nonmechanically disturbed 108 114 73 0.4 15.5

Agriculture Forest 63 92 58 0.2 9.0

Forest Mining 35 31 20 0.1 5.0

Other Other 60 n/a n/a 0.2 8.6

Totals 694 2.3 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 305 118 75 1.0 45.1

Mechanically disturbed Forest 136 73 46 0.4 20.2

Nonmechanically disturbed Forest 83 89 57 0.3 12.4

Forest Mining 61 63 40 0.2 9.1

Forest Developed 27 17 11 0.1 3.9

Other Other 63 n/a n/a 0.2 9.4

Totals 676 2.2 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mechanically disturbed 379 119 75 1.2 42.2

Mechanically disturbed Forest 362 134 85 1.2 40.3

Forest Mining 56 69 44 0.2 6.2

Forest Developed 27 14 9 0.1 3.0

Nonmechanically disturbed Forest 26 26 16 0.1 2.9

Other Other 48 n/a n/a 0.2 5.4

Totals 898 2.9 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 1,055 348 221 3.5 38.6

Mechanically disturbed Forest 928 390 248 3.0 34.0

Forest Mining 174 163 104 0.6 6.4

Nonmechanically disturbed Forest 110 114 72 0.4 4.0

Forest Nonmechanically disturbed 108 114 73 0.4 3.9

Other Other 357 n/a n/a 1.2 13.1

Totals 2,730 8.9 100.0
Chapter 8—North Central Appalachians Ecoregion 85

References Cited

Ackroyd-Kelly, I.H., 1987, The near country—The historical 

geography of Pocono resorts: The Pennsylvania Geographer, 

v. 25, no. 1, p. 18–23.

Monfredo, W., 1999, Significant tornado activity in 

southwestern Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania Geographer, 

v. 37, no. 2, p. 43–63. 

Napton, D., Sohl, T.L., Auch, R.F., and Loveland, T.R., 2003, 

Land use and land cover change in the North Central 

Appalachians ecoregion: The Pennsylvania Geographer, v. 

41, no.2, p. 46–66.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., Wylie, 

B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 1990s 

National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous United 

States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and ancillary 

data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote 

Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Woods, A.J., Omernik, J.M., Brown, D.D., and Kiilsgaard, 

C.W., 1996, Level III and IV ecoregions of Pennsylvania 

and the Blue Ridge Mountains, the Ridge and Valley, 

and Central Appalachians of Virginia, West Virginia, and 

Maryland: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National 

Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, 

Corvallis, Oreg., EPA/600/R-96/077, 50 p.

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 9

Ecoregion Description 

The Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion 

covers about 84,738 km2 (32,717 mi2) (fig. 1) in parts 

of southwestern Pennsylvania, southeastern Ohio, 

northwestern West Virginia, and northeastern Kentucky 

(Wiken and others, 2011). The ecoregion is surrounded 

by (clockwise, from the northernmost part) the North 

Central Appalachians, Central Appalachians, Southwestern 

Appalachians, Interior Plateau, Eastern Corn Belt Plains, 

and Erie Drift Plains Ecoregions.

The Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion’s forest 

mostly is mixed oak (Quercus spp.), and mixed-temperate 

forests still exist today (2016) on most of the remaining 

rounded hills that have not been mined. Dairy, livestock, 

and general farming, as well as residential developments, 

are concentrated in the valleys (fig. 2). Pittsburgh, 

Pennsylvania, which is the largest urban area in the 

ecoregion, has shown some expansion despite an overall 

population decrease in the ecoregion. Coal mining is still 

active in parts of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, 

and, to a lesser extent, Ohio (figs. 3,4). The Ohio and 

Allegheny Rivers have been adversely affected in the 

ecoregion in the past by acid-mine drainage and industrial 

pollution, which has caused degradation of the stream 

habitats and loss of fish species (Cooper, 1983); however, 

water quality has improved somewhat, and a few species 

have returned to the area. 

Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion 

By Kristi L. Sayler

83° 82° 81° 80° 79°

84°

41°

40°

39°

38°

37°

Piedmont

Ridge and

Valley

RV

Ridge and Valley

Central

Appalachians

BRM

SWA

Erie

Drift Plains

Eastern

Corn Belt Plains

Interior

Plateau

NCA

HELP

EGLHL

BRM

LAKE ERIE

PA

IN

KY

VA

OH

WV

Western

Allegheny

Plateau

Ecoregion

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

LAKE ERIE

Ohio R.

Allegheny R.

Monongahela R.

KENTUCKY

WEST

VIRGINIA

OHIO

MI

PA

MD

TN

VIRGINIA

NC

East Palestine

Brookville

Pittsburgh

0 50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

Figure 1. Map of Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion 

and surrounding ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover 

classes from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann 

and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes 

shown in explanation may be depicted on map; note also that, 

for this “Status and Trends of Land Change” study, transitional 

land-cover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed 

and nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate 

locations of 10 x 10 km sample blocks analyzed in study. Index 

map shows locations of geographic features mentioned in text. 

Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed 

in appendix 2. Also shown are parts of three Midwest–South 

Central United States ecoregions: Eastern Corn Belt Plains, Erie 

Drift Plains, and Huron/Erie Lake Plains (HELP). See appendix 3 

for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
88 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Contemporary Land-Cover Change

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Western Allegheny 

Plateau Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 

6.1 percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern United 

States ecoregions, change in the Western Allegheny Plateau 

Ecoregion was low (fig. 5): an estimated 4.0 percent changed 

only one time. The other 2.1 percent that changed multiple 

times (table 1) likely was the result of coal-mining and timberharvesting activities, which tend to cycle through multiple 

land-cover conversions. The change per time period ranged 

from 1.9 to 2.2 percent, with margins of error ranging from 

0.5 to 0.8 percent at the 85-percent confidence level (table2). 

When normalized to an average annual rate to account for 

unequal time periods, the period between 1986 and 1992 had 

the greatest rate of change, at 0.4 percent (table 2; fig. 6). 

This was a period of change for the coal-mining regions of 

Ohio and West Virginia: Ohio coal production was decreasing 

Figure 2. Fields of corn and oats in valley and forested hills in 

background, in Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion.

Figure 3. Hayfield in foreground and coal mine on horizon, 

southwest of Brookville, Pennsylvania.

because of stricter regulations on surface mining and higher 

environmental emission standards than at previous times 

(Crowell, 1995), whereas West Virginia showed an increase in 

the extraction of low-sulfur coal (Fox, 1999) in order to meet 

the Federal standards of the 1990 Clean Air Act.

Most land-cover classes in the Western Allegheny Plateau 

Ecoregion experienced little change during the 27-year 

Figure 4. Coal mining south of East Palestine, Ohio.

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 5. Overall spatial change in Western Allegheny Plateau 

Ecoregion (WAP; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of 

bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, 

two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in 

Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled 

for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each time period. See 

appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.
Chapter 9—Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion 89

study period (table 3). Forest and agriculture showed steady 

decreases, whereas developed increased during each time 

period, resulting in an increase of 423 km2 between 1973 and 

2000 (table 3; fig. 7). Grassland/shrubland increased from 

1.5 percent of the ecoregion in 1973 to 2.6 percent in 2000. 

Grassland/shrubland had net increases in all four time periods, 

whereas mining and forest showed decreases in most time 

periods. Net changes in other land-cover classes fluctuated 

throughout the study period (1973–2000) (fig. 8).

With a few exceptions for timber cutting, the top three 

leading land-cover conversions during each time period 

(that is, mining to grassland/shrubland, grassland/shrubland 

to forest, and forest to mining) were related to coal-mining 

activities in the ecoregion (table 4). Mining and forest-clearing 

activities caused the most common net changes in the Western 

Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion. 

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 6. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Western 

Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each 

time period.

Figure 7. New housing tract in suburb southeast of Pittsburgh, 

Pennsylvania.

−1

−0.5

0

0.5

1

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 8. Normalized average net change in Western Allegheny 

Plateau Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. Bars 

above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.

Table 1. Percentage of Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion 

land cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (93.9 percent), whereas 6.1 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 4.0 0.7 3.3 4.8 0.5 12.1

2 1.9 0.6 1.3 2.5 0.4 22.3

3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 32.6

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 48.6

Overall 

spatial 

change

6.1 1.3 4.8 7.4 0.9 14.7
90 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion land cover, computed for 

each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 2.1 0.6 1.5 2.6 0.4 18.4 0.3

1980–1986 2.0 0.8 1.2 2.8 0.5 26.4 0.3

1986–1992 2.2 0.6 1.7 2.8 0.4 17.9 0.4

1992–2000 1.9 0.5 1.5 2.4 0.3 16.8 0.2

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 1,755 474 1,281 2,230 323 18.4 251

1980–1986 1,721 666 1,055 2,387 454 26.4 287

1986–1992 1,898 500 1,398 2,398 341 17.9 316

1992–2000 1,635 403 1,233 2,038 274 16.8 204

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion, calculated five times 

between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 1.3 0.4 6.9 3.1 0.1 0.0 1.1 0.4 0.0 0.0 64.6 3.7 1.5 0.8 24.4 2.7 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0

1980 1.3 0.4 7.0 3.1 0.1 0.1 1.2 0.5 0.0 0.0 64.1 3.6 1.9 0.7 24.2 2.7 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

1986 1.3 0.4 7.1 3.1 0.1 0.0 1.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 64.2 3.6 2.0 0.7 24.1 2.7 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

1992 1.3 0.4 7.2 3.2 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.0 0.0 64.0 3.7 2.3 0.9 24.0 2.7 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

2000 1.3 0.4 7.4 3.2 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 63.7 3.7 2.6 1.0 23.9 2.7 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 –0.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 –0.8 0.7 1.1 0.8 –0.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.8 0.2 1.6 0.6 0.0 0.0 2.7 0.6 2.2 0.8 1.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 1,081 373 5,878 2,621 75 37 906 329 0 0 54,703 3,136 1,289 655 20,682 2,284 124 54 0 0

1980 1,118 374 5,940 2,624 84 47 1,033 416 0 0 54,331 3,085 1,576 617 20,524 2,257 130 55 0 0

1986 1,120 374 5,993 2,625 74 31 863 332 0 0 54,429 3,087 1,683 621 20,445 2,256 130 55 0 0

1992 1,122 372 6,136 2,670 244 104 593 202 0 0 54,214 3,153 1,954 763 20,345 2,272 130 55 0 0

2000 1,128 373 6,301 2,694 231 67 512 189 0 0 53,998 3,132 2,209 851 20,217 2,300 141 60 0 0

Net

change 47 49 423 143 156 71 –393 271 0 0 –705 573 920 706 –465 227 17 17 0 0

Gross

change 57 49 424 143 693 210 1,370 502 0 0 2,327 484 1,829 664 1,110 213 17 17 0 0
Chapter 9—Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion 91

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin 

of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study 

period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mining 333 165 112 0.4 19.0

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 259 126 86 0.3 14.7

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 194 107 73 0.2 11.1

Forest Grassland/Shrubland 173 111 76 0.2 9.8

Forest Agriculture 119 52 36 0.1 6.8

Other Other 677 n/a n/a 0.8 38.6

Totals 1,755 2.1 100.0

1980–1986 Grassland/Shrubland Forest 414 249 169 0.5 24.0

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 407 271 185 0.5 23.6

Forest Mining 202 105 71 0.2 11.7

Forest Agriculture 113 53 36 0.1 6.5

Agriculture Mining 82 78 53 0.1 4.8

Other Other 504 n/a n/a 0.6 29.3

Totals 1,721 2.0 100.0

1986–1992 Mining Grassland/Shrubland 372 221 151 0.4 19.6

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 238 72 49 0.3 12.5

Forest Mechanically disturbed 223 102 70 0.3 11.7

Forest Mining 186 88 60 0.2 9.8

Forest Grassland/Shrubland 149 88 60 0.2 7.8

Other Other 730 n/a n/a 0.9 38.5

Totals 1,898 2.2 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mechanically disturbed 215 117 80 0.3 13.1

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 214 67 45 0.3 13.1

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 142 42 29 0.2 8.7

Forest Grassland/Shrubland 138 99 68 0.2 8.4

Mechanically disturbed Forest 135 72 49 0.2 8.2

Other Other 792 n/a n/a 0.9 48.4

Totals 1,635 1.9 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 1,253 666 453 1.5 17.9

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 987 379 258 1.2 14.1

Forest Mining 849 333 227 1.0 12.1

Forest Mechanically disturbed 580 151 103 0.7 8.3

Forest Grassland/Shrubland 528 257 175 0.6 7.5

Other Other 2,813 n/a n/a 3.3 40.1

Totals 7,010 8.3 100.0
92 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

References Cited

Cooper, E.L., 1983, Fishes of Pennsylvania and the northeastern United States: University Park, Pennsylvania State 

University Press, 183 p.

Crowell, D.L., 1995, History of the coal-mining industry in 

Ohio: Ohio Division of Geological Survey Bulletin 72, 204 p.

Fox, J., 1999, Mountaintop removal in West Virginia—An 

environmental sacrifice zone: Organization and Environment, v. 12, no. 2, p. 163–183.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 10

Central Appalachians Ecoregion 

By Kristi L. Sayler

Ecoregion Description 

The Central Appalachians Ecoregion, which covers 

about 59,738 km2 (23,065 mi2) (fig. 1), stretches from central 

Pennsylvania through Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, 

and Kentucky, into northern Tennessee (Wiken and others, 

2011). The ecoregion is surrounded by (clockwise, from the 

northernmost part) the North Central Appalachians, Ridge and 

Valley, Southwestern Appalachians, and Western Allegheny 

Plateau Ecoregions.

The Central Appalachians Ecoregion primarily is a dissected and rugged high plateau underlain by sandstone, shale, 

conglomerate, and coal. Local relief varies from less than 15 

to more than 594 m, and the highest mountain elevations range 

from about 366 to 1,402 m (Woods and others, 1996). The 

climate is variable because of topographic influences in the 

ecoregion. Precipitation is distributed uniformly throughout the 

year, but the late summer and early fall seasons tend to be drier, 

with an average annual precipitation of about 1,125 mm (45 

in.) (Raitz and Ulack, 1984). The rugged terrain, cool climate, 

and infertile soils limit agriculture, and the resulting land cover 

is mostly forest. A mixed mesophytic forest consisting of areas 

of oak (Quercus spp.) and northern hardwood trees covers the 

high hills and low mountains (fig. 2). Coal mining is common 

in the ecoregion and is one of the major drivers of land-cover 

change (fig. 3). Agricultural land is in the valleys, where the 

annual growing season can be as long as 165 days (Woods and 

others, 1996) (fig. 4). The main agricultural activities include 

livestock and dairy farming, as well as the growing of Christmas trees on plantations. 

Figure 1. Map of Central Appalachians Ecoregion and surrounding 

ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover classes from 1992 

National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann and others, 2001); note 

that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown in explanation may 

be depicted on map; note also that, for this “Status and Trends of 

Land Change” study, transitional land-cover class was subdivided 

into mechanically disturbed and nonmechanically disturbed classes. 

Squares indicate locations of 10 x 10 km sample blocks analyzed in 

study. Index map shows locations of geographic features mentioned 

in text. Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are 

listed in appendix 2. Also shown are parts of three Midwest–South 

Central United States ecoregions: Eastern Corn Belt Plains, Erie Drift 

Plains (EDP), and Huron/Erie Lake Plains (HELP). See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.

80° 78°

84° 82° 80°

40°

38°

36°

Piedmont

Western

Allegheny

Plateau

Erie

Drift

Plains

Ridge and

Valley

NP BRM

Blue

Ridge

Mountains

SEP

Eastern

Corn Belt

Plains

HELP

EDP

Interior

Plateau

SWA

NCA EGLHL

LAKE

ERIE

0 50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

OHIO

WEST

VIRGINIA

PENNSYLVANIA

KENTUCKY VIRGINIA

NORTH CAROLINA TENNESSEE

MD

MI

Pittsburgh

Morgantown

LAKE ERIE
94 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Central Appalachians 

Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 9.1 percent 

(fig. 5). Compared to other Eastern United States ecoregions, 

change in the Central Appalachians Ecoregion was moderate 

(fig. 5). An estimated 5.9 percent of the ecoregion changed 

only one time, and an estimated 3.2 percent changed multiple 

times (table 1). Most of the change in the ecoregion was tied 

closely to coal mining, and the highest amounts of change 

were concentrated in coal mining areas. Most of the multiplechange areas represent, first, the conversion of forest to 

mechanically disturbed, mining, and grassland/shrubland, as 

coal mines become established and expand in forested areas, 

and, second, the subsequest conversion of mining to grassland/

shrubland and forest, as mines eventually close down and are 

abandoned or reclaimed. The total change per time period 

ranged from 2.4 to 4.1 percent (table 2). When normalized to 

an average annual rate to account for unequal time periods, the 

period between 1986 and 1992 had the highest rate of change, 

at 0.6 percent (table 2; fig. 6), likely because of a resurgence 

of coal mining in West Virginia in the 1990s (Fox, 1999).

The mining, grassland/shrubland, and forest land-cover 

classes experienced the most change during the 27-year study 

period (table 3). Mining nearly doubled, from 1.7 percent 

of the ecoregion in 1973 to 3.2 percent in 2000. Conversely, 

Figure 2. Road through forested hills, in Central Appalachians 

Ecoregion.

Figure 3. Coal mine in southern West Virginia.

Figure 4. Forested hills and agriculture in valley in Central 

Appalachians Ecoregion.

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 5. Overall spatial change in Central Appalachians 

Ecoregion (CA; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of 

bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, 

two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in 

Central Appalachians Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled for 

clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each time period. See 

appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.
Chapter 10—Central Appalachians Ecoregion 95

forest decreased, from 86.6 percent in 1973 to 83.2 percent in 

2000 (fig. 7). Grassland/shrubland increased throughout the 

study period as old mining areas reverted to forest. Agriculture 

decreased slightly because of abandonment and subsequent 

reversion to forest. Developed increased slightly during the 

four time periods, in contrast to the population of the ecoregion, 

which has steadily decreased since the 1980s (fig. 8). The net 

changes in land-cover classes in the ecoregion during the study 

period are shown in figure 9. The changes were relatively minor 

until the period between 1992 and 2000, when a resurgence in 

forest clearing for mining activities occurred.

The leading land-cover conversions also were all related 

to coal mining in the ecoregion. Forest to mining was the most 

common conversion during all time periods, ranging from 

458 to 1,099 km2 per time period (table 4). During every time 

period, at least 65 percent of all changes were connected to 

mining activities in the ecoregion.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 6. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Central 

Appalachians Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each time 

period.

Figure 7. Active logging of hardwood forests in Central 

Appalachians Ecoregion.

“Status and Trends of Land Change”

study period (1973–2000)

Year

Population

1,200,000

1,600,000

2,000,000

2,400,000

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Figure 8. Population levels in Central Appalachians Ecoregion 

between 1950 and 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various 

years]).
96 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 9. Normalized average net change in Central 

Appalachians Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.
Chapter 10—Central Appalachians Ecoregion 97

Table 1. Percentage of Central Appalachians Ecoregion 

land cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (90.9 percent), whereas 9.1 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 5.9 1.1 4.8 7.0 0.7 12.6

2 2.8 0.6 2.2 3.4 0.4 14.1

3 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.1 23.4

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.6

Overall 

spatial 

change

9.1 1.5 7.6 10.6 1.0 11.0

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Central Appalachians Ecoregion land cover, computed for each of 

four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 2.9 0.7 2.3 3.6 0.4 15.1 0.4

1980–1986 2.4 0.5 1.9 2.9 0.4 15.0 0.4

1986–1992 3.3 0.6 2.7 3.9 0.4 12.1 0.6

1992–2000 4.1 1.1 3.1 5.2 0.7 17.3 0.5

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 1,754 390 1,364 2,145 265 15.1 251

1980–1986 1,423 316 1,107 1,738 214 15.0 237

1986–1992 1,981 354 1,627 2,335 240 12.1 330

1992–2000 2,471 632 1,839 3,103 428 17.3 309
98 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Central Appalachians Ecoregion, calculated five times 

between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed

Mechanically 

disturbed

Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 0.5 0.3 3.1 0.6 0.3 0.2 1.7 0.5 0.0 0.0 86.6 2.0 0.5 0.2 7.0 2.0 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0

1980 0.6 0.3 3.2 0.7 0.2 0.1 1.8 0.5 0.0 0.0 86.0 2.0 0.9 0.3 7.0 2.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0

1986 0.6 0.3 3.3 0.7 0.3 0.1 2.1 0.5 0.0 0.0 85.5 2.0 1.0 0.3 7.0 2.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0

1992 0.6 0.3 3.4 0.7 0.3 0.1 2.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 85.2 2.0 1.4 0.4 6.9 2.0 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0

2000 0.6 0.3 3.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 3.2 1.0 0.0 0.0 83.2 2.0 1.8 0.5 6.8 2.0 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.3 1.5 0.9 0.0 0.0 –3.3 1.0 1.3 0.4 –0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.2 1.3 0.4 3.7 0.9 0.0 0.0 5.0 1.0 1.9 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 308 159 1,834 375 181 128 1,041 282 2 2 51,718 1,222 307 132 4,194 1,190 151 141 0 0

1980 355 165 1,932 390 149 73 1,081 285 2 2 51,368 1,206 527 174 4,179 1,193 145 133 0 0

1986 355 165 1,957 394 188 86 1,236 296 2 2 51,072 1,205 615 176 4,168 1,190 146 134 0 0

1992 358 165 2,038 417 185 81 1,178 276 3 2 50,889 1,223 840 211 4,096 1,174 151 141 0 0

2000 366 165 2,156 449 247 132 1,938 583 2 2 49,731 1,171 1,073 315 4,074 1,166 151 141 0 0

Net

change 58 64 322 133 66 177 897 552 0 0 –1,987 593 765 250 –121 91 0 0 0 0

Gross

change 58 64 323 133 794 226 2,215 566 0 0 2,958 571 1,135 271 260 90 11 16 0 0
Chapter 10—Central Appalachians Ecoregion 99

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Central Appalachians Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin of 

error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study 

period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mining 539 186 126 0.9 30.7

Mining Forest 427 219 149 0.7 24.3

Forest Grassland/Shrubland 185 78 53 0.3 10.6

Forest Mechanically disturbed 121 63 43 0.2 6.9

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 80 40 27 0.1 4.6

Other Other 402 n/a n/a 0.7 22.9

Totals 1,754 2.9 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mining 458 141 95 0.8 32.2

Mining Forest 188 120 82 0.3 13.2

Forest Mechanically disturbed 158 74 50 0.3 11.1

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 154 64 44 0.3 10.8

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 121 39 27 0.2 8.5

Other Other 344 n/a n/a 0.6 24.2

Totals 1,423 2.4 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mining 530 143 97 0.9 26.7

Mining Forest 365 169 115 0.6 18.4

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 240 77 52 0.4 12.1

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 169 60 41 0.3 8.5

Forest Mechanically disturbed 161 75 51 0.3 8.1

Other Other 517 n/a n/a 0.9 26.1

Totals 1,981 3.3 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mining 1,099 500 339 1.8 44.5

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 263 126 85 0.4 10.7

Forest Mechanically disturbed 231 130 88 0.4 9.3

Forest Grassland/Shrubland 182 88 59 0.3 7.4

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 178 86 58 0.3 7.2

Other Other 518 n/a n/a 0.9 21.0

Totals 2,471 4.1 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mining 2,626 714 484 4.4 34.4

Mining Forest 1,094 420 284 1.8 14.3

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 705 195 132 1.2 9.2

Forest Mechanically disturbed 671 248 168 1.1 8.8

Forest Grassland/Shrubland 597 184 125 1.0 7.8

Other Other 1,936 n/a n/a 3.2 25.4

Totals 7,629 12.8 100.0
100 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

References Cited

Fox, J., 1999, Mountaintop removal in West Virginia—An 

environmental sacrifice zone: Organization and Environment, 

v. 12, no. 2, p. 163–183.

Raitz, K.B., and Ulack, R., 1984, Appalachia, a regional 

geography—Land, people, and development: Boulder, Colo., 

Westview Press, 396 p.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

accessed May 9, 2013, at http://www.census.gov/prod/www/

decennial.html.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., Wylie, 

B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 1990s 

National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous United 

States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and ancillary data 

sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, v. 

67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.

