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UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA,

COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

REPORT AND RECOMMENDATION TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES

AND FINAL LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

AA 0

APRIL- 1987

In accordance with Section"1002 of the

Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act,

and the National Environmental PolicyAct

Prepared by the U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service

in cooperation with U.S. Geological Survey

and the Bureau of Land Management
ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA,

COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

Report and recommendation to the Congress of the United States

and finallegislativeenvironmental impact statement,1987

Volume 1--Report

Volume 2-Appendix (Publiccomments and responses)

Copies areavailablefrom:

U.S.Fishand WildlifeService U.S.Fishand WildlifeService

DivisionofRefuge Management Divisionof Planning

18th & C Streets,NW., Room 2343 1011 E.Tudor Road

Washington,D.C. 20240 Anchorage,Alaska 99503

Copiescan be seen at:

Anchorage PublicLibrades ArcticVillageCommunity Library

FairbanksPublicLibraries Kenai Community Library

Juneau PublicLibraries NorthSlope Borough SchoolLibrary

ArcticSlopeRegionalCorporationLibrary

Copies can alsobe seen atthefollowingU.S.GeologicalSurveyLibraries

and PublicInquiriesOffices:

USGS Libraries:

Reston,VA NationalCenter,12201 SunriseValleyDrive

Flagstaff,AZ 2255 NorthGemini Ddve

Menlo Park,CA 345 MiddlefieldRoad

Golden,CO 1526 Cole BoulevardatWest Colfax

USGS PublicInquiriesOffices:

Anchorage,AK Room 101,4230 UniversityDrive

Los Angeles,CA Room 7638,FederalBuilding,300 NorthLos AngelesStreet

San Francisco,CA Room 504, Customhouse, 555 BatteryStreet

Denver,CO Room 169,FederalBuilding,1961 StoutStreet

Dallas,TX Room IC45, FederalBuilding,1100 Commerce Street

SaltLake City,UT Room 8105,FederalBuilding,125 South StateStreet

Spokane, WA Room 678,U.S.Courthouse,West 920 RiversideAvenue

Recommended citationforthisreport:

Clough,N. K.:Patton,P. C.;and Christiansen,A. C.,editors,1987,ArcticNationalWildlife

Refuge,Alaska,coastalplainresourceassessment--Reportand recommendationto the

Congress ofthe UnitedStatesand finalegislative environmentalimpactstatement:

Washington,D. C.,U.S.Fishand WildlifeService,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,and Bureau of

Land Management,v.1 (Report)--xviii + 208 p.,5 pis.,32 figs.,26 tables;v.2 (Appendix--

Publiccomments and responses)--ii + 998 p.

COVER PHOTOGRAPH

A typicalviewsouthwardacrossthecoastalplain

towardthe foothillsand the BrooksRange.
THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR

WASHINGTON

April21, 1987

Dear Reader:

The Alaska NationalInterestLands ConservationAct (ANILCA) of 1980 set aside

more than 100 millionacres of land in Alaska as nationalparks,preserves,wildlife

refuges,and wilderness areas. At thattime, the Congress specificallyleftopen the

question of future management of the 1.5-million-acrecoastalplainof the 19-millionacre ArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge because of the area'spotentiallyenormous oil

and gas resources and itsimportantwildlifevalues.

ANILCA directed the Department of the Interiorto conduct biologicaland

geologicalstudies of the ArcticRefuge coastalplain,and to provide the Congress

with the resultsof those studiesand a recommendation on future management of the

area. The following report culminates more than 5 years of biologicalbaseline

studies,surface geologicalstudies,and two seasons of seismic explorationsurveys.

The ArcticRefuge coastalplainisrated by geologistsas the most promising onshore

oiland gas explorationarea in the United States. Itis estimatedto contain more

than 9 billionbarrelsof recoverableoil,an amount approximatelyequal to Prudhoe

Bay, which currentlyprovides one-fifthof U.S. domestic oilproduction.

In 1986, U.S. domestic oilproduction dropped 9 to 10 percent;production is

predictedto drop an additional4 to 5 percent in 1987, ifprices do not drop this

year. At the same time, U.S. oil consumption, which has exceeded domestic

production since the 1960's,is expected to increase. Our oilimports are projected

to exceed 50 percent of consumption in the 1990's. America's growing relianceon

imported oilfor the rest of the century could have potentiallyserious ramifications

for our nationalsecurity.

The followingreport analyzes the potentialenvironmental consequences of five

management alternativesforthe coastalplain,ranging from opening for lease of the

entirearea for oiland gas development, to wilderness designation. A legislative

environmental impact statement has been integratedintothe report.

Public hearings were held in January 1987 on a draft report and

recommendation. These hearings were attended by representatives of the

Governments of Canada and Alaska,Alaska Natives,other interestedparties,and the

general public. Seven thousand of the 11,000 comments received favored opening

the ArcticRefuge coastalplainfor oiland gas leasingand development.

Based on the analyses conducted, public comment on the draftreport,the

nationalneed fordomestic sources of oiland gas, and the Nation'sabilityto develop

such resources in an environmentally sensitivemanner as demonstrated by two

decades of success at Prudhoe Bay and elsewhere, I have selectedas my preferred

alternative,making availablefor considerationthe entireArcticRefuge coastalplain

for oiland gas leasing. Although the entirearea should be considered for leasing,

only a percentage would actuallybe leased, an even smaller percentage would be

explored,and--ifoilisdiscovered--astillsmallerpercentage would be developed.
2

The step-by-step environmental planning, review, and evaluationprocedures

included in a leasing program provide the best opportunityfor the Department to

decide what areas to lease,based on the most accurate and advanced information

availableat each step of the leasing process. Although the exact process depends

upon the leasingprogram establishedby the Congress, compliance with the National

Environmental Policy Act is required for each lease sale,explorationplan,and

development and production plan.

The followingreport provides informationcriticalforthe Congress to consider in

determining the future management of the Arctic Refuge coastalplain. The

Congress must enact legislationto authorizean oiland gas leasingprogram for the

area. We willwork with the Congress to ensure thatany leasingprogram developed

willavoid unnecessary adverse effectson the environment.

Legislativeproposals are currentlyin the Congress to establishthe formula for

sharingwith the State of Alaska any revenues from an oiland gas leasingprogram in

the ArcticRefuge coastalplain.There also isa proposalthat would directa portion

of the Federal share of such revenues to conservationactivities.We look forward to

working with the Congress on such matters as well as in determining future

management of the Arctic Refuge coastalplain. My preliminaryrecommendation

(Chapter Vill)will become finalupon formal transmittalto the Congress of the

followingreport.

Sincerely,

@

DONALD PAUL HODEL
SUMMARY

ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

Report and Recommendation to the Congress/Final LegislativeEnvironmental Impact Statement

APRIL 1987

Preparedby the U.S.Fishand WildlifeService,incooperationwiththe U.S.GeologicalSurveyand

the Bureau of Land Management, Departmentofthe Interior, Washington,D.C. 20240.

TYPE OF ACTION The Porcupinecaribouherd has shown some

Recommendation for legislative actionconcerning preferenceforcalvingon the 1002 areaincludingthe upper

futuremanagement of the 1.5-million-acre coastalplainof Jago Riverarea (84,000acresor 5.4 percentof the 1002

the 19-million-acre ActicNationalWildlifeRefuge (referredto area).A potentialconsequencewould be displacementof

hereinas the "1002area"),locatedinnortheasternAlaska. portionsof the herd seekingto calveinthe upper Jago

Riverarea-thecase onlyifthe areawere the siteof a

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED ACTION majorproducingoilfield.Itisunlikely,though possible,

The Secretaryof the Interiorrecommends to the thatsuch displacementwould resultin any appreciable

Congress of the UnitedStatesthatitenact legislation declineinherd size.

directingthe Secretaryto conductan orderlyoiland gas

leasingprogramforthe 1002 areaat such pace and in The potentialeffectsof oiland gas activities on the

such circumstances as he determineswillavoid area'smuskoxen are unknown, althoughbiologistspredict

unnecessaryadverseeffecton the environment. thatmajoreffectscould be: (1)substantialdisplacement

fromcurrentlyused habitatand (2)a slowingof the herd's

The 1002 area isthe Nation'sbestsingleopportunity growthrate,as distinguishedfrom a diminutioninherd size.

to increasesignificantly domesticoilproduction.Itis rated

by geologistsas the most outstandingpetroleum Potentialeffectson Nativesubsistencefallintotwo

explorationtargetinthe onshore UnitedStates.Data from categories:the villageof Kaktovikand villagesoutsidethe

nearbywellsin the Prudhoe Bay areaand in the Canadian 1002 area. In the case of Kaktovik,a majorrestriction of

BeaufortSea and Mackenzie Delta,combined with subsistenceactivities couldoccur. Thiswould likelyresult

promisingseismicdatagatheredon the 1002 area,indicate from the physicalchanges proximateto Kaktovikwhich

extensionsof producingtrendsand othergeologic couldinterferewith traditional activities.Subsistenceeffects

conditionsexceptionally favorablefordiscoveryof one or on villagesoutsidethe 1002 area,includingthose in

more supergiantfields(largerthan 500 millionbarrels). Canada, areexpectedto be minimal.

ALTERNATIVES TO THE PROPOSED ACTION

There is a 19-percentchance thateconomically

Alternatives forthe Congressthatwere discussedin recoverableoiloccurson the 1002area. The averageofall

the reportand legislativeenvironmentalimpactstatement estimatesof conditionaleconomicallyrecoverableoil include:(1)Authorizeleasinglimitedto a partofthe 1002

resources(the'mean")is3.2billionbarrels.Based on this

areabased on environmentalconsiderations(Alternative B): estimate,1002 area productionby the year 2005 could (2)authorizefurtherexplorationonly,includingexploratory provide4 percentof totalU.S.demand: provide8 percent drilling(Alternative C); (3)continuecurrentrefugestatus of U.S.production(about660,000barrels/day); and reduce withno furtheroiland gas activityallowed(Alternative D); importsby nearly9 percent.Thisproductioncouldprovide and (4)designatethe areaas wilderness(Alternative Q. net nationaleconomic benefitsof $79.4billion,including

For purposes of environmentalimpactstatementanalysis, Federalrevenuesof$38.0billion. AlternativeD isconsideredthe 'no action"alternative.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

CONTACTS

Potentialimpactswere assessed for exploration, Noreen Clough 202-343-4313

developmentdrilling, and production.impactspredictedfor Divisionof Refuges

explorationand developmentdrillingwere minoror negligible U.S.Fishand WildlifeService

on allwildlifersourceson the 1002area. Productionofoil 18thand C Street,NW

isexpectedto directlyaffectonly12,650acres or 0.8 Washington,D.C. 20240

percentof the 1002 area. Consequences on speciessuch

as brown bears.snow geese,wolves,moose, and the Oswald Girard 703-648-4428

CentralArcticcaribouherd are expectedto be negligible, Deputy AssistantDirectorforEngineeringGeology

minor,or moderate. U.S.GeologicalSurveyM.S. 109

`12201SunriseValleyDrive

Potentialmajor effectson wildlifefrom productionare Reston,Virginia22092

limitedto the Porcupinecaribouherd and reintroduced

muskoxen. "Majorbiologicaleffects"were definedas: RobertSchrott 202-653-2263

.'widespread,long-termchange in habitatavailability or Divisionof Geology and MineralResources

qualitywhich would likelymodifynaturalabundance or Bureau of Land Management

distribution of species.Modificationwillpersistat leastas 18thand C Streets,NW

longas modifyinginfluencesexist." Washington,D.C. 20240

SUMMARY V11
ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

Finalreportand legislativeenvironmental impact statement,1987

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE REPORT

MEMBERS OF INTERAGENCY ADVISORY WORK GROUP

Noreen CLOUGH, FWS, IAWG leader

ClaytonHARDY, FWS, IAWG Regionalco-leader

Fishand WildlifeService: U.S.GeologicalSurvey: Bureau of Land Management:

Glenn W. ELISON Max C. BREWER James E. CALLAHAN

EmilT. HEUER, Jr. Oswald GIRARD ArlanH. KOHL

DudleyD. RICE Robert0. SCHROTT

JulesV. TILESTON

EDITORS

Noreen K. CLOUGH, FWS, Wildlifebiologist

Priscilla C. PATTON, BLM, Geologist

Ann Coe CHRISTIANSEN, USGS, Geologist

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

ClaytonHARDY FWS Chiefofplanning Anchorage,AK

EmilT. HEUER, Jr. FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

Stephen S. WILSON FWS Fishand wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

CHAPTER II.EXISTING ENVIRONMENT

MichaelJ.AMARAL FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

StevenC. AMSTRUP FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

AlanW. BRACKNEY FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

Max C. BREWER USGS Geologist/geophysicist Anchorage,AK

CharlesE. DIETERS FWS Archeologist Anchorage,AK

Glenn W. ELISON FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

Nancy A. FELIX FWS Botanist Fairbanks,AK

DouglasJ.FRUGE FWS Zoologist Fairbanks,AK

GeraldW. GARNER FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

Donald P.GARRETT FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

LibbyHALPIN FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

EmilT. HEUER, Jr. FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

Mary HOGAN FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

WilliamL.KIRK FWS Botanist Anchorage,AK

DanielJ. LaPLANT FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

RobertR. LEEDY FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

WilliamH. MATTICE FWS Realtyspecialist Anchorage,AK

FrancesJ. MAUER FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

RussellM. OATES FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

LarryW. PANK FWS Research biologist Fairbanks,AK

Ann G. RAPPOPORT FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

GeraldREID FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage,AK

PatriciaE. REYNOLDS FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

ScottL.SCHLIEBE FWS Biologist Anchorage,AK

Ronald G. THUMA FWS Socloeconomist Anchorage,AK

JulesV. TILESTON BLM Resource specialist Anchorage,AK

GregoryJ.WEILER FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

Robin L.WEST FWS Fisheriesbiologist Fairbanks,AK

Vill ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
CHAPTER Ill.ASSESSMENT OF OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL

AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF THE 1002 AREA

Donald E. ANDERS USGS Chemist Denver, CO

JeffreyW. BADER LISGS Geologist Menlo Park,CA

ArthurC. BANET, Jr. BLM Geologist Anchorage, AK

Robert J. BASCLE BLM Geologist Anchorage, AK

Kenneth J. BIRD LISGS Geologist Menlo Park,CA

Gary W. BROUGHAM BLM Geophysicist Anchorage, AK

TerryR. BRUNS LISGS Geophysicist Menlo Park,CA

James E. CALLAHAN BLM Geologist Anchorage, AK

Robert A. CROVELLI USGS Mathematical statistician Denver, CO

Raymond C. CUL017A USGS Seismicdata processor Menlo Park,CA

Kimberly1.CUNNINGHAM USGS Geologist Denver, CO

Theodore A. DAWS USGS Chemist Denver, CO

David A. DINTER LISGS Geophysicist Menlo Park.CA

Gordon L. DOLTON LISGS Geologist Denver, CO

Michael A. FISHER LISGS Geophysicist Menlo Park,CA

Richard L. FOLAND BLM Geophysicist Anchorage. AK

Donald L. GAUTIER LISGS Geologist Denver, CO

ArthurGRANTZ LISGS Geologist Menlo Park,CA

Sarah B. GRISCOM LISGS Geologist Woods Hole,MA

WilliamS. HAUSER BLM Petroleum engineer Anchorage, AK

John S. KELLEY LISGS Geologist Anchorage, AK

Douglas J. LALLA BLM Geophysicist Anchorage, AK

LeslieB. MAGOON LISGS Geologist Menlo Park,CA

Michael L. MENGE BLM Geologist Anchorage, AK

CorneliusM. MOLENAAR LISGS Geologist Denver,CO

Stephen L. ROBBINS LISGS Geophysicist Denver, CO

Alan A. ROBERTS USGS* Chemist Denver, CO

Charles N. THRELKELD USGS Physicalsciencetechnician Denver, CO

PhilipV. WOODWARD USGS Geologist Menlo Park,CA

John S. YOUNG BLM Mineraleconomist Cheyenne, WY

CHAPTER IV. DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE

PerryG. FRANCIS BLM Generalengineer Anchorage, AK

WilliamS. HAUSER BLM Petroleum engineer Anchorage, AK

Aden L. SEIDLITZ BLM Petroleum engineer Anchorage, AK

Chester ZENONE USGS Hydrologist Anchorage, AK

CHAPTER V. ALTERNATIVES

Glenn W. ELISON FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

Oswald GIRARD LISGS Geologist Reston, VA

EmilT. HEUER, Jr. FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage, AK

Robert 0. SCHROTT BLM Supervisorygeologist Washington, DC

Jules V. TILESTON BLM Resource specialist Anchorage, AK

CONTRIBUTORS IX
CHAPTER VI. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Max C. BREWER USGS Geologist/Geophysicist Anchorage, AK

Glenn W. ELISON FWS Wildlifebiologist Fairbanks,AK

David E. McGILLIVARY FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage, AK

Ann G. RAPPOPORT FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage, AK

Gerald REID FWS Wildlifebiologist Anchorage, AK

Ronald G. THUMA FWS Socioeconornist Anchorage, AK

Jules V. TILESTON BLM Resource specialist Anchorage, AK

Robin L.WEST FWS Fisheriesbiologist Fairbanks,AK

Richard WILDERMANN MMS Environmentalspecialist Washington, DC

Stephen S. WILSON FWS Fishand wildlifebiologist Anchorage, AK

Chester ZENONE USGS Hydrologist Anchorage, AK

CHAPTER VII. OIL AND GAS--NATIONAL NEED FOR DOMESTIC SOURCES AND

THE 1002 AREA'S POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION

Max TAVES BLM Petroleum engineer Washington, DC

Daniel H. WEDDERBURN BLM Economist Washington, DC

John S. YOUNG BLM Mineraleconomist Cheyenne, WY

CARTOGRAPHY: USGS, Denver UnitsA and B of the Thematic Mapping Section,NationalMapping

Division,Rocky Mountain Area, U.S. GeologicalSurvey

CLERICAL SUPPORT: FWS, Anchorage Karen Edwards, TaulinePeppers

FWS, Denver Retah Bailey,Lynne Dickinson,Margaret Grenvik,Sharon Rose,

Barbara Smith,Gail Starnes,VickiTilden

VOLUME 2 LAYOUT: FWS, Anchorage PattiGallagher

GEOGRAPHIC COMPUTER

ANALYSES: FWS, Anchorage Frank D'Erchia,Jean Maloney

PUBLIC COMMENT

STATISTICS: FWS, Washington Nancy Marx, Kathryn McCloskey

* Now with privateindustry.

X ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA,

COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ............................. I CHAPTERII.EXISTINGENVIRONMENT--Continued

Biologicalenvironment--Continued

Background ........................................................................... 1 Terrestrialand fresh-waterenvironments--Continued

Purposeand need forthisreport...................................... 2 Terraintypes--Continued

Baselinestudyof fishand wildlifersources................... 3 Hillycoastalplains..........................................

19

Oiland gas explorationprograms...................................... 3 Flatthaw-lakeplains.........................................

19

Reportpreparation................................................................ 4 Mountains .................................................

19

Publicinvolvement................................................................ 5 Specialterrestrial and aquaticenvironments................. 19

Depictionof civilboundaries............................................... 6 SadlerochitSpringSpecialArea..................................19

Referencescited................................................................... 6 Kongakut River-BeaufortLagoon .................................

20

Angun Plains.................................................

20

CHAPTER II. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT ..... 7 Jago River...................................................

20

Coastaland marineenvironment...................................

20

Introduction............................................................................ 7 Fishand wildliferesources.......................................

21

Physicalgeography and processes................................... 7 Terrestrialmammals ...........................................21

Physicalgeography........................................................... 7 Caribou ....................................................21

Climate................................................................................ 9 Muskoxen ..................................................

26

Permafrost.......................................................................... 11 Moose .....................................................27

Soilsand othermaterials................................................. 13 Dallsheep .................................................27

Water resources................................................................ 13 Wolves.....................................................28

Erosionand mass movement .......................................... 14 Arcticfoxes.................................................

28

Seismicity............................................................................ 15 Wolverines.................................................28

Airquality............................................... ........................... 15 Brown bears................................................29

Noise................................................................................... 16 Arcticground squirrelsand other rodents.............. 29

Biologicalenvironment......................................................... 16 Marine mammals ..............................................

30

Terrestrialand fresh-waterenvironments........................ 16 Polarbears .................................................

30

Vegetation...................................................................... 16 Seals and whales ...........................................31

Wetlands........................................................................ 18 Birds........................................................

31

Terraintypes................................................................. 18 Swans, geese,and ducl(s.....................................

32

Foothills...................................................................... 18 Seabirdsand shorebirds......................................

33

Riverfloodplains.......................... ........................... 18

CONTENTS Xi
CHAPTER 11.EXISTING ENVIRONMENT-Continued CHAPTER 111.ASSESSMENT OF OIL AND GAS

Biologicalenvironment--Continued POTENTIAL AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF

Fish and wildliferesources--Continued THE 1002 AREA--Continued

Birds--Continued Assessment ofthe oiland gas potential-Continued

Raptors......................................................................... 33 Economicallyrecoverableoilresources......................... 76

Ptarmigan..................................................................... 33 Methods ..........................................................

76

Passerines................................................................... 33 PRESTO model inputs...............................................

78

Fish .................................................................................. 34 Prospects.......................................................

78

Threatenedand endangered species.......................... 35 Zones ..........................................................

78

Bowhead and gray whales ....................................... 35 Volumetricparameters.............................................

78

Arcticperegrinefalcon............................................... 35 Geologicrisk....................................................

78

Human environment.............................................................. 35 Economic inputs..................................................

79

Population........................................................................... 35 PRESTO analysisresults............................................

80

Socioculturalsystem ......................................................... 36 Marginalprobability.................................................

80

Existingland use............................................................... 36 Resources by block................................................

80

Subsistenceuse............................................................. 36 Naturalgas economics .............................................

80

Kaktovik........................................................................ 36 Referencescited......................................................

81

Other communities...................................................... 40

Land status..................................................................... 43 CHAPTER IV. DEVELOPMENT AND

Nativeallotments............................................................ 43 TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE ...... 83

Industrialuse.................................................................. 43

Government and militaryuse........................................ 43 Introduction...........................................................

83

Stateand localpoliticalnd economic systems ..........44 Exploration,development,and production........................ 83

Publicservicesand facilities ......................................... 45 Exploration..........................................................

83

Archeology......................................................................... 45 Additionalgeologicaland geophysicalexploration.... 83

Recreation........................................................................... 46 Exploratorydrilling ..................................................

84

Wildernessand esthetics................................................. 46 Development ........................................................

85

Referencescited................................................................... 47 Production..........................................................

86

Physicalgeography and processes ............................... 47 Centralproductionfacility ...........................................

87

Biologicaland human environments............................... 48 Drillingpads and wells..............................................

88

Airstrip...........................................................89

Fieldroads and pipelines...........................................89

CHAPTER 111.ASSESSMENT OF OIL AND Marine facility .....................................................

89

GAS POTENTIAL AND PETROLEUM Transportationoptionsforoiland gas production..........90

GEOLOGY OF THE 1002 AREA ....................... 55 Pipelines...........................................................

90

Surge and storagetanks...........................................

91

Introduction............................................................................ 55 Valves...........................................................

91

Significantfindingsand perspectives................................. 56 Communications ...................................................

91

Summary of methods ........................................................... 57 Roads ...........................................................

92

Petroleumgeology................................................................ 58 Airfieldsforconstructioncamps .................................. 92

Sedimentaryrocks............................................................. 58 Constructioncamps forroads and pipelines............ 92

Pre-Mississippianrocks (basement complex)............ 58 Oil-spillcontingency,includingleakdetection............ 92

Ellesmeriansequence .................................................... 61 Pipelinerouting....................................................

92

Depositionalhistory.................................................... 62 Inlandroutes....................................................

92

Brookiansequence ........................................................ 63 Coastalroutes...................................................

93

Depositionalhistory.................................................... 63 Subsea marine routes............................................

93

Structure............................................................................. 67 Tankers ............................................................

94

Petroleumgeochemistry................................................... 67 Other transportationmethods ......................................... 94

Assessment ofthe oiland gas potential.......................... 71 Naturalgas transportationsystem.................................. 94

In-placeoiland gas resources........................................ 71 References Cited......................................................

95

Descriptionof plays....................................................... 71

Topset play.................................................................. 72 CHAPTER V. ALTERNATIVES ............................. 97

Turbiditeplay............................................................... 72

Thomson-Kemik play.................................................. 72 Introduction..........................................................

97

Undeformed Pre-Mississippianplay......................... 73 AlternativeA--Fulleasingof the 1002 area...................... 97

ImbricateFold Beltplay............................................. 73 AlternativeB-Limftedleasingof the 1002 area................ 100

Folded Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian play.............. 74 AlternativeC-Furtherexploration........................................ 101

Undeformed Ellesmerianplay.................................... 74 AlternativeD--No action................................................

102

Estimatesas distributions ............................................. 75 AlternativeE--Wildemess designation................................. 103

Estimatedin-placeresources....................................... 75 Reference cited......................................................

104

X11 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
CHAPTER VI. ENVIRONMENTAL CHAPTER VI. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES---

CONSEQUENCES ....................................................... 105 Continued

Alternative13--l-imiltedeasing......................................

145

Introduction ............................................................................ 105 Effectson physicalgeographyand processes............ 145

Developingthe assessment............................................. 106 Effectson biologicalenvironment................................145

Mitigationmeasures .......................................................... 108 Vegetation,wetlands,and terraintypes...................... 145

Assumptions...................................................................... 109 Specialterrestrial and aquaticenvironments.............. 146

AlternativeX-Fullleasing..................................................... 110 Coastaland marineenvironment................................

146

Effectsan physicalgeographyand processes............ 110 Terrestrialmammals ..........................................

146

Geologicaland geophysicalexploration..................... 110 Caribou...................................................

146

Exploratorydrilling .......................................................... 111 Muskoxen .................................................

147

Developmentand production....................................... 111 Moose ....................................................

147

Effectson biologicalenvironment................................... 113 Dailsheep ................................................

148

Vegetation,wetlands,and terraintypes...................... 114 Wolves....................................................

148

Geologicaland geophysicalexploration.................. 114 Arcticfoxes................................................

148

Exploratorydrilling, developmentand production.. 114 Wolverines................................................

148

Specialterrestrial and aquaticenvironments.............. 116 Brown bears...............................................

148

SadlerochitSpringSpecialArea............................... 116 Arcticground squirrelsand otherrodents.............. 149

Kongakut River-BeaufortLagoon .............................. 117 Marine mammals .............................................

149

Angun Plains............................................................... 117 Polarbears................................................

149

Jago River.................................................................... 117 Sealsand whales..........................................

149

Coastaland marineenvironment................................. 117 Birds.......................................................

149

Terrestrialmammals ....................................................... 118 Swans, geese,and ducks...................................

149

Caribou........................................... ............................ 118 Seabirdsand shorebirds....................................

149

Muskoxen .................................................................... 124 Raptors...................................................

150

Moose .......................................................................... 126 Ptarmigan.................................................

150

Dailsheep ...................................... ............................ 126 Passerines................................................

150

Wolves .......................................................................... 126 Fish........................................................

150

Arcticfoxes.................................................................. 127 Threatenedand endangeredspecies.......................... 150

Wolverines................................................................... 127 Bowhead and graywhales..................................

150

Brown bears................................... ............................ 128 Arcticperegrinefalcon......................................

150

Arcticground squirrelsand otherrodents.............. 129 Effectson human environment...................................

151

Marine mammals ............................................................ 129 Population..................................................

151

Polarbears.................................................................. 129 Socioculturalsystem..........................................

151

Sealsand whales....................................................... 131 Existingland use.............................................

151

Birds................................................................................ 131 Subsistenceuse ...........................................

151

Swans, geese,and ducks......................................... 132 Land statusand militaryand industrial use............ 151

Seabirdsand shorebirds........................................... 134 Nativeallotments...........................................

151

Raptors......................................................................... 135 Stateand localpolitical and economic systems.......151

Ptarmigan..................................................................... 136 Publicservicesand facilities ..................................

152

Passerines................................................................... 136 Archeology..................................................152

Fish.................................................................................. 136 Recreation,wilderness,and esthetics....................... 152

Fresh-waterfish.......................................................... 136 Summary of unavoidableimpacts,AlternativeB ........... 152

Coastalfish................................................................. 137 AlternativeC--Furtherexploration...................................153

Threatenedand endangeredspecies.......................... 138 Effectson physicalgeographyand processes............ 153

Bowhead and graywhales....................................... 138 Effectson biologicalenvironment.................................153

Arcticperegrinefalcon............................................... 138 Vegetation,wetlands,and terraintypes...................... 153

Effectson human environment........................................ 138 Specialterrestrial and aquaticenvironments.............. 153

Population....................................................................... 138 Coastaland marineenvironment................................153

Socioculturalsystem...................................................... 139 Fishand wildliferesources.....................................153

Existinglanduse............................................................ 139 Effectson human environment...................................154

Subsistenceuse ......................................................... 139 Summary of unavoidableimpacts,AlternativeC ........... 154

Land statusand militaryand industrial use............ 142 AlternativeD--No action...........................................154

Nativeallotments......................................................... 142 Altemative-energysources inlieuof development

Stateand localpolitical and economic systems.......142 ofthe 1002 area...............................................155

Publicservicesand facilities ..................................... 143 Alternative&-Wildernessdesignation................................160

Archeology...................................................................... 143 Cumulativeeffects...............................................161

Recreation,wilderness,and esthetics......................... 143

Summary ofunavoidableimpacts.AlternativeA ........... 144

CONTENTS XIII
CHAPTER VI. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES--- SUMMARY OF CONSULTATION

Continued AND PUBLIC COMMENTS .................................... 193

Irreversibleand irretrievable commitments of

resources............................................................................. 164 Background ..........................................................

193

Oiland gas resources...................................................... 164 Results..............................................................194

Biologicalresources.......................................................... 164 Responses to comments ...............................................194

Socialand historicalresources....................................... 164 Environmentalissues.................................................

194

Comparison of short-termuses and Caribou...........................................................

194

long-termproductivity........................................................ 164 PCH core calvingarea............................................