Woods, A.J., Omernik, J.M., Brown, D.D., and Kiilsgaard, C.W., 

1996, Level III and IV ecoregions of Pennsylvania and the 

Blue Ridge Mountains, the Ridge and Valley, and Central 

Appalachians of Virginia, West Virginia, and Maryland: 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and 

Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oreg., 

EPA/600/R-96/077, 50 p.
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 11

Ridge and Valley Ecoregion 

By Beverly A. Friesen and Michael P. Stier

Ecoregion Description 

The Ridge and Valley Ecoregion 

is a long, narrow ecoregion that 

covers 111,043 km2 (42,874 mi2), 

stretching about 1,600 km from the 

southeastern corner of New York to 

northeastern Alabama and including 

parts of seven states in between: New 

Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, West 

Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, and 

Georgia (fig. 1). Major cities within 

this ecoregion are Birmingham, 

Alabama, and Chattanooga and 

86° 84° 82° 80° 78° 76° 74°

42°

40°

38°

36°

34°

Piedmont

Interior Plateau

Eastern Corn

Belt Plains

SEP

SEP

SEP

SEP

SEP

Western

Allegheny Plateau

Central

Appalachians

Erie

Drift Plains

Blue Ridge

Mountains

NP

NAPU

NCA

NCA

SMNIDP

HELP

ACPB

MACP

SWA

EGLHL

SCOP

IRL

CCBP

HELP EGLHL NEH

NEH

BRM

SWA

CA NCZ

MACP MACP

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

LAKE ERIE

CANA DA

0 50 100 150 200 250 MILES

0 50 100 150 200 250 KILOMETERS

PENNSYLVANIA

NORTH CAROLINA

VIRGINIA

IN

OHIO

KENTUCKY

SOUTH

CAROLINA

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

GEORGIA

TENNESSEE

MICHIGAN

AL

WEST

VIRGINIA

NY

MD

NJ

DE

LAKE ERIE

State College

Knoxville

Birmingham

Chatanooga

SHENANDOAH

NATIONAL

PARK

SHENANDOAH

NATIONAL

PARK

Blue Ridge Parkway

CANADA

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

EXPLANATION

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

Figure 1. Map of Ridge and Valley 

Ecoregion and surrounding ecoregions, 

showing land-use/land-cover classes 

from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset 

(Vogelmann and others, 2001); note that 

not all land-use/land-cover classes 

shown in explanation may be depicted 

on map; note also that, for this “Status 

and Trends of Land Change” study, 

transitional land-cover class was 

subdivided into mechanically disturbed 

and nonmechanically disturbed 

classes. Squares indicate locations 

of 10 x 10 km sample blocks analyzed 

in study. Index map shows locations 

of geographic features mentioned 

in text. Abbreviations for Eastern 

United States ecoregions are listed in 

appendix 2. Also shown are parts of six 

Midwest–South Central United States 

ecoregions: Central Corn Belt Plains 

(CCBP), Eastern Corn Belt Plains, Erie 

Drift Plains, Huron/Erie Lake Plains 

(HELP), Interior River Lowland (IRL), and 

Southern Michigan/Northern Indiana 

Drift Plains (SMNIDP). See appendix 3 

for definitions of land-use/land-cover 

classifications.
102 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Knoxville, Tennessee. The ecoregion is surrounded by 

(clockwise, from its northeasternmost tip) the Eastern Great 

Lakes and Hudson Lowlands, Northeastern Highlands, Northern 

Piedmont, Blue Ridge Mountains, Piedmont, Southeastern 

Plains, Southwestern Appalachians, Central Appalachians, North 

Central Appalachians, and Northern Appalachian Plateau and 

Uplands Ecoregions. 

This northeast-southwest-trending ecoregion is nestled 

between generally higher areas of more rugged, mountainous 

terrain that, in general, has more forested land. The roughly 

parallel ridges and lowland valleys that make up this area 

are the result of extreme folding and faulting events (Wiken 

and others, 2011) (fig. 2). Elevations range from 152 to 1,311 

m. Managed lands constitute more than 13 percent of the 

ecoregion area, ranging from State parks to wild and scenic 

rivers (Conservation Biology Institute, 2001). The Blue Ridge 

Parkway, a designated parkway administered by the National 

Park Service, dips into the eastern part of the ecoregion in 

Virginia, as do small parts of Shenandoah National Park.

Contemporary Land-Cover Change

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area that 

changed at least one time) in the Ridge and Valley Ecoregion 

between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 5.5 percent (table 1). 

Compared to other Eastern United States ecoregions, change 

in the Ridge and Valley Ecoregion was relatively low (fig. 3): 

of the land that changed, 4.1 percent changed one time, and 1.5 

percent changed two or more times (table 1). In this ecoregion, 

multiple changes often indicate cyclic disturbances; most of the 

multiple changes in this ecoregion represent areas of clearcuts 

and subsequent forest regrowth (fig. 4). 

The overall change per time period for the Ridge and 

Valley Ecoregion ranges from a low of 1.3 percent between 

1980 and 1986 to a high of 2.6 percent between 1992 and 

Figure 2. Typical scene in Ridge and Valley Ecoregion of forested 

areas dominating hilly topography and developed and agricultural 

lands occupying valleys.

2000 (table 2). All estimates have an associated margin of 

error of less than about 1.0 percent, although the margin 

of error increases with the higher amount of change in the 

period between 1992 and 2000 (table 2). When normalized 

to an average annual rate to account for uneven time periods, 

change per time period gradually increased over the study 

period, from 0.2 to 0.3 percent annual change (table 2; fig.5). 

The period between 1992 and 2000 was the most actively 

changing period.

Forest, agriculture, and developed land-cover classes 

accounted for almost 96 percent of the ecoregion area during 

the 27-year study period. The percentages of each land-cover 

class for the five mapped dates between 1973 and 2000 are 

shown in table 3: forest decreased from 57.3 percent in 1973 

to 55.8 percent in 2000 (table 3), and mechanically disturbed 

(clearcuts) increased, starting in the period between 1986 and 

1992. A small decrease in agriculture, from 31.2 to 30.4 percent, 

was recorded between 1973 and 2000; this decrease was due to 

both the abandonment of agricultural fields and the conversion 

of agricultural land to developed land. Decreases in forest and 

agriculture were countered by a 1.4 percent net increase in 

developed, from 7.9 percent of the ecoregion in 1973 to 9.3 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 3. Overall spatial change in Ridge and Valley Ecoregion 

(RV; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of bars shows 

proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, two, three, 

or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in Ridge and 

Valley Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled for clarity. See table 2 

for years covered by each time period. See appendix 2 for key to 

ecoregion abbreviations.
Chapter 11—Ridge and Valley Ecoregion 103

percent in 2000. These net changes are summarized by landcover class for each time period in figure 6.

The five most common land-cover conversions by time 

period are reported in table 4. The greatest consistent change 

over the 27-year study period was the conversion of forest 

to mechanically disturbed, followed by the reversion of 

mechanically disturbed to forest (forest regrowth). The amount 

of land that changed from forest to mechanically disturbed 

more than doubled between the second period (1986–1992; 

535 km2) and the fourth period (1992–2000; 1,169 km2), 

owing to the clearing of trees. In contrast, only 482 km2 of 

mechanically disturbed reverted to forest between 1992 and 

2000. Other leading conversions were the cyclic changes from 

forest to agriculture and from agriculture to forest, as well as the 

unidirectional changes from agriculture and forest to developed.

The amount of land that converted from both forest and 

agriculture to developed more than doubled between 1992 and 

2000, when compared to any previous period; this was the 

same time period in which the amount of clearcutting more 

than doubled. Although many clearcut areas have reverted to 

forest, mechanically disturbed represents a temporary state 

that also can lead to permanent conversion to developed. 

The quantity of clearcuts, coupled with the increased 

amount of forest and agriculture converting to developed, 

highlights the net loss of forest in this ecoregion during 

the 27-year study period. These changes also suggest a 

possible accelerating trend in the clearing of forested and 

agricultural land for development. Increases in developed and 

mechanically disturbed lands and decreases in forested and 

agricultural lands in the Ridge and Valley Ecoregion were 

corroborated by a Southern Forest Resource Assessment from 

the National Resource Inventory data of the U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service 

(Wear, 2002). This study showed that, for the southern 

states between 1982 and 1997, strong economic growth 

led to population growth and increased urbanization at the 

expense of agricultural and forested lands. This trend was 

more noticeable in the southern part of the ecoregion than 

Figure 4. Regrowth in clearcut area, in central Alabama.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 5. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Ridge and 

Valley Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each time period.

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 6. Normalized average net change in Ridge and Valley 

Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. Bars above 

zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero represent 

net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown in explanation 

may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for definitions of landuse and land-cover classifications.
104 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

in the northern part, which also coincides with the largest 

urban centers in the ecoregion (Birmingham, Alabama, and 

Chattanooga and Knoxville, Tennessee) (fig. 7). Forecasts 

for the northern, central, and southern parts of the Ridge and 

Valley Ecoregion showed continued and increased loss of 

forest between 1992 and 2020, with higher losses predicted 

for the southern part of the ecoregion (Wear, 2002). In 

addition, pressures from development likely will continue to 

drive land-use conversions in the Ridge and Valley Ecoregion 

for the foreseeable future (fig. 8).

Figure 7. Paper mill in Ridge and Valley Ecoregion. Industry is 

fairly common in ecoregion, especially along interstate highways 

and exits in its northern part, in Pennsylvania and Virginia, and in 

its southern part, around Birmingham, Alabama, and Chattanooga 

and Knoxville, Tennessee.

Figure 8. Overpass under construction, near State College, 

Pennsylvania.
Chapter 11—Ridge and Valley Ecoregion 105

Table 1. Percentage of Ridge and Valley Ecoregion land cover 

that changed at least one time during study period (1973–2000) and 

associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (94.5 percent), whereas 5.5 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 4.1 0.8 3.3 4.8 0.5 12.8

2 1.4 0.4 1.0 1.8 0.3 19.5

3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 37.4

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 57.1

Overall 

spatial 

change

5.5 1.1 4.4 6.6 0.7 13.3

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Ridge and Valley Ecoregion land cover, computed for each of four 

time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 1.5 0.4 1.1 2.0 0.3 20.0 0.2

1980–1986 1.3 0.4 1.0 1.7 0.3 19.0 0.2

1986–1992 1.6 0.4 1.2 2.0 0.2 15.1 0.3

1992–2000 2.6 0.6 2.0 3.2 0.4 15.8 0.3

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 1,693 497 1,196 2,190 338 20.0 242

1980–1986 1,482 414 1,067 1,896 282 19.0 247

1986–1992 1,778 395 1,383 2,173 269 15.1 296

1992–2000 2,878 668 2,210 3,545 455 15.8 360
106 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Ridge and Valley Ecoregion, calculated five times 

between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed

Mechanically 

disturbed

Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 2.2 0.9 7.9 3.0 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 57.3 5.1 0.1 0.1 31.2 4.6 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

1980 2.3 0.9 8.1 3.0 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 57.0 5.1 0.1 0.1 31.1 4.6 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

1986 2.4 0.9 8.4 3.0 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 56.7 5.0 0.1 0.1 31.0 4.5 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

1992 2.4 0.9 8.7 3.0 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 56.6 5.0 0.1 0.1 30.7 4.5 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

2000 2.4 0.9 9.3 3.0 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 55.8 4.9 0.1 0.1 30.4 4.4 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.3 0.3 1.4 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 –1.5 0.6 0.0 0.0 –0.8 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.3 0.3 1.4 0.4 1.9 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 2.9 0.6 0.1 0.1 1.4 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 2,433 1,019 8,802 3,280 487 182 222 144 8 7 63,600 5,659 88 94 34,635 5,070 767 369 0 0

1980 2,594 1,023 9,039 3,280 481 213 223 125 20 18 63,321 5,609 89 81 34,513 5,071 763 368 0 0

1986 2,704 1,052 9,301 3,288 459 195 253 140 11 9 63,006 5,570 120 89 34,425 5,049 764 369 0 0

1992 2,710 1,051 9,623 3,314 577 168 264 136 11 9 62,843 5,583 111 91 34,140 5,006 763 369 0 0

2000 2,717 1,050 10,305 3,386 1,207 481 278 139 11 9 61,929 5,480 111 83 33,727 4,930 757 364 0 0

Net

change 283 367 1,504 430 719 354 56 46 3 7 –1,671 638 23 54 –908 405 –10 12 0 0

Gross

change 293 366 1,514 429 2,144 579 125 65 21 27 3,211 650 107 61 1,581 329 17 13 0 0
Chapter 11—Ridge and Valley Ecoregion 107

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Ridge and Valley Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin of error, 

calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study period. 

See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mechanically disturbed 420 189 129 0.4 24.7

Mechanically disturbed Forest 387 155 106 0.3 22.8

Forest Agriculture 159 67 46 0.1 9.4

Agriculture Forest 159 64 44 0.1 9.4

Forest Developed 148 70 48 0.1 8.7

Other Other 421 n/a n/a 0.4 24.9

Totals 1,693 1.5 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mechanically disturbed 375 166 113 0.3 25.3

Mechanically disturbed Forest 339 159 108 0.3 22.9

Forest Agriculture 173 67 46 0.2 11.7

Agriculture Developed 145 68 46 0.1 9.8

Forest Developed 110 39 26 0.1 7.5

Other Other 338 n/a n/a 0.3 22.8

Totals 1,482 1.3 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 535 166 113 0.5 30.1

Mechanically disturbed Forest 419 193 131 0.4 23.6

Agriculture Forest 247 101 69 0.2 13.9

Agriculture Developed 155 60 41 0.1 8.7

Forest Developed 152 66 45 0.1 8.6

Other Other 270 n/a n/a 0.2 15.2

Totals 1,778 1.6 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mechanically disturbed 1,169 471 321 1.1 40.6

Mechanically disturbed Forest 482 147 100 0.4 16.8

Agriculture Developed 331 154 105 0.3 11.5

Forest Developed 317 126 86 0.3 11.0

Agriculture Forest 269 167 114 0.2 9.3

Other Other 309 n/a n/a 0.3 10.8

Totals 2,878 2.6 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,498 826 562 2.2 31.9

Mechanically disturbed Forest 1,627 543 370 1.5 20.8

Agriculture Forest 770 250 170 0.7 9.8

Forest Developed 727 262 178 0.7 9.3

Agriculture Developed 710 258 176 0.6 9.1

Other Other 1,498 n/a n/a 1.3 19.1

Totals 7,831 7.1 100.0
108 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

References Cited

Conservation Biology Institute, 2001, Protected areas database PAD-US (CBI edition), version 2: Corvallis, Ore., 

Conservation Biology Institute database, available at http://

consbio.org/products/projects/pad-us-cbi-edition.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wear, D.N., 2002, Land use, in Wear, D.N., and Greis, J.G., 

eds., Southern forest resource assessment: U.S. Forest Service, Southern Research Station, General Technical Report 

SRS 53, p. 153–173, available at http://www.srs.fs.usda.

gov/pubs/4833.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013 at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf. 
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 12

Interior Plateau Ecoregion 

By Mark A. Drummond

Ecoregion Description 

The Interior Plateau Ecoregion 

covers large areas (about 127,810 

km2; 49,348 mi2) of Kentucky and 

central Tennessee, as well as parts 

of Ohio, Indiana, and Alabama 

(Wiken and others, 2011; fig. 1). 

The ecoregion is surrounded by 

(clockwise, from the north) the Eastern 

Corn Belt Plains, Western Allegheny 

Plateau, Southwestern Appalachians, 

Southeastern Plains, Mississippi 

Valley Loess Plains, and Interior 

River Lowland Ecoregions. The Ohio 

River, which forms the north border of 

Kentucky, drains most of the northern 

part of the ecoregion. 

The Interior Plateau Ecoregion 

is a series of grassland plateaus and 

forested uplands that generally are 

lower in elevation than the Appalachian 

Mountains to the east but higher than 

the plains to the south. The relatively flat 

and fertile lowlands, which include the 

“Bluegrass region” (central Kentucky) 

and the Nashville Basin (mainly in 

central Tennessee but also in southern 

Kentucky and northern Alabama), 

attracted early settlement and farming. 

Today, these are highly populated areas 

that include the cities of Louisville, 

Kentucky, and Nashville, Tennessee. 

The Pennyroyal Plateau in south-central 

Kentucky and northern Tennessee is an 

intensely cultivated agricultural area 

that also has a distinctive “flatwood” 

ecosystem, which is characterized 

by oak (Quercus spp.) forests and 

wet conditions that are caused by an 

underlying hard, dense fragipan soil 

(Chester and others, 1995). 

Rapid subsurface drainage occurs 

in sinkhole areas such as south-central 

Kentucky, where extensive cave systems 

88° 86° 84°

40°

38°

36°

34°

Southeastern

Plains

Piedmont

Eastern

Corn Belt Plains

RV

RV P

BRM

CA

Interior

River Lowland

SWA

CCBP

WAP

MVLP

SWA

Interior

Plateau

Ecoregion

0 50 100 150 MILES

0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Nashville

Ohio R.

24

Nashville

Basin

Pennyroyal

Plateau

Bluegrass

Region

Louisville

Nashville

INDIANA

T E N N E S S E E

MS ALABAMA GA

NC

KENTUCKY

OH

IL

A p p a l a c h i a n

M o u n t a i n s

AL GA

IN

KY

TN

OH

MS

Figure 1. Map of Interior Plateau Ecoregion and surrounding ecoregions, showing 

land-use/land-cover classes from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann 

and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown in explanation 

may be depicted on map; note also that, for this “Status and Trends of Land Change” 

study, transitional land-cover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed 

and nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate locations of 10 x 10 km 

sample blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows locations of geographic features 

mentioned in text. Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed in 

appendix 2. Also shown are parts of three Midwest–South Central United States 

ecoregions: Central Corn Belt Plains (CCBP), Eastern Corn Belt Plains, and Interior 

River Lowland. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
110 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

wind through the karst limestone landscape. Water quality 

of the associated aquifers and streams is a special concern in 

watersheds where agriculture and coal mining are prevalent. 

Across the Interior Plateau Ecoregion, climate conditions 

are humid temperate, with annual precipitation averaging 

about 1,200 mm (47.2 in.). Oak-hickory (Quercus spp. and 

Carya spp., respectively) stands are the most common forest 

type, although mixed stands of eastern red-cedar (Juniperus 

virginiana) and hardwoods grow in many rocky areas and 

limestone glades (fig. 2). Bluestem (Andropogon spp.) prairie 

is the most common type of grassland. Historically, fire was 

an important natural process for maintaining open-canopied, 

savannalike conditions on the plateaus (Chester and others, 

1995; Hudson, 2002). 

Population in the Interior Plateau Ecoregion has increased 

steadily by about 40 percent between 1970 and 2000, from 4.4 

million to 6.2 million people (U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 

[various years]). Automobile manufacturing has expanded into 

the ecoregion from other industrial areas of the United States, 

and tourism and service industries also are important at several 

locations. Major agricultural products include soybeans, corn, 

tobacco, and dairy (fig. 3). The Bluegrass area has unique land 

uses, including a tradition of racehorse breeding and training 

farms, as well as the production of high-value burley tobacco. 

Figure 2. Roadside vista of pastureland, forest, and farms in southcentral Kentucky, in central part of Interior Plateau Ecoregion.

Figure 3. Tobacco field in central Tennessee.

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land 

area that changed at least one time) in the Interior Plateau 

Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 4.5 percent 

(table 1), meaning that 95.5 percent of the total area was 

stable. Compared to other Eastern United States ecoregions, 

change in the Interior Plateau Ecoregion was relatively low 

(fig. 4): an estimated 3.7 percent of the ecoregion changed 

only one time. The percentage of ecoregion area that changed 

multiple times also was relatively low: an estimated 0.8 

percent changed twice, and 0.1 percent changed three times 

(table 1). When normalized to an average annual rate to 

account for unequal time periods, the highest total change 

occurred during the period between 1980 and 1986 (1.7 

percent), with an annual rate of 0.3 percent (table 2; fig. 5). 

The lowest rate of change occurred during the period between 

1973 and 1980, when total change was less than 1 percent 

(0.8 percent), and the annual rate was 0.1 percent.

Agricultural land, forested land, and developed land 

accounted for more than 96 percent of the ecoregion 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 4. Overall spatial change in Interior Plateau Ecoregion 

(IP; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of bars shows 

proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, two, three, 

or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in Interior 

Plateau Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled for clarity. See table 

2 for years covered by each time period. See appendix 2 for key to 

ecoregion abbreviations.
Chapter 12—Interior Plateau Ecoregion 111

area in 2000. Agriculture is the most common land cover, 

and it constituted 50.9 percent of the ecoregion in 1973, 

decreasing to 50.0 percent in 2000 (table 3). Forest was the 

next most common land cover, with a high of 39.0 percent 

of the ecoregion in 1973 and a low of 37.7 percent in 2000. 

Developed had a steady gain, from 6.9 percent of the ecoregion 

in 1973 to 8.6 percent in 2000 (fig. 6). Other small gains of 

about 0.2 percent each occurred between 1973 and 2000 in 

mechanically disturbed and grassland/shrubland. Developed 

experienced the greatest increase (1.7 percent) in ecoregion 

area between 1973 and 2000 (table 3). Net losses occurred in 

forest (1.3 percent) and agriculture (0.8 percent). Although the 

increase in developed generally accelerated over the 27-year 

study period (fig. 7), the highest rate of increase was between 

1980 and 1986 (0.6 percent), which is also the period that has 

the highest overall rate of ecoregion change (1.7 percent). Most 

of the land converting to developed (nearly 60 percent) came 

from agriculture. Conversely, most of the loss in agriculture 

was to developed, except in the period between 1973 and 1980, 

when the conversion of agricultural land to grassland/shrubland 

was highest. 

Between 1973 and 2000, the most common land-cover 

conversion (1,373 km2) was from forest to agriculture 

(table 4). However, this conversion did not result in a net 

increase in agricultural land because, at the same time, 

agricultural land was being converted to developed land and 

to grassland/shrubland at an overall higher rate. Conversion 

from agricultural land to developed land was the second most 

common change (1,250 km2). The various gains and losses 

of agricultural land during the study period are masked by a 

low net rate of change (–0.8 percent) (table 3). Cyclic changes 

involving mechanical disturbance of forested areas and 

subsequent reforestation were less common, although they did 

increase through time (fig. 8). 

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 5. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Interior 

Plateau Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each time period.

Figure 6. Suburban development next to Interstate 24, outside of 

Nashville, Tennessee.

−1

−0.5

0

0.5

1

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 7. Normalized average net change in Interior Plateau 

Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. Bars above 

zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero represent 

net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown in explanation 

may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for definitions of 

land-use and land-cover classifications.
112 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 8. Forest being cleared near east edge of Interior Plateau 

Ecoregion.

Table 1. Percentage of Interior Plateau Ecoregion land cover 

that changed at least one time during study period (1973–2000) and 

associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (95.5 percent), whereas 4.5 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 3.7 0.9 2.8 4.6 0.6 16.8

2 0.8 0.2 0.5 1.0 0.2 21.4

3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 34.3

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 67.7

Overall 

spatial 

change

4.5 1.1 3.4 5.6 0.7 16.2

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Interior Plateau Ecoregion land cover, computed for each of four 

time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each time period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 0.8 0.2 0.6 1.1 0.2 20.0 0.1

1980–1986 1.7 0.5 1.2 2.1 0.3 19.2 0.3

1986–1992 1.4 0.4 1.0 1.7 0.3 20.1 0.2

1992–2000 1.6 0.4 1.2 2.0 0.3 17.6 0.2

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 1,080 318 762 1,397 216 20.0 154

1980–1986 2,135 603 1,532 2,738 411 19.2 356

1986–1992 1,726 508 1,218 2,235 346 20.1 288

1992–2000 1,984 513 1,471 2,497 349 17.6 248
Chapter 12—Interior Plateau Ecoregion 113

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Interior Plateau Ecoregion, calculated five times between 

1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed

Mechanically 

disturbed

Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 1.5 0.9 6.9 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 39.0 4.4 0.8 0.7 50.9 5.0 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

1980 1.6 0.9 7.1 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 38.8 4.5 0.9 0.7 50.7 5.0 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

1986 1.6 0.9 7.7 3.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 38.3 4.5 1.0 0.7 50.5 5.1 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

1992 1.6 0.9 8.1 3.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 38.1 4.5 1.0 0.7 50.3 5.1 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

2000 1.6 0.9 8.6 3.7 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 37.7 4.5 1.0 0.7 50.0 5.2 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.8 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 –1.3 0.6 0.2 0.3 –0.8 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.1 0.0 1.7 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 1.9 0.6 0.7 0.3 2.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 1,976 1,173 8,859 3,900 37 23 111 45 1 1 49,864 5,674 1,021 949 65,005 6,357 935 440 0 0

1980 1,986 1,172 9,087 3,971 18 11 230 162 1 1 49,532 5,707 1,161 926 64,830 6,390 943 441 21 30

1986 1,993 1,172 9,829 4,338 127 76 138 54 1 1 48,981 5,707 1,278 931 64,524 6,502 938 440 0 0

1992 2,009 1,171 10,291 4,485 150 78 176 75 1 1 48,710 5,785 1,265 910 64,269 6,574 939 437 0 0

2000 2,024 1,168 11,013 4,690 322 145 161 88 1 1 48,149 5,729 1,263 915 63,938 6,597 938 438 0 0

Net

change 48 25 2,154 978 285 145 51 56 0 0 –1,715 755 243 393 –1,067 905 3 11 0 0

Gross

change 92 24 2,160 978 656 274 358 376 0 0 2,430 707 916 405 2,545 762 34 27 42 61
114 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Interior Plateau Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin of error, 

calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study period. 