194

Summary of effectsforAlternativesA, B, C. D, and E PCH displacementvs.decrease in population......195

on the physical,biological,and human Area of displacement.............................................

195

environmentsof the 1002 area......................................... 166 Mapping areas of PCH concentration..................... 195

Summary of recommended mitigation................................ 167 Caribouinsectrelief..............................................196

Referencescited................................................................... 170 Polarbears .......................................................

196

Carryingcapacity..................................................

196

Transboundary consequences ..................................... 196

CHAPTER Vil. OIL AND GAS--NATIONAL Baselinereport....................................................

196

NEED FOR DOMESTIC SOURCES AND Regulatoryprocesses...............................................

197

THE 1002 AREA'S POTENTIAL Mitigation.........................................................197

CONTRIBUTION .......................................................... 177 Water availability and development.............................. 198

Airquality........................................................198

Introduction............................................................................ 177 Gravel ...........................................................

199

The 1002 area'spotentialcontributionto U.S.needs.....177 Energy conservation................................................199

Contributionto domestic oildemand and supply........178 Use of "worstcase" analysis...................................... 199

Contributionto nationalobjectives................................. 180 Cumulativeeffects..................................................200

Fosteringadequate energy suppliesat Oilspills..........................................................

200

reasonablecosts..................................... .................... 180 Socioeconomic issues................................................

200

Reducing dependence on importedoil....................... 180 Socioculturalconcerns..............................................

200

Enhancing nationalsecurity.......................................... 181 Recreationaluse...................................................

201

Achievinga more favorablebalanceof - Wildernessreview..................................................

201

internationaltrade......................................................... 181 Compliance withTitleVill...........................................

201

Providingeconomic benefitsto the Nation................ 181 Oiland gas resourceassessment issues..................... 201

ProvidingFederal,State,and localrevenues............. 182 Marginalprobabilities forcommercial

Continued use of the Trans-AlaskaPipeline hydrocarbon occurrence..........................................

201

System .................................................... .................... 182 Smalland unidentifiedprospects................................. 201

The 1002 area'soilpotentialcompared to U.S. Probabilitydistributions .............................................

202

proved oilreserves........................................ .................... 182 Geologicrisk.....................

:...........................................

202

Anticipatedmarketsforthe 1002 area'soil...................... 183 Existenceof the Ellesmeriansequence ...................... 202

Conclusion............................................................................. 183 Table 111-1(OCS planningareas)................................. 202

References cited................................................................... 183 Figure111-2(prospectsizes).........................................

203

Data confidentiality .................................................203

CHAPTER Vill. SECRETARY'S Oilprices.........................................................

203

RECOMMENDATION .............................................. 185 Oilpricegrowth rate...............................................

203

Naturalgas .......................................................204

Introduction............................................................................ 185 Economic scenarios................................................

204

Discussion............................................................................. 185 Nationalneed issue..................................................

204

1002 areaoiland gas resources.................................... 185 Marginalprobabilities and the nationalneed ............. 204

Environmentalconsequences of development.............. 187 Otherissues.......................................................

204

Porcupineand CentralArcticcaribouherds.............. 187 Consultationand coordination..................................... 204

Muskoxen ........................................................................ 188 Consultationwith Canada ..........................................

205

Environmentalsafeguardsand the leasingprocess.....188 Publichearings....................................................

205

Secretary'srecommendation ............................................... 188 Submerged lands..................................................

205

Selectionof preferredalternative(Alternative A) ........... 189 ArcticRefuge land exchange........................................ 206

AlternativeE--Wildernessdesignation............................. 189 Development and transportationscenarios................ 206

AlternativeD--No action.................................................... 190 Distributionof finalreport/LEIS..........................................

206

AlternativeC--Furtherexploration.................................... 191

AlternativeB-1imitedleasing........................................... 191

Consultationswith Canada ................................................. 191

Conclusion............................................................................. 192

XIV ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
ILLUSTRATIONS

[Platesinpocket]

Plate 1. Maps ofarcheologicalnd naturalareas, Figure111-1.Map showing seismicallymapped

fishery,moose, brown bear,and polarbear prospectsand resourceblocksin

resourcesinthe 1002 area,ArcticNational the1002 area.....................................

55

WildlifeRefuge,Alaska. 111-2.Bar graph:Conditional,economically

2. Maps of caribouand muskoxen resourcesin recoverableoilresourcesoftheeight

the 1002 area,ArcticNationalWildlife largestprospectsinthe 1002 area

Refuge,Alaska. compared withestimatedultimate

3. Maps ofbirdresourcesinthe1002 area, recoverablereservesoffiveknown

ArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge,Alaska. producingfields....................................

57

4. Wellcorrelationsectionsshowingselected 111-3.Map ofthe 1002 area showing locatestdata,northeasternAlaska. tionsof Cretaceousand Tertiary

5. Selectedseismiclinesacrossthe1002 area, outcrops.........................................

59

ArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge,Alaska. 111-4. Generalizedstratigraphic column for

the 1002 area showing significant

geologicevents,oil-bearingformations

west ofthe ArcticRefuge,and potential

source rocks......................................

60

111-5.Diagrammaticsectionshowing stratigraphicrelationsof theEllesmerian

sequence alongthe mountainfront

south ofthe1002 area............................ 61

111-6.Map summarizingthe northernlimits

Figure 1-1. Indexmap ofnorthernAlaskashowing ofthe Ellesmerianpotentialreservoir

locationof the1002 areainrelation rockspreservedunder theLower

tothe ArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge, Cretaceousunconformity......................... 62

the NationalPetroleumReservein 111-7.Maps summarizingtheregionaland

Alaska,and Prudhoe Bay........................ 2 localgeologictrendsof theLisburne

Group, Ledge Sandstone Member

Figure 11-1.Map of northeasternAlaskashowing ofthe IvishakFormation,and

the 1002 areaand importantnearby Kemik Sandstone and Thomson sand... 64

geographicfeatures.................................. 7 111-8. Diagrammaticsectionshowing strati11-2.Map showing generalizedsurficial graphicrelationsofthe Brooklan

depositsof the1002 area....................... 8 sequence between the MobilWest

11-3.Schematicdiagramof theeffectof StainesState2 welland the northsurfacefeatureson the distribution of west comer of the1002 area ................ 66

permafrost.................................................. 12 111-9. Generalizednear-surfacestructural

11-4.Map showing generalrange,migration trendsinBrookianrocks,based

routes,and winterrangeofthe on seismicdata....................................

68

Porcupinecaribouherd........................... 21 111-10. Map of the1002 area showing trends

11-5.Totalcalvingareasand concentrated of structuralculminationsinhighly

areasofthe Porcupinecaribouherd,by deformed Mesozoicand Tertiary

year,for1972-66(15maps);and rocksthatmay have petroleum

compositeofconcentratedcalving potential...........................................

68

areasfor1972-86,includingmaximum 111-11.Generalizedstratigraphic column

extentof scatteredcalving(1 map).......22 forthe northernpartofthe 1002

11-6.Graph showing estimatednumbers of area showing intervalsofassessed

muskoxen inpostcalvingpopulations plays.............................................

70

inthe ArcticRefuge,1972-84.................. 26 111-12.Maps and schematicsectionshowing

11-7.Diagramshowing yearlycycleofsubsis- theseven assessedplaysinthe

tenceuse by Kaktovikresidents............ 37 1002 area..........................................

71

11-8.Map showing extremeextentof 111-13. Graphs of probabilitycurvesshowing the

subsistenceuse by Kaktovik estimatedin-placeoiland totalgas

residentsintheyears1923-83............... 38 resourcesofthe 1002 area..................... 75

ILLUSTRATIONS XV
Figure111-14.Map showing resource blocks A-D of the Table 111-1.Estimatesof undiscovered,conditional,

1002 area and diagram showing the economicallyrecoverableoilresources

approximate distributionof mean values in the 1002 area and in OCS planning

of in-placeoiland gas resources..........76 areas (unleasedlands)............................. 56

111-15.Graph and diagram: estimatedin-place 111-2.Data on seismicallymapped petroleum

oilforplays inthe 1002 area,showing prospects in the 1002 area shown in

individualprobabilitycurves and figure 111-1.................................................

69

relativecontributionsof the plays..........77 111-3.Undiscovered, conditional,economically

111-16.Graph and diagram: estimatedin-place recoverableoilresources in the 1002

totalgas forplaysin the 1002 area, area......................................................

79

showing individualprobabilitycurves 111-4.Distribution,by block,of estimated

and relativecontributionsof the plays.. 77 unconditionalmean recoverable

oilresources inthe 1002 area................ 80

Figure IVA. Diagram showing directionaldrillingfrom

a singledrillinglocation........................... 86 Table IV-1. Winterwater depths at selectedlocaIV-2. Diagram showing horizontaldeviation tionson the 1002 area............................ 88

versus welldepth ..................................... 86

IV-3. Diagram showing production-well Table V-1. Number and area of in-placeoil-related

design ......................................................... 89 facilities assumed to be associatedwith

IV-4. Typicalcross sectionof pipeline ultimatedevelopment of estimatedmean

and road development ............................. 91 conditionalrecoverableoilresources

IV-5. Graph showing land-pipelinepipe made availableby fullleasingor

diameterversus pumping rate................. 91 limitedleasingof the 1002 area............. 99

Figure V-1. Map showing hypotheticalgeneralized Table VIA. Definitionsof environmentaleffects........... 107

development of threemain prospects VI-2. Evaluationspecies forthe 1002 area

in the 1002 area under fullleasing resource assessment ............................... 108

ifeconomic quantitiesof oilare VI-3. Resource categoriesand mitigation

discovered.................................................. 98 goals....................................................

109

V-2. Map showing hypotheticalgeneralized VI-4. Porcupine caribou herd concentrated

development of two major prospects calvingarea potentiallyaffected

inthe 1002 area under limitedleasingif by development under fullleasing

economic quantitiesof oilare or limitedleasing....................................... 120

discovered.................................................. 100 VI-5. CentralArcticcaribou herd population,

calvingin Prudhoe Bay area,and

Prudhoe Bay development activities,

1969-85 ..................................................

121

VI-6. Observed muskox range potentially

affectedby development under full

TABLES

leasingor limitedleasing......................... 125

VI-7. Snow goose staginghabitatpotentially

Table 11-1. Ambient airconcentrationsmeasured

affectedby development under full

at Prudhoe Bay, April1979-March leasingor limitedleasing......................... 134

1980, compared with nationalambient VI-8. Major projectsconsidered in cumulativeairqualitystandards........................... 16 effectsassessment ................................... 162

11-2. Landsat-identifiedvegetationcover

classes and correlationwith FWS Table VII-1. U.S. oilfieldshaving ultimaterecovery

welland classifications, 1002 area..........17 exceeding 1 billionbarrelsof oil............. 178

11-3. Observed muskox range withinthe V11-2. The 1002 area'spotentialcontribution

ArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge

to U.S.oildemand, production,

and withinthe 1002 area,1982-85.........27 and imports..............................................

179

11-4. Kaktovikparticipationin subsistenceuse

VII-3. HistoricalrecoverableU.S. oiland

according to resource harvested............ 37 naturalgas findingrates.......................... 180

11-5.Estimated Canadian harvestfrom the VII-4. Estimated revenues from fullleasing

Porcupine caribou herd,1963-86............ 41 and limitedleasingof the 1002 area .....182

11-6. Spring and fallsubsistenceharvestof VII-5. The 1002 area'sconditional,economically

snow geese in the Northwest Territories, recoverableoilresources compared

Canada ....................................................... 42 with totalU.S. proved crude oil

11-7.Alaska BeaufortSea harvest of polar reserves.................................................

182

bears, 1980-87 ........................................... 42

XVI ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADEC Alaska Department of Environmental MOU memorandum of understanding

Conservation mph milesper hour

ADF&G Alaska Department of Fish and Game MPHC marginalprobabilityfor hydrocarbons

AGL above ground level NAAQS nationalambient airqualitystandards

AMRAP Alaska MineralResource Assessment Program NARL Naval ArcticResearch Laboratory(Barrow)

ANCSA Alaska Native Claims SettlementAct of 1971 NEPA NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct of 1969

ANGTS Alaska NaturalGas TransportationSystem NEPP NationalEnergy PolicyPlan

ANILCA Alaska NationalInterestLands Conservation NNEB net nationaleconomic benefit

Act of 1980 NNSDC Newport News Shipbuildingand Drydock

ANS Alaskan North Slope Company

AS Alaska Statute NOAA NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration

ASRC ArcticSlope Regional Corporation NPRA NationalPetroleum Reserve in Alaska

BBO billionbarrelsof oil NSB North Slope Borough

BLM Bureau of Land Management

03 ozone

CAH CentralArcticcaribou herd OCS Outer ContinentalShelf

CCP Comprehensive conservationplan OPEC Organizationof Petroleum ExportingCountries

CEO Council on EnvironmentalQuality Members:

CFR Code of FederalRegulations Algeria Libya

COST ContinentalOffshore StratigraphicTest Ecuador Nigeria

CPF centralproductionfacility Gabon Qatar

Indonesia Saudi Arabia

DCF discounted cash flow Iran United Arab Emirates

DEIS draftenvironmentalimpact statement Iraq Venezuela

DEW Line DistantEarlyWarning Line Kuwait

DO dissolvedoxygen

DOE U.S. Department of Energy PCH Porcupine caribou herd

P.L. publiclaw

EIA Energy InformationAdministration PM particulatematter

EIS environmentalimpact statement ppm partsper million

EOR enhanced oilrecovery

FASP Fast AppraisalSystem for Petroleum ppt partsper thousand

FEIS finalenvironmentalimpact statement PRESTO ProbabilisticResource Estimates--Offshore

PSD preventionof significantdeteriorationof air

FR Federal Register qualityprogram

FWS U.S. Fish and WildlifeService Stat. Statute

GS U.S. GeologicalSurvey

ha hectare TAGS Trans-AlaskaGas System

KIC KaktovikInupiatCorporation TAPS Trans-Alaska PipelineSystem

TCFG trillioncubic feetof gas

kg kilogram TIAS Treatiesand other InternationalActs Series

LEIS legislativeenvironmentalimpact statement TS Treaty Series

LNG liquefiednaturalgas

MBO millionbarrelsof oil TSP totalsuspended particulates

MBO/D millionbarrelsof oilper day U.S.C. United States Code

U.S.T. United StatesTreaty

MB01Y millionbarrelsof oilper year VSM verticalsupport member

MCF thousand cubic feet(ofgas) YPC Yukon PacificCorporation

MEFS minimum economic fieldsize

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS XVII
XVIII ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA,

COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

The Arctic National WildlifeRefuge, in the (II) To fulfill the internationaltreatyobligationsof the

northeasterncomer of Alaska,was firstestablishedas the United Stateswith respectto fishand wildlifeand

ArcticNationalWildlifeRange by PublicLand Order 2214 in theirhabitats;

1960, for the purpose of preserving unique wildlife,

wilderness,and recreationalvalues. The original8.9-million- (111) To provide, in a manner consistentwith the

acre Range was withdrawn from allforms of appropriation purposes set forthin subparagraphs (1)and (!Q.

under the publicland laws, includingmining laws but not the opportunityforcontinued subsistenceuses by

including mineral leasing laws. This order culminated localresidents;and

extensiveeffortsbegun more than a decade earlierto

preservethisunique partof Alaska. (IV) To ensure,to the maximum extentpracticableand

in a manner consistentwith the purposes set

The Alaska NationalInterestLands ConservationAct forthin paragraph (I),water qualityand necessary

(ANILCA), passed in 1980, established16 NationalWildlife water quantitywithinthe refuge.