See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Agriculture 218 104 71 0.2 20.2

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 210 75 51 0.2 19.4

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 124 52 36 0.1 11.4

Forest Developed 105 73 49 0.1 9.7

Agriculture Developed 103 61 41 0.1 9.6

Other Other 320 n/a n/a 0.3 29.7

Totals 1,080 0.8 100.0

1980–1986 Agriculture Developed 464 247 168 0.4 21.7

Forest Agriculture 460 168 115 0.4 21.6

Forest Developed 235 176 120 0.2 11.0

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 207 109 74 0.2 9.7

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 195 61 42 0.2 9.1

Other Other 575 n/a n/a 0.4 26.9

Totals 2,135 1.7 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Agriculture 365 252 171 0.3 21.1

Agriculture Developed 281 170 116 0.2 16.3

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 218 91 62 0.2 12.6

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 193 76 52 0.2 11.2

Forest Developed 125 125 85 0.1 7.2

Other Other 545 n/a n/a 0.4 31.6

Totals 1,726 1.4 100.0

1992–2000 Agriculture Developed 403 165 112 0.3 20.3

Forest Agriculture 330 218 149 0.3 16.6

Forest Mechanically disturbed 288 144 98 0.2 14.5

Forest Developed 240 137 93 0.2 12.1

Agriculture Forest 165 130 89 0.1 8.3

Other Other 559 n/a n/a 0.4 28.2

Totals 1,984 1.6 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Agriculture 1,373 597 407 1.1 19.8

Agriculture Developed 1,250 566 386 1.0 18.1

Forest Developed 704 480 327 0.6 10.2

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 694 247 168 0.5 10.0

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 663 214 146 0.5 9.6

Other Other 2,241 n/a n/a 1.8 32.4

Totals 6,925 5.4 100.0
Chapter 12—Interior Plateau Ecoregion 115

References Cited

Chester, E.W., Noel, S.M., Baskin, J.M., Baskin, C.C., and 

McReynolds, M.L., 1995, A phytosociological analysis of 

an old-growth upland wet woods on the Pennyroyal Plain, 

southcentral Kentucky, USA: Natural Areas Journal, v. 15, 

p. 297–307.

Hudson, J.C., 2002, Across this land—A regional geography 

of the United States and Canada: Baltimore, The Johns 

Hopkins University Press, 474 p.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

accessed May 9, 2013, at http://www.census.gov/prod/

www/decennial.html.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 13

Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion 

By Terry L. Sohl

Ecoregion Description 

The Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion covers 

about 35,341 km2 (13,645 mi2), stretching from north-central 

Alabama to southeastern Kentucky (fig. 1) and including 

part of east-central Tennessee and the northwestern tip of 

Georgia. The ecoregion is bounded on the north-northwest 

by the Interior Plateau Ecoregion; on the east-northeast, by 

the Western Allegheny Plateau and Central Appalachians 

Ecoregions; on the southeast, by the Ridge and Valley 

Ecoregion; and on the southwest, by the Southeastern Plains 

Ecoregion.

Much of the Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion 

consists of open low mountains, but some parts have steep 

slopes with local relief of as much as 300 m. About threefourths of the ecoregion is covered by forest, primarily mixed 

oak (Quercus spp.) communities and shortleaf pines (Pinus 

echinata) (fig. 2). Agriculture is practiced on lower slopes 

and valley floors, the greatest concentration of agricultural 

land being in northeastern Alabama. Mining is a locally 

significant land-use activity, especially in the southern part of 

the ecoregion where the local abundance of coal, limestone, 

and iron deposits led to a booming steel industry in the first 

half of the 20th century. No large cities (that is, cities that 

have populations greater than 100,000) are completely within 

the ecoregion’s borders, but the greater metropolitan areas 

of Birmingham and Huntsville, Alabama, and Chattanooga, 

Tennessee, are partly within the ecoregion.

87° 86° 85°

37°

36°

35°

34°

Interior Plateau

Piedmont

Ridge and

Valley

SEP

Interior

River

Lowland

WAP

SEP

RV

CA

BRM

0 50

0 50

100

100

MILES

KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

KENTUCKY

TENNESSEE

ALABAMA

Huntsville

GEORGIA

Birmingham

Chattanooga Tennessee River

AL GA

KY

TN

Southwestern

Appalachians

Ecoregion

Piedmont

Figure 1. Map of Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion and 

surrounding ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover classes 

from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann and others, 

2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown in 

explanation may be depicted on map; note also that, for this 

“Status and Trends of Land Change” study, transitional landcover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed and 

nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate locations 

of 10 x 10 km sample blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows 

locations of geographic features mentioned in text. Abbreviations 

for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. 

Also shown is part of one Midwest–South Central United States 

ecoregion, Interior River Lowland. See appendix 3 for definitions 

of land-use/land-cover classifications.
118 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land 

area that changed at least one time) in the Southwestern 

Appalachians Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated 

at 13.8 percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern United 

States ecoregions, change in the Southwestern Appalachians 

Ecoregion is moderately high (fig. 3). The total amount of 

change increased in each successive time period (table 2). 

When normalized to an average annual rate to account for 

unequal time periods, change was lower during the first time 

period (1973–1980), and it was both higher and relatively 

steady for the last three time periods (1980–1986, 1986–1992, 

1992–2000) (table 2; fig. 4).

No individual land-cover class changed by more than 

2.7 percent of the total ecoregion area during the 27-year 

study period (table 3). However, two factors that notably 

drove land-cover conversion in the ecoregion were forestry 

activity and mining activity. Forest consistently showed some 

of the largest amount of net change, with fairly consistent 

decreases in all four time periods (fig. 5). The conversion 

from forest to mechanically disturbed was the most common 

land-cover conversion in all four time periods, whereas the 

conversion from mechanically disturbed to forest (representing 

regeneration of cut forest land) was the second or third most 

common conversion (table 4). Forestry-related activities 

(both cutting and regeneration) clearly were one of the most 

significant factors affecting land-cover change in the ecoregion 

in all time periods (figs. 6,7). 

Mining activity was the second most important factor 

that drove land-cover change in the ecoregion (fig. 6). Much 

of the surface mining in the ecoregion, especially in northern 

Alabama, is for coal, iron, and limestone, all primary materials 

required for the production of steel. The Birmingham, Alabama, 

Figure 2. Forested hills in Southwestern Appalachians 

Ecoregion. Forests, which cover about three-fourths of ecoregion, 

are prevalent on most hilly and mountainous slopes.

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four

time periods

Figure 3. Overall spatial change in Southwestern Appalachians 

Ecoregion (SWA; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of 

bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, 

two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in 

Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled 

for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each time period. See 

appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 4. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for 

Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion are represented by red 

bars in each time period.
Chapter 13—Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregionn 119

metropolitan area, which is partly within the southern part of 

the ecoregion, was once known as the “Pittsburgh of the South” 

(Lewis, 2008). The related mining and steel industries were key 

components of much of the area’s economy in much of the 20th 

century; however, the local steel industry began to decline in 

the second half of the 20th century. Imports of less expensive 

foreign steel into the United States increased significantly after 

1980, contributing to additional closures of steel facilities in 

the ecoregion (L.W. Gerard, 2001, written commun.). With 

these declines, local demand for the raw materials needed by 

the industry also declined. As production halted at the surface 

mines, many were revegetated, thus converting to grassland/

shrubland and eventually reverting to forest. Although 610 

km2 of newly mined lands were established between 1973 and 

2000, more than 1,000 km2 of mined lands were reclaimed 

during the same time period, resulting in a net decline of 

more than 300 km2 (table 3; fig. 8). The most significant 

decline was between 1980 and 1986, when mined land area 

decreased by more than 50 percent within the ecoregion, 

with very minor decreases in the last two time periods (table 

3; fig. 5). Changes related to the reclamation of mined lands 

(including mining converting to grassland/shrubland and 

eventually reverting to forest) were significant land-cover 

conversions during all time periods (table 4). 

Other land-cover conversions generally were minor in the 

ecoregion. Developed steadily increased throughout the study 

period, resulting in a net gain of more than 300 km2 between 

1973 and 2000. Urban centers on the fringes of the ecoregion 

(for example, Birmingham, Alabama) showed only minor 

population gains or even decreased in population during the 

study period, but growth in the surrounding suburbs was the 

primary driver behind the net gain in developed land.

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 5. Normalized average net change in Southwestern 

Appalachians Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.

1973–1980 1980–1986 1986–1992 1992–2000

Time period

Gross change, as percent of ecoregion 

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Development Other

Mining/Reclamation

Forestry

Figure 6. Gross changes in forestry (which includes both 

forest and mechanically disturbed land-cover classes), mining/

reclamation (which includes both mining and grassland/shrubland 

land-cover classes), development (developed land-cover class), 

and other land uses in Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion 

during 27-year study period. Forestry activity (forest cutting 

and regeneration) and mining activity (new mining and mining 

reclamation) accounted for most change in ecoregion.
120 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 7. Timber-harvesting operation in Southwestern 

Appalachians Ecoregion. Most logged lands were either replanted 

or allowed to regenerate naturally to forest.

Figure 8. Gravel mine in Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion. 

Mining activity historically has been important component of 

economy in much of ecoregion; however, amount of actively 

mined lands decreased during 27-year study period, and many 

older mines were either reclaimed or allowed to revegetate 

naturally.
Chapter 13—Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregionn 121

Table 1. Percentage of Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion 

land cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (86.2 percent), whereas 13.8 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 6.3 1.5 4.8 7.7 1.0 15.7

2 6.3 2.0 4.3 8.3 1.3 21.3

3 1.1 0.4 0.7 1.5 0.3 24.2

4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 37.9

Overall 

spatial 

change

13.8 3.7 10.1 17.6 2.5 18.1

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion land cover, computed for 

each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 3.7 1.2 2.5 5.0 0.8 22.4 0.5

1980–1986 5.5 1.5 3.9 7.0 1.0 19.0 0.9

1986–1992 6.2 1.8 4.4 8.0 1.2 19.7 1.0

1992–2000 7.3 2.3 5.1 9.6 1.5 20.8 0.9

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 1,313 438 875 1,750 294 22.4 188

1980–1986 1,931 545 1,386 2,477 367 19.0 322

1986–1992 2,199 646 1,553 2,845 434 19.7 367

1992–2000 2,587 799 1,787 3,386 538 20.8 323
122 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion, calculated 

five times between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 0.5 0.2 1.8 0.6 1.1 0.6 1.6 0.8 0.0 0.0 78.0 3.9 0.4 0.2 16.5 4.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

1980 0.5 0.2 1.8 0.7 0.9 0.3 1.7 0.7 0.0 0.0 77.6 3.9 0.9 0.4 16.4 4.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

1986 0.6 0.2 2.1 0.8 1.5 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.0 76.9 3.9 1.6 0.5 16.3 4.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

1992 0.6 0.2 2.3 0.9 2.3 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.0 0.0 76.0 3.8 1.5 0.6 16.3 4.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

2000 0.6 0.2 2.7 1.0 2.9 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.0 0.0 75.4 4.0 1.3 0.6 16.3 4.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.5 1.8 0.8 –0.9 0.8 0.0 0.0 –2.7 1.1 0.9 0.4 –0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.5 4.6 1.2 2.7 1.2 0.0 0.0 6.0 1.4 2.2 0.7 0.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1

Area, in square kilometers

1973 165 59 634 224 384 195 551 295 1 1 27,583 1,374 139 62 5,823 1,443 60 32 0 0

1980 175 61 652 232 314 119 600 263 1 1 27,425 1,362 305 135 5,803 1,441 60 32 7 10

1986 201 74 736 277 543 168 295 160 1 1 27,186 1,372 549 187 5,772 1,445 60 32 0 0

1992 209 74 824 314 819 366 281 204 1 1 26,875 1,344 528 205 5,745 1,445 60 32 0 0

2000 221 81 955 368 1,020 350 233 127 1 1 26,635 1,409 467 208 5,750 1,452 59 32 0 0

Net

change 56 40 321 162 636 297 –318 270 0 0 –948 405 327 159 –74 111 –1 1 0 0

Gross

change 56 40 321 162 1,642 416 937 412 0 0 2,109 494 786 242 332 87 1 1 14 20
Chapter 13—Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregionn 123

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin 

of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study 

period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mechanically disturbed 302 115 77 0.9 23.0

Mechanically disturbed Forest 295 186 125 0.8 22.4

Forest Mining 239 116 78 0.7 18.2

Mining Forest 115 101 68 0.3 8.7

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 101 94 63 0.3 7.7

Other Other 262 n/a n/a 0.7 20.0

Totals 1,313 3.7 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mechanically disturbed 531 164 110 1.5 27.5

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 298 142 95 0.8 15.4

Mechanically disturbed Forest 256 107 72 0.7 13.3

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 187 99 67 0.5 9.7

Mining Forest 154 84 56 0.4 8.0

Other Other 505 n/a n/a 1.4 26.2

Totals 1,931 5.5 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 789 351 236 2.2 35.9

Mechanically disturbed Forest 421 148 100 1.2 19.1

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 283 93 62 0.8 12.9

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 136 76 51 0.4 6.2

Forest Mining 134 94 63 0.4 6.1

Other Other 435 n/a n/a 1.2 19.8

Totals 2,199 6.2 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mechanically disturbed 1,003 346 233 2.8 38.8

Mechanically disturbed Forest 726 356 239 2.1 28.1

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 244 104 70 0.7 9.4

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 136 122 82 0.4 5.3

Forest Mining 94 61 41 0.3 3.6

Other Other 384 n/a n/a 1.1 14.9

Totals 2,587 7.3 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,626 876 589 7.4 32.7

Mechanically disturbed Forest 1,698 709 477 4.8 21.1

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 750 274 184 2.1 9.3

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 671 359 241 1.9 8.4

Forest Mining 610 314 211 1.7 7.6

Other Other 1,675 n/a n/a 4.7 20.9

Totals 8,030 22.7 100.0
124 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

References Cited

Lewis, H.J., 2008, Birmingham: Encyclopedia of Alabama, accessed September 4, 2015, at http://www.

encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1421.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 14

Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion 

By Janis L. Taylor, Rachel M.K. Headley, and Darrell E. Napton

Ecoregion Description 

The Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion, in the 

southern Appalachian Mountains, is the easternmost of 

the Appalachian highland ecoregions (fig. 1). More than 

1,100 km long and ranging between 8 and 80 km wide, the 

ecoregion covers about 47,791 km2 (18,452 mi2) in eight 

states: Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, 

Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. The 

ecoregion is bounded on the west-northwest by the Ridge 

and Valley Ecoregion; and on the east-southeast, by the 

Piedmont and Northern Piedmont Ecoregions.

The Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion primarily is 

forested, with cool summers and cold winters. Almost onethird of the ecoregion is under public ownership, including 

two national parks (Great Smoky Mountains National Park 

and Shenandoah National Park), the Blue Ridge Parkway, 

seven national forests, and 29 wilderness areas (Nash, 

1999). Areas within the Great Smoky Mountains National 

Park have been declared an International Biosphere Reserve 

because of the large number of endemic species of flora and 

fauna present there (Bousquet, 2000). The overall landscape 

is a mosaic of large continuous blocks of forest intermixed 

with agriculture and dotted with small parcels of developed 

land. 

78°

84° 82° 80°

40°

38°

36°

34°

Piedmont

SEP

Central

Appalachians

Erie Drift Plains

Ridge and

Valley

Western Allegheny

Plateau

Eastern

Corn Belt

Plains

IP

EDP

SWA

SEP

NP

MACP

HELP WAP CA

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

0 50 100 150 200 MILES

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (20 x 20 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

EXPLANATION

PENNSYLVANIA

NORTH CAROLINA

KENTUCKY VIRGINIA

OHIO

MD

SOUTH CAROLINA

GEORGIA

TN

WEST

VIRGINIA

Asheville

Weaverville

Watauga Co Blue Ridge Parkway

Avery Co

SHENANDOAH

NATIONAL PARK

40

Barnardsville

Boone

GREAT SMOKY

MTS NP

A P P A L A C H I A N M O U N T A I N S

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

Figure 1. Map of Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion and 

surrounding ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover classes 

from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann and others, 

2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be depicted on map; note also that, for 

this “Status and Trends of Land Change” study, transitional 

land-cover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed 

and nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate 

locations of 20 x 20 km sample blocks analyzed in study. Index 

map shows locations of geographic features mentioned in text. 

Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed 

in appendix 2. Also shown are parts of two Midwest–South 

Central United States ecoregions: Eastern Corn Belt Plains and 

Erie Drift Plains. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/

land-cover classifications.
126 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

Land cover in the Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion is 

fairly stable. The overall spatial change (the percentage of 

land area that changed at least one time) in the Blue Ridge 

Mountains Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 

2.0 percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States 

ecoregions, change in the Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion 

was the lowest of all (fig. 2): of the land that changed, threefourths changed only one time, whereas one-fourth changed 

twice (table 1). Estimated changes in each of the four time 

periods were low, ranging from 0.4 percent between 1980 and 

1986 to 0.9 percent between 1992 and 2000 (table 2). When 

normalized to an average annual rate to account for uneven 

time periods, change per time period was 0.1 percent per year 

in all time periods (table 2; fig. 3). 

The percentage of each land-cover class on each of five 

mapped dates between 1973 and 2000 is shown in table 3. 

Three land-cover classes (forest, agriculture, and developed) 

accounted for about 99.2 percent of the ecoregion in 2000. 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 2. Overall spatial change in Blue Ridge Mountains 

Ecoregion (BRM; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of bars 

shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, two, 

three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in Blue 

Ridge Mountains Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled for clarity. 

See table 2 for years covered by each time period. See appendix 2 

for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

Forest, the most common land-cover class, makes up nearly 

80 percent of the ecoregion. During the entire study period, 

forest decreased from 79.5 percent of the ecoregion in 1973 

to 78.3 percent in 2000, a 1.2 percent decrease. Changes to 

forest during the study period included both unidirectional and 

cyclical conversions. Some forest was converted to developed, 

whereas some forested land was harvested for timber and 

then reverted to forest in subsequent years. Agriculture was 

the second most common land-cover class, occupying about 

13.7 percent of the ecoregion in 2000 (table 3; fig. 4). During 

the entire study period, agriculture remained relatively stable, 

experiencing minor gains and losses in each time period. 

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 3. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Blue Ridge 

Mountains Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each time 

period.

Figure 4. Tobacco field next to school, in Barnardsville, North 

Carolina.
Chapter 14—Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion 127

Developed, the third most common land-cover class, increased 

by 1.1 percent of the ecoregion, from 6.1 percent in 1972 to 

7.2 percent in 2000 (table 3; figs. 5,6).

The conversion of forest to developed dominated in 

three of the four study periods (1973–1980, 1980–1986, 

1992–2000) (table 4; fig. 7). The most common conversion 

of this type occurred between 1992 and 2000, when 191 km2

of forest converted to developed (table 4; fig. 8). Between 

1986 and 1992, the most common land-cover conversion was 

from forest to mechanically disturbed: about 87 km2 of forest 

was cut, likely a result of commercial timber harvesting for 

pulpwood used to produce paper and packaging materials 

(Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere, 1996).

Overall, little change occurred in this amenity-rich 

ecoregion between 1973 and 2000. Most of the land-cover 

change that occurred was to developed, as existing urban areas 

expanded and exurban development increased. Between 1970 

and 2000, population within the ecoregion increased by 63 

percent, almost double the national increase of 34 percent (U.S. 

Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years]). Seasonal residents 

are drawn to the mountains, both in the summer, for a respite 

from the warmth and humidity of the South, and in the winter, 

for snow-related recreation such as skiing (Gade and others, 

2002); accordingly, an increase in seasonal housing was seen 

in Avery and Watauga Counties, North Carolina, between 1970 

and 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years]).

−1

−0.5

0

0.5

1

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 5. Normalized average net change in Blue Ridge 

Mountains Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.

Figure 6. Homes built along ridgeline, near Boone, North 

Carolina.

Figure 7. Gas station and strip mall on Interstate 40, near 

Asheville, North Carolina.
128 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 8. Land being cleared for new development in Twin Brook 

Hills subdivision, near Weaverville, North Carolina.

Table 1. Percentage of Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion land 

cover that changed at least one time during study period (1973–

2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (98.0 percent), whereas 2.0 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 1.5 0.4 1.1 2.0 0.3 18.7

2 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.1 20.1

3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 91.8

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 95.7

Overall 

spatial 

change

2.0 0.5 1.5 2.5 0.3 14.5

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion land cover, computed for each of 

four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.1 19.1 0.1

1980–1986 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.1 24.6 0.1

1986–1992 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.1 23.7 0.1

1992–2000 0.9 0.2 0.7 1.1 0.1 12.7 0.1

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 255 76 178 331 49 19.1 36

1980–1986 209 81 128 289 51 24.6 35

1986–1992 295 110 185 406 70 23.7 49

1992–2000 430 86 344 515 54 12.7 54
Chapter 14—Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion 129

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion, calculated five times 

between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically 

disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 0.5 0.3 6.1 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 79.5 5.4 0.1 0.1 13.7 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

1980 0.5 0.3 6.3 2.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 79.1 5.3 0.1 0.1 13.7 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

1986 0.5 0.3 6.5 2.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 79.0 5.4 0.1 0.1 13.7 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

1992 0.5 0.3 6.7 2.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 78.6 5.3 0.1 0.1 13.6 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

2000 0.5 0.3 7.2 2.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 78.3 5.4 0.1 0.1 13.7 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 –1.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 –0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 242 134 2,896 1,007 15 9 21 22 2 2 38,017 2,566 28 25 6,555 2,235 14 10 0 0

1980 243 134 3,014 1,011 98 43 27 21 2 2 37,809 2,518 28 25 6,556 2,225 14 10 0 0

1986 247 133 3,115 1,060 60 37 31 22 2 2 37,734 2,560 28 25 6,560 2,234 14 10 0 0

1992 248 133 3,223 1,048 116 56 38 23 2 2 37,580 2,541 50 43 6,521 2,230 14 10 0 0

2000 248 133 3,426 1,083 91 55 38 24 2 2 37,417 2,559 31 28 6,524 2,231 14 10 0 0

Net

change 6 8 529 214 76 50 17 10 0 0 –600 190 3 4 –31 39 0 0 0 0

Gross

change 6 8 529 214 342 122 21 13 0 0 715 169 47 67 92 59 0 0 0 0
130 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin of 

error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study 

period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Developed 112 59 37 0.2 43.9

Forest Mechanically disturbed 83 44 28 0.2 32.7

Forest Agriculture 23 19 12 0.0 8.9

Mechanically disturbed Forest 8 7 5 0.0 3.2

Agriculture Forest 8 8 5 0.0 3.1

Other Other 21 n/a n/a 0.0 8.1

Totals 255 0.5 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Developed 95 68 43 0.2 45.4

Mechanically disturbed Forest 61 36 23 0.1 29.1

Forest Mechanically disturbed 28 19 12 0.1 13.5

Forest Agriculture 10 10 6 0.0 4.8

Agriculture Developed 6 8 5 0.0 2.8

Other Other 9 n/a n/a 0.0 4.4

Totals 209 0.4 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 87 43 27 0.2 29.3

Forest Developed 66 53 34 0.1 22.3

Agriculture Developed 42 41 26 0.1 14.2

Mechanically disturbed Forest 31 19 12 0.1 10.6

Forest Grassland/Shrubland 22 33 21 0.0 7.5

Other Other 47 n/a n/a 0.1 16.1

Totals 295 0.6 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Developed 191 71 45 0.4 44.4

Mechanically disturbed Forest 104 55 35 0.2 24.2

Forest Mechanically disturbed 85 56 35 0.2 19.9

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 15 22 14 0.0 3.4

Grassland/Shrubland Agriculture 8 11 7 0.0 1.8

Other Other 27 n/a n/a 0.1 6.3

Totals 430 0.9 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Developed 463 195 124 1.0 39.0

Forest Mechanically disturbed 284 94 60 0.6 23.9

Mechanically disturbed Forest 204 77 49 0.4 17.2

Agriculture Developed 61 51 33 0.1 5.1

Forest Agriculture 52 40 25 0.1 4.4

Other Other 124 n/a n/a 0.3 10.4

Totals 1,188 2.5 100.0
Chapter 14—Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion 131

References Cited

Bousquet, Woodward S., 2000, Outdoor recreation, in Orr, 

Douglas M., Jr., and Stuart, A.W., The North Carolina 

atlas—Portrait for a new century: Chapel Hill, The 

University of North Carolina Press, p. 409–433.