Refuges in Alaska. among them the 19-million-acreArctic

NationalWildlifeRefuge, hereafterreferredto as Arctic The Arctic Refuge offers wildlife,scientific,

Refuge. The ArcticRefuge today encompasses the existing recreational,and estheticvalues unique to the Arctic

8.9-million-acrewildliferange and approximately10 million coastalecosystem. In the ArcticRefuge,a person traveling

additionalacres of adjoininglands west toward the Trans- on footor by boat can traversea fullrange of North Slope

Alaska PipelineSystem (TAPS) and south to the Yukon landscapes and habitats,because of the proximityof the

Flats. Approximately8 millionacres, comprisingmost of Arcticcoast to the mountains. Mt. Chamberlin,9,020 feet;

the originalArcticNationalWildlifeRange, was designated Mt. Isto,8,975 feet; Mt. Hubley, 8,915 feet;and Mt.

wilderness. Michelson,8,855 feet-thefour tallestpeaks in the Brooks

Range-are inthe ArcticRefuge. The ArcticRefuge contains

ANILCA also redefinedthe purposes of the Arctic the only extensive activeglaciersin the Brooks Range.

Refuge: Found on the refugeis a fullcomplement of arcticfloraand

fauna, includingthe calvinggrounds for the Porcupine

(I) To conserve fishand wildlifepopulationsand caribou herd, one of the largestIn Alaska (approximately

habitatsin theirnaturaldiversityincluding,but not 180,000 caribou),and habitatfor the threatened arctic

limitedto,the Porcupine caribou herd (including peregrinefalcon,lessersnow goose, and other migratory

participationin coordinatedecologicalstudiesand birdspecies,and reintroducedmuskoxen.

management of thisherd and the Western Arctic

caribou herd), polar bears, grizzlybears, During the 1970's the Alaskan arcticcoastalplain

muskoxen, Dail sheep, wolves, wolverines,snow was the siteof severalstudieson oiland gas potential,

geese, peregrine falcons and other migratory possibleoiland gas transportationcorridors,and biological

birds,and Arcticchar and grayling; resources (U.S. Department of the Interior,1972, 1976).

INTRODUCTION-BACKGROUND 1
The Alaska NaturalGas TransportationSystem studieson adequate informationand the fullparticipation of the

the Range includedextensivebiologicalstudies,as did Congress.' [Senate Report 413, 96th Cong. list

studiesforthe planningand developmentof the TAPS to Sess.at241(1979)).

the west of the Range.

Therefore,the Congress created section1002 of

Duringthe 7 years ANILCA was being consideredin ANILCA to dealwiththe issue.

the Congress, and particularly during1977-80,the issueof

oiland gas explorationand development on the 1.55-millionacre ArcticRefuge coastalplainwas fullydebated. Some

members wanted the coastal plain designated as

wilderness,and some favoredopening itto oiland gas

leasing.As explainedinthe 1979 Senate Report:

PURPOSE AND NEED FOR

'The Committee was particularly concerned withthe

THIS REPORT

ANWR [ArcticNationalWildlifeRange]. In hearings Specifically,section1002 of ANILCA requiresthe

and in markup, conflictingand uncertaininformation Secretaryof the Interior:

was presentedto the committeeabout the extentof

oiland gas resourceson the Range and the effect 1. To conduct a comprehensive, continuingbaseline

development and productionof those resources study of the fishand wildliferesourcesof the Arctic

would have on the wildlifeinhabitingthe Range and Refuge 1002 area (fig.1-1).[Throughoutthisreport

the Range itself.The nationallyand internationally the term '1002 area"refersto thatpartof theArctic

recognized wildlifeand wildernessvaluesof the Refuge definedas the "coastalplain"by section

Range are described in the discussionof the 1002(b)oftheANILCA];

Committee amendments to Title111.The Committee

was determined that a decision as to the 2. To develop guidelinesfor,initiate, and monitoran oil

development of the Range be made only with and gas explorationprogram;and

166' 162' 158' 154' 150' 146' 142' 138'

-Area illustrated

ALA KA A R C T I C 0 C E A N

BEAUFORT SEA

Prudhoe

70.

SWRive

CY, NATIONAL PETROLEUM

RESERVE IN ALASKA av X

(NPRA) %Kern

CIO u

IC In,

I

vt

TI`iiOUGI1

4fo,

68- NO

old

front

Ilk

L

------------- 8 R 0

CT0111

CoNTMENTAL-- REFUGE

0 100 MILES

N

I

I

0

Van

100 KILOMETERS

Figure I-1.-Indexmap of northernAlaskashowing locationof 1002 areainrelationto the ArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge

(ArcticRefuge),the NationalPetroleumReserve inAlaska (NPRA),and Prudhoe Bay. Four highestpeaks inthe

Brooks Range: C, Mt. Chamberlin;1,Mt. Isto;H, Mt. Hubley;M, Mt. Michelson.

2 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
3. To preparea "Reportto Congress" which describes OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION PROGRAMS

the fishand wildliferesourcesof the 1002 area;

identifiesand estimatesthe volume and arealextent Section 1002(a)of ANILCA authorizedoiland gas

of potentialhydrocarbon resources;assesses the explorationon the 1002 area ina manner thatwould avoid

potentialimpacts of development; discusses significantadverse effectson fish,wildlife,and other

transportationof oiland gas; discussesthe national resources. Explorationincludedsurface geologicaland

need for domestic sources of oiland gas; and geophysicalwork but not exploratorydrilling.

recommends whether further exploration,

development,and productionof oiland gas should The FWS published an environmental impact

be allowed. statementin February 1983, and finalregulationsgoverning

explorationon the 1002 areawere publishedinthe Federal

The U.S. Fish and WildlifeService(FWS) has lead Registeon April19, 1983 (48FederalRegiste16838-16872:

responsibilityfor meeting these Congressionalmandates. 50 CFR 37). As requiredby section1002(d),the

Under an interagencymemorandum ofunderstanding(MOU) regulationswere developed to ensure that exploratory

dated June 1983,the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) activitiesdid not have a significantadverse effecton fish

and the GeologicalSurvey (GS) have assistedthe FWS by and wildlife,theirhabitats,or the environment(FWS and

providingtechnicalexpertisein reviewingindustry-proposed others,1982,1983).

explorationplans, conducting geologicstudies and

assessingthe hydrocarbonpotentialof the 1002 area.as - During the summers of 1983-85,explorationcrews

well as developingthis report. The statusof these from 15 companies visitedthe 1002 area. No surface

activitiesi reportedherein. vehicleswere allowed;access was by helicopter.The work

involvedfieldobservations,surfacemeasurements, mapping,

BASELINE STUDY OF FISH AND and collectionofrock samples. Samples were analyzedfor

WILDLIFE RESOURCES age and geochemistry (hydrocarbon-generationpotential)

The FWS began biologicalbaselinestudiesof

and porosityand permeability(hydrocarbon-reservoir

selectedfishand wildlifespecies of the 1002 area during

potential).The FWS carefullymonitored allactivities, and

no adverse effectsan fishor wildlifewere observedfrom

the springof 1981. An initialbaselinereportthatdescribed helicopter-supportedsurface explorationduring summer

the 1981 fieldseason (spring-fall) and reviewedexisting months. -1

literaturewas publishedin April1982. The resultsof

subsequent fieldseasons (1982-85)were documented in The FWS issued one permitfor a helicopterfour annual baselineupdate reportsand a finalbaseline supportedgravitysurveythatwas conducted duringthe late

report. (See "Referencescited"forthe listingof these summer of 1983. The permittee(international Technology

publications.)The finalbaselinereportwas publishedin Ltd.)collectedapproximately1,300gravityreadingsfrom the

December 1986. ground along a 1x2-milegridcoveringthe entire1002 area.

The 1002 area baselinestudiesrepresentmore than Duringthe wintermonths, when most wildlifespecies

60 staff-yearsof researcheffort(thatis,data collection, were absent or were presentin lessernumbers, seismic

analysis,and synthesis).Fifty-sevenseparatefieldstudies operationswere permitted.More than 1,300 linemilesof

defined(1)the ecology,distribution, and abundance of fish seismicdatawas acquiredduringthe wintersof 1983-1984

and wildlifespecies.(2) wildlifehabitatswithinthe 1002 and 1984-1985. The seismicprogram providedsubsurface

area.and (3)the impactsof seismicexplorationon tundra data on the area'soiland gas potential.As the only

vegetation. explorationtechnique involvingmechanized surface

Section303 of ANILCA, which reestablishedexisting

transportation, itposed the greatestpossibilityof adverse

refuges,specifiedthata purpose of the ArcticRefuge was

environmentaleffects. Therefore,to avoid significant

to conserve fishand wildlifepopulations. Among the

adverseimpacts,the FWS:

species or groups of species mentioned in section 1. Allowed only one permittee(GeophysicalService

303(2)(B)(i)that were studiedon the 1002 area were Inc.),representingan industrygroup of 23-25

caribou,muskoxen, wolves, brown bear, wolverines, companies,to collectseismicdata,

migratorybirds,and fish,as wellas the vegetation.The

Fish and WildlifeServicestaffwas assistedby the Stateof 2. Restrictedactivitiesinsensitivewildlifeareas (such as

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Canadian Wildlife near bear dens) or where snow coverwas insufficient

Service,Yukon Department of Renewable Resources, to protectthe tundra,

researchersfrom the CooperativeWildlifeResearch Unitat

the Universityof Alaska,and volunteers. Investigative

techniques includedvisualobservations,aerialcensuses,

radio telemetry,and satellitetracking. These baseline

studiesofthe 1002 areaare the basisforthe descriptionof

the biologicalenvironmentinChapter 11and the analysisof isymbol indicatesmodificationof draftreport.See

environmentalconsequences in Chapter V1. page 6 forfullexplanationof symbols.

INTRODUCTION--BASELINE STUDY 3
3. Limitedthe number of linemilesof seismicsurveyto 6. The recommendations of the Secretarywith respect

onlythatamount necessaryto yielddata from which to whether furtherexplorationfor,and the

to develop a credibleoiland gas resource development and productionof,oiland gas within

assessment, and the coastalplainshould be permittedand, Ifso,what

additionallegalauthorityisnecessaryto ensure that

4. Placed full-timeFWS monitorson each seismiccrew. adverse effectsof such activitieson fishand wildlife,

theirhabitats,and otherresourcesare avoidedor

By restricting or reroutingoverlandtravelinareas of minimized(ChapterVill).

inadequatesnow cover or sensitivevegetation,the monitors

effectively limitedadverse environmentalimpacts. They also - The firstseven chaptersofthisreportalsoconstitute

collecteddata on the severityof the seismicsurveys' a legislativeenvironmentalimpactstatement(LEIS)pursuant

surfaceimpact in relationto snow depth,topography,and to section1506.8of the Council on EnvironmentalQuality's

vegetationtype. Severalmore seasons of followupstudies (CEO) regulationsto implementNEPA (40 CFR 1500-1508).

on long-term impacts, ifany, willsupplement their Chapters V and VI in particulardiscuss and evaluatefive

observationsof short-termsurfacedisturbance. major alternativesfrom which the Secretary's

recommendation (ChapterVill)has been derived. Those

REPORT PREPARATION

alternativesare for the Congress to: (A)authorizefull

leasingofthe entire1002 area:(B)authorizeleasinglimited

Under provisionsof the MOU, an 'Interagency to a partofthe 1002 area;(C) authorizefurtherexploration,

Advisory Work Group' was formed in March 1984 to includingexploratorydrilling,only:(D) continuecurrent

oversee the preparationof thisreport. The work group, refugestatuswith no furtheroiland gas activityallowed;

headed by the FWS, comprised FWS, GS, and BLIVI and (E)designatethe area as wilderness.For the purpose

representatives. The group calledon more than 50 of EIS (environmentalimpact statement)analysis,alternative

technicalexpertswithinthe threebureaus to contributeto A is consideredthe "proposedaction"and AlternativeD is

varioussectionsof thisreport.Contributorsare listedat consideredthe 'no action'or baselinealternative. -

the frontof thisreport.

Estimates of conditionaleconomicallyrecoverable

This document providesthe basisforthe Secretary resources describedin Chapter IIIform the basis for

of the Interior'srecommendation to the Congress hypotheticaloilexploration,development,production,and

concerningfuturemanagement of the 1002 area. The transportationscenariosoutlinedin Chapter IV which are

document fulfills the requirementsof both section1002(h)of used in the LEIS to determineand measure environmental

ANILCA and section102(2)(C)ofthe NationalEnvironmental impacts,and to discussthe nationalneed in ChapterVII.

PolicyAct (NEPA) of1969.

- Any Congressionallyauthorizedoiland gas program

Section1002(h)ofANILCA mandates thatthe report on the 1002 area would have some degree of cumulative

must contain: effectwith other existingand potentialactivitieson the

North Slope of Alaska,includingStateand Federaloffshore

1. The identification, by means other than drillingof leasingprograms,oiland gas explorationprograms to the

exploratorywells,of those areas withinthe coastal east in the Canadian Arctic,and furtherFederalor State

plainthathave oiland gas productionpotentialand leasingon the North Slope. Also possibleis the further

an estimateof the volume of the oiland gas

expansionof oiland gas activitiesinand around Prudhoe

concerned (Chapter111). Bay. Chapter VI includesa generaldiscussionof the

potentialfor cumulativeeffects.Where informationis

2. The descriptionof the fishand wildlife, theirhabitats, availablefor a particularspecies,cumulativeeffectsare

and other resources thatare withinthe areas added to the individualimpactdiscussions.-

identifiedunder paragraph(1)(Chapter11).

- Leasingand operationswould be subjectto all

3. An evaluationof the adverse effectsthatthe carrying appropriateFederal and State regulationsand further

out of furtherexplorationfor,and the development environmentalevaluationat appropriatestages of the

and productionof,oiland gas withinsuch areas may

development.Depending on the decisionof the Congress,

have on the resourcesreferredto in paragraph(2) this programmatic LEIS may sufficefor initialleasing.

(ChapterVI). However, explorationproposals normallyrequireshe-specific

NEPA evaluations,and a development and production

4. A descriptionof how such oiland gas,Ifproduced proposalwould requirea site-specific EIS. Any futureEIS

withinsuch area,may be transportedto processing on development of the 1002 area would, to the extent

facilities (ChapterIV). appropriate,be tieredon thisprogrammaticLEIS.-

5. An evaluationof how such oiland gas relatesto the

nationalneed foradditionaldomesticsources of oil

and gas (ChapterVill.

4 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Itleasesare eventuallydeveloped,allapplicable - PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT -

Federaland Stateregulationswould apply to oilexploration, During the earlystages of preparinga preliminary

development, production,and transportationunlessthey draftreportand detailedLEIS fordepartmentalreview,legal

were superseded by the legislationenacted by the actionwas taken againstthe Departmentand the Fishand

Congress to open the 1002 area to leasing,and any WildlifeService by Trustees for Alaska and other

implementingregulations.Currentlymore than 36 Federal environmentalgroups inTrusteesfor Alaska,et al,Civ.No.

and 5 Stateof Alaska laws,and 111 separateregulations A85-551 (D.AK. Feb. 25, 1986). The plaintiffs contended

found in 6 separatetitlesin the Code of Federal thatthe Department'splans (thatis,to circulatethe

Regulationsapply to oiland gas activities inAlaska. Some report/LEISfor publiccomment concurrentlywith its

examples are the National WildlifeRefuge System submittalto Congress and to forward any comments

AdministrationAct; Fish and WildlifeCoordinationAct; receivedand the Department'sresponses subsequently)

Endangered Species Act; Clean Water Act; CoastalZone failedto fullycomply with NEPA, and thatthe Department

Management Act; Alaska NativeClaims SettlementAct; must providean opportunityfor publicparticipationi

AlaskaEnvironmentalConservationAct,Title46; Alaska Oil preparationof the reportILEISinadvance of itssubmittalto

PollutionControl Law; and Alaska Coastal Management Congress. The courtruledin favorof the plaintiffs. By

Act.- courtorder dated February25, 1986,the Departmentwas

- Section303 of ANILCA, which establishesadditions

directedto prepareboth a draftand a finalreport/LEIS,and

to existingrefuges,requiresthatthe ArcticRefuge be

permitpublicreviewand comment on the draftreport/LEIS.

managed 'to fulfill the international treatyobligationsofthe

The courtfurtherdirectedthatpublicmeetingson the draft

United States with respectto fishand wildlifeand their

report/LEISbe held inAlaskaand elsewhereand thatthe

habitats* * *` [Section303(2)(B)(ii)]. International treaties

Department'sresponses to publiccomments be published

and agreements relatedto fishand wildlifespeciesthatare

locallybeforeor at the time the finalreport/LEISis

eitherresident,transient,or occasionallyfound in the 1002

submittedto the Congress. Itwas the positionof the

area,include:

Department and the Servicethat a draftreport/LEISneed

not be circulatedin advance and thata singledetailed

1. Convention on Nature Protectionand Wildlife

report/LEIS,as providedforin 40 CFR 1506.8(b)(2), fully

Preservationinthe Western Hemisphere,October 12,

complieswith the requirementsof NEPA.

1940 (56 Stat.1354,TS 081),ArticleVII,Migratory Even though the government feltthatthe district

Birds. court'srulingwas incorrect,the Departmentof the Interior

began the administrativeprocess laiddown by the district

2. Convention between the United States and Great courtbecause a finalreport/LEIShad alreadybeen delayed

Britain(forCanada) for the Protectionof Migratory beyond the September 1986 deadline establishedby

Birds(39Stat.1702;TS 628),as amended. ANILCA. Subsequently,the Department unsuccessfully

argued an appealofthe decision.

3. Conventionwiththe Union ofSovietSocialistRepublics

on the Conservationof MigratoryBirdsand Their On November 24, 1986, the draftreport/LEISwas

Environment(TIAS9073). made availableforpublicreviewand comment. Originally

scheduledto close January23, 1987,the comment period

4. Conventionbetween the UnitedStatesof America and was extendedto February6, 1987,at the requestof the

Japan for the Protectionof Birds and Their Governor of Alaskaand others. Publicmeetingswere held

Environment(25 U.S.T.3329,TIAS 7990). January 5, 1987, in Anchorage, Alaska,January6 in

Kaktovik,Alaska, and January 9 in Washington,D.C.

5. Agreement on the Conservationof PolarBears (TIAS Copies of the report/LEISwere sent to allFederal,State

8409). and localagencieswith jurisdictionby law or special

expertise;to the Government of Canada and the Yukon and

6. InternationalConvention forthe Regulationof Whaling, Northwest Territories;to conservationorganizations;to

Whaling Convention Act of 1949 [16 U.S.C. 916- affectedNativeregionaland villagecorporationsand other

916(1)]. ArticleIIIof the act establishedthe organizations;and to the oiland gas industry.

InternationalWhaling Commission.

During the comment period,11,361letterswere

7. Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered received.The vast majorityof these letterswere generally

Speciesof WildFauna and Flora(TIAS8249). a statementas to either(1)make the 1002 area available

for oiland gas leasing,or (2)make the 1002 area a

designated wilderness. Of those letters,7,491 favored

leasingand 3,707 favoredwildernessdesignation.Letters

were receivedfrom individualsin everyStatein the Union

and Canada. Organizations,withsuch diversepositionsas

the Wilderness Society and the Alaska Oil and Gas

Association,were responsiblefor821 ofthe comments.

INTRODUCTIOW-REPORT PREPARATION 5
Substantivecomments on the contentof the report U.S. Department of the Interior,1976,Alaska naturalgas

itselfwere receivedfrom 117 respondents. To facilitate transportationsystem-Final environmentalimpact

analyses,the comments were broken down intothe statement:Washington, DC, 9 unnumbered volumes,

followingcategories:Federalgovernments,Stateand local variouslypaginated.

governments,industry,organizations,and privateindividuals. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1982, Initialreport,baseline

Each of the 1,651 substantivecomments was reviewed. study of the fish,wildlife,and theirhabitats,Section

General responses are containedin the 'Summary of 1002(c) of the Alaska NationalInterestLands

Consultationand PublicComments" sectionof thisreport ConservationAct: Anchorage, U.S. Fishand Wildlife

and and duplicatedin the appendixto thisreport(v.2). Service,Region 7, 507 p.

The reportwas modified as appropriatebased on U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1983, 1982 update report,

comments received.Throughout the report,the symbol -

baselinestudy of the fish,wildlife,and theirhabitats,

indicates(1)passages thathave been significantly modified Section1002(c)of the Alaska NationalInterestLands

from the draftLEIS publishedin November 1986 and (2) ConservationAct (G.W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds,

new material. editors):Anchorage,U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,

Region 7, 379 p.

U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1984, 1983 update report,

baselinestudy of fish,wildlife,and theirhabitats,

DEPICTION OF CIVIL BOUNDARIES

Section1002(c)of the Alaska NationalInterestLands

ConservationAct (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds,

"Civilboundariesare the limitinglinesofjurisdictional

editors):Anchorage, U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,

authorityfor the variouslevelsof government. These Region 7, 614 p.

boundaries are shown on topographicquadrangle(and

U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1985, 1984 update report,

other]maps of the GeologicalSurvey,but they are

baselinestudy ofthe fish,wildlife,and theirhabitats,

invariablyderivedfrom anothersource. The Survey does

Section1002(c)of the Alaska NationalInterestLands

not make originalboundary surveys,and the boundaries

ConservationAct (G.W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds,

shown on the maps are not intended as conclusive

editors):Anchorage, U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,

evidenceof land ownershipor jurisdictional limits.Original

Region 7, v. 1--p.1-361;v. 2--p.362-777.

boundary surveysexecuted by the appropriateorganization

U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1986, Finalreport,baseline

providethe definitiveevidence for settlingboundary

studyof the fish,wildlife,and theirhabitats,Section

questions. Nevertheless,the boundariesshown on Survey

1002(c) of the Alaska NationalInterestLands

quadranglemaps are oftenregardedby the generalpublic

ConservationAct (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds,

and localauthoritiesas representingauthoritativelocations.

editors):Anchorage, U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,

For thisreason,boundariesare delineatedon these maps

Region 7, v. 1--p.1-392;v. 2--p.393-695.

as carefullyas possiblefrom availablesource documents;

U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1987, 1985 update report,

but the factremainsthatthe source documents,not the

baselinestudy of the fish,wildlife, and theirhabitats,

topographicmaps, have primarylegalsignificancewith

Section1002(c)of the AlaskaNationalInterestLands

respectto boundaries."From Thompson (1981,p.73).

ConservationAct (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds,

editors):Anchorage, U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,

Region 7, in press.

U.S.Fish and WildlifeService,U.S. GeologicalSurvey,and

Bureau of Land Management, 1982, Proposed oiland

REFERENCES CITED gas explorationwithinthe coastalplainof the Arctic

NationalWildlifeRefuge, Alaska--Draftenvironmental

FWS and others,1982, 1983--SeeU.S. Fish and Wildlife impactstatementand draftregulations:Washington,

Service,U.S. GeologicalSurvey,and Bureau of Land DC, chapterspaginatedseparately.

Management, 1982, 1983. U.S.Fish and WildlifeService,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,and

Thompson, M. M., 1981,Maps forAmerica-Cartographic Bureau of Land Management, 1983,Proposed oiland

products of the U.S. GeologicalSurvey [2d edition]: gas explorationwithinthe coastalplainof the Arctic

U.S. GeologicalSurvey,265 p. NationalWildlifeRefuge, Alaska-Finalenvironmental

U.S. Department of the Interior,1972, Proposed Trans- impact statement and preliminaryfinalregulations:

Alaska Pipeline-Finalenvironmentalimpact statement: Washington, DC, chapterspaginatedseparately.

Washington, DC, prepared by SpecialInteragency U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,U.S. GeologicalSurvey,and

Task Force forthe FederalTask Force on Alaskan oil Bureau of Land Management, 1986,ArcticNational

development,6 volumes,variouslypaginated;v. 1-- WildlifeRefuge, Alaska,coastal plainresource

Introductionand summary: v.2--Environmentalsetting assessment-Draftreportand recommendation to the

of the proposed Trans-AlaskaPipeline;V. 3-- Congress of the United States and legislative

EnvironmentalSettingbetween Port Valdez,Alaska, environmentalimpact statement(N. K. Clough,P. C.

and west coast ports;v.4--Evaluationof environmental Patton,and A. C. Christiansen,editors):Washington,

impact;v. 5--Alternatives to the proposed action;v. D.C., XIV + 172 p., 5 p1s.,34 figs.,23 tables,

6-Consultationand coordinationwithothers. November 1986.

6 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
CHAPTER 11

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND PROCESSES

The existingenvironment(thischapter)and PhysicalGeography

subsequent analysisof environmentalconsequences

(ChapterVI)are describedinterms of threecomponents: The 1.55-million-acre 1002 area, locatedIn the

physical,biological, and human. northernmostpartof theArcticRefugebetweenthe Brooks

1471 146- 1451 1441 143' 1421 1411

EXPLANATION

Aboodosoil oilmW Ps lostbob

B E A U F 0 R T S E A

Suipoodedps ml

Snoontiodoilad in well

Suspoodedwell

CAMDEN BAY

70, -

.............. I I

69'

30'

/*

Vz spd

AN

Inv*&W

0-P,

R A@N G E

B R 0 0 K S .71 "'MI-6Aft.

69-@- NO Smith Mts

0 10 20 30 MILES

0 ID 20 30 KILOMETERS

Figure II-1.-Mapof northeasternAlaskashowingthe 1002areaand

importantnearby geographicfeatures.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT-PHYSICAL 7
Range and the BeaufortSea (fig.11-1),more than 250 miles Except for about 4 percent of scatteredbedrock

above the ArcticCircle,is in the tundra-coveredArctic outcrops,the 1002 area is covered by a thinmantle of

Coastal PlainProvince,the only extensionof the Interior unconsolidated,frozen sediments of Cenozoic age that

Plainsof North America in Alaska (Wahrhaftig,1965). Itis range in thicknessfrom a few feetto about 100 feet(fig.

bounded on the north by the BeaufortSea, and on the 11-2).The outcrops are mainlypoorlyconsolidatedTertiary

east by the northeast-flowingAichilikRiver. The south siltstone,mudstone, sandstone, and conglomerate in the

boundary follows township lines and approximates the Marsh Creek and middle Jago Riverareas; a few minor

1,000-footelevationcontour. The north-flowingCanning outcrops of Cretaceous and Jurassic shales along the

and StainesRiversare the west boundary of the 1002 area lower Jago River;and Cretaceous and Jurassicshale,near

and the ArcticRefuge. The 1002 area constitutesabout 75 the Niguanak Riverand in the SadlerochitSpring area.

percent of the totalcoastalplainof the ArcticRefuge.

Oil seeps have been found in the Manning Point

The 1002 area is about 104 miles in lengthat latitude area,about 6 miles north of the 1002 area,and near Angun

69051'N. Maximum width is about 34 miles;minimum is 16 Point,withinthe 1002 area. Oil-stainedsandstones crop

miles,south of Camden Bay. The area has 10 major out near the middle reaches of the KatakturukRiver;and

northward-flowingriversand 14 smallerriversor named oil-bearingsands and shales having an odor of oilcrop out

creeks. The majorityof largeriversare braided;nearlyall along the lower Jago River,about 10 miles south of Barter

the creeks, even the many small unnamed ones, have Island.

extensivetributarysystems.

146, 145' 144' 143' 142'

Chevron USA

sm "-.,IncKIC-1

-Iff

sgm,

701- m gm

(@_sm

SQ

SY

m s

M

R] 1!,MUS b

-7-LT--T-1-TA !i M I' ?HK110MMRS m

69.

30,

EXPLANATION

Graveland sand Consistsof riverfloodplainsand terraces, Morainaldeposits-Composedofcompact,silty,boulderytill

uplandsurfacesthatlacka siltcover Irm

E471 Siltand veryfinesand overgravel- Fine-grainedcovergeneral E-S] Sloper

deposits-Variable composition,rangingfrom siltto

lymore than6.6-10ftthickand ice-rich@ commonlycontains bed ock rubble

disseminatedfine-grained organicdebris b Bedrock

L

sm Siltandveryfinesand overmarinesiltand clay- Icerich@con

tainsboulders

sgm Sandand gravelovermarinesand,silt,and clay Contact

Gravelovermarinesand,silt,and clay Anticlinal told

Figure 11-2.--Generalized surficialdeposits of the 1002 area. Map indicatessurfacematerialsonly

and not what could be borrowed forfill.Geology by Carter,Ferrians,and Galloway (1986).

8 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Despite the arcticclimate prevailingduring the The average monthly temperatures, however, can

Pleistoceneepoch, about 90 percentof the 1002 area is markedly affectthe environment and man's activities.From

unglaciated. A largevalleyglacierextended northeastward year to year,the average monthly temperatures,especially

approximately12 miles intothe area and probablyabout 7 in winter,vary widely. At BarterIsland,the average January

milesalong the Tamayariak River(southwest corner of 1002 temperaturewas +4.50F in 1981, -21.80F in 1983. At Umiat,

area, map unitm on fig.11-2).Smaller valleyglaciers the average January temperature was -11.20F in 1982,

extended about 4 miles intothe area along the Hulahula -42.10F in 1984. In summer, variationsare lesspronounced

River,just across the 1002 area boundary along the Jago but more important because the accumulationof degree

River,and 2 milesalong the AichilikRiver. Glacialfluvial days above freezing(thaw index) greatlyinfluencesthe

deposits and eolianmaterialsare widespread, even in depth of thaw in the soiland the rateof the meltingof ice

unglaciatedareas. on water bodies. Some of the importantaverage monthly

temperature data and temperature-relatedthaw indicesare

The BeaufortSea coastline,with itsnarrow beaches, tabulated below. The thaw indicesshow that usually

is low-lying,graduallyreceding,and irregularin shape. It approximatelythree times as much heat energy is received

has numerous points,many offshoreshoals,mudflats,spits, at the ground surfacein the Umiat area duringthe summer

bars,and low-lyingbarrierislandsbehind which are shallow months, but that the effectof an unusuallywarm summer

lagoons. The coast is punctuated by deltas,the most can be relativelymuch greaterat BarterIsland.

pronounced being those of the Canning, Hulahula-Okpilak,

Jago, and AichilikRivers. Tides are small;the dailytide Average temperatures and thaw index,

rarelyexceeds 1 foot,and the maximum annual tideisless BarterIslandand Umiat,1976-84

than 3 feet. Wind tidesoccasionallyexceed the maximum

lunartides duringperiods of open water,particularlyin late

September-early October. The coast is characterizedby

Barter Umiat bluffscommonly 4-5 feet high,locallyas high as 25 feet. Island

The 50-toottopographic contour is generally2-3 miles

inland,except at BarterIsland,which is only about 3 miles

wide but ishigherthan 50 feetinthe centralarea. Inthe Average temperature(OF):

low-lyingCanning River delta a comparable elevationis Coldest month .......................... -33.1 -42.1

found about 8 milesinland.