Gade, O., Rex, A.B., Young, J.E., and Perry, L.B., 2002, North 

Carolina—People and environments (2d ed.): Boone, N.C., 

Parkway Publishers, Inc., 602 p.

Nash, Steve, 1999, Blue Ridge 2020—An owner’s manual: 

Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 211 p. 

Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere, 1996, The 

southern Appalachian assessment: Southern Appalachian 

Man and the Biosphere, v. 1–5, available at http://www.

samab.org/site/publications/.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

accessed May 9, 2013, at http://www.census.gov/prod/

www/decennial.html. 

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Southeastern United States Ecoregions

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 15

Piedmont Ecoregion 

By Darrell E. Napton

Ecoregion Description 

The Piedmont Ecoregion, which lies in the area between 

the flat coastal plains to the southeast and the Appalachian 

Mountains to the northwest, covers 165,460 km2 (63,884 mi2) 

across parts of five states (Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, 

North Carolina, and Virginia) (fig. 1). The ecoregion is bounded 

on the east and southeast by the Southeastern Plains Ecoregion, 

and, on the northwest, by the Ridge and Valley, Blue Ridge 

Mountains, and Northern Piedmont Ecoregions. The Piedmont 

Ecoregion, the landscape of which is rolling, with steepsided hills and some plains, is underlain by metamorphic and 

igneous rocks (Wiken and others, 2011). The pre-European 

vegetation mostly was forests of oak–hickory (Quercus spp.

86° 84° 82° 80° 78°

40°

38°

36°

34°

32°

Southeastern

Plains

Interior

Plateau

Central

Appalachians

Western

Allegheny Plateau

Eastern Corn Belt Plains

RV

RV

Blue Ridge

Mountains

SWA

SWA

BRM

CA

SEP

EDP

SCOP

MACP

NP

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

0 50 100 150 MILES

0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

EXPLANATION

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (20 x 20 km)

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

VIRGINIA

NORTH

CAROLINA

GEORGIA

KENTUCKY

SOUTH

CAROLINA

TENNESSEE

ALABAMA

WEST

VIRGINIA

IN

OHIO

MD

MD

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Athens

Greenville

Greensboro

Charlotte

Atlanta

Raleigh

Richmond A P P A L A C H I A N M O U N T A I N S

Figure 1. Map of Piedmont Ecoregion and surrounding ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover classes from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset 

(Vogelmann and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown in explanation may be depicted on map; note also that, for 

this “Status and Trends of Land Change” study, transitional land-cover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed and nonmechanically 

disturbed classes. Squares indicate locations of 20 x 20 km sample blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows locations of geographic features 

mentioned in text. Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. Also shown are parts of two Midwest–South Central 

United States ecoregions: Erie Drift Plains (EDP) and Eastern Corn Belt Plains. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
136 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

and Carya spp., respectively) and mixed oak–pine (Quercus 

spp. and Pinus spp., respectively) (Johnson and Sharpe, 

1976). The Piedmont Ecoregion became an important 

farming region during the 19th century; however, beginning 

with the Civil War, large areas of farmland have reverted to 

forest during each economic downturn. During this time, 

Piedmont Ecoregion farmers have faced competition from 

other ecoregions while coping with soil erosion, declining soil 

fertility, and increased expenses associated with boll weevil 

(Anthonomus grandis) management (Manners, 1979; Hart, 

1980). Additionally, the small fields and steep slopes of the 

ecoregion hindered the use of farm machinery (Hart, 1978). As 

Piedmont Ecoregion farmers lost their competitive advantage, 

forestry and land development became more competitive 

uses of land, and the ecoregion gradually reverted to pine and 

hardwoods intermixed with farms and developed areas (fig. 2) 

(Brender, 1974). 

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Piedmont Ecoregion 

between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 14.5 percent (table 1). 

Compared to other Eastern United States ecoregions, change 

in the Piedmont Ecoregion was relatively high (fig. 3): about 

three-fifths of the area changed only one time, whereas twofifths changed two, three, or, in a handful of cases, four times. 

Most Piedmont Ecoregion land was stable (85.5 percent) and 

did not convert to a different land-cover class. Land-conversion 

rates, when normalized to an average annual rate to account for 

uneven time periods, varied temporally (fig. 4), ranging from a 

low of 0.5 percent annually between 1973 and 1980 to a high 

of 1.1 percent annually between 1986 and 1992 (table 2).

An overview of the net land-cover change in the 

Piedmont Ecoregion by time period is shown in figure 

Figure 2. Typical rural landscape in Piedmont Ecoregion, with 

pasture amidst forest. 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 3. Overall spatial change in Piedmont Ecoregion (P; 

darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern United States 

ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of bars shows 

proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, two, three, 

or four time periods; highest level of spatial change in Piedmont 

Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled for clarity. See table 2 for 

years covered by each time period. See appendix 2 for key to 

ecoregion abbreviations.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 4. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Piedmont 

Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each time period. 
Chapter 15—Piedmont Ecoregion 137

5. Developed land increased steadily and more rapidly 

throughout the 27-year study period, except between 1980 and 

1986. This brief decrease in the rate of land-cover change may 

have resulted from national efforts to curb inflation, resulting 

in greatly reduced new housing construction through the early 

1980s (National Association of Home Builders, 1973–2000 

[various years]). The area of the mechanically disturbed 

land-cover class increased during the first three time periods 

(1973–1980, 1980–1986, 1986–1992), and then it decreased 

during the last time period (1992–2000), possibly because 

of the decrease in commercial forest harvesting associated 

with the ecoregion’s population growth (van Lear and others, 

2004). Forest and agriculture steadily decreased as more land 

was converted to developed land to accommodate the growing 

population of the ecoregion. 

The top five common land-cover conversions accounted 

for 89 percent (by area) of the change in the Piedmont 

Ecoregion (table 3). The top two conversions were from forest 

to mechanically disturbed and from mechanically disturbed 

to forest, which represents the cyclical process of forest 

harvesting and regrowth (fig. 6). Three common conversions 

resulted in one-way conversions from forest, agriculture, and 

mechanically disturbed to developed, and the forest-to-water 

conversion likely was caused by the need to provide potable 

water for the growing population in the ecoregion. 

The major land-cover classes in the Piedmont Ecoregion 

include forest, agriculture, developed, and water (table 4), which 

accounted for 97.0 percent or more of the ecoregion in both 

the beginning (1973) and the end (2000) of the study period, 

but their relative proportions changed during the study period. 

For example, developed increased 37.8 percent, from 11.9 to 

16.4 percent of the ecoregion. The Piedmont Ecoregion is in 

the Sun Belt, an area that grew rapidly during the latter part of 

the 20th century. After 1960, the population of the Piedmont 

Ecoregion increased faster than that of the rest of the Nation, 

and it continued through the remainder of the 20th century: the 

population increased from 7.6 to 13.8 million between 1970 and 

2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years]), an 81.6 

percent increase, much higher than the 38.0 percent increase 

for the conterminous United States. The new residents placed 

demands on the ecoregion’s land, resulting in the development 

of additional land (fig. 7). Meanwhile, water bodies increased 

−4

−2

0

2

4

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 5. Normalized average net change in Piedmont Ecoregion 

by time period for each land-cover class. Bars above zero axis 

represent net gain, whereas bars below zero represent net loss. 

Note that not all land-cover classes shown in explanation may be 

represented in figure. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use 

and land-cover classifications.

Figure 6. Recently cut forest in Piedmont Ecoregion. Commercial 

forestry is common in Piedmont Ecoregion. 

Figure 7. Large industrial plant in rural setting of Piedmont 

Ecoregion. Such plants provide many new jobs in ecoregion.
138 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

in area by 9.8 percent, most likely to meet the increased need 

for public drinking water in the Piedmont Ecoregion, an area 

with scant groundwater resources (Hodler and Schretter, 1986). 

Forest decreased from 59.8 to 55.1 percent of the ecoregion 

(a decrease of 7.9 percent from its 1973 level), but forest still 

accounted for more than one-half of the ecoregion in 2000 (table 

4). Forest constituted 71.3 percent of the land that was converted 

to developed (figs. 8,9). Agricultural land accounted for almost 

one-quarter (24.3 percent) of the newly developed land, which 

was about equivalent to its proportion of the ecoregion.

During the past 200 years, most of the original forests in 

the Piedmont Ecoregion were converted to farmland, but when 

the farms were unable to remain competitive nationally, much 

of the ecoregion reverted to forested land. During the last onethird of the 20th century, the Piedmont Ecoregion was one of 

the fastest developing regions in the Nation. 

Figure 8. New subdivision built in forested area, in Piedmont 

Ecoregion. 

71.3%

24.3%

3.6%

0.6% (Water) 0.1% each (Mining

and Wetland)

Water

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Forest

Agriculture

Wetland

EXPLANATION

SOURCE LAND-USE/LAND-COVER CLASS

Figure 9. Areal percentages of sources of developed land in 

Piedmont Ecoregion during study period (1973–2000). 
Chapter 15—Piedmont Ecoregion 139

Table 1. Percentage of Piedmont Ecoregion land cover that 

changed at least one time during study period (1973–2000) and 

associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (85.5 percent), whereas 14.5 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 8.8 2.2 6.6 11.0 1.4 16.1

2 5.2 2.6 2.7 7.8 1.7 31.7

3 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.2 49.2

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 49.4

Overall 

spatial 

change

14.5 4.6 9.9 19.1 3.0 20.4

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Piedmont Ecoregion land cover, computed 

for each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 

85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period

Total 

change

(% of 

ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper 

bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average 

rate

(% per 

year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 3.2 1.3 1.9 4.5 0.8 26.3 0.5

1980–1986 3.9 1.9 1.9 5.8 1.2 32.0 0.6

1986–1992 6.5 2.5 4.0 9.0 1.6 24.7 1.1

1992–2000 7.0 2.4 4.6 9.5 1.6 22.3 0.9

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 5,276 2,164 3,112 7,441 1,388 26.3 754

1980–1986 6,419 3,207 3,213 9,626 2,057 32.0 1,070

1986–1992 10,784 4,155 6,629 14,939 2,665 24.7 1,797

1992–2000 11,604 4,039 7,565 15,643 2,591 22.3 1,451
140 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 3. Principal land-cover conversions in Piedmont Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin of error, 

calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study 

period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not 

applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent 

of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mechanically disturbed 1,564 980 628 0.9 29.6

Mechanically disturbed Forest 1,168 794 509 0.7 22.1

Forest Developed 980 895 574 0.6 18.6

Forest Agriculture 556 261 168 0.3 10.5

Agriculture Forest 537 537 344 0.3 10.2

Other Other 472 n/a n/a 0.3 8.9

Totals 5,276 3.2 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,822 2,090 1,341 1.7 44.0

Mechanically disturbed Forest 1,437 832 533 0.9 22.4

Agriculture Forest 650 734 471 0.4 10.1

Forest Agriculture 533 372 239 0.3 8.3

Forest Developed 503 201 129 0.3 7.8

Other Other 474 n/a n/a 0.3 7.4

Totals 6,419 3.9 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 3,885 1,817 1,165 2.3 36.0

Mechanically disturbed Forest 2,914 2,222 1,425 1.8 27.0

Forest Developed 1,569 859 551 0.9 14.5

Agriculture Forest 791 928 595 0.5 7.3

Agriculture Developed 611 241 155 0.4 5.7

Other Other 1,014 n/a n/a 0.6 9.4

Totals 10,784 6.5 100.0

1992–2000 Mechanically disturbed Forest 3,669 1,865 1,196 2.2 31.6

Forest Mechanically disturbed 3,177 2,581 1,655 1.9 27.4

Forest Developed 2,263 1,374 882 1.4 19.5

Agriculture Developed 653 515 330 0.4 5.6

Forest Agriculture 558 272 174 0.3 4.8

Other Other 1,285 n/a n/a 0.8 11.1

Totals 11,604 7.0 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 11,447 6,997 4,488 6.9 33.6

Mechanically disturbed Forest 9,188 5,322 3,414 5.6 27.0

Forest Developed 5,314 2,792 1,791 3.2 15.6

Agriculture Forest 2,291 2,240 1,437 1.4 6.7

Forest Agriculture 2,208 1,035 664 1.3 6.5

Other Other 3,635 n/a n/a 2.2 10.7

Totals 34,084 20.6 100.0
Chapter 15—Piedmont Ecoregion 141

Table 4. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Piedmont Ecoregion, calculated five times between 1973 and 

2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically 

disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 2.2 1.1 11.9 5.5 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 59.8 6.0 0.0 0.0 24.4 5.8 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.0

1980 2.2 1.1 12.7 6.1 1.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 59.0 6.1 0.0 0.0 24.2 6.0 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.0

1986 2.2 1.1 13.2 6.1 1.9 1.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 57.9 5.6 0.0 0.0 23.9 6.0 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.0

1992 2.2 1.1 14.5 6.3 2.5 1.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 56.4 5.9 0.0 0.0 23.3 6.1 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.0

2000 2.4 1.1 16.4 6.8 2.0 1.6 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 55.1 5.8 0.0 0.0 23.1 6.1 0.7 0.4 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.2 0.2 4.5 2.1 1.1 1.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 –4.8 2.1 0.0 0.0 –1.3 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.3 0.2 4.5 2.1 4.4 1.8 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 6.6 1.8 0.1 0.1 2.2 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 3,585 1,887 19,692 9,135 1,413 842 120 78 4 4 99,023 9,864 10 14 40,329 9,663 1,284 752 0 0

1980 3,574 1,885 20,938 10,035 1,815 1,011 174 99 4 4 97,579 10,138 14 15 40,076 9,845 1,286 751 0 0

1986 3,573 1,885 21,803 10,143 3,183 2,311 194 103 4 4 95,798 9,264 23 22 39,594 9,935 1,286 751 0 0

1992 3,613 1,883 24,020 10,476 4,156 1,845 325 148 4 4 93,382 9,739 61 58 38,621 10,128 1,277 751 0 0

2000 3,937 1,818 27,128 11,274 3,303 2,637 406 194 4 3 91,152 9,561 68 77 38,222 10,079 1,239 732 0 0

Net

change 352 359 7,436 3,400 1,890 1,873 286 150 0 1 –7,871 3,546 58 64 –2,107 1,607 –45 48 0 0

Gross

change 421 349 7,436 3,400 7,273 2,952 294 152 0 1 10,923 2,985 119 93 3,585 1,507 52 48 0 0
142 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

References Cited

Brender, E.V., 1974, Impact of past land use on the lower 

Piedmont forest: Journal of Forestry, v. 72, p. 34–36. 

Hart, John Fraser, 1978, Cropland concentrations in the South: 

Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 68, 

no. 4, p. 505–517. 

Hart, John Fraser, 1980, Land use change in a Piedmont 

county: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 

v. 70, no. 4, p. 492–527. 

Hodler, Thomas W., and Schretter, Howard A., 1986, The atlas 

of Georgia: Athens, The Institute of Community and Area 

Development and the University of Georgia, 273 p.

Johnson, Carter W., and Sharpe, David M., 1976, An analysis 

of forest dynamics in the northern Georgia Piedmont: Forest 

Science, v. 22, no. 3, p. 307–322. 

Manners, Ian R., 1979, The persistent problem of the boll 

weevil—Pest control in principle and practice: Geographical 

Review, v. 69, no. 1, p. 25–42.

National Association of Home Builders, 1973–2000 [various 

years], Housing starts: National Association of Home 

Builders Web site, accessed June 12, 2013, at http://www.

nahbclassic.org/generic.aspx?sectionID=819&genericConte

ntID=45409&channelID=311.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

accessed May 9, 2013, at http://www.census.gov/prod/www/

decennial.html.

van Lear, D.H., Harper, R.A., Kapeluck, P.R., and Carroll, 

W.D., 2004, History of Piedmont forests—Implications for 

current pine management: U.S. Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station, General Technical Report SRS-71, p. 

127–131, accessed November 5, 2013, at http://www.srs.

fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=6620. 

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 16

Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion 

By Janis L. Taylor

Ecoregion Description 

The Mississippi Valley Loess Plains 

Ecoregion, which extends from western 

Kentucky south through western Tennessee 

and Mississippi into Louisiana, is about 

750 km long and as much as 110 km wide, 

covering about 43,775 km2 (16,901 mi2) 

(fig. 1). Most of the Mississippi Valley Loess 

Plains Ecoregion is sandwiched between the 

Mississippi Alluvial Plain Ecoregion to the 

west and the Southeastern Plains Ecoregion 

to the east; in addition, the extreme northern 

part of the ecoregion is abutted by the 

Interior River Lowland and Interior Plateau 

Ecoregions. The topography consists primarily 

of irregular plains. A thick, highly erodible 

layer of loess—a unique geologic deposit 

composed almost entirely of wind-transported, 

silt-sized grains of quartz and other common 

91° 90° 89° 88°

37°

36°

35°

34°

33°

32°

31°

Southeastern

Plains

Mississippi

Alluvial Plain

Ozark

Highlands

IP

IRL

SCOP

0 50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Gulf of Mexico

Memphis

Crystal Springs

IL KY

MISSOURI

A R K A N S A S

MISSISSIPPI

TENNESSEE

L O U I S I A N A

AL

COPIAH

COUNTY

Mayfield

Jackson

Figure 1. Map of Mississippi Valley Loess 

Plains Ecoregion and surrounding ecoregions, 

showing land-use/land-cover classes from 

1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann 

and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/

land-cover classes shown in explanation 

may be depicted on map; note also that, for 

this “Status and Trends of Land Change” 

study, transitional land-cover class was 

subdivided into mechanically disturbed and 

nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares 

indicate locations of 10 x 10 km sample 

blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows 

locations of geographic features mentioned 

in text. Abbreviations for Eastern United 

States ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. 

Also shown are parts of three Midwest–South 

Central United States ecoregions: Interior River 

Lowland (IRL), Mississippi Alluvial Plain, and 

Ozark Highlands. See appendix 3 for definitions 

of land-use/land-cover classifications.
144 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

minerals—is the distinguishing characteristic of this ecoregion 

(Wiken and others, 2011). The principal soils are finely textured, 

acidic, red and yellow podzols developed from the underlying 

clays, sands, and loess (Faulkner, 2005). These erodible soils 

characteristically are poor in organic matter and nutrients but 

are easily cultivated by using fertilizers.

Average annual temperatures range from 16° to 20°C, 

and annual precipitation ranges from 1,150 to 1,525 mm (45 

to 60 in.), both of which increase from north to south. Most 

precipitation is in the form of rain, and it occurs mainly during 

the winter and spring. The annual frost-free period is 200 days 

or more in most of the ecoregion, but it is as long as 290 days in 

the southernmost part (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2006).

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Mississippi Valley Loess 

Plains Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 13.8 

percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four

time periods

Figure 2. Overall spatial change in Mississippi Valley Loess 

Plains Ecoregion (MVLP; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 

Eastern United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal 

set of bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during 

one, two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial 

change in Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion (four time 

periods) labeled for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each 

time period. See appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

ecoregions, change in the Mississippi Valley Loess Plains 

Ecoregion was moderately high (fig. 2): 10.5 percent of the 

ecoregion changed only one time, 2.9 percent changed two 

times, and 0.4 percent changed three times (table 1). Estimates 

of change ranged from a low of 2.4 percent between 1973 and 

1980 to a high of 6.6 percent between 1986 and 1992 (table 2). 

When normalized to an average annual rate to account for 

unequal time periods, total change ranged from a low of 

0.3 percent between 1973 and 1980 to a high of 1.1 percent 

between 1986 and 1992 (table 2; fig. 3). 

The areal percentage of each land-cover class mapped 

during each of the five study dates between 1973 and 2000 

is shown in table 3. Forest, agriculture, and developed 

land-cover classes accounted for more than 90.0 percent of 

the ecoregion. During the 27-year study period, agriculture 

decreased in every time period, from 46.0 percent of the 

ecoregion in 1973 to 39.3 percent in 2000 (table 3; fig. 4). 

The most significant decrease in agriculture, which occurred 

between 1986 and 1992, was accompanied by increases in 

both forest and developed. Developed increased in each of the 

four time periods, from 3.6 percent of the ecoregion in 1973 

to 7.8 percent in 2000. The amount of forest changed little 

between 1973 and 2000, from 43.3 percent in 1973 to 43.9 

percent in 2000. 

The most common land-cover conversion during 

the 27-year study period was from forest to mechanically 

disturbed (table 4). Agriculture to forest was the second 

most common conversion during the study period, whereas 

agriculture to developed was the third most common 

conversion (table 4). Finally, the fourth most common 

conversion was from mechanically disturbed to forest. 

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 3. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Mississippi 

Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion are represented by d bars in each 

time period.
Chapter 16—Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion 145

The southern part of the ecoregion is a mosaic of forested 

land and cropland, whereas the northern part is dominated by 

agricultural land. Trees, cotton, corn, soybeans, strawberries, 

and tobacco are crops commonly grown throughout the 

ecoregion (fig. 5). In the southern part, longleaf pine (Pinus 

palustris) is the principal commercially harvested tree in 

densely forested areas; in the northern part, loblolly pine 

(Pinus taeda), slash pine (Pinus elliottii), and shortleaf pine 

(Pinus echinata) are the most common (fig. 6).

The conversion of agriculture to forest is the result of 

several factors. In 1985, the Food Security Act initiated the 

Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) (Johnson and Maxwell, 

2001), which encouraged the planting of hardwood trees on 

marginal farmland. In the years 1987, 1992, and 1997, many 

counties within the ecoregion showed a significant increase in 

the amount of land enrolled in the CRP (U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, 1970–2000 [various years]). In addition, the U.S. 

Forest Service during this time promoted afforestation, which 

is the restoration of forest on abandoned agricultural land 

(Stanturf and Gardiner, 2000). 

During the 27-year study period, many forested areas in 

the ecoregion were managed as pine plantations. Additionally, 

the common conversions from forest to mechanically disturbed 

and from mechanically disturbed to forest represent the short 

harvest cycles of pine plantations in the ecoregion (fig. 7). 

Within the ecoregion, the socioeconomic benefits derived 

from forested land include the sale of hunting leases, carbon 

credits for sequestration, improvements in water quality, and 

the production of biofuels and fiber. The unidirectional landcover conversion to developed land was driven by population 

increases in and around Memphis, Tennessee, and Jackson, 

Mississippi, the two largest cities in the ecoregion (fig. 8).

−4

−2

0

2

4

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 4. Normalized average net change in Mississippi Valley 

Loess Plains Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.

Figure 5. Tobacco field and shed northeast of Mayfield, in 

western Kentucky.

Figure 6. Replanted pine plantation west of Crystal Springs, 

Mississippi. 
146 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Figure 7. Pile of new logs in huge clearcut just west of Crystal 

Springs, in Copiah County, Mississippi. 

Figure 8. Recently cleared site for new subdivision northeast of 

Memphis, Tennessee. Existing subdivision is in background.