Warmest month ........................ +42.9 +58.0

Thaw index (degreedays above

Lagoons and bays are generallyshallow,3-12 feet freezing):

deep, except for the greater-than-15-footdepths in Camden Maximum (summer).................. 793 2183

Bay, where the 18-footdepth contour is withinabout 200 Minimum (summer)................... 456 1371

yards of shore. Camden Bay offersthe best reasonably Average (summer) .................... 549 1671

deep, protected harborage along the coast of the 1002

area.

- In the Arctic,chillfactoris more importantthan air

temperaturein evaluatingtemperature'seffect.Strong winds

coupled with cold temperatures produce chilltemperatures

sometimes colder than -100OF (-35OFand a 30-mph wind)

(Selkregg,1975). The average wind-chillfactorat Barter

Climate IslandduringFebruary 1984 was -80OF (-33.10Fand 15.5-

mph wind). The combinationof darkness and extreme cold

The climateof the 1002 area is arcticmarine, in winter makes outdoor work difficultand often

characterizedby extremely low winter temperatures and hazardous.-

short,cool summers. Winds are persistentthroughout the

year. Blizzardsoccur frequentlyduring the long, dark Precipitationon the 1002 area is lightbut frequent,

winter. Along the coast the climateis moderated by the occurringas drizzlein the summer and as lightsnow inthe

sea and is less extreme. Meteorologicaldata are limited; winter. Published summaries indicatethat the annual

those of most value forthisstudy are the marine data from precipitationat Barter Islandaverages 6.28 inches and

Barter Island(Kaktovik)and the data from Umiat (tothe ranged from 2.93 inches in 1974 to 12.22 inches in 1955.

west and about 75 miles inland,fig.1-1),which has more of Average summer precipitationis 0.52 inch in June, 1.01

an arcticcontinentalclimate. Umiat is the closestarea for inches in July,and 1.09 inches in August. The reported

which inlandclimaterecords exist.The recorded minimum remaining 3.66 inches generallyfallsas snow throughout

for BarterIslandwas -59OF in February 1950; the maximum the restof the year. Rainfallrarelyexceeds 0.5 inch inany

was +780F, July 1978. For Umiat the minimum was -65OF one day (threetimes inthe last15 years). On the North

in February 1977 and the maximum 850F in July 1977. Slope, relativehumidity is generallyhigh during the

The maximum and minimum temperatures lastonly briefly, summer--80-95 percent along the coast. During winterit

often only minutes,and thus do not reallyaffecteitherthe fallsto about 60 percent. Absolute humidityin winteris

environment or man's activities. generallylow, often5-20 percent.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--PHYSICAL 9
Snow can fallat any time in the 1002 area,although In the winter,blowing snow and whiteoutscan create

snowfall is greatest during September-November and conditionsin which neithershadows, nor horizon,nor

January,with a lesserfallin May. Melting begins in late clouds are discernible,and depth perceptionand orientation

May and is largelycompleted in earlyJune. Winds are lost. At BarterIsland,blowingsnow reduces visibility

continuallyredistributesnowdrifts,baring inlandridgetops to 6 milesor less about 10-22percentof the winter.This

and driftingin the valleys,with driftsadjacentto stream is in additionto lossof visibility caused by fog.

cutbanks sometimes 20 feetdeep. Higher microsites,such

as tussock tops and high-centerpolygons,are frequently At Barter Island,the sun is continuouslyabove the

exposed, with hard-packed snow driftedbetween them. horizonfrom May 15 to July 27, and continuouslybelow

Felixand others (1987),travelingwith the seismiccrews in the horizonfrom November 24 to January 17. In winter,

the spring of 1985, noted that the area west of the when the sun is not more than 60 below the horizon,

SadlerochitRiver had significantlyess snow than the twilightpermits many activities;at that latitudemoonlight

eastern part of the 1002 area. According to numerous can be an important source of illumination.Twilight

measurements taken throughout the 1002 area from January amounts to 6 or 7 hours in lateNovember and is reduced

to May, average depths of snow actuallyaccumulated on to about 3 hours by December 21.

the ground were 12 inches in 1984 and 9 inches in 1985;

measured depths ranged from 0 inches to at least32 The arctic winter is characterizedby frequent

inches (Felixand others,1987). temperatureinversions.Whereas the airtemperaturein the

lower atmosphere normally decreases with increasing

- During 1955-84, the recorded average seasonal altitude,in a temperatureinversion,colder airis overlainby

snowfallat BarterIslandwas 42.1 inches;the minimum was a warmer layer of air. During the summer, surface

19.9 inches in 1980-81,and the maximum 71.4 inches in temperaturesare warmer and fewer inversionsoccur.

1961-62. Because the wind blows almost continuously,the

snow crystalsbreak up and pack much likefinesand; the Freezeup normallybegins in earlyto mid-September.

snow often develops a densityof about 0.4. As a result Drierareas freezefirst,sometimes cyclingbetween freeze

the actualwinterprecipitationmay be about fourtimes the and thaw forseveraldays. Wet tundra and ponds freeze

3.66 inches officiallyreported(Black,1954). Wyoming-type over next, then lakes and riversand protected shallow

snow gauges indicatethat snowfallis somewhat less at lagoons. Inwet areas as long as 8 weeks may be required

Barter(an average of 5.4inches of moistuteover the last6

to completelyfreezethe "activelayer"(thatlayerabove the

years) than at Deadhorse (an average of 6.2 inches of permafrostwhich annuallyfreezesand thaws). A sudden

moistureover the last 10 years) (George Clagett,Soil cold snap, particularlyifaccompanied by wind, can freeze

ConservationService,unpublished data).-

over allthe areas withina day or two. Freezeup inthe sea

depends on latesummer water temperatures,nearness of

Easterly winds predominate most of the year.

the ocean icepack,winds, and prevailingairtemperatures.

However, during January-Aprilwesterly winds are often Generally,at leastthe nearshore sea is iced over by early

associated with storms. The windiest month usuallyis to mid-October.

January (mean 15.0 mph) and the calryiestmonth, July

(mean 10.7 mph). The peak gust (westerly)recordedat Thickness of the iceon the sea, lakes,and riversis

BarterIslandwas 75 mph in January 1980. Ice storms,or

determined by numerous factors,includinginsulatingvalue

occasionallyheavy rains,occur in October and January. and thickness of the snow cover. Data from the Arctic

The coast of the 1002 area can be subjectedto storms coast indicateice thicknesses of 2 feetin mid- to late

rollingin from the Beaufort Sea during the open-water November, 3 feetin mid- to lateDecember, and 4 feetby

season. Even though BarterIsland,the barrierislands,the mid- to lateJanuary. At the end of winter,the average

shallow lagoons,and often nearby sea ice providesome

maximum thickness of seasonal sea ice and fresh-water

shelter,these storms can severelyerode the coastline. lake ice isabout 6 feet. Near the cutbank of a riveror a

sea bluffwhere snowdriftsmay be deep, the ice may be

In the 1002 area,particularlyalong the coastlineand only 15-20 inchesthick,whereas in the middle of the riverit

up to 5 milesinland,fog frequentlyreduces visibility. Along may be 6 feet thick. Similarly,should the winter

the coast,fog occurs most frequentlyduring summer. At temperaturesbe average or even mildand the snowpack be

BarterIsland,itreduces visibility to 6 milesor less about verylight,the icemay be as much as 7.5-8feetthick.

27 percent of the time during May-September, reachinga

maximum of 31.5 percent in August. Fog occurs an The ground is frozen untilJune. Rivers fed by

average of 10 percent of the time duringthe restof the meltingsnow in the foothillsmay startto flow as earlyas

year. Inland,Umiat has fog about 15 percentof the time mid-May. Ponds, lakes,lagoons,and nearshore sea ice

during September-May, and less than 10 percent during begin to meft in earlyJune. Ice on deeper lakesmay not

June-August. completelymelt untilearlyto mid-July. Ice breakup in

coastal lagoons and nearshore areas depends on runoff

Stratusclouds are prevalentin the Arcticduring from the land, offshore grounding,and ocean currents.

summer months, oftenpersistingforweeks. The base of Where runoffis negligible,meltingfollowsa patternsimilar

these clouds is oftenbelow 700 feet. At BarterIslandand to that in deeper lakes. Meltingof iceoffrivermouths is

Umiat,clouds cover the sky 54 percent of the year. markedly different:fresh-waterrunoffbegins in lateMay,

10 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
depositingriversediments on top of the ice;channels are Permafrost thickness decreases markedly in alldirections

often cut both on top and intobottom ice surfaces,and withina few miles. In the NPRA, the maximum known

largeholes may be cut through by riverwaters drainingin thicknessis 1,330 feet,inlandnear Barrow (Brewer,1955b).

a swiding,fast-cuttingmanner. Nearshore, land-fastsea ice At Umiat the thicknessranges approximatelyfrom 700 to

often does not completelymelt in place but floatsaway, 960 feet. No wells have been drilledthrough the

beginningas earlyas lateJune. permafrostin the 1002 area;about 9 miles south of the

southwest corner of the 1002 area,at the Exxon Canning

Permafrost River well,the measured thickness of permafrostis 928

feet. Thickness of the activelayerin the 1002 area ranges

Permafrostis definedas a thicknessof soilor other from lessthan 1 footto 5 feetand averages about 2 feet.

superficialdeposit,or even of bedrock,at a variabledepth

beneath the surface of the earth in which a temperature Depending on theirdepth and arealextent,lakes and

below freezing(320F) has existedcontinuouslyfor a long riversinfluencethe shape of the permafrosttable. Shallow

time (from2 years to tens of thousands of years)(Muller, lakes freeze to the bottom and are directlyundedain by

1947). It may includesoil,rock,minerals,interstitial and permafrost. Deep lakes (7+ feetdeep) typicallydo not

segregated ice (the latteras wedges or, less frequently, freezeto the bottom and consequentlyare underlainby a

lenses),organic matter,or other materialsboth naturally thaw bulb in the permafrosttable (Brewer,1958a, b).

occurringand those buried by man. Permafrost is often Shallow riversand creeks freezeto the bottom,with the

considered to be synonymous with "perenniallyfrozen permafrosttableusuallya few inches to a few feetbeneath.

ground"; however, itneed not be "frozenhard,"because Some deeper rivers,such as the Canning, may have

the materialcould contain water having an elevatedsalinity, unfrozenpockets of water in deeper parts(7 feetor more

as is often found in the National Petroleum Reserve in at freezeup),but may be frozento the bottom in shallower

Alaska (NPRA), or could containliquidhydrocarbons, such areas. Thus, the permafrosttablebeneath a rivermay be

as oilseeps found in northern Alaska. Because of very irregular. The effects of surface features on

confiningpressures,such as at the base of permafrost,the distributionof permafrostare shown infigure11-3.

containedwater could have a depressed freezingpoint. Or,

because of low water content and particle-surface forces, Studies of sea-water temperatures,seismic surveys,

the materialcould be unfrozen. The volume of ice in and boreholes in the Mackenzie Bay, Flaxman Island,

permafrostsoils,particularlyin the firstfew tens of feet Prudhoe Bay, Harrison Bay, and Barrow areas (figs.1-1,IIbelow the ground surface,can be severaltimes the volume 1) indicatethat subsea permafrostoccurs nearshore in the

of the mineralcomponents; itcan even approximate pure BeaufortSea and probably extends in a thin layerout to

ice. At the other extreme some gravelmay containlittle,if water depths approximating500 feet. Subsea temperatures

any, ice. range between the fresh-waterfreezingpoint and the seawater freezingpoint,that is,from approximately30.10F at

Except fora small area at SadlerochitSpring,which 15.0 feetbelow sea bottom in the Chukchi Sea offBarrow

flows year round, the 1002 area is believedto be (Brewer,1955a, 1958a) to 29.50F at 22.3 feetin Harrison

completely underlain by permafrost(Ferriansand others, Bay offAtigaru Point,to 29.30F at 17.7feetin Prudhoe Bay

1969). off Reindeer Island (the lattertwo temperaturesfrom

Osterkamp and Harrison,1985). Permafrosttemperaturesin

The minimal permafrost-temperaturedata availablefor the nearshore BeaufortSea parallelmean annual bottomBarterIslandsuggest an average permafrosttemperatureof water temperatures (Selkregg,1975), approximately31.10F

+17.80F to +15.80F. Similartemperatures have been found to 30.80F for the Chukchi Sea, and 30.OOF to 29.70F for

in a seriesof shotholes extendingfrom the coast inland20 the Beaufort Sea. Where the water in the shallow

miles on the 1002 area (T. E. Osterkamp, oral nearshore areas freezes to bottom, the permafrost

communication to Max Brewer, 1986). Temperatures also temperatures decrease markedly, and the permafrostvary with season and depth (Brewer,1958a, fig.3). Near temperature profilesare similarto those found on land

Barrow permafrost temperatures range from about 31OF (Osterkamp and Harrison,1985). Farther east, eroded

under the ocean at a depth of 70 feet,where annual pingos,with the remains of theircores of ice,occur well

change is negligible(Brewer,1958a),to about 18.50F offshorein Mackenzie Bay.

beneath sandy unvegetated beaches, to about 15OF under

dry tundra,to a minimum of about 13OF under very wet, Few data are availableconcerning(1)amounts of ice

low-centered polygonaltundra (Brewer, 1976). Similar in subsea sediments, (2) whether the ice is mostly

temperatures and variationsin temperatureare believedto interstitial, and (3)whether,at leastnearshore,a significant

occur throughout the 1002 area. portionof it is segregatedas ice wedges. Informationis

also lackingregardingnear-surfacevariabilityin icecontent

resultingfrom shorelineregression(about 3.3 feetper year),

The greatestreported thickness of permafrost in because of migratingspits,bars,and barrierislands,and

Alaska isabout 2,250 feetnear Prudhoe Bay; thisthickness because of inflowof warmer water from maj.

or rivers.

is betievedto resultfrom an anomalous thermal conductivity

because of the unusually thick gravel in that area.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--PHYSICAL 11
Permafrost-relatedstream data forthe 1002 area are a verticalstringerof ice. This ice limitsexpansion of

sparse. But data from the ShaviovikRiver.35 mileswest of warming permafrost in summer and the adjacentmineral

the ArcticRefuge, are pertinentbecause the Shaviovikhas soilsare displacedupward; repeated crackingand widening

many characteristicscommon to most riversin the 1002 of the ice wedges over many years eventuallyresultsin

area except the Canning and Aichilik.The Shaviovikis elevated ridges of materialon each side of the wedges

shallow and has many bars,few potholes,heavy spring (Lachenbruch and others,1962). Polygonalground isthe

runoff,summer low- and high-waterperiods,and low water common surfacefeaturein the 1002 area. Most polygons

at freezeup. The average annual temperature in shallow range in diameterfrom 30 to 200 feet and are easily

sediments beneath the over (Brewer,1958a) is about 5.40F recognized;some in the southern partof the 1002 area are

warmer than beneath the adjacent well-drainedtundra, masked by tussock-typetundra. Usuallyeach polygon is

though well below the freezingpoint of fresh water. separated from the adjacentpolygons by icewedges a few

Measurements from the upper partof the geothermal profile inches to severalfeetwide at the permafrosttable, These

beneath a narrow sand bar in midriverdo not indicatean ice wedges are 10-18 feet deep and are interconnected.

unfrozenzone in the riverchannel on eitherside of the bar Some small streams may have originatedby the meltingof

in latewinter. Temperature data from the 15- and 25-foot a long seriesof ice wedges. Beaded streams,the beads

depths suggest thatwater is presentin the channel at the located at the intersectionsof ice wedges, followthis

time of freezeup, which delays the freezingprocess.

pattern.