Table 1. Percentage of Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion 

land cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (86.2 percent), whereas 13.8 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 10.5 3.0 7.5 13.5 2.0 19.3

2 2.9 0.8 2.1 3.7 0.5 18.7

3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.1 33.6

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 41.4

Overall 

spatial 

change

13.8 3.4 10.4 17.3 2.3 16.8
Chapter 16—Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion 147

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion land cover, computed 

for each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence 

level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 2.4 0.5 1.9 2.9 0.3 13.6 0.3

1980–1986 2.5 0.8 1.7 3.3 0.5 20.8 0.4

1986–1992 6.6 1.8 4.9 8.4 1.2 18.1 1.1

1992–2000 6.1 1.5 4.6 7.6 1.0 16.4 0.8

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 1,050 211 840 1,261 143 13.6 150

1980–1986 1,099 337 762 1,436 228 20.8 183

1986–1992 2,910 777 2,133 3,688 527 18.1 485

1992–2000 2,675 646 2,029 3,321 438 16.4 334

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in the Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion, calculated 

five times between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 1.7 1.4 3.6 1.4 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 43.3 6.4 0.2 0.1 46.0 5.9 4.6 1.4 0.0 0.0

1980 1.7 1.4 4.0 1.6 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 43.4 6.5 0.4 0.2 45.3 5.9 4.6 1.4 0.0 0.0

1986 1.7 1.3 4.6 1.9 0.8 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 43.2 6.5 0.5 0.2 44.5 6.0 4.6 1.4 0.0 0.0

1992 1.8 1.4 6.2 3.1 1.1 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 44.5 6.5 0.7 0.3 40.8 6.1 4.6 1.4 0.0 0.0

2000 1.8 1.3 7.8 4.2 1.9 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 43.9 6.5 0.4 0.1 39.3 6.2 4.6 1.4 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.2 0.1 4.3 3.2 1.4 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.4 0.2 0.1 –6.7 2.7 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.5 0.3 4.3 3.2 3.4 1.3 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 5.8 1.4 1.2 0.4 7.4 2.6 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 734 616 1,567 609 226 137 29 18 50 29 18,933 2,798 89 36 20,128 2,587 2,018 630 0 0

1980 752 609 1,753 695 210 79 28 19 51 29 18,981 2,840 156 68 19,830 2,596 2,014 620 0 0

1986 757 565 2,017 851 329 169 31 18 51 29 18,895 2,828 212 88 19,466 2,607 2,018 614 0 0

1992 807 613 2,719 1,358 499 195 35 21 51 29 19,465 2,851 314 114 17,881 2,660 2,003 619 0 0

2000 805 578 3,435 1,838 853 333 59 40 51 29 19,216 2,841 168 60 17,182 2,715 2,005 615 0 0

Net

change 71 52 1,868 1,379 627 306 30 29 1 2 283 613 79 44 –2,946 1,177 –13 56 0 0

Gross

change 216 131 1,870 1,379 1,480 558 47 30 3 2 2,541 613 544 191 3,229 1,150 244 142 0 0
148 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and 

margin of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during 

overall study period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Agriculture Forest 190 69 47 0.4 18.1

Mechanically disturbed Forest 164 127 86 0.4 15.6

Forest Mechanically disturbed 148 57 39 0.3 14.1

Agriculture Developed 135 98 67 0.3 12.8

Forest Agriculture 103 34 23 0.2 9.8

Other Other 311 n/a n/a 0.7 29.6

Totals 1,050 2.4 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mechanically disturbed 281 169 114 0.6 25.5

Agriculture Developed 191 154 104 0.4 17.3

Agriculture Forest 158 91 62 0.4 14.4

Mechanically disturbed Forest 92 45 31 0.2 8.4

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 52 33 23 0.1 4.7

Other Other 327 n/a n/a 0.7 29.7

Totals 1,099 2.5 100.0

1986–1992 Agriculture Forest 908 349 236 2.1 31.2

Agriculture Developed 522 453 307 1.2 17.9

Forest Mechanically disturbed 410 169 114 0.9 14.1

Mechanically disturbed Forest 258 155 105 0.6 8.9

Forest Developed 147 118 80 0.3 5.0

Other Other 665 n/a n/a 1.5 22.8

Totals 2,910 6.6 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mechanically disturbed 801 327 222 1.8 29.9

Agriculture Developed 400 285 193 0.9 14.9

Mechanically disturbed Forest 397 166 112 0.9 14.8

Agriculture Forest 284 99 67 0.6 10.6

Forest Developed 228 172 117 0.5 8.5

Other Other 566 n/a n/a 1.3 21.2

Totals 2,675 6.1 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 1,640 591 400 3.7 21.2

Agriculture Forest 1,539 440 298 3.5 19.9

Agriculture Developed 1,247 983 666 2.8 16.1

Mechanically disturbed Forest 910 382 259 2.1 11.8

Forest Developed 437 316 214 1.0 5.7

Other Other 1,961 n/a n/a 4.5 25.4

Totals 7,735 17.7 100.0
Chapter 16—Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion 149

References Cited

Faulkner, S.P., 2005, Southern Mississippi Valley silty uplands 

(loess bluffs), in Major land resources of Mississippi: 

Samuel P. Faulkner, PhD, Web site, accessed June 13, 2013, 

at http://www.marshdoc1.com/major-land-areas-of-ms.html.

Johnson, J., and Maxwell, B., 2001, The role of the Conservation Reserve Program in controlling rural residential development: Journal of Rural Studies, v. 17, p. 323–332.

Stanturf, John A., and Gardiner, Emile S., 2000, Restoration 

of bottomland hardwoods in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial 

Valley, in Sustaining Southern forests—The science of 

forest assessment: Atlanta, Ga., Southern Forest Resource 

Assessment, accessed June 13, 2013, at http://www.srs.

fs.usda.gov/sustain/conf/fulltext.htm.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1970–2000 [various years], 

Historical census publications: U.S. Census Bureau 

database, accessed June13, 2013, at http://www.agcensus.

usda.gov/Publications/Historical_Publications/index.php.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2006, Land resource regions 

and major land resource areas of the United States, the 

Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, National Resources Conservation Service, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture Handbook 296, 663 p.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.

Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 17

Southeastern Plains Ecoregion 

By Terry L. Sohl

Ecoregion Description 

The Southeastern Plains Ecoregion, which is the 

largest of the Eastern United States ecoregions, covers 

about 336,141 km2 (129,785 mi2) across 11 states and 

the District of Columbia, extending from near the Gulf 

of Mexico in the south to Delaware in the north (Wiken 

and others, 2011; fig. 1). The ecoregion is bounded on the 

north and northwest by the Northern Piedmont, Piedmont, 

Ridge and Valley, Southwestern Appalachians, and Interior 

Plateau Ecoregions; on the west, by the Mississippi Valley 

Loess Plains Ecoregion; and on the south and east, by the 

Mississippi Alluvial Plain, Southern Coastal Plain, and 

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregions.

40°

38°

36°

88°

90°

86° 84° 82° 80° 78° 76°

34°

32°

30°

40°

38°

36°

Piedmont

Interior

Plateau

Eastern

Corn Belt Plains

CCBP

Interior

River Lowland

RV

Western

Allegheny

Plateau

SCOP

SCOP

MACP

 Central

Appalachians

 Blue Ridge

Mountains 

NP

MACP

MACP

ACPB

MVLP

MAP

MAP

MAP

OH

MAP

SWA

SMNIDP HELP EDP

IRL

CA

BRM

SWA

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

ILLINOIS

ALABAMA

GEORGIA

INDIANA

NORTH CAROLINA

TENNESSEE

KENTUCKY VIRGINIA

MS

OHIO

PENNSYLVANIA

Richmond

Columbia

Macon

Columbus

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Gulf of Mexico

Montgomery

Tallahassee

Alexandria

SC

FLORIDA

WV

MD

MO

LA

AR

DE

NJ

Washington, D.C.

Baltimore

0 50 100 150 200 250 MILES

0 50 100 150 200 250 KILOMETERS

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (20 x 20 km)

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Figure 1. Map of Southeastern Plains Ecoregion and surrounding 

ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover classes from 1992 National 

Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann and others, 2001); note that not all 

land-use/land-cover classes shown in explanation may be depicted on 

map; note also that, for this “Status and Trends of Land Change” study, 

transitional land-cover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed 

and nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate locations of 20 

x 20 km sample blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows locations of 

geographic features mentioned in text. Abbreviations for Eastern United 

States ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. Also shown are parts of seven 

Midwest–South Central United States ecoregions: Central Corn Belt 

Plains (CCBP), Eastern Corn Belt Plains, Erie Drift Plains (EDP), Huron/

Erie Lake Plains (HELP), Interior River Lowland, Mississippi Alluvial Plain 

(MAP), and Southern Michigan/Northern Indiana Drift Plains (SMNIDP). 

See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
152 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

The relatively flat, irregular plains of the Southeastern 

Plains Ecoregion are covered by a mosaic of cropland, 

pastureland, forested land, and wetlands. However, although 

the ecoregion is characterized by a long growing season and 

abundant rainfall, the relatively poor, sandy soils present 

in much of the ecoregion limit its agricultural uses, in 

comparison to other nearby ecoregions. Natural forests of pine 

(Pinus spp.), hickory (Carya spp.), and oak (Quercus spp.) 

once covered most of the ecoregion, but much of the natural 

forest has been replaced by heavily managed timberlands. 

Montgomery, Alabama, is the only significant urban center 

(population greater than 100,000) in the interior of the 

ecoregion, although several urban centers are scattered on 

or near the edge of the ecoregion (for example, Baltimore, 

Maryland; Washington, D.C.; Alexandria and Richmond, 

Virginia; Columbia, South Carolina; Columbus and Macon, 

Georgia; and Tallahassee, Florida).

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Southeastern Plains 

Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 20.4 

percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States 

Ecoregions, change in the Southeastern Plains Ecoregion was 

very high (fig. 2); in addition, the rates of change per time 

period increased steadily across the 27-year study period (table 

2). When normalized to an average annual rate to account for 

uneven time periods, the rates of change increased during the 

first three time periods (1973–1980, 1980–1986, 1986–1992), 

peaking between 1986 and 1992, then decreased slightly 

during the last time period (1992–2000) (table 2; fig. 3). 

Despite the high overall rates of change, the net-change 

statistics for individual land-cover classes during the study 

period (1973–2000) (table 3) mask the dynamically changing 

nature of the ecoregion. Forest had a modest net decrease of 

1.2 percent (4,119 km2) between 1973 and 2000, even though 

the Southeastern Plains Ecoregion is home to an extremely 

dynamic timber industry (fig. 4). Pine plantations were rare 

in the ecoregion in 1950, but by 2000 they constituted nearly 

50 percent of all pine forests in the southeastern United States 

(Conner and Hartsell, 2002) (fig. 5). 

The most common land-cover conversion in every 

time period was from forest to mechanically disturbed, a 

conversion that primarily represents clearcutting of forested 

land (table 4); more than 41,000 km2 of forest experienced this 

conversion during the study period. The second most common 

conversion in every time period was from mechanically 

disturbed to forest, a conversion that represents the regrowth 

of forest on previously cut lands. Nearly 33,000 km2 of 

mechanically disturbed land experienced this conversion 

during the study period, and the mechanically disturbed class 

showed net increases for all time periods (fig. 6). Newly cut 

forest patches quickly revegetate to forest, whether through 

natural regeneration or through direct replanting. Managed 

pine plantations in the ecoregion have planting-and-cutting 

cycles as short as 20 years (fig. 7), which leads to a relatively 

rapid cyclic pattern of forest management, as is shown 

by the high percentage of areas experiencing two or more 

conversions during the study period (1973–2000) (table 1). 

This cyclic nature of forest cutting in the ecoregion results in 

the low net change in the forest land-cover class but the high 

overall rates of change for each time period. 

Although forest decreased slightly between 1973 and 

2000, forestry, as defined by aggregating both forest and 

mechanically disturbed land-cover classes, showed a different 

pattern (table 5). Forestry decreased slightly between 1973 

and 1986, but it increased significantly between 1986 

and 2000. These figures correspond well with the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture’s Forest Inventory and Analysis 

data, which identify 1987 as the milestone year when the 

“South” (that is, States in the southeastern one-quarter 

of the United States, including most of the Southeastern 

Plains Ecoregion) started to gain more forested land than 

it lost, reversing a long-term downward trend in forested 

land (Conner and Hartsell, 2002). The third most common 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four

time periods

Figure 2. Overall spatial change in Southeastern Plains 

Ecoregion (SEP; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 Eastern 

United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal set of 

bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during one, 

two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial change 

in Southeastern Plains Ecoregion (four time periods) labeled for 

clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each time period. See 

appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.
Chapter 17—Southeastern Plains Ecoregion 153

land-cover conversion in three of the four time periods, 

from agriculture to forest, was strongly related to the post1986 increase in forestry. Declining profits from agriculture 

relative to forestry in the ecoregion led many farmers either 

to abandon their cropland (which then naturally reverted 

to forest) or to plant pine as a managed timber crop (Wear, 

2002). Programs such as the Conservation Reserve Program 

(CRP), which was implemented as part of the 1985 Farm 

Bill legislation, led to widespread conversion of marginal 

agricultural land to forested land or grassland/shrubland. 

More than 4,400 km2 of forest converted to agriculture 

between 1973 and 2000, most of the change occurring in the 

earliest time periods (table 4; fig. 8); however, almost 12,000 

km2 of agriculture converted to forest (table 4), with additional 

amounts of agriculture converting to developed. The net result 

of all the change in agriculture was a decrease of nearly 9,500 

km2 of agriculture during the study period (table 3). 

The other primary driver of land-cover change in the 

ecoregion was the conversion of forest and agriculture to 

developed. Between 1970 and 2000, human population 

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 3. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United States 

ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Southeastern 

Plains Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each time period.

Figure 4. Pine plantation, which is large tract of land planted 

with regularly spaced pine trees, an increasingly common sight in 

Southeastern Plains Ecoregion.

“Status and Trends of Land Change”

study period (1973–2000)

Year

Area, in square kilometers

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Natural pine

Planted pine

Figure 5. Areal changes 

in natural pine (in forests) 

and in planted pine (in 

commercial pine plantations) 

in the South between early 

1950s and 2000, showing 

increase in planted pine and 

decrease in natural pine. 

Planted pine was nearly 

absent in early 1950s, but, by 

2000, it covered area nearly 

as large as that of natural 

pine in forests (Conner and 

Hartsell, 2002).
154 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

within the ecoregion increased from 11.2 million to 14.4 

million (U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years]). 

Nearly 4,400 km2 of land were developed between 1973 

and 2000 (table 3), most of which came from forest. Forest 

was consistently developed at two to three times the rate of 

agriculture in all four time periods.

In terms of net change, the Southeastern Plains Ecoregion 

experienced only moderate rates of change between 1973 and 

2000, with a 2.8 percent decrease in agriculture, a 2.8 percent 

increase in mechanically disturbed, a 1.3 percent increase in 

developed, and only a 1.2 percent decrease in forest (table 3). 

However, in terms of gross change, the Southeastern Plains 

Ecoregion is one of the most actively changing ecoregions 

among the Eastern United States ecoregions, with the cyclical 

cutting and replanting of pine being the most common landcover conversion in the ecoregion. Mechanically disturbed to 

forest was the second most common land-cover conversion 

for all time periods. Despite the 1.2 percent loss of forest 

in terms of total ecoregion area, forestry actually increased 

because most mechanically disturbed land in the ecoregion 

is associated with timber harvest. Significant losses of 

agriculture also occurred, most losses coming from changes to 

forest. Agriculture changes likely were associated with farmers 

converting agricultural fields to higher profit pine plantations, 

and they also happened in concurrence with implementation 

of the CRP, with the highest rate of conversion occurring 

between 1986 and 1992.

−4

−2

0

2

4

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 6. Normalized average net change in Southeastern Plains 

Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. Bars above 

zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero represent 

net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown in explanation 

may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for definitions of 

land-use and land-cover classifications.

Figure 7. Newly cut forest in Southeastern Plains Ecoregion. 

Although forest cutting dramatically alters local ecosystem, 

favorable climate of Southeastern Plains Ecoregion results in 

rapid vegetation regrowth, whether land is replanted or allowed to 

regenerate naturally.

Figure 8. Newly planted tobacco field in Southeastern Plains 

Ecoregion. Although agricultural land declined by nearly 9,500 

km2 between 1973 and 2000 in Southeastern Plains Ecoregion, 

high-value crops such as tobacco are still economically important 

in some areas. 
Chapter 17—Southeastern Plains Ecoregion 155

Table 1. Percentage of Southeastern Plains Ecoregion land cover 

that changed at least one time during study period (1973–2000) and 

associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (79.6 percent), whereas 20.4 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 10.8 1.6 9.2 12.4 1.0 9.5

2 8.8 2.3 6.5 11.1 1.5 16.9

3 0.7 0.3 0.4 1.0 0.2 24.0

4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 27.3

Overall 

spatial 

change

20.4 3.9 16.5 24.3 2.5 12.3

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Southeastern Plains Ecoregion land cover, computed for each of 

four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each time period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 4.9 1.2 3.8 6.1 0.7 15.0 0.7

1980–1986 6.2 1.6 4.6 7.9 1.1 16.9 1.0

1986–1992 9.1 2.3 6.8 11.4 1.5 16.2 1.5

1992–2000 10.5 2.3 8.2 12.8 1.5 13.9 1.3

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 16,630 3,899 12,731 20,530 2,501 15.0 2,376

1980–1986 21,004 5,545 15,459 26,549 3,557 16.9 3,501

1986–1992 30,513 7,727 22,786 38,240 4,956 16.2 5,086

1992–2000 35,334 7,644 27,690 42,978 4,903 13.9 4,417
156 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Southeastern Plains Ecoregion, calculated five times 

between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically 

disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 1.0 0.3 9.0 9.6 2.1 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 53.1 8.4 0.0 0.0 24.3 7.5 10.5 3.9 0.0 0.0

1980 1.0 0.3 9.2 9.7 2.3 0.7 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 52.2 8.7 0.0 0.0 24.7 7.8 10.6 4.0 0.0 0.0

1986 1.1 0.4 9.4 9.8 2.9 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 51.7 8.6 0.1 0.1 24.2 7.8 10.6 3.9 0.0 0.0

1992 1.0 0.3 9.7 9.9 4.2 1.3 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 51.9 8.3 0.1 0.1 22.4 7.4 10.6 4.0 0.0 0.0

2000 1.1 0.4 10.3 10.0 4.9 1.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 51.8 7.9 0.1 0.1 21.5 6.8 10.3 3.8 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.1 0.1 1.3 0.5 2.8 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 –1.2 1.6 0.1 0.1 –2.8 1.3 –0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.3 0.3 1.3 0.5 6.4 1.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 7.9 2.2 0.2 0.2 4.3 1.9 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 3,279 1,031 30,196 32,321 7,093 2,951 151 120 3 4 178,350 28,226 11 11 81,677 25,367 35,383 13,189 0 0

1980 3,295 1,037 30,850 32,595 7,807 2,433 223 160 3 4 175,341 29,156 13 14 82,961 26,292 35,648 13,282 0 0

1986 3,598 1,280 31,615 32,932 9,598 3,168 296 187 3 4 173,634 28,853 343 492 81,404 26,147 35,651 13,254 0 0

1992 3,321 1,081 32,538 33,297 14,074 4,214 271 169 3 4 174,407 27,977 420 425 75,332 24,880 35,775 13,289 0 0

2000 3,693 1,177 34,574 33,685 16,370 4,445 266 159 3 4 174,231 26,617 206 227 72,201 23,010 34,598 12,740 0 0

Net

change 414 357 4,378 1,833 9,278 3,485 115 156 0 0 –4,119 5,506 195 223 –9,476 4,485 –785 976 0 0 

Gross

change 1,090 1,001 4,383 1,831 21,541 4,795 379 240 0 0 26,423 7,277 788 822 14,553 6,278 2,614 1,569 0 0
Chapter 17—Southeastern Plains Ecoregion 157

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Southeastern Plains Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin of error, 

calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study period. 

See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mechanically disturbed 6,602 2,112 1,354 2.0 39.7

Mechanically disturbed Forest 5,864 2,903 1,862 1.7 35.3

Forest Agriculture 2,125 1,332 855 0.6 12.8

Agriculture Forest 625 478 307 0.2 3.8

Forest Developed 483 325 208 0.1 2.9

Other Other 931 n/a n/a 0.3 5.6

Totals 16,630 4.9 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mechanically disturbed 8,230 2,834 1,818 2.4 39.2

Mechanically disturbed Forest 6,540 2,255 1,446 1.9 31.1

Agriculture Forest 2,249 1,343 861 0.7 10.7

Forest Agriculture 1,347 953 611 0.4 6.4

Forest Developed 578 367 235 0.2 2.8

Other Other 2,061 n/a n/a 0.6 9.8

Totals 21,004 6.2 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 12,649 3,884 2,491 3.8 41.5

Mechanically disturbed Forest 8,659 2,927 1,878 2.6 28.4

Agriculture Forest 5,510 3,351 2,149 1.6 18.1

Forest Developed 578 330 212 0.2 1.9

Forest Agriculture 393 293 188 0.1 1.3

Other Other 2,724 n/a n/a 0.8 8.9

Totals 30,513 9.1 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mechanically disturbed 14,026 4,091 2,624 4.2 39.7

Mechanically disturbed Forest 11,936 3,839 2,462 3.6 33.8

Agriculture Forest 3,604 2,270 1,456 1.1 10.2

Forest Developed 1,415 713 457 0.4 4.0

Wetland Mechanically disturbed 1,340 794 509 0.4 3.8

Other Other 3,014 n/a n/a 0.9 8.5

Totals 35,334 10.5 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 41,506 11,143 7,148 12.3 40.1

Mechanically disturbed Forest 32,999 9,426 6,046 9.8 31.9

Agriculture Forest 11,988 5,442 3,491 3.6 11.6

Forest Agriculture 4,463 2,305 1,478 1.3 4.3

Forest Developed 3,055 1,365 875 0.9 3.0

Other Other 9,472 n/a n/a 2.8 9.2

Totals 103,482 30.8 100.0
158 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 5. Amount of forestry, as defined by both forest and 

mechanically disturbed land-cover classes, as percentage of 

ecoregion in Southeastern Plains Ecoregion, calculated five 

times between 1973 and 2000.

Amount of forestry

(% of ecoregion)

1973 55.2

1980 54.5

1986 54.6

1992 56.1

2000 56.7

References Cited

Conner, R.C., and Hartsell, A.J., 2002, Forest area and 

conditions, in Wear, D.N., and Greis, J.G., eds., Southern 

forest resource assessment: U.S. Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station, General Technical Report SRS 53, p. 

357–402, available at http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/4833.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

available at http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.

html.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wear, D.N., 2002, Land use, in Wear, D.N., and Greis, J.G., 

eds., Southern forest resource assessment: U.S. Forest 

Service, Southern Research Station, General Technical 

Report SRS 53, p. 153–173, available at http://www.srs.

fs.usda.gov/pubs/4833. 

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf. 
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 18

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion

By Roger F. Auch

Ecoregion Description 

The Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion is a 

linear ecoregion that covers about 89,686 km2 (34,628 mi2), 

stretching from Delaware Bay and the Delmarva Peninsula 

in the north nearly to Jacksonville, Florida, in the south. 

The ecoregion, which includes parts of nine states (New 

Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North 

Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida) (fig. 1), 

ranges in width from only a few miles, in areas inland of 

Delaware Bay and in extreme northeastern Florida, to about 

70 miles, in parts of North Carolina and South Carolina. 

The ecoregion is surrounded by (counterclockwise, from 

the northeast) the Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens, Northern 

Piedmont, Southeastern Plains, and Southern Coastal Plain 

Ecoregions. The topography primarily is flat, and many 

soil types are poorly drained (Wiken and others, 2011). The 

ecoregion has moderate to mild winters and hot, humid 

summers, with an average annual precipitation of 1,000 to 

1,500 mm (40–60 in.).

The predominant land uses in the Middle Atlantic 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion are farming and forestry, but 

urban development also is significant locally. Land cover 

primarily is a mosaic of forest, wetland, and agriculture. 

Agricultural land is composed mainly of cropland: soybeans, 

cotton, and some tobacco in the south, and soybeans and 

corn farther north (fig. 2). Livestock production most 

80° 78° 76° 74°

82°

40°

38°

36°

34°

32°

30°

Piedmont

Ridge and Valley

Southeastern

Plains

Northern

Piedmont

SCOP

Western

Allegheny

Plateau

EDP

BRM

BRM

NEH

ACPB

SEP

SEP

CA

CA

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

0 50 100 150 MILES

0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

EXPLANATION

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (20 x 20 km)

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

95

95

95

Salisbury

Washington,

D.C.

Marion

Charleston

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Delaware Bay

Saint Marys

Delmarva

Peninsula

FL

PENNSYLVANIA

NJ

DE

MD

VIRGINIA

NORTH CAROLINA

SOUTH

CAROLINA

GA

WV

Jacksonville

Figure 1. Map of Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion 

and surrounding ecoregions, showing land-use/land-cover 

classes from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann 

and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover 

classes shown in explanation may be depicted on map; 

note also that, for this “Status and Trends of Land Change” 

study, transitional land-cover class was subdivided into 

mechanically disturbed and nonmechanically disturbed 

classes. Squares indicate locations of 20 x 20 km sample 

blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows locations of 

geographic features mentioned in text. Abbreviations for 

Eastern United States ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. 

Also shown is part of one Midwest–South Central United 

States ecoregion, Erie Drift Plains (EDP). See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
160 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

commonly is confined animal-feeding operations, for hogs in 

North Carolina and poultry on the Delmarva Peninsula (fig. 3) 

(U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1999). Upland forested areas 

are composed predominantly of pine (Pinus spp.) or mixed 

pine and hardwood communities (fig. 4). Wetlands, which 

are common across the ecoregion, include coastal marshes, 

bottomland hardwood forests, and shrub bogs (pocosins) (figs. 