Temperature profilesthrough and beneath shallow lakes are

similar. Apparently,shallow liversfreezeto the bottom; Most polygonal areas contain "low-centered'

sands and gravelsin the riverbottoms rest on permafrost polygons, characterizedat the outer edges by upthrust

and, by earlyNovember, are also frozen. ridges that impede drainagefrom the polygon, givingthe

enclosed area a rice-paddyappearance.

Icewedges form when the upper few feetof ground,

exposed to temperatureswell below freezing,contractsand Where slopes near streams or some lakebanks allow

cracks,usuallyin a polygonalpattern. Hoarfrostforms in drainage, "high-centered"polygons may occur, These

these cracks and is cemented by spring meltwater,leaving polygons originatedin the same manner as low-centered

Hill

Shallow S all

Creek

cleeplake Large

Ocean deeplake

C_

J

Figure 11-3.-Schematic diagram showing the effectof surface features on the distributionof

permafrostinthe continuous permafrostzone. Modifiedfrom Lachenbruch, Brewer, Greene,

and Marshall(1962).

12 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
polygons, but during exceptionallywarm summers with overlyinga fibrouslayer containingsand, sift,and small

deeper thaw, the tops of the icewedges melt,water drains cobbles. That fibrouslayer,inturn,overliesmineralsoilsof

off,and the soiland tundra slump intothe voids. The loam, silt,or sand. In well-drainedareas thaw progresses

slumping, when continued over tens of years, produces to greaterdepths,and mineralsoilsnear the base of the

ditchesbetween the polygons, thus leavingthe polygons ..active layer" may have a pronounced brownish

as erosionalremnants separated by partlyfilledvoids. appearance, owing to an accumulation of well-hurnified

organic matter.

Soilsand Other Materials

Water Resources

The 1002 area is crossed by numerous north-flowing

riversthat head inthe glaciatedmountains risingabout 6-12 - Despitethe factthat 99 percentof the 1002 area is

miles south of the area'sboundary. Outwash plains,active classifiedas wetlands,freewater is limitedand confinedto

flood plains,riverterraces,and eoliandepositsthatresulted the shallow zone above permafrost.The estimated800- to

from winds during glaciationhave covered much of the 1,000-foot-thickimpermeable permafrost precludes obtaining

1002 area with a thin mantle of unconsolidated,though nonsalinewater from withinthiszone. Although no wells

frozen,sediments a few feetto about 100 feetthick. have penetratedthe permafrostzone inthe 1002 area,any

water that might occur beneath that zone probably would

The valleysof largerstreams are underlainby large be brackishor at leastmoderately saline(Cederstrom and

quantitiesof coarse sand and gravel(fig.11-2,map unitgs). others,1953; Hopkins and others,1955; Brewer, 1958a, b,

The Tamayariak, Katakturuk, Okpilak,Okerokovik,and 1974;Williams,1970).-

Kogotpak Rivers,and especiallythe Canning, Sadlerochit,

Hulahula,Jago, and AichilikRivers,are heavilybraided and Only a few largelakes are present in the 1002 area.

have extensiveunvegetated gravelbars. Gravelalso occurs A few shallow thaw lakes are found near the coast east of

in the south part of the 1002 area between the Canning the Canning River delta,and east of the Hulahula-Okpilak

River and Marsh Creek, along tops and flanksof ridges Riverdeltas,the latterbeing on Nativeland and outsidethe

between the Katakturuk and SadlerochitRivers,and on 1002 area. Except for two near the Canning delta,the

spitsand bars along the coastline.On the spitsand bars lakes each cover less than 1 square mile;most have

the deposits range from fineto medium sandy gravelto basins less than 7 feet deep and freezeto bottom by late

sand. Granulardepositstypicallypresent in stream valleys winter.

range from coarse to medium sandy gravelscontaining

cobbles, along the south boundary of the 1002 area. Rapid spring snownrielt(10-14days) causes water to

Downstream toward the Beaufort Sea the materialsare accumulate on and flow over the riverice,fracturingand

progressivelyfinergrained;in the deltaicareas they range rapidlyeroding it. Large chunks of ice break loose from

from fineto medium sand. Sand dunes occur in the the banks and bottoms of the river,and floatdownriverand

Canning, Hulahula-Okpilak, and Jago River deltas. may lodge in constrictedareas,causing jams and extensive

Numerous sizablesandy shoals are prominent between the springflooding,particularlyin the deltas. Even ifthisdoes

deltasof the Sadlerochitand OkpilakRivers. not occur, the riversrun very fullbecause of the rapid

snownrielt. Surface runoff often resembles sheetflow,

Soils are poorly developed and frequentlywater because of the frozen ground. Suspended-sediment

saturated,and can generallybe classed as tundra soils, content is very high, perhaps 75 percent of annual

wetland soils,or sand dunes. They tend to be stickyand transport (Walker, 1973), and riverbanksare severely

claylikeand are in the beginning process of leaching,even eroded, highercutbanks oftenbeing undercut. By the third

in better drained areas, because of cold ground or fourthweek in June, riversmay subside to summer lowtemperatures,the presence of permafrost,and the thinness water stage. Late summer or fallrainsrapidlybringthe

of the "active layer." Polygonal patterningis well riversto one or more floodstages. Warm weather may

developed, although surface expressiontends to be more also cause the rapid riseof glacialriverssuch as the

pronounced adjacentto breaks in slope,especiallythose Hulahula, Jago, and Okpilak. Low water prevailsat the

associated with drainage. A soilsstudy in the valleysof time of freezeup;by midwinter,most riversgo dry or freeze

the upper Okpilak and Jago Rivers (Brown and Tedrow, to bottom throughoutmost of theirlength,with the possible

1964) reportedmineraluniformityin the soils,with quartz exceptionof a few basins or 'potholes"near the mouth of

and feldspareach amounting to 40-50 percent in the sands, the Canning and perhaps one or two other major rivers.

and heavy-mineralsuitesconsistingof opaques, epidote, Even earlyinthe freezeupperiod,ifthe basins,or potholes,

tourmaline,chlorite,actinolite,zircon,and minor amounts of in the lower Canning are connected to the sea, water may

other minerals. In view of the geomorphic historyof the be brackishbecause of sea-waterintrusion.The Canning

1002 area, this type of mineral composition may be River has not been intensivelystudied. Long-term studies

assumed to prevailthere. of the much-largerColvilleRiver(having3.5 timesthe length

and approximately11 times the drainage basin of the

Except in the sand dunes, on ridgetops,and in Canning) show that streamflowceases duringwinter,and

unvegetatedgravelareas, much of the 1002 area is covered salt-waterintrusionseventuallyreach as far as 58 km (35

by a 1- to 2-inch-thickorganic mat of livingvegetation miles)upstream (Walker,1973).

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--PHYSICAL 13
Severalsprings occur along the north edge of the than about 6 feetdeep),the ice isoftenfrozento bottom,

easternBrooks Range. The largestof these is Sadlerochit and water may puddle on top untilthe ice becomes free

Spring,justinsidethe south boundary of the 1002 area (fig. and floats.Moats form along the shore in earlyJune,and

11-2). The springflows year round; rate of dischargeand by earlyto mid-Julythe lagoons are generallyice free.

water temperatureare variable.Various discharges reported Freezeup begins in lateSeptember-earlyOctober. -

forthe spring range from 21.2 cubic feetper second (cfs)

(Craigand McCart, 1974) to 35-53 cfs (Craig,1977),and By the time the lagoons are ice free,the influxof

88.3 cfs (Williams,1970). Warm termperaturesof between fresh water, coupled with some ocean current-flushingof

43OF (Craigand McCart, 1974) and 50-58OF (Craig,1977) hypersalinebrinesformed beneath the ice duringthe winter,

have been measured. -

drasticallyreduces salinity,oftenfrom as much as 32-33

parts per thousand (ppt)to <10 ppt. Salinitygradually

Numerous small springs have been found on rivers increasesduringthe balance of the summer owing to the

or in valleyssouth of the 1002 area where largeicingshave influxof marine water through inletsand lowered discharges

been observed (FEIS, 1983; Williams,1970). Selected of freshwater.

physicalparameters have been measured for some springs

(U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1982). Icings(aufeis),

especiallythose reportedon rivers,requireinvestigationto

determine whether they resultfrom discharge from true Erosion and Mass Movement

springs or from freezingof meltwater in areas having

relativelysteep gradient. Water and wind are the major shapers of the

landscape because permafrost often is susceptibleto

Turbidityfrom suspended sediment impairs water erosion,as are the unconsolidatedsediments suppliedby

quality.Suspended-sediment concentrationsare highestin earliernearby glaciers,and exposed riverchannels,deltas,

the major streams and riversduringspring breakup and late and offshorebars and barrierislands. Water causes the

summer and fallhigh-flowperiods. During low-flowperiods most erosion,especiallyduring breakup. Itflushesheavy

most streams are almost clear. However, the Canning, sediment loads onto the sea ice;itundercuts high banks

Hulahula,Okpilak,Jago, and AichilikRivers are somewhat and ice-richterraces,causing frozen blocks of soilto fall

turbid,owing to glacialinflowfrom tributaries.Some into the rivers;and itbuildsdeltasand mudflats. Even

shallow lakes are turbidduring summer, when wind and though the resultsof lateralerosionare obvious in the

wave actiondisturbbottom sediments. Aside from periods multi-channelbraidingof the major rivers,the gradientsof

of turbidity,the water in most riversand lakesis virtually streams crossingthe 1002 area demonstrate the potential

colorless. Tea-colored water, resultingfrom high forverticalerosion. Gradients range from approximately12

concentrationsof dissolvedorganic materials,is found in feet per mile on the Canning River,to 30 feet on the

some smallertundra streams and ponds. Hulahula and Aichilik,to 40 feeton the Katakturukand

Sadlerochit,to about 50 feetper mileon Marsh Creek,

- Water qualityof lakes and streams is lessened in which cuts through ridges of Tertiarysandstone and

winter because salts and dissolved organicmaterialare conglomerate.

excluded from the downward-growing ice, Dissolved

oxygen levelscan be depressed in the water thatremains Erosion along the coast and offshoreduring open

unfrozen owing to lack of aerationand the extended water is less obvious. Leffingwell(1919)and MacCarthy

darkness that limitsphotosynthesis. The concentrationof (1953) suggested that bluffsand beaches erode

those materialsdepends on the ratioof water to iceas the approximately3 feet per year; Leffingwellalso reportedan

ice thickens. Water in lakes and riverpools thatfreezes extreme shorelinerecession rate of more than 30 feetper

nearlyto the bottom is usuallyunpotable by latewinter. year. Wiseman and others (1973) measured 164 feet of

During summer, however, dissolvedoxygen (DO) is at or

blufferosion on the east end of Pingok Island,west of

near saturationin lakesand streams. -

Prudhoe Bay, during 3 weeks in 1972; this was also an

extreme. Beach erosion variesgreatlydepending on storm

Coliform-bacteriacounts in lakes and ponds peakin intensityand nearness of pack ice from place-to-placeand

earlyJune because of the "washing action"of surface year-to-yearalong the entireBeaufortcoast. Three to 6

runoff.A secondary peak followsin mid- to latesummer in feetof erosionper year may be the average. Erosionand

areas where large concentrationsof waterfowlarrivefor deposition of eroded sands and gravelproduces barriermoltingand staging(Boyd and Boyd, 1963). islandor spit migration,especiallywhere no vegetationis

established. Such migrationcan introducemajor variations

- Icein lagoons begins breakup in earlyJune with an

in the temperatureand thicknessof subsea permafrost.

influxof fresh,silt-laden,relativelywarm water from riverand

stream runoffand snowmelt. Much water initially flows over

Thaw lakes elongated north-southare characteristic

the top of the sea ice;silt,as thick as 4-6 inches and of the Arctic coastal plain fartherwest, but are not a

thinningseaward, has been deposited on the ice (Walker, pronounced featurein the 1002 area, where the few small

1973). Overflows can continue for severalmiles offshore, lakes,except in the Canning-Tamayarialkdelta,are oriented

untilmeeting cracks in the ice. In shallowlagoons (less eitherrandomly or somewhat east-west. Because prevailing

14 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Table II-I.--Ambientair concentrationsmeasured at BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT

Prudhoe Bay, April1979-March 1980, compared with

nationalambient airqualitystandards. Terrestrialand Fresh-Water Environments

[Data from Crow and others (1981). Concentrations in VEGETATION

micrograms/cubic meter. Monitoring data collectedby

Radian Corporationon behalfof ARCO. Alaska'sambient The Arctic Refuge coastal plainis in the tundra

air qualitystandards are identicalwith the national region (Aleksandrova,1980),where moderatelywet to dry

standards,except thatthe Statehas an annual standardfor habitatsare mostly continuouslyvegetatedwith low-growing

totalsuspended particulates(TSP) at 60 ug/rn3i (generallyless than 1 foot high) plantssuch as sedges,

grasses,mosses, lichens,small herbs, and dwarf shrubs.

Tallershrubs are restrictedto drainagesand to south-facing

slopes. Soils are underlainby permafrost having thaw

NAAOS Measured concentration-- depths of less than 6 inches in coldercoastalareas to

Pollu- Time Concen- Site 1 Site2 more than 36 inches in some riverbeds.

tant period tration High 2d high High 2d high

Early classificationscategorizingthe ArcticRefuge

soils,landforms,vegetation,and land cover were developed

N02 ............. Annual 100 4 3.5 from interpreted,color-infraredphotographs (scale1:60,000)

and from a ground-truthreconnaissancesurvey in 1981. A

CO ............... Annual 17.1 13.3 preliminaryLandsat land cover map based on high-altitude

6-hr 110,000 86 70 95 75 satellitephotography and a derived simplificationwere

1 -hr 140,000 312 303 343 307 produced in October 1981 (Walkerand others,1982). A

second revisedland-covermap was produced in 1984; field

S02 .............. Annual 80 0.5 0.4 verificationof that revisionis ongoing. For example,

24-hr 1365 9 7 verificationshows that willows are not easilyvisibleon

3-hr 11,300 25 18 13 11 Landsat photographs and may be underrepresentedon

currentmaps. The 17 cover classes identifiedin the 1002

03 ................ Annual 47.5 51.0 area are one forest,three scrub, four herbaceous,four

1-hr 1235 113 105 113 113 scarcely vegetated, and five other types (table11-2).