5A,B). Other land-cover classes that have less extensive areas 

include water and mechanically disturbed.

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land 

area that changed at least one time) in the Middle Atlantic 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated 

at 18.0 percent (table 1). Compared to other Eastern United 

Figure 2. Farm growing corn and soybeans near Salisbury, 

Maryland.

Figure 3. Cotton field and confined animal-feeding units, raising 

either hogs or poultry, on farm in North Carolina, in Middle Atlantic 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion.

Figure 4. Plantation of even-aged loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), 

near Marion, South Carolina.

A

B

Figure 5. Wetland areas in Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain 

Ecoregion. A, Forested wetland (bottomland hardwoods) in South 

Carolina. B, Coastal wetland in extreme southeastern Georgia.
Chapter 18—Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion 161

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four

time periods

Figure 6. Overall spatial change in Middle Atlantic Coastal 

Plain Ecoregion (MACP; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 

Eastern United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal 

set of bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during 

one, two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial 

change in Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion (four time 

periods) labeled for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each 

time period. See appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 7. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Middle 

Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion are represented by red bars in 

each time period.

States ecoregions, change in the Middle Atlantic Coastal 

Plain Ecoregion was high, ranking third overall (fig. 6). The 

amount of area that changed per time period was relatively 

high, and it increased during the 27-year study period: the 

period between 1973 and 1980 experienced the least change, 

and the period between 1992 and 2000 experienced the most 

change (table 2). When normalized to an average annual rate 

to account for uneven time periods, the period between 1973 

and 1980 still had the lowest rate of change (at 0.8 percent 

per year), and the period between 1986 and 1992 still had the 

highest rate of change (1.3 percent per year). Although the 

period between 1986 and 1992 was the most dynamic, two 

other periods (1980–1986, 1992–2000) also had normalized 

rates that exceeded 1.0 percent per year, a high rate of 

change among those estimated for all Eastern United States 

ecoregions (fig. 7). 

Two of the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion’s 

dominant land-cover classes, forest and wetland, experienced 

considerable net change, although this change was uneven for 

these classes across time periods (table 3). Forest decreased in 

the first three time periods, ranging from 35.5 to 31.9 percent 

of the ecoregion, but it increased to 32.1 percent in the last 

time period, for a net loss in area of 3.4 percent between 1973 

and 2000 (table 3; fig. 8). Some of this net loss is due to the 

conversion of forest to mechanically disturbed, the result of 

timber harvesting; however, this land is expected to return 

to forest at a later date. Wetland decreased noticeably in two 

time periods (1980–1986, 1992–2000), with losses of 0.6 and 

0.8 percent, respectively, but it had almost no change during 

the other two time periods (1973–1980, 1986–1992). Overall, 

wetland had a net decrease of 1.3 percent during the study 

period, but some of the wetland that converted to mechanically 

disturbed in the last time period likely will return to wetland 

at a later date. The third most common land-cover class, 

agriculture, did not have a noticeable net change between 

1973 and 2000, although it gained a small amount of area 

between 1973 and 1980 that was offset by losses during two 

subsequent time periods. The less prevalent land-cover classes 

of developed and mechanically disturbed had substantial 

net gains in area, but they experienced somewhat different 

patterns of change. The total amount of developed had a 

nearly consistent increase across each time period, ranging 

from 6.5 percent in 1973 to 9.0 percent in 2000, whereas 

mechanically disturbed showed more fluctuations in the rate 

of change, ranging from 2.3 percent in 1973 to 4.2 percent 

in 2000 (table 3). The developed land-cover class in urban 

areas almost always has a net increase, as it tends to be a 

permanent change, whereas other land-cover classes, such as 

forest, agriculture, wetland, and mechanically disturbed, may 

experience fluctuating net changes as part of cyclic land uses. 

The high rates of land-cover change in the Middle Atlantic 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion were driven by forest harvesting 

and regeneration (together representing 72.0 percent of the 

total change), indicative of cyclic wood production (table 4). 

Conversions from forest to mechanically disturbed and from 

mechanically disturbed to forest were the leading land-cover 
162 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

conversions for each time period (table 4; figs. 9A,B). Overall, 

19,001 km2 of land fluctuated between these two land-cover 

classes. Forest may be clearcut for wood harvesting but, 

subsequently, may return to forest. In addition, land used for 

farming or forestry may be converted to another use to take 

advantage of changing economic markets. Another way to 

consider forest land cover in this ecoregion is to compare 

the percentage of land that was consistently forest between 

1973 and 2000 (“stable” forest, unaltered forest that is at least 

30 years of age) with the percentage of land that was forest only 

part of the time (“dynamic” forest). More than one-half (59.5 

percent) of the forested areas remained as forest throughout 

the study period, whereas 40.5 percent was converted to (or 

from) forest (table 5). The percentage of stable forest in the 

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion was one of the lowest 

percentages of all Eastern United States ecoregions. 

Other leading land-cover changes included disturbances in 

wetlands and increases in developed land (fig. 10). An estimated 

1,963 km2 of wetlands underwent some sort of change (table 3); 

most of this change was to mechanically disturbed land, but 

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 8. Normalized average net change in Middle Atlantic 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.

A

B

Figure 9. Conversions between forested land and mechanically 

disturbed land in Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion. A, Tree 

debris, or slash, remaining after forest clearcut (classified as 

mechanically disturbed), on eastern shore of Maryland. B, Planted 

field of young pine trees west of Charleston, South Carolina.

Figure 10. Subdivision near Interstate 95, west of Saint Marys, 

Georgia.
Chapter 18—Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion 163

about one-half of the wetlands that converted to mechanically 

disturbed land subsequently reverted to wetland conditions. The 

conversions back and forth between wetland and mechanically 

disturbed were the third-leading (wetland to mechanically 

disturbed) and fifth-leading (mechanically disturbed to wetland) 

changes overall (table 4); harvesting of timber in forested 

wetlands, such as bottomland hardwoods, appeared to account 

for most of these conversions. An estimated 134 km2 of wetland 

change, however, was an outright conversion to developed 

land or forested land. In addition, the conversion of forest to 

developed was either the third or fourth most common landcover change in area by time period: the ecoregion gained an 

estimated 2,247 km2 of new developed land during the study 

period (table 3), most of it from forested land (1,741 km2) 

(table 4), and most of the rest came from either agricultural land 

(253 km2) or wetlands (134 km2). 

Table 1. Percentage of Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion 

land-cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (82.0 percent), whereas 18.0 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period] 

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 8.0 1.3 6.7 9.3 0.8 10.3

2 8.7 3.0 5.7 11.6 1.9 22.0

3 1.2 0.7 0.5 1.9 0.5 39.5

4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 43.5

Overall 

spatial 

change

18.0 4.5 13.5 22.5 2.9 15.9

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion land cover, computed for 

each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 5.9 1.6 4.2 7.5 1.0 17.7 0.8

1980–1986 6.8 2.3 4.5 9.1 1.5 22.0 1.1

1986–1992 7.6 2.5 5.1 10.1 1.6 21.1 1.3

1992–2000 9.2 2.6 6.5 11.8 1.7 18.5 1.1

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 5,262 1,454 3,808 6,715 932 17.7 752

1980–1986 6,108 2,091 4,017 8,199 1,341 22.0 1,018

1986–1992 6,805 2,235 4,571 9,040 1,433 21.1 1,134

1992–2000 8,215 2,373 5,842 10,588 1,522 18.5 1,027
164 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion, calculated five 

times between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically disturbed Mining Barren Forest

Grassland/

Shrubland

Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 6.7 5.1 6.5 4.5 2.3 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 35.5 7.3 0.3 0.4 22.7 9.1 26.0 3.6 0.0 0.0

1980 6.7 5.1 7.0 4.7 3.1 1.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 33.9 6.8 0.3 0.4 22.9 9.2 26.0 3.7 0.0 0.0

1986 6.7 5.1 7.7 4.9 3.4 1.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 33.2 6.8 0.5 0.5 22.9 9.2 25.4 3.5 0.0 0.0

1992 6.7 5.1 8.3 5.1 4.0 1.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 31.9 6.5 0.6 0.5 22.8 9.2 25.4 3.7 0.0 0.0

2000 6.7 5.1 9.0 5.3 4.2 1.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 32.1 7.0 0.5 0.5 22.7 9.3 24.6 3.5 0.0 0.0

Net

change 0.0 0.0 2.5 1.2 1.9 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 –3.4 1.8 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.6 –1.3 0.7 0.0 0.0

Gross

change 0.0 0.0 2.5 1.2 6.1 1.9 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 7.1 2.0 0.4 0.6 1.1 0.5 2.2 0.8 0.0 0.0

Area, in square kilometers

1973 5,978 4,568 5,800 4,019 2,061 646 37 40 132 199 31,814 6,529 243 346 20,343 8,121 23,278 3,252 0 0

1980 5,986 4,576 6,299 4,197 2,757 1,185 49 50 125 189 30,365 6,064 252 345 20,556 8,276 23,298 3,294 0 0

1986 5,994 4,585 6,900 4,434 3,022 1,244 75 87 120 181 29,807 6,089 426 408 20,549 8,290 22,793 3,176 0 0

1992 6,002 4,585 7,485 4,607 3,625 1,311 109 138 124 184 28,598 5,830 516 483 20,471 8,273 22,755 3,284 0 0

2000 5,994 4,574 8,047 4,797 3,768 1,076 114 141 143 212 28,773 6,266 424 407 20,319 8,350 22,104 3,157 0 0

Net

change 16 18 2,247 1,103 1,707 797 77 102 10 13 –3,041 1,606 180 260 –24 499 –1,173 671 0 0

Gross

change 41 34 2,247 1,103 5,468 1,699 77 102 35 50 6,407 1,801 400 495 983 481 1,963 683 0 0
Chapter 18—Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion 165

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and 

margin of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during 

overall study period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,408 1,135 728 2.7 45.8

Mechanically disturbed Forest 1,646 538 345 1.8 31.3

Forest Developed 444 270 173 0.5 8.4

Forest Agriculture 277 233 149 0.3 5.3

Mechanically disturbed Wetland 191 98 63 0.2 3.6

Other Other 295 n/a n/a 0.3 5.6

Totals 5,262 5.9 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,128 968 621 2.4 34.8

Mechanically disturbed Forest 2,116 895 574 2.4 34.6

Wetland Mechanically disturbed 592 295 189 0.7 9.7

Forest Developed 498 336 215 0.6 8.1

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 179 260 167 0.2 2.9

Other Other 596 n/a n/a 0.7 9.8

Totals 6,108 6.8 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,811 1,339 859 3.1 41.3

Mechanically disturbed Forest 1,928 919 590 2.2 28.3

Forest Developed 493 305 196 0.5 7.2

Mechanically disturbed Wetland 426 199 127 0.5 6.3

Wetland Mechanically disturbed 392 217 139 0.4 5.8

Other Other 755 n/a n/a 0.8 11.1

Totals 6,805 7.6 100.0

1992–2000 Mechanically disturbed Forest 3,098 1,226 787 3.5 37.7

Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,866 923 592 3.2 34.9

Wetland Mechanically disturbed 791 281 180 0.9 9.6

Forest Developed 306 178 114 0.3 3.7

Mechanically disturbed Wetland 191 109 70 0.2 2.3

Other Other 964 n/a n/a 1.1 11.7

Totals 8,215 9.2 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 10,213 3,975 2,550 11.4 38.7

Mechanically disturbed Forest 8,788 3,196 2,050 9.8 33.3

Wetland Mechanically disturbed 1,903 730 468 2.1 7.2

Forest Developed 1,741 1,006 646 1.9 6.6

Mechanically disturbed Wetland 942 304 195 1.1 3.6

Other Other 2,803 n/a n/a 3.1 10.6

Totals 26,390 29.4 100.0
166 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 5. Amounts of “stable” versus “dynamic” forest land 

cover (as number and percentage of pixels) in sample blocks in 

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion throughout study period 

(1973–2000).

[“Stable” forest, forested land that has remained unaltered for at least 30 years; 

“dynamic” forest, land that was forested only part of that time]

Amount of forest land cover,

between 1973 and 2000

Number of

forest pixels

Percentage of 

forest pixels

Total amount of forest land cover 

during study period 464,020 100.0

Amount of stable forest land cover 

(that is, amount unchanged) 276,005 59.5

Amount of dynamic forest land 

cover (that is, amount affected by, 

or resulting from, change) 188,015 40.5

References Cited

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1999, 1997 Census of 

agriculture—Agricultural atlas of the United States, v. 2, 

subject series, part 1: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government 

Printing Office, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 163 p.

Vogelmann, J.M., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf. 
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 19

Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion 

By Mark A. Drummond

Ecoregion Description 

The Southern Coastal Plain 

Ecoregion is a subtropical, low-elevation 

ecoregion situated between the Gulf 

of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean 

(Wiken and others, 2011) (fig.1). 

The ecoregion, which covers about 

145,123 km2 (56,032 mi2), includes 

parts of central and northern Florida and 

southeastern Georgia; a very small part 

of South Carolina; and the Gulf Coasts 

of Mississippi, Alabama, and a small 

part of southeastern Louisiana. The 

ecoregion is bounded on the far west by 

the Mississippi Alluvial Plain Ecoregion, 

on the north by the Southeastern Plains 

Ecoregion, on the northeast by the 

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion, 

and on the far south by the Southern 

Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion.

A discontinuous series of barrier 

islands, beaches, and sand dunes line 

the coast of the Southern Coastal Plain 

Ecoregion. The interior of the ecoregion 

has many large lakes, karst springs, and 

sandy hills. Swamps and marshlands are 

present across the ecoregion, from the 

large Okefenokee Swamp in the north 

to the northern part of The Everglades 

tropical wetlands system, most of which 

lies in the adjacent Southern Florida 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion to the south. 

Large natural disturbances that affect 

the area relatively frequently include 

hurricanes and tropical storms, as well as 

wildland fires. 

The climate of the ecoregion is 

warm and humid, and the ecoregion 

receives abundant precipitation of 

between 1,000 and 1,500 mm (40 and 

60 in.) annually. The combination 

of long, frost-free periods of more 

than 240 days and plentiful water 

historically has enabled the production 

90° 88° 86° 84° 82° 80°

32°

30°

28°

26°

Southeastern

Plains

Piedmont RV MACP SWA

MAP

MVLP

SEP

Southern Florida

Coastal Plain

GULF of MEXICO

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

0 50 100 150 200 MILES

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

Land-use/land-cover class

Water

Developed

Transitional

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture 

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

EXPLANATION

ALABAMA GEORGIA

SC

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

FLORIDA

Saint Petersburg

Jacksonville

Tampa

Orlando

Tampa Bay

Gulf

o f

Mexico

MS

LA

Wetland

Ice/Snow

THE

EVERGLADES

Okefenokee

Swamp

Figure 1. Map of Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion and surrounding ecoregions, 

showing land-use/land-cover classes from 1992 National Land Cover Dataset (Vogelmann 

and others, 2001); note that not all land-use/land-cover classes shown in explanation 

may be depicted on map; note also that, for this “Status and Trends of Land Change” 

study, transitional land-cover class was subdivided into mechanically disturbed and 

nonmechanically disturbed classes. Squares indicate locations of 10 x 10 km sample 

blocks analyzed in study. Index map shows locations of geographic features mentioned 

in text. Abbreviations for Eastern United States ecoregions are listed in appendix 2. Also 

shown is part of one Midwest–South Central United States ecoregion, Mississippi Alluvial 

Plain (MAP). See appendix 3 for definitions of land-use/land-cover classifications.
168 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

of specialized crops. The citrus industry focused its intensive 

orange production on the southern interior and southeastern 

coastal parts of the ecoregion (fig. 2), although there has 

been a recent southward translocation of orange-production 

operations to avoid tree-killing frosts aggravated by wetland 

loss (Marshall and others, 2003). Pastureland also has been 

an important agricultural resource in the ecoregion. Extensive 

pine (Pinus spp.) plantations for timber production are 

common (fig. 3). Stands of commercially harvested pine, 

which regenerate relatively quickly after harvest, constitute 

about one-third of Florida’s forested land, primarily in the 

northern part of the state (Carter and Jokela, 2002). 

Substantial population growth has occurred in the Southern 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion, causing an expansion of urban and 

developed land (fig. 4). Between 1970 and 2000, the population 

increased by more than 140 percent, from 4.2 million to 10.3 

million people (U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various 

years]). Large urban areas are prevalent on the Florida peninsula, 

including Orlando, Jacksonville, Saint Petersburg, and Tampa. 

Tampa Bay is one of the ten largest ports in the United States. 

In addition to agriculture and the extensive pine plantations, 

tourism and associated service industries are important to 

Florida’s economy. Mining of rich phosphate reserves for use in 

agricultural fertilizers also is significant (fig. 5). 

Pine and mixed-hardwood forests originally covered 

much of the ecoregion. The native longleaf pine (Pinus 

palustris) was the dominant tree species; however, by about 

2000, its extent had been reduced by as much as 98 percent 

(Wear and Greis, 2002). Forested areas were cleared for 

lumber and then converted to plantations that favor the 

faster growing species such as slash pine (Pinus elliottii) 

and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda). Forests of longleaf pine 

and other native trees also have been converted to cropland, 

pastureland, mining, and urban uses. 

Figure 2. Orange grove ready for harvesting in southern interior 

of Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion.

Figure 3. Managed pine stand in northern-central part of 

Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion.

Figure 4. Large waterfront homes and apartment complex, 

examples of intensive development along Tampa Bay, Florida.

Figure 5. Reclaimed strip mine in central Florida.
Chapter 19—Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion 169

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land area 

that changed at least one time) in the Southern Coastal Plain 

Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 24.6 percent 

(table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States ecoregions, 

change in the Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion was highest 

overall (fig. 6): an estimated 13.2 percent of the ecoregion 

changed only one time, and 11.3 percent changed two or more 

times. Multiple changes are indicative of cycles of timber 

harvesting and reforestation that occurred throughout the study 

period. When normalized to an average annual rate to account 

for unequal time periods, the highest rates of change occurred 

in the last two time periods (1986–1992, 1992–2000), when 

the average annual rate was 1.5 percent (table 2; fig. 7). The 

lowest rate of change occurred between 1973 and 1980, when 

the average annual rate was 1.2 percent. 

Land-cover statistics show that forest is the predominant 

land-cover class, despite a decrease from a high of 28.2 

percent of the ecoregion in 1973 to a low of 24.0 percent in 

2000 (table 3). Wetland also decreased, from 22.8 percent of 

the ecoregion in 1973 to 20.4 percent in 2000. Agriculture 

decreased similarly, from 10.7 percent of the ecoregion to 

7.9 percent between 1973 and 2000. The study also showed 

a substantial decrease in mining, from 2.0 percent of the 

ecoregion to 0.8 percent, as the total area of phosphate mines 

declined. 

Developed had a large overall gain during the 27-year 

study period, from 14.7 percent of the ecoregion to 20.8 

percent, becoming the second most common land-cover class 

in the ecoregion by 2000. Grassland/shrubland increased from 

5.1 percent of the ecoregion to 6.8 percent between 1973 

and 2000. The mechanically disturbed and nonmechanically 

disturbed land-cover classes both had moderate increases 

in land area. Overall (1973–2000), mechanically disturbed 

increased from 2.3 to 3.8 percent of the ecoregion. Forest, 

wetland, and developed each covered more than 20 percent of 

the ecoregion in 2000, suggesting a highly variable pattern of 

land use and land cover.

Net-change statistics show that developed increased by 

6.2 percent of the ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 (table 3). 

Grassland/shrubland had the next highest gain at 1.7 percent 

of the ecoregion. Mechanically disturbed increased by 1.5 

percent of the ecoregion, primarily owing to the cutting of 

forest. The largest net decrease in ecoregion area was a 4.2 

percent loss of forest between 1973 and 2000. Other net 

changes in ecoregion area during the study period included 

decreases in agriculture (–2.8 percent), wetland (–2.4 percent), 

and mining (–1.2 percent) (table 3; fig. 8).

The leading land-cover change in all four time periods 

was from forest to mechanically disturbed (through timber 

harvest), which accounted for 25.0 percent (14,163 km2) of all 

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four

time periods

Figure 6. Overall spatial change in Southern Coastal Plain 

Ecoregion (SCOP; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 

Eastern United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal 

set of bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during 

one, two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial 

change in Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion (four time periods) 

labeled for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each time 

period. See appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 7. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Southern 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion are represented by red bars in each time 

period.
170 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

change in the ecoregion during the study period (1973–2000) 

(table 4). The reforestation of mechanically disturbed land was 

the second most common conversion. These changes typically 

are cyclic, owing to forest harvesting and regrowth. Net-change 

statistics in the Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion tend to 

mask much larger gross changes (total losses and gains) that 

may have occurred in a land-cover class. For example, the 

ecoregion experienced significant losses of forested land 

owing to mechanical disturbance (timber harvesting), but it 

also experienced significant gains in forested land owing to 

reforestation. Additional decreases in forested land most likely 

occurred from the loss of forested wetlands. 

The 6.2 percent increase in developed land relative to 

the entire ecoregion area was the highest net increase in all 

20 Eastern United States ecoregions during the study period. 

Overall, development occurred primarily on agricultural land 

(2,707 km2), forested land (2,637 km2), and wetlands (2,024 

km2). Between 1973 and 1980, wetlands were the largest 

source of land that converted to developed land (937 km2), 

although the extent of the conversions had decreased by 

2000 (table 4). Agricultural land was the dominant source for 

developed land in the period between 1992 and 2000, when an 

estimated 987 km2 were converted (table 4). 

Although much of the overall change in the Southern 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion resulted from conversions caused by 

the timber-harvest-and-regrowth cycle, the rapid expansion 

of developed land throughout the ecoregion represented a 

significant and permanent change. Developed land expanded 

into areas formerly occupied by a number of other land 

covers. Although former agricultural land accounted for 

much of the newly developed land, agriculture remained an 

important component of human use of the ecoregion, even as it 

experienced a shift in geographic range as the needs of the citrus 

industry changed. Although wetland still occupied one-fifth of 

the ecoregion in 2000 (table 3), large areas of wetland were lost 

to developed, a conversion that may continue into the future.

−4

−2

0

2

4

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 8. Normalized average net change in Southern Coastal 

Plain Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. Bars 

above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.
Chapter 19—Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion 171

Table 1. Percentage of Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion land 

cover that changed at least one time during study period (1973–

2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (75.4 percent), whereas 24.6 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 13.2 2.0 11.2 15.2 1.4 10.3

2 8.6 2.2 6.5 10.8 1.5 17.1

3 2.5 0.9 1.6 3.4 0.6 24.8

4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 30.9

Overall 

spatial 

change

24.6 3.7 20.9 28.3 2.5 10.2

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion land cover, computed for each 

of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 8.7 1.9 6.8 10.7 1.3 15.0 1.2

1980–1986 8.6 1.8 6.9 10.4 1.2 13.9 1.4

1986–1992 9.3 2.1 7.2 11.4 1.4 15.5 1.5

1992–2000 12.3 2.3 10.0 14.6 1.6 12.6 1.5

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 12,667 2,799 9,868 15,466 1,900 15 1,810

1980–1986 12,541 2,567 9,974 15,108 1,743 14 2,090

1986–1992 13,475 3,072 10,403 16,547 2,086 15 2,246

1992–2000 17,887 3,330 14,557 21,217 2,261 13 2,236
172 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion, calculated five times 

between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically 

disturbed Mining Barren Forest Grassland/

Shrubland Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 14.0 6.8 14.7 5.3 2.3 0.9 2.0 1.5 0.1 0.1 28.2 5.0 5.1 2.5 10.7 2.7 22.8 3.8 0.0 0.0

1980 14.1 6.8 16.5 5.9 2.2 0.8 2.4 1.8 0.1 0.1 26.9 5.0 5.4 2.4 10.3 2.7 21.9 3.7 0.1 0.1

1986 14.3 6.8 17.8 6.2 2.7 1.0 2.5 1.9 0.1 0.1 25.9 4.9 5.7 2.3 9.6 2.5 21.3 3.7 0.2 0.2

1992 14.3 6.8 19.0 6.4 3.2 1.2 1.9 1.4 0.1 0.1 24.8 4.7 6.5 2.7 8.7 2.4 21.3 3.7 0.1 0.1

2000 14.6 6.8 20.8 6.7 3.8 1.3 0.8 0.7 0.1 0.1 24.0 4.5 6.8 3.2 7.9 2.1 20.4 3.4 0.8 0.8

Net

change 0.6 0.3 6.2 2.1 1.5 0.8 –1.2 1.2 0.0 0.0 –4.2 1.4 1.7 1.3 –2.8 1.1 –2.4 1.3 0.7 0.8

Gross

change 0.8 0.3 6.2 2.1 7.8 2.3 2.7 2.0 0.0 0.0 9.6 2.3 5.3 1.6 3.6 1.1 3.5 1.3 1.2 0.8

Area, in square kilometers

1973 20,322 9,911 21,265 7,731 3,340 1,259 2,910 2,207 213 153 40,950 7,285 7,409 3,603 15,532 3,932 33,151 5,586 31 45

1980 20,463 9,907 23,963 8,608 3,230 1,160 3,436 2,639 201 152 39,044 7,261 7,818 3,486 15,006 3,852 31,847 5,328 116 168

1986 20,689 9,892 25,813 9,007 3,958 1,412 3,558 2,809 204 151 37,577 7,067 8,257 3,328 13,865 3,637 30,981 5,327 223 227

1992 20,756 9,863 27,619 9,350 4,626 1,787 2,809 2,052 205 152 35,973 6,805 9,370 3,939 12,696 3,460 30,930 5,356 140 203

2000 21,130 9,860 30,228 9,752 5,470 1,927 1,176 1,080 207 152 34,824 6,483 9,824 4,626 11,504 3,089 29,655 4,970 1,104 1,129

Net

change 808 485 8,963 3,053 2,130 1,150 –1,733 1,771 –6 16 –6,126 2,021 2,415 1,859 –4,028 1,629 –3,496 1,924 1,073 1,131

Gross

change 1,110 486 8,990 3,049 11,270 3,287 3,966 2,906 30 18 13,890 3,278 7,733 2,347 5,276 1,619 5,034 1,859 1,784 1,230
Chapter 19—Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion 173

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and margin of 

error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during overall study 

period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” classes are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Forest Mechanically disturbed 2,598 1,064 723 1.8 20.5

Mechanically disturbed Forest 2,049 935 635 1.4 16.2

Grassland/Shrubland Mining 1,067 996 676 0.7 8.4

Wetland Developed 937 841 571 0.6 7.4

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 845 752 510 0.6 6.7

Other Other 5,170 n/a n/a 3.6 40.8

Totals 12,667 8.7 100.0

1980–1986 Forest Mechanically disturbed 3,084 1,240 842 2.1 24.6

Mechanically disturbed Forest 1,726 862 585 1.2 13.8

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 817 384 261 0.6 6.5

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 768 682 463 0.5 6.1

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 738 315 214 0.5 5.9

Other Other 5,407 n/a n/a 3.7 43.1

Totals 12,541 8.6 100.0

1986–1992 Forest Mechanically disturbed 4,079 1,754 1,191 2.8 30.3

Mechanically disturbed Forest 2,237 1,069 725 1.5 16.6

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 1,106 1,120 760 0.8 8.2

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 858 363 246 0.6 6.4

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 784 439 298 0.5 5.8

Other Other 4,411 n/a n/a 3.0 32.7

Totals 13,475 9.3 100.0

1992–2000 Forest Mechanically disturbed 4,401 1,693 1,149 3.0 24.6

Mechanically disturbed Forest 3,471 1,659 1,126 2.4 19.4

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 1,400 1,210 821 1.0 7.8

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 1,262 665 452 0.9 7.1

Agriculture Developed 987 462 313 0.7 5.5

Other Other 6,365 n/a n/a 4.4 35.6

Totals 17,887 12.3 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Forest Mechanically disturbed 14,163 4,896 3,324 9.8 25.0

Mechanically disturbed Forest 9,483 3,794 2,575 6.5 16.8

Mining Grassland/Shrubland 4,120 3,572 2,425 2.8 7.3

Grassland/Shrubland Forest 3,110 1,114 756 2.1 5.5

Mechanically disturbed Grassland/Shrubland 2,768 1,102 748 1.9 4.9

Other Other 22,926 n/a n/a 15.8 40.5

Totals 56,570 39.0 100.0
174 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

References Cited

Carter, D.R., and Jokela, E.J., 2002, Florida’s renewable forest 

resources: Gainesville, University of Florida, Institute of 

Food and Agricultural Sciences, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, CIR 1433, 9 p.

Marshall, C.H., Pielke, R.A., Sr., and Steyaert, L.T., 2003, 

Crop freezes and land-use change in Florida: Nature, v. 426, 

p. 29–30.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1970–2000 [various years], Census of 

population and housing: U.S. Census Bureau database, 

accessed May 9, 2013, at http://www.census.gov/prod/

www/decennial.html.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wear, D.N., and Greis, J.G., eds., 2002, Southern forest resource 

assessment: U.S. Forest Service, Southern Research Station, 

General Technical Report SRS 53, 635 p, accessed November 

15, 2013, at http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/4833.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf. 
Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

Edited by Kristi L. Sayler, William Acevedo, and Janis L. Taylor 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, 2016

Chapter 20

Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion 

By Steven Kambly

Ecoregion Description 

The Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion covers 

22,407 km2 (8,651 mi2) across the southern part of the Florida 

peninsula, from Lake Okeechobee southward through the 

Florida Keys. It is bounded on the north by the Southern 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion (fig. 1).

The ecoregion is composed of “flat plains with wet 

soils, marshland and swamp land cover with everglades and 

palmetto prairie vegetation types” (Wiken and others, 2011). 

The ecoregion’s climate generally is subtropical and frost 

free, with a dry season and a wet season. About 1,400 mm 

(55 in.) of rain falls annually in the ecoregion, about 1,060 

mm (42 in.) of which falls during the wet season between 

June and September. The long, warm, dry season, from 

October to May, allows for year-round crop production, and 

it has been essential to the cultivation of commercially grown 

winter vegetable crops. Sugarcane also is widely grown, 

forming the basis of the domestic sugar industry since the 

early 1960s (fig.2). The nutrient-poor Everglades, with its 

flat and expansive terrain, is subject to urban and agricultural 

runoff. Surface-water levels and areas of sheet flow are 

affected by even slight variations in topography, which can 

have significant effects on plant and animal communities. 

The ecoregion experienced extensive land-cover change 

between 1950 and 1970, owing largely to the implementation 

of mosquito- and water-control measures, the widespread 

use of air conditioning, the improvements in transportation 

infrastructure, and the efforts by developers and government 

officials to promote Florida’s growth potential (Solecki, 2001; 

see also, figs. 3,4). 

82° 81° 80°

Southern Coastal Plain

GULF OF

MEXICO

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

0 50 75 MILES

0 50 75

25

25 KILOMETERS

Water

Developed

Transitional

Land-use/land-cover class

Mining

Barren

Forest

EXPLANATION

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ecoregion boundary

Sample block (10 x 10 km)

Ice/Snow

27°

26°

25°

FL

Southern Florida

Coastal Plain 

Ecoregion

FLORIDA KEYS

Lake

Okeechobee

GULF

O F

MEXICO

FLORIDA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

EVERGLADES

AGRICULTURAL

AREA

EVERGLADES

NATIONAL

PARK

BIG

CYPRESS

NATIONAL

PRESERVE

T H E E V E R G L A D E ST H E E V E R G L A D E S

Key West

Naples

Palm

Beach

Miami

Fort

Lauderdale

Figure 1. Map of Southern 

Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion and 

surrounding ecoregions, showing 

land-use/land-cover classes from 

1992 National Land Cover Dataset 

(Vogelmann and others, 2001); note 

that not all land-use/land-cover 

classes shown in explanation may 

be depicted on map; note also 

that, for this “Status and Trends of 

Land Change” study, transitional 

land-cover class was subdivided 

into mechanically disturbed and 

nonmechanically disturbed classes. 

Squares indicate locations of 10 x 

10 km sample blocks analyzed in 

study. Index map shows locations 

of geographic features mentioned 

in text. Abbreviations for Eastern 

United States ecoregions are listed 

in appendix 2. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use/land-cover 

classifications.
176 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Contemporary Land-Cover Change 

(1973 to 2000)

The overall spatial change (the percentage of land that 

changed at least one time) in the Southern Florida Coastal Plain 

Ecoregion between 1973 and 2000 is estimated at 5.8 percent 

(table 1). Compared to other Eastern United States ecoregions, 

change in the Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion was 

moderate, particularly when compared to the neighboring 

Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion, which experienced a 

24.8 percent change (fig. 5): an estimated 4.4 percent of the 

Southern Florida Coastal Plain ecoregion (986 km2) changed 

only one time; 1.4 percent (314 km2) changed two or more 

times; and an estimated 94.2 percent of the ecoregion remained 

unchanged (table 1). The spatial distribution of change was 

uneven; most change occurred in urbanizing coastal areas, and 

relatively little change occurred inland. When normalized to 

an average annual rate to account for unequal time periods, 

the estimated change per time period varied from a high of 

2.5 percent between 1973 and 1980 to a low of 1.4 percent 

Figure 2. Sugarcane-cultivation and -processing operations, in 

Everglades Agricultural Area (Conservancy of Southwest Florida, 

2013), south of Lake Okeechobee, Florida.

Figure 3. Flow regulator in Southern Florida Coastal Plain 

Ecoregion, part of water-control and -allocation infrastructure of 

Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project, which was 

authorized by Congress in 1948 and constructed by U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, thereby ensuring continuation of urban and 

agricultural growth after World War II.

Figure 4. Field being cleared for development in Southern 

Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion, as demand for housing and 

associated amenities continues to rise in coastal areas.

0 10 20 30

Area, as percent of ecoregion

BRM

NAPU

IP

RV

EGLHL

NECZ

SFCP

ACPB

WAP

NCA

NP

NEH

CA

LPH

MVLP

SWA

P

MACP

SEP

SCOP

Ecoregion 

EXPLANATION

Change in one time period

Change in two time periods

Change in three time periods

Change in four time periods

Change in four time periods

Figure 5. Overall spatial change in Southern Florida Coastal 

Plain Ecoregion (SFCP; darker bars) compared with that of all 20 

Eastern United States ecoregions (lighter bars). Each horizontal 

set of bars shows proportions of ecoregion that changed during 

one, two, three, or four time periods; highest level of spatial 

change in Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion (four time 

periods) labeled for clarity. See table 2 for years covered by each 

time period. See appendix 2 for key to ecoregion abbreviations.
Chapter 20—Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion 177

between 1992 and 2000 (table 2). The two intervening time 

periods (1980–1986, 1986–1992) had rates of change of 1.7 

and 1.9 percent, respectively. The estimated average annual rate 

of change was 0.3 percent across all time periods. The period 

between 1973 and 1980 had the highest annual rate of change, 

at 0.4 percent of the ecoregion (80 km2) (table 2; fig. 6); during 

this time period, the leading conversions were from wetland 

to agriculture and from nonmechanically disturbed to wetland, 

as wetlands recovered from the effects of fire. The time period 

between 1992 and 2000 had the lowest annual rate of change, 

at 0.2 percent of the ecoregion; the leading conversions during 

this time period were from agriculture to developed and from 

wetland to nonmechanically disturbed (the latter, owing to the 

occurrence of fire in wetland areas). 

Changes in ecoregion land area by land-cover class 

are indicated in table 3. Developed increased in each time 

period, from 2.3 percent of the ecoregion in 1973 to 4.1 

percent in 2000. Agriculture increased from 17.2 percent 

of the ecoregion in 1973 to 18.4 percent in 1980, and then 

it decreased in each subsequent period, occupying 17.3 

percent of the ecoregion in 2000. In the time periods between 

1973 and 1992, nonmechanically disturbed land fluctuated 

between 0.0 and 0.6 percent of the ecoregion, reflecting the 

natural cycle of fire and regrowth in the Everglades; by 2000, 

nonmechanically disturbed represented an estimated 0.3 

percent of the ecoregion. Wetland decreased from 73.7 percent 

of the ecoregion in 1973 to 72.1 percent in 2000, primarily the 

result of increases in agriculture and developed (fig. 7). 

Wetland to agriculture was the most common landcover conversion overall (between 1973 and 2000), with an 

estimated 348 km2 converted (table 4), the highest amount of 

change (284 km2) occurring in the first time period (1973–

1980). Conversions between nonmechanically disturbed and 

wetland, which represent the natural role of fire and habitat 

renewal in wetland areas, accounted for the second and fourth 

most common conversions overall. Agriculture to developed 

was the third most common conversion overall. Between 1973 

and 2000, an estimated 414 km2 were converted to developed 

land. As a result, the developed land-cover class was involved 

in more than one-quarter of all changes, the most of any landcover class during the study period. Conversions to developed 

increased after 1980, as a significant amount of agriculture that 

had been converted earlier from wetland became urbanized. 

Despite a continual decrease between 1973 and 2000, wetland 

remained the dominant land-cover class. 

Several factors contributed to land-cover change in the 

Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion during the study 

period (1973–2000). Extensive drainage- and flood-control 

measures, which were begun in the early 1950s by the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, ensured continual increases in 

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

1973 to 1980 1980 to 1986 1986 to 1992 1992 to 2000

Average annual change, as percent of ecoregion

Time period

Figure 6. Estimates of land-cover change per time period, 

normalized to annual rates of change for all 20 Eastern United 

States ecoregions (gray bars). Estimates of change for Southern 

Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion are represented by red bars in 

each time period.

−2

−1

0

1

2

1973–1980 1980–1986 

Time period

1986–1992 1992–2000 

Area changed, as percent of ecoregion 

Water

Developed

Mechanically disturbed

Mining

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Nonmechanically disturbed

Ice/Snow

EXPLANATION

Land-use/land-cover class

Figure 7. Normalized average net change in Southern Florida 

Coastal Plain Ecoregion by time period for each land-cover class. 

Bars above zero axis represent net gain, whereas bars below zero 

represent net loss. Note that not all land-cover classes shown 

in explanation may be represented in figure. See appendix 3 for 

definitions of land-use and land-cover classifications.
178 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

agricultural and development activities. Improvements to the 

transportation infrastructure to support these land uses made 

the ecoregion more accessible to tourists and new residents, 

and it also eased the movement of goods. The advent of private 

and public pensions and health-care programs enabled large 

numbers of retirees to settle in the ecoregion (Solecki, 2001). 

National and state parks and wildlife refuges played 

a role in limiting new development, especially in wetland 

areas. Such protected lands constituted about 30 percent of 

the ecoregion (fig. 8). A growing awareness of environmental 

impacts has led to measures protecting ecologically sensitive 

areas, such as the creation of the Big Cypress National 

Preserve in 1974 and the ongoing efforts at restoring The 

Everglades (Carter, 1974; McCally, 1999). 

Figure 8. Roadside marker for Everglades National Park, established 

in 1947 in Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion. Although presence 

of Everglades National Park limits development, both plant and animal 

species within park are greatly affected by agricultural and urban 

areas beyond its borders.

Table 1. Percentage of Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion 

land cover that changed at least one time during study period 

(1973–2000) and associated statistical error.

[Most sample pixels remained unchanged (94.2 percent), whereas 5.8 percent 

changed at least once throughout study period]

Number

of

changes

Percent

of

ecoregion

Margin

of error

(+/− %)

Lower

bound

(%)

Upper

bound

(%)

Standard

error

(%)

Relative

error

(%)

1 4.4 1.7 2.7 6.1 1.1 26.1

2 1.2 0.7 0.5 1.9 0.5 40.1

3 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.4 0.1 63.9

4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 90.5

Overall 

spatial 

change

5.8 2.3 3.5 8.1 1.5 26.3
Chapter 20—Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion 179

Table 3. Estimated area (and margin of error) of each land-cover class in Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion, calculated five 

times between 1973 and 2000. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

Water Developed Mechanically 

disturbed Mining Barren Forest

Grassland/

Shrubland

Agriculture Wetland

Nonmechanically 

disturbed

% +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/− % +/−

Area, in percent stratum

1973 2.7 2.2 2.3 1.7 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.9 1.5 0.4 0.3 17.2 8.2 73.7 9.0 0.6 0.8

1980 2.8 2.2 2.6 1.9 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 1.4 0.3 0.2 18.4 8.3 73.0 9.2 0.0 0.0

1986 2.8 2.2 3.0 2.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.7 1.3 0.3 0.2 18.2 8.2 72.1 9.1 0.6 0.8

1992 3.0 2.2 3.6 2.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 1.3 0.4 0.2 17.6 8.1 72.6 9.2 0.0 0.0

2000 3.1 2.2 4.1 2.5 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 1.2 0.3 0.2 17.3 8.1 72.1 9.2 0.3 0.4

Net

change 0.4 0.3 1.8 1.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 –0.3 0.5 –0.1 0.1 0.1 1.8 –1.6 1.6 –0.3 0.9

Gross

change 0.5 0.3 1.8 1.1 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 3.1 1.6 4.1 2.6 2.0 2.4

Area, in square kilometers

1973 616 498 516 379 31 32 1 1 6 7 648 343 82 58 3,859 1,833 16,517 2,018 131 180

1980 620 498 586 429 19 15 3 4 6 7 619 317 77 50 4,124 1,865 16,350 2,057 0 0

1986 636 497 671 463 52 56 0 0 6 7 602 300 64 40 4,085 1,836 16,160 2,041 131 180

1992 667 497 814 514 36 31 3 3 6 7 583 283 79 48 3,943 1,815 16,275 2,060 0 0

2000 705 497 922 553 46 44 2 2 6 7 575 280 56 39 3,871 1,805 16,166 2,061 58 79

Net

change 89 63 406 242 15 54 0 3 0 0 –73 105 –26 33 11 394 –351 348 –73 199

Gross

change 113 71 406 242 141 98 9 8 0 0 116 105 100 69 694 365 910 586 449 542

Table 2. Raw estimates of change in Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion land cover, computed for 

each of four time periods between 1973 and 2000, and associated error at 85-percent confidence level.

[Estimates of change per period normalized to annual rate of change for each time period]

Period Total change

(% of ecoregion)

Margin of 

error

(+/− %)

Lower 

bound

(%)

Upper bound

(%)

Standard 

error

(%)

Relative 

error

(%)

Average rate

(% per year)

Estimate of change, in percent stratum

1973–1980 2.5 1.3 1.2 3.8 0.9 34.6 0.4

1980–1986 1.7 0.9 0.8 2.6 0.6 36.7 0.3

1986–1992 1.9 1.1 0.8 3.0 0.7 38.8 0.3

1992–2000 1.4 0.7 0.7 2.0 0.5 33.1 0.2

Estimate of change, in square kilometers

1973–1980 559 286 273 845 194 34.6 80

1980–1986 380 206 174 587 140 36.7 63

1986–1992 426 244 182 671 165 38.8 71

1992–2000 305 150 156 455 101 33.1 38
180 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Table 4. Principal land-cover conversions in Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion, showing amount of area changed (and 

margin of error, calculated at 85-percent confidence level) for each conversion during each of four time periods and also during 

overall study period. See appendix 3 for definitions of land-cover classifications.

[Values given for “other” class are combined totals of values for other land-cover classes not listed in that time period. Abbreviations: n/a, not applicable]

Period From class To class

Area 

changed

Margin of 

error

Standard 

error Percent of 

ecoregion

Percent of all 

changes (km2) (+/− km2) (km2)

1973–1980 Wetland Agriculture 284 224 151 1.3 50.9

Nonmechanically disturbed Wetland 130 179 121 0.6 23.3

Forest Developed 25 34 23 0.1 4.5

Mechanically disturbed Developed 19 27 18 0.1 3.5

Agriculture Developed 17 14 9 0.1 3.0

Other Other 83 n/a n/a 0.4 14.8

Totals 559 2.5 100.0

1980–1986 Wetland Nonmechanically disturbed 131 180 122 0.6 34.3

Agriculture Mechanically disturbed 37 46 31 0.2 9.7

Wetland Agriculture 37 35 23 0.2 9.6

Agriculture Developed 34 24 16 0.2 8.9

Forest Developed 18 23 16 0.1 4.7

Other Other 124 n/a n/a 0.6 32.7

Totals 380 1.7 100.0

1986–1992 Nonmechanically disturbed Wetland 131 180 122 0.6 30.6

Agriculture Developed 86 64 43 0.4 20.3

Agriculture Grassland/Shrubland 31 28 19 0.1 7.3

Mechanically disturbed Developed 27 30 20 0.1 6.3

Forest Developed 22 29 20 0.1 5.2

Other Other 129 n/a n/a 0.6 30.3

Totals 426 1.9 100.0

1992–2000 Agriculture Developed 60 51 35 0.3 19.6

Wetland Nonmechanically disturbed 57 78 53 0.3 18.5

Wetland Agriculture 22 27 18 0.1 7.1

Wetland Water 19 18 12 0.1 6.2

Agriculture Mechanically disturbed 18 22 15 0.1 6.0

Other Other 130 n/a n/a 0.6 42.6

Totals 305 1.4 100.0

1973–2000

(overall)

Wetland Agriculture 348 277 187 1.6 20.8

Nonmechanically disturbed Wetland 261 359 243 1.2 15.6

Agriculture Developed 197 138 93 0.9 11.8

Wetland Nonmechanically disturbed 187 193 131 0.8 11.2

Agriculture Mechanically disturbed 80 88 60 0.4 4.8

Other Other 598 n/a n/a 2.7 35.8

Totals 1,671 7.5 100.0
Chapter 20—Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion 181

References Cited

Carter, Luther J., 1974, The Florida experience—Land and 

water policy in a growth state: Baltimore, Md., The Johns 

Hopkins University Press, 354 p.

Conservancy of Southwest Florida, 2013, Everglades Agricultural Area: Conservancy of Southwest Florida Web site, 

accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.conservancy.org/ourwork/everglades-agricultural-area.

McCally, David, 1999, The Everglades—An environmental 

history: Gainesville, University Press of Florida, 215 p. 

Solecki, W.D., 2001, South Florida—The role of globalto-local linkages in land use/land cover change in South 

Florida: Ecological Economics, v. 37, p. 339–356.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.

Wiken, E., Jiménez Nava, F., and Griffith, G., 2011, North 

American terrestrial ecoregions—Level III: Montreal, 

Canada, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 

149 p., accessed May 1, 2013, at http://www.cec.org/

Storage/133/15860_QA07.30-32_NP_NA_Terrestrial_

Ecoregions_Level_3_Final-2june11.pdf.

Appendixes 1–4

Appendix 1. Map of Ecoregions in Conterminous United States 185

Appendix 1. Map of Ecoregions in Conterminous United States

This volume—U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1794–D, which covers 20 ecoregions in the Eastern United 

States—provides an assessment of the rates and causes of land-use and land-cover change in the Eastern United States region 

between 1973 and 2000. The other three volumes of this Professional Paper (1794–A, 1794–B, and 1794–C) provide similar 

analyses for the Western United States, the Great Plains of the United States, and the Midwest–South Central United States 

regions, respectively.

The map contained in this appendix (fig. 1.1) shows all 84 ecoregions in the conterminous United States, as originally 

defined by Omernik (1987) and later modified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997), in addition to the 

ecoregions that are contained in the Western United States, Great Plains of the United States, Midwest–South Central United 

States, and Eastern United States regions. Also shown are the land-use/land-cover classes from the 2001 National Land-Cover 

Database (Homer and others, 2004). 

References Cited

Homer, C., Huang, C., Yang, L., Wylie, B., and Coan, M., 2004, Development of a 2001 National Land-Cover Database for the 

United States: Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, v. 70, no. 7, p. 829–840.

Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United States: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 77, 

no. 1, p. 118–125.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997, Descriptions of level III ecological regions for the CEC report on ecological 

regions of North America: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency database, accessed April 12, 2006, at http://www.epa.gov/

wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm#Downloads.

Ecoregion Abbreviations Used on Map

[Map is on following pages]

ACPB

ANMM

CR

CRK

EGLHL

HELP

LPH

MACP

MRK

MVFP

MVLP

NAPU

NCA

NCHF

NECZ

NEH

NLF

NMW

PL

SCCCOW

SCM

SEWTP

SFCP

TBP

WUM

WV

Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion

Arizona/New Mexico Mountains Ecoregion

Coast Range Ecoregion

Canadian Rockies Ecoregion

Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion

Huron/Erie Lake Plains Ecoregion

Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion

Middle Rockies Ecoregion

Montana Valley and Foothill Prairies Ecoregion

Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion

Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion

North Central Appalachians Ecoregion

North Central Hardwood Forests Ecoregion

Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion

Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion

Northern Lakes and Forests Ecoregion

Northern Minnesota Wetlands Ecoregion

Puget Lowland Ecoregion

Southern and Central California Chaparral and Oak Woodlands Ecoregion

Southern California Mountains Ecoregion

Southeastern Wisconsin Till Plains Ecoregion

Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion

Texas Blackland Prairies Ecoregion

Wasatch and Uinta Mountains Ecoregion

Willamette Valley Ecoregion
186 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

100°

100°

110°

120° 110°

120°

50°

40°

30°

MEXICO

Pacific

 Ocean

Blue Mountains

Central Basin

and Range

Central California Valley

Columbia Plateau

Colorado

Plateaus

Coast Range

Cascades

Klamath

Mountains

Madrean

Archipelago

Mojave Basin

and Range

Middle

Rockies

MVFP

Northern Basin

and Range

Northern

Rockies

PL

Sonoran Basin

and Range

SCCCOW

SCCCOW

SCM

Sierra Nevada

Snake River Basin

Southern

Rockies

Wyoming Basin

SCCCOW

CR

MRK

ANMM

WUM

Central 

Plai

E

Edwards

Plateau

Nebraska Sand Hills

Northwestern Great Plains

Southern

Texas Plains

Western

High Plains

Western

High Plains

North

Cascades

Chihuahuan Deserts

Northwestern Glaciated Plains

Southwestern

Tablelands

Ce

Oklahom

Pl

CRK

WV

Eastern

Cascades

Slopes and

Foothills

MRK

0 125 250 500 MILES

0 125 250 500 KILOMETERS

Arizona/

New Mexico

Plateau

Arizona/ 

 New Mexico

 Mountains

WESTERN UNITED STATES

GREAT P

Figure 1.1. Map 

of ecoregions in 

conterminous 

United States.
Appendix 1. Map of Ecoregions in Conterminous United States 187

70°

70°

50°

80°

80°

90°

90°

40°

30°

CANADA

Atlantic

 Ocean

Gulf

of 

Mexico

SFCP

Southern

Coastal

Plain

Western

Allegheny

Plateau

Appalachians

Southwestern

Southeastern Plains

Northeastern

Highlands

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain

Interior

Plateau Blue Ridge Mountains

Ridge and Valley

Northern Piedmont

ACPB

MACP

MACP

NEH

LPH

NEH

NEH

EGLHL

NAPU

NCA

NCA

 Great

ns

East Central Texas Plains

Western Gulf Coastal Plain

TBP

Lake

Agassiz

Plain

Northern

Glaciated Plains

Western Corn Belt Plains

Central

Irregular

Plains

Boston Mountains

Central Corn

Belt Plains

Eastern Corn

Belt Plains

Erie Drift Plains

HELP

HELP

Interior

River Lowland

Northern Lakes

and Forests

NMW

Ozark Highlands

South

Central

Plains

Southern 

Michigan/

Northern 

Indiana 

Drift Plains 

NLF

Flint

Hills

Ouachita Mountains

Arkansas Valley

ntral

ma/Texas

ains

TBP

MVLP

Mississippi

Alluvial

Plain

NCHF

Driftless

Area SEWTP

NECZ

 Central

Appalachians

Piedmont

EXPLANATION

Water

Developed

Barren

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Agriculture

Wetland

Ice/Snow

Land-use/land-cover class

LAINS

 MIDWEST–

SOUTH CENTRAL

UNITED STATES

EASTERN UNITED STATES

Ecoregion boundary

Major ecoregion 

group boundary
188 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Appendix 2. Abbreviations for Ecoregions in the Eastern United States

ACPB

BRM

CA

EGLHL

IP

LPH

MACP

MVLP

NAPU

NCA

NECZ

NEH

NP

P

RV

SCOP

SEP

SFCP

SWA

WAP

Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Ecoregion

Blue Ridge Mountains Ecoregion

Central Appalachians Ecoregion

Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands Ecoregion

Interior Plateau Ecoregion

Laurentian Plains and Hills Ecoregion

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Ecoregion

Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion

Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands Ecoregion

North Central Appalachians Ecoregion

Northeastern Coastal Zone Ecoregion

Northeastern Highlands Ecoregion

Northern Piedmont Ecoregion

Piedmont Ecoregion

Ridge and Valley Ecoregion

Southern Coastal Plain Ecoregion

Southeastern Plains Ecoregion

Southern Florida Coastal Plain Ecoregion

Southwestern Appalachians Ecoregion

Western Allegheny Plateau Ecoregion
Appendix 3. Land-Cover Classification System Used in “Status and Trends of Land Change” Study 189

Appendix 3. Land-Cover Classification System Used in “Status and Trends of 

Land Change” Study

This analysis of land-use/land-cover change during the 

1973–2000 study period is based on land-cover classifications 

mapped for five study dates—1973, 1980, 1986, 1992, and 

2000. The use of moderate-resolution imagery—Landsat 

Multispectral Scanner, Thematic Mapper, and Enhanced 

Thematic Mapper Plus—necessitated a land-cover 

classification system that was fairly general in order to achieve 

high levels of accuracy and consistency in the interpretations. 

The classification system also needed to contain classes that 

could be used as an appropriate surrogate for land use. This 

classification, which is based on the Anderson Level I classes 

(Anderson and others, 1976), was used because the classes 

have been designed as use surrogates, but this system has 

been further modified by adding two transitional disturbance 

categories, mechanically disturbed (human induced) and 

nonmechanically disturbed (natural). 

The classification system used consists of the following 

11 general land-cover classes: water, developed, mechanically 

disturbed, mining, barren, forest, grassland/shrubland, 

agriculture, wetland, nonmechanically disturbed, and ice/

snow. Classes are defined as follows:

Water—Areas that are persistently covered with water, 

such as perennial streams, canals, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, 

bays, and oceans.

Developed—Areas of intensive use, in which much of 

the land is covered with structures or other anthropogenically 

induced, impermeable surfaces (for example, high-density 

residential, commercial, and industrial areas, as well as 

roads, highways, and other transportation corridors), or less 

intensive use, in which the land-cover matrix includes both 

vegetation and structures (for example, low-density residential 

areas, recreational facilities, cemeteries, parking lots, and 

utility corridors). Land that is functionally related to urban or 

built-up environments (for example, parks and golf courses) is 

also included.

Mechanically disturbed—Land in an altered and 

often unvegetated state owing to disturbance by mechanical 

(that is, human) means. Mechanically disturbed land is in 

transition from one land-cover class to another. Processes 

leading to mechanical disturbance include forest clearcutting, 

earthmoving, scraping, chaining, reservoir drawdown, and 

other types of anthropogenically induced changes.

Mining—Areas of extractive mining activities that have 

significant surface expression, including mining buildings and 

apparatus, quarry pits, evaporation and leach ponds, tailings 

and overburden piles, and other components related to mining, 

to the extent that these features can be detected.

Barren—Areas of bare soil, sand, or rock, in which less 

than 10 percent of the area is vegetated. Barren lands generally 

are naturally occurring.

Forest—Tree-covered land where the tree-cover density 

is greater than 10 percent. Cleared forest land is mapped 

(according to land cover at the time of the imagery) as either 

mechanically disturbed or grassland/shrubland.

Grassland/Shrubland—Land that is predominately 

covered with grasses, forbs, or shrubs. Vegetated cover must 

make up at least 10 percent of the area.

Agriculture—Land, in either a vegetated or an 

unvegetated state, used for the production of food or fiber. 

This includes cultivated and uncultivated croplands, hay 

lands, pasture, orchards, vineyards, and confined-livestock 

operations. However, forest plantations always are classified 

as forest, regardless of how the wood products are used.

Wetland—Land where water saturation is the 

determining factor in soil characteristics, vegetation types, and 

animal communities. Wetlands usually contain both water and 

vegetated cover.

Nonmechanically disturbed—Land in an altered 

and often unvegetated state owing to disturbance by 

nonmechanical (that is, natural) means. Nonmechanically 

disturbed land is in transition from one land-cover class to 

another. Causes of nonmechanical disturbance include fire, 

wind, floods, animals, and other similar phenomena.

Ice/Snow—Land where the accumulation of snow and 

ice does not completely melt during the summer period (for 

example, alpine glaciers and perennial snowfields).

Reference Cited

Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T., and Witmer, R.E., 

1976, A Land Use and Land Cover Classification System 

for Use with Remote Sensor Data: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 964, 28 p., available at http://pubs.usgs.

gov/pp/0964/report.pdf.
190 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Appendix 4. Methodology Used in “Status and Trends of Land Change” Study

This appendix describes the methodology used to 

document the temporal and spatial rates, trends, and types 

of change documented in this “Status and Trends of Land 

Change” study. The methodology is based on a statistical 

sampling approach, manual classification of land use and 

land cover, and postclassification comparisons of land cover 

over five different study dates (Loveland and others, 2002). 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (1999) Level III 

ecoregions provided the geographic framework for regional 

land-cover change estimates, and land-use/land-cover change 

was estimated on an ecoregion-by-ecoregion basis using a 

probability sample of randomly selected blocks within each of 

84 ecoregions across the conterminous United States. For each 

sample block, five dates of Landsat imagery were interpreted 

in order to map land use and land cover, using a classification 

system that consists of 11 general land-cover classes (see 

appendix 3, entitled “Land-Cover Classification System Used 

in ‘Status and Trends of Land Change’ Study”). The resulting 

land-cover data for each sample block were used to determine 

change for four time periods, and sample-block data were used 

to calculate change estimates for each ecoregion. 

Sampling Strategy

In this study, a sampling strategy was used as a costefficient method for characterizing land-cover change in an 

area as large as the conterminous United States. The study used 

a stratified random sample of 2,688 square blocks (fig. 1); a 

random sample of these blocks was independently selected for 

each ecoregion analyzed. Because the study used a probability 

sample, the estimates of land-use/land-cover change that are 

derived can be considered as categorically representative of the 

population (Kish, 1987). 

The size of each sample block in this study, as well as 

the sampling density (that is, the number of sample blocks 

analyzed per ecoregion), was based on a compromise between 

two conflicting objectives: (1) estimating change in landcover area, and (2) estimating change in landscape pattern. 

Larger numbers of smaller sample blocks would result in 

more precise estimates of change in land-cover area, whereas 

smaller numbers of larger sample blocks would be more 

desirable for characterizing landscape pattern. 

Size of Samples

In the initial study design, a 20 × 20 km (400 km2) sampleblock size was used, and nine ecoregions were analyzed, each 

analysis consisting of 9 to 11 sample blocks. On the basis of results 

from these initial ecoregion analyses, a decision was made to use a 

higher density of smaller (10 × 10 km; 100 km2) sample blocks for 

the remainder of the ecoregion analyses in order to maximize the 

precision of the land-cover change estimates.

Sampling Density

The sampling density was determined by both the project 

requirements for precision in the change estimates and the 

expected characteristics of change within the ecoregion 

being studied. As precision requirements increase, so must 

the sampling density. Similarly, a greater sampling density is 

required when areas of change are expected to be less evenly 

distributed throughout an ecoregion.

In this study, the target precision level was to map gross 

overall change to within a ±1% margin of error at an 85% 

confidence level for each ecoregion. On the basis of this target 

precision level and the expected characteristics of change 

within all 84 ecoregions in the conterminous United States, 

it was determined that between 25 and 48 of the 10 × 10 

km sample blocks per ecoregion would likely be needed to 

adequately characterize overall change in each ecoregion.

Implementation of the Sampling Strategy

The sampling strategy outlined above was fairly 

straightforward to implement. A regular grid of 10 × 10 km 

(or, in a few cases, 20 × 20 km) sample blocks was overlain on 

an ecoregion map of the conterminous United States. Blocks 

whose centers fell within the boundaries of an ecoregion were 

highlighted as potentially valid sample blocks for that ecoregion 

and then were assigned a unique numerical value from 1 to N. 

A random number generator was then used to select sample 

blocks, one at a time, until the desired number was reached. 

Thus, each sample block within an ecoregion had an equal 

probability of being included in the final sample analysis. 

Although the number of sample blocks selected and 

analyzed was based on both the target precision level and 

the expected characteristics of change within the ecoregion, 

unexpected heterogeneity in the distribution of change 

could still result in the estimates of change having levels of 

precision that are lower than desired. Should this occur, the 

sampling strategy allowed for the selection and interpretation 

of additional sample blocks. The inclusion of these reserve 

blocks allowed the analysis to achieve change estimates that 

have acceptable levels of precision. In actuality, for various 

reasons, no reserve blocks were implemented. 

Geographic Framework

A central premise of the study design was the use of a 

geographic framework to provide regional land-cover change 

estimates. Geographers have long used regional frameworks 

because they capture the essence and potential of the 

landscape without masking the roles of environmental, social, 

and economic forces (Turner and Meyer, 1991). This “Status 

and Trends of Land Change” study chose to use ecoregions, 
Appendix 4. Methodology Used in “Status and Trends of Land Change” Study 191

as originally defined by Omernik (1987) and later modified 

by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999), as the 

framework from which to tell the regional story of change. 

Ecoregions were chosen as the unit of analysis because 

(1) they provide a means to localize estimates of the rates 

and driving forces of change, (2) they were developed by 

synthesizing information on a wide variety of factors (for 

example, climate, geology, physiography, soils, vegetation, 

hydrology, and human influences) and, therefore, should 

reflect both current land-use and land-cover types and future 

change trajectories, and (3) they provide a framework that 

can be extended globally. 

Landsat Data

Landsat satellite imagery was the primary source of 

data used for detecting land-cover change in this study. Data 

from the Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS), Thematic 

Mapper (TM), and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) 

instruments were acquired from the Landsat data archive: 

Landsat MSS datasets are available from late-1972 through 

late-1992; Landsat TM data are available from 1982 to the 

present; and Landsat ETM+ data are available from 1999 to the 

present. Each of these products provided a consistent, synoptic, 

multispectral view of the land surface from which land cover 

could be interpreted for the period between 1972 and 2000. To 

analyze trends in land-use/land-cover change throughout this 

period, five target study dates spaced at semiregular intervals 

(1973, 1980, 1986, 1992, and 2000) were selected. Landsat 

imagery corresponding to each 10 × 10 km (or 20 × 20 km) 

sample block was extracted from full Landsat scenes, resulting 

in five dates of satellite imagery for each sample block. To 

reduce expenses, the initial data-acquisition strategy was to 

use existing geoprocessed Landsat datasets as the primary 

input data source. Four of the five dates of Landsat MSS, 

TM, and ETM+ data were available in a geocoded format as 

a result of processing done for two previous projects: (1) the 

North American Landscape Characterization (NALC) project 

produced 1973, 1986, and 1992 geocoded Landsat MSS datasets 

for the conterminous United States and Mexico (Lunetta and 

others, 1998), and (2) the 1992 TM and 2000 ETM+ data 

came from the Multiresolution Landscape Characterization 

initiative (Loveland and Shaw, 1996). New 1980 Landsat MSS 

acquisitions were obtained in order to maintain the six- to eightyear interval between the five target dates. 

The Landsat MSS, TM, and ETM+ scenes obtained 

were previously georeferenced to root-mean-square error of 1 

pixel or less but to differing map projections. For this study, 

all scenes were translated to a common Albers equal-area 

projection. Most of the NALC MSS data had also been terraincorrected, but approximately one-third of the NALC data 

(path and rows) had been processed before the implementation 

of terrain-correction techniques. However, this was not 

considered a problem because the early NALC scenes were 

located primarily in areas with negligible terrain variability.

Ancillary Data

Additional ancillary data were acquired to aid 

interpreters in delineating land use and land cover from 

the Landsat data. For example, aerial photography was 

acquired for each sample block to provide a high-resolution 

data source to help with difficult interpretations. The 

National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) generally 

provided one or two dates of color-infrared (CIR) and 

(or) black-and-white aerial photographs from 1987 to the 

present. The National High Altitude Photograph (NHAP) 

Program generally provided one date of CIR and (or) 

black-and-white aerial photographs between 1980 and 

1986. Although the Landsat imagery was always used 

as the source material for delineating land use and land 

cover, these higher resolution aerial photographs were 

invaluable for assisting in the interpretation of the imagery. 

Topographic maps, census data, other electronic sources 

of aerial photographs (for example, Google Earth), and 

digital raster graphics were among the other sources of 

information that interpreters found useful when processing 

the data.

Land-Cover Classification Scheme

The analysis of land use and land cover change during 

the 1973 to 2000 study period was based on classifications 

of land cover for the five target dates mentioned previously. 

The classification system used consists of the following 11 

general land-cover classes: water, developed, mechanically 

disturbed, mining, barren, forest, grassland/shrubland, 

agriculture, wetland, nonmechanically disturbed, and ice/

snow. See appendix 3, entitled “Land-Cover Classification 

System Used in ‘Status and Trends of Land Change’ Study,” 

for definitions of these 11 classifications.

Two primary factors affected the design of the 

classification system. The first factor was recognizing that 

the use of moderate-resolution Landsat imagery would 

necessitate a land-cover classification system that was fairly 

general in order to achieve high interpretation accuracy 

and consistency. The ability to identify and map land cover 

would be limited both by the technical specifications of 

the Landsat MSS, TM, and ETM sensors and by the local 

and regional landscape characteristics that affect the form 

and contrast visible in satellite imagery. This would be 

especially true when interpreting Landsat MSS data. 

The second factor involved choosing land-cover classes 

that captured the land-cover changes of interest. Because the 

project’s interest was in land-use change, with land cover 

serving as a surrogate for land use, the decision was to use 

the Anderson Level I classes (Anderson and others, 1976) 

because they were designed as use surrogates. However, 

the Anderson system was selectively modified by adding 

two disturbance categories, mechanically disturbed (human 

induced) and nonmechanically disturbed (natural). 
192 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000

Manual Land-Cover Delineation

Land-cover delineation for each sample block began 

with the creation of a baseline reference land-cover dataset. 

The 1992 date usually was the starting point owing to the 

availability of the 30-m-resolution 1992 National Land Cover 

Data (NLCD) dataset (Vogelmann and others, 2001). The 

NLCD dataset provided a starting template after the more 

detailed NLCD classes were aggregated to match the general 

land-cover classification described above. 

The NLCD data first were manually edited on the 

computer screen, using on-screen interpretation methods, 

while using the 1992 Landsat TM data and the NAPP aerial 

photographs as interpretation aids. This cleanup procedure to 

improve the NLCD classification accuracy was carried out 

because the NLCD data were created using automated imageprocessing procedures, and they were not meant for use in 

local- or ecoregional-scale assessments. A minimum mapping 

unit of 60 × 60 meters was used for this study. Thus, features 

having ground footprints less than 60 m wide generally 

were not mapped, resulting in the exclusion of high-contrast 

features such as roads, which have a distinct spectral signature 

but have ground dimensions of less than 60 m.

To carry out the NLCD editing for a particular sample 

block, the analyst displayed the NLCD data alongside 

the 1992 Landsat TM data on the computer screen. These 

data sources, along with hard-copy prints of NAPP aerial 

photography roughly corresponding to the 1992 date, 

were visually inspected by the analyst to determine if any 

corrections were needed in the sample block. The analyst 

manually delineated polygons that consisted of contiguous 

blocks of specific land-cover classes. Each of these polygons 

was then given a code value that corresponded to the landcover classes outlined in the classification scheme in appendix 

3. The process continued until the entire sample block was 

manually inspected, mapped, and coded by the analyst.

To analyze change, land-cover classes for the 1973, 

1980, 1986, and 2000 study dates were backward- or forwardclassified using the 1992 land-cover dataset as the template. 

For example, creation of the 2000 land-cover product began 

by making an exact copy of the 1992 land-cover product. This 

copy served as a baseline for the 2000 land-cover product, 

in which identified changes between 1992 and 2000 were 

manually edited into the copied image. This baseline 2000 

land-cover product was displayed on screen, along with the 

1992 Landsat imagery and the 2000 Landsat imagery, allowing 

the analyst to pan through the entire area of the sample block 

while examining the 1992 and 2000 Landsat imagery and 

any relevant aerial photography for valid land-cover changes 

between the two study dates. Any identified land-cover 

changes were manually digitized on screen, and the land cover 

was recoded on the 2000 land-cover product. 

Upon completion of the 2000 land-cover product, the 

same procedures were used to create the 1986, 1980, and 1973 

land-cover products. This manual process eliminated errors 

that may occur between independently created land-cover 

products that are compared in a subsequent change analysis. 

Because only manually identified, delineated, and coded landcover changes were analyzed during this phase, classification 

errors were greatly reduced.

Statistical Analysis

The resulting land-cover data for each sample block 

was used in postclassification comparisons to determine 

change between study years (fig. 2). Sample blocks within 

each ecoregion were used to generate change statistics for 

all 84 ecoregions. These statistics were used to determine 

the predominant types of land-cover conversions occurring 

within each ecoregion, the estimated rates of change for these 

conversions, and whether these types and rates of change are 

constant or variable across time. The analysis of change also 

involved looking for spatial correlations between conversion 

types and selected socioeconomic and environmental factors, 

such as timber production, agricultural yields, precipitation 

amounts, population levels, proximity to urban development, 

and overall economic conditions, in order to improve the 

understanding of potential drivers of change.
Appendix 4. Methodology Used in “Status and Trends of Land Change” Study 193

70°

80°

80°

90°

90°

100°

100°

110°

110° 120°

45° 45°40° 40°35° 35°30° 30°

25° 25°

CANADA

MEXICO

0 200 400 600 MILES0 200 400 600 KILOMETERS

Total change

10 × 10 km20 × 20 km

, as

EXPLANATIONpercent of ecoregion

0 – 4.14.2 – 7.57.6 – 14.414.5 – 33.8

Ecoregion boundary

Sample blocks

Figure 4.1. Map of ecoregions in conterminous United States, showing locations of 2,688 sample blocks that were used in “Status and Trends of Land Change” study (purple and blue squares indicate locations of 10 × 10 km and 20 × 20 km sample blocks, respectively). Also shown are amounts of total change in each ecoregion between 1973 and 2000, as percent of ecoregion.
194 Status and Trends of Land Change in the Eastern United States—1973 to 2000 

1973–1980

1980–1986

1986–1992

1992–2000

Forest

Grassland/Shrubland

Mining

Water

Barren

Mechanically disturbed

Developed

Land-use/land-cover class

1973

Landsat images Mapped land-use/land-cover Areas of change

1980

1986

1992

2000

Figure 4.2. Example of data compiled for each sample block, showing sample block 14-0555 (located near Henderson, Nevada, in Mojave 

Basin and Range Ecoregion, one of Western United States ecoregions). Left column is satellite imagery collected for each of five years 

analyzed in study (imagery sources for study years: 1973, 1980, and 1986 are Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) images; 1992 is Landsat 

Thematic Mapper (TM) image; 2000 is Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) image). Center column is mapped land-use/land-cover 

data for each study year. Right column shows areas that changed (green areas) in each of four time periods between study years; lightand dark-gray-shaded areas show areas of previous change and represent overall land-change footprint throughout study period.
Appendix 4. Methodology Used in “Status and Trends of Land Change” Study 195

References Cited

Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T., and Witmer, R.E., 

1976, A Land Use and Land Cover Classification System 

for Use with Remote Sensor Data: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 964, 28 p., available at http://pubs.usgs.

gov/pp/0964/report.pdf.

Kish, L., 1987, Statistical Design for Research: New York, 

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 296 p.

Loveland, T.R., and Shaw, D.M., 1996, Multiresolution land 

characterization—Building collaborative partnerships, 

in Scott, J.M., Tear, T.H., and Davis, F.W., eds., Gap 

Analysis—A landscape approach to biodiversity planning: 

Bethesda, Maryland, American Society for Photogrammetry 

and Remote Sensing, p. 17–25.

Loveland, T.R., Sohl, T.L., Stehman, S.V., Gallant, A.L., 

Sayler, K.L., and Napton, D.E., 2002, A strategy for 

estimating the rates of recent United States land cover 

changes: Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote 

Sensing, v. 68, no. 10, p. 1,091–1,099.

Lunetta, R.S., Lyon, J.G., Guindon, B., and Elvidge, C.D., 

1998, North American landscape characterization dataset 

development and data fusion issues: Photogrammetric 

Engineering and Remote Sensing, v. 64, no. 8, p. 821–829.

Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous 

United States: Annals of the Association of American 

Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, p. 118–125.

Turner, B.L., II, and Meyer, W.B., 1991, Land use and land 

cover in global environmental change—Considerations 

for study: International Social Science Journal, v. 130, p. 

669–677.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999, Level III 

Ecoregions of the continental United States: U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency National Health 

and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, scale 

1:7,500,000, available at ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/

usgs/useco_March1999_v5.pdf.

Vogelmann, J.E., Howard, S.M., Yang, L., Larson, C.R., 

Wylie, B.K., and van Driel, N., 2001, Completion of the 

1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous 

United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

ancillary data sources: Photogrammetric Engineering & 

Remote Sensing, v. 67, p. 650–662.
Produced in the Menlo Park Publishing Service Center, Menlo Park, California

Manuscript approved for publication May 17, 2016

Edited by Taryn A. Lindquist and John S. Osias

Design and layout by Jeanne S. Dileo and David R. Jones

ISSN 1044-9612 (print) 

ISSN 2330-7102 (online) 

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/pp1794D