Dominant vegetationwithineach 1002 area terraintype is

TSP .............. Annual 75 11.4 6.7 discussed under that terraintype. Each vegetationtype

24-hr+ 1260 3294 3119 3112 64 and correlationsamong classificationsystems are described

1,2150+ in the finalbaselinereport(Garnerand Reynolds, 1986).

- The FWS is currentlyexaminingthe statusof 30 plant

1May be exceeded once per year. taxa in Alaska that may be threatenedor endangered with

21260 ug/m3 is primary standard; 150 Ug/m3 extinction.This listwas publishedDecember 15, 1980 (45

issecondary standard. FR 82480), with supplements published in 1983 (48 FR

3Surface winds: at site1, 45 mph, with gusts 53640) and 1985 (50 FR 39526). One candidate plant

to 60 mph; at site2, 47 mph. species,Thlaspiarcticum,occurs in the 1002 area (Murray,

1980b; Felix,Lipkin,and others,1985). An endemic of the

Alaska-Yukon region,T. arcticurnis known from several

widely disjunctareas. Within the ArcticRefuge scattered

populationshave been found in eightlocationsrangingfrom

alpinesiteson the upper Okpilak,Sadlerochit,and Canning

Riversto gravelbars,riverterraces,and dry bluffson the

Noise 1002 area along Marsh Creek and the KatakturukRiver(pi.

1N. It is also found in shrub tundra,dwarf heath, and

Ambient noise levelsover most of the 1002 area are occasionallyin tussock tundra. At leastthree of these

low and resultpredominantly from naturalsources or

sites (OkpilakLake, Katakturuk River,and Marsh Creek)

processes. During the winter,the principalsounds are

containmore than 100 plantseach. This small,white to

those associatedwith the wind. Noise carriesconsiderable lilac-coloredmustard plant flowersvery earlyand is easily

distances(but not upwind), especiallyduringcalm, cold overlookedwhen past flowering.-

(-400F) conditionsbecause of the increasedairdensity.

Water noises,includingthose of wave action,occur during

the summer. Manmade sounds are confinedto village

activities and to some isolatedactivities, such as hunting.

Othermanmade sourcesare aircraft, vehicle,and equipment

operations.

16 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
winds are not greatlydifferent,the general absence of - Air Quality

north-southorientationsuggests thatthe smallthaw lakes

found there are enlargedmore by freezingand thawing than Human activitycurrentlyaffectsair qualityin Arctic

by mechanical (current)erosion. Alaska only near villagesand the Prudhoe Bay/Kuparuk

development area. Air qualityis stronglydependent on

Although precipitationis light,in summer the soilsare localmeteorologicalconditionsand topography.

frequentlywater-saturatedbecause (1)evaporationratesare

low, (2) the permafrostbarrierprevents water loss to Strong temperature inversionson the coastalplain,

underground aquifers,and (3)irregularities in the permafrost particularlyduringthe winter,often begin near ground level

table impede surface drainage. Despite the fact that and hinderverticalaircirculationand mixing. An inversion,

saturationis usuallyconducive to solifluctionand creep or ifcoupled with low,near-surfacewind speeds, can produce

slump in areas of steeper terrain,the surfaceimpact of prolonged stagnantairconditions,especiallyinareas having

these processes is not widespread because of the topographic obstructionssuch as hillsand mountains.

generallycoarse materialinvolved. But once the surfaceis Although inversions are common in the 1002 area,

disturbed,these processes can become active,especially persistentsurfacewinds tend to preventairstagnation.

along coastalbluffs,terraceescarpments, lakemargins,and

ridge slopes. Locallyalong a stretchof the Katakturuk In recentyears Arctichaze has been reported,with

River and near Marsh and CarterCreeks, landslideshave the suggestionthat some pollutantsoriginatefrom the Ural

occurred in weathered and poorly induratedTertiaryshale, Mountains (USSR) industrialcomplex (Rahn and Lowenthal,

siltstone,and sandstone. In allareas having any 1984). In April1986, the NationalOceanographic and

appreciable slope and exposed mineral soil,the soil Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) made one flightto

migrates graduallydownslope because of seasonal frost- investigateArctichaze over Prudhoe Bay. At the time of

jackingof individualsoilgrains. the flight,there was a pervasive haze from several

thousand feet to 20,000 feet in elevation,with clean air

Wind erosion is generallyconfinedto the Canning, between that layerand the ground (RussellSchnell,NOAA,

Hulahula,Okpilak,and Jago River deltas (where active unpublisheddata). At higheraltitudes,the sulfurdioxide,

dunes are found along theirwestern banks) and to sandy nitrousoxides, nitricacids,and ozone typicallyfound in

riverbluffs,exposed bars in braided rivers,and exposed haze from the USSR were present. Lower levelsof the

spitsand barrierislands. Though considered to be a haze were relativelyclean, indicatingthatthere was no

summer phenomenon, wind erosion occurs during much of contributionto Arctichaze from Prudhoe Bay activities.

the year,in exposed areas along riverbluffsand on barrier

islands. Carbon-dioxideconcentrationsin the Arcticnaturally

Seismicity show an annual cycle (Kelleyand Weaver, 1966; NOAA,

1975). Concentrations are higher during the winterand

There has been some earthquake activityin the 1002 under the snow (Kelleyand Weaver, 1966);they are at their

area, but historicallythe levelof this activityis low. minimum in August, corresponding closelyto the maximum

Earthquakes of magnitude 6 and largeron the Richterscale vegetativebloom on the tundra.

of intensityare potentiallydestructive;earthquakes of

magnitude 5 could cause localdamage. Since the mid- Data on airqualityin the 1002 area have not been

1960's epicentersof at least6 shocks (5 of them offsnore) acquired. However, because human activityis low, air

having magnitude greaterthan 4.0 have been locatedwithin qualityin the 1002 area and the restof the ArcticRefuge is

about 40 miles of the 1002 area between longitudes143OW expected to be generally very good, with ambient

and 1460W. Uncertaintiesin epicenterlocationsare concentrationsfor airpollutantsnearlyat background levels.

estimatedto be about 25 miles. Current airpollutantconcentrationsare expected to result

No active faultsare known through surface from a combinationof naturalsources and the residueof

reconnaissance, but more detailedgeologicinvestigations Arctic haze. Particulatematter(PM) can occur at high

might reveal evidence of geologicallyrecent movements.

concentrationseven in remote areas and in the absence of

There is evidence of offshore seismic activityin the human activitydue to windblown dust,soilor other surface

Beaufort Sea. The area historicallyis one of the least cover.

seismicallyactivein the State (U.S. Department of the

Some data are availablefrom Alaska'sNorth Slope. Interior,1976, "Alaska"volume, map on p. 84).

Table 11-1summarizes monitoringdata collectedat Prudhoe

Seismically active faultsmay occur; accordingly, Bay for a fullyear. The EnvironmentalProtectionAgency

earthquake potentialwithinor adjacentto the 1002 area (EPA) reviewedthese data and accepted them as meeting

may be specifiedas a maximum expectableearthquake of itssiting,qualityassurance, and other monitoringguidelines.

magnitude 5.5 (U.S. Department of the Interior,1976, During the data-collectionperiod,North Slope production

"Alaska" volume, p. 86; Page and others,1972). The averaged about 1.5 millionbarrelsper day. ArcticRefuge

maximum expectable earthquake is the largestearthquake airqualityis assumed to be at leastas good as the

that may reasonablybe expected to occur. The probability ambient concentrationsshown in table 11-1.

of such an earthquake islow.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT-PHYSICAL 15
Table 11-2.--Landsat-identified vegetation cverclassesandcorrelation withtheU.S.FishandWildlife Service

wetlandclassifications, 1002 areaofthe ArcticNat;onalWildlifeRefuge.

[Becauseofrounding,does notadd to 100 percent.Class names were developedduringmapping forArctic

NationalWildlifeRefugecomprehensiveconservationplanand arenotidenticalwithearlierclassnames by

D. A. Walkerand others(1982).WetlandtypesfromCowardinand others(1979)]

Wetlands

Cover class Acres Percent Classification Acres

Deciduousforesttallscrub.. 20 <0.1 Palustrine,forested,broad-leaveddeciduous, 20

temporarilyflooded.

Totalforest.......................... <.1

Dry prostratedwarfscrub.... 10,330 0.7 Non-wetland.............................................................

-

Moistprostratedwarf 389,180 25.2 Palustrine,scrub-shrub,broad-leaveddeciduous, 389,180

scrub. saturated.

Mesic erectdwarfscrub......113,000 7.3 Palustrine,scrub-shrub,broad-leavedeciduous 113,000

emergent,persistent,saturated.

Totalscrub..........................33.2

Verywet graminoid................ 3,910 0.3 Palustrine,mergent,permanentlyflooded.............3,910

Wet graminoid........................ 211,430 13.7 Palustrine,mergent,semipermanently 211,430

floodedor seasonallyflooded.

Moist/wettundracomplex.... 238,660 15.4 Palustrine,mergent/scrub-shrub,broad-leaved 238,660

deciduous,semipermanentlyfloodedor

seasonallyflooded.

Moist graminoidtussock 465,350 30.1 Palustrine,mergent/scrub-shrub,broad- 465,350

tundra. leaveddeciduous,saturated.

Totalherbaceous............... 59.5

Scarcelyvegetatedscree..... 430 <0.1 Non-wetland..............................................................

Scarcelyvegetatedflood 21,100 1.4 Palustrine,scrub-shrub,broad-leaveddeciduous, 21,100

plain. temporarilyflooded.

Barrenfloodplain.................. 30,350 2.0 Riverine,unconsolidatedshore,temporarily 30,350

floodedor seasonallyflooded.

Barrenscree........................... 230 <.1 Non-wetland..............................................................

Totalscarcelyvegetated

areas................................. 3.4

Clearwater(lakes, 17,290 1.1 Palustrine,open water,permanentlyflooded;or 17,290

ponds,rivers). lacustrine, limnetic,open water,permanently

flooded;or riverine,open water,permanently

flooded.

Clouds-snow-ice.................... 2,530 .2 Non-wetland..............................................................

Shallowwater......................... 450 <.1 Riverine,unconsolidatedshore/openwater........... 450

Offshorewater....................... 40,880 2.6 Marine,subtidal,open water;or estuarine, 40,880

subtidal,open water.

Shadow ................................... 1,160 .1 Not applicable............................................................

Totalother...........................4.0

TOTAL .................................. 1,546,300 100.1 .........................................................................

1,531,620

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--BIOLOGICAL 17
WETLANDS Frost-scarsare oftena component of tussock tundra and

can constituteas much as 80 percent of the surface.

Approximately99 percent (1.53millionacres)of the Paralleland subparallelwater tracks,commonly present,

1002 area is classifiedas wetland according to the FWS give the slopes a ribbedappearance. These water tracks

Classificationof Wetlands and Deep-water Habitatsof the are shallow,vegetated drainage channels that conduct

U.S. (Cowardin and others,1979) (table11-2).The FWS snowmelt waters, and perhaps subsurfacewaters,during

defineswetlands as lands transitionalbetween terrestrial the thaw season. Stringbogs are oftenfound in the

and aquaticsystems where the water tableis usuallyat or channels,suggesting slow mass movement of the saturated

near the surfaceor the land is covered by shallowwater. soil. Vegetation in the water tracks is commonly dwarf

Wetlands must have one of the followingthree attributes shrubs, mainly dwarf birchand diamond-leafedwillow.

(1) at least periodically,the land supports predominantly

hydrophytes;(2)the substrateis predominantlyundrained

hydricsoils;(3)the substrateis nonsoiland is saturated RIVER FLOOD PLAINS

with water or covered by shallowwater at some time during

the growing season of each year. (Note: The FWS has - River environments (about 25 percent of the 1002

prepared a preliminarylistof hydrophytes and other plants area) are among the most complex terrains.They include

occurring in wetlands of the United States in this the barren deltasand braided channels of the largerrivers,

classificationsystem. The U.S. Soil Conservation Service the terracesand alluvialareas associatedwith old river

has prepared a listof hydric soilsfor use in this channels, and the deltaicformationsat the base of the

classificationsystem.) foothillsthat possibly represent an ancient sea level

(Instituteof Arctic and Alpine Research, Universityof

Non-wetland, upland habitatin the 1002 area is Colorado, unpublished data, 1982). Riverinesystems

generallyrestrictedto sparsely vegetated sites outside consist of an activechannel and one or more terraces.

activeflood plainswhere the depth to permafrostis great Most major rivershave braidedchannels about 0.6 to 2.5

enough to allow for well-drainedsoils. Areas having a

miles wide. Most of the diamond-shaped islandsbetween

dense vegetativecover are characterizedby permafrost channels are inundated sporadicallyeach year during

occurringat shallow depth due to the insulatingeffectof snowmelt from lateMay to earlyJune. These islandsmay

the organicmat. The soilin these areas remains saturated be eitherunvegetated or vegetated. Unvegetated islands

at or near the surfacethroughout most of the growing are subjectto intensivewater and icescouring,and consist

season. The vegetationis composed mainlyof species of gravelwith littlesoildevelopment. Vegetated islandsare

typicallyadapted for lifein saturatedsoilconditions. elevatedslightlyabove the normal high water mark because

of channel cuttingand have a wide range of vegetation

coverage, depending upon the extent and frequency of

TERRAIN TYPES inundation.Ifpresent,soilsconsistof variousthicknesses

of siltloam, loam, and finesandy loam over graveland

Six regionallysignificantterraintypes (Walkerand gravellysands. -

others,1982) occur withinthe 1002 area. Five are

discussed below. The sixthis the 131 square miles of Land cover associated with riversystems ranges from

ocean water withinthe 1002 boundary (5 percent). totallybarren rivergravels and mud to tundra

indistinguishablefrom thatin nonalluvialareas. The braided

FOOTHILLS channels are subjected to intense disturbanceduringspring

breakup. In addition,meandering streams and braided

Foothillscover about 45 percentof the 1002 area. riversare constantlychanging theirchannels. Slightlymore

Between the Canning and SadlerochitRivers,an east-west stableareas are often only partiallyvegetated but may

distanceof about 47 miles,low foothillsrisefrom Camden contain a wide varietyof taxa, making them among the

Bay to the base of the SadlerochitMountains, 18-34 miles most floristically rich sites in the region. Willows are

from the seacoast. The hillsare as high as 1,250 feetand common on vegetated gravelbars and may form extensive

are interspersedwith the drainages of the Tamayariak River, thickets;however, these thicketsare not nearly so

Katakturuk River,Marsh Creek, Carter Creek, Itkilyariak extensiveas the riparianwillowcommunities found farther

Creek, and the SadlerochitRiver (fig.11-2).Barren gravel west along the Sagavanirktok,Kuparuk, and ColvilleRivers

crops out on the crestsof severalhills,particularlynear the (fig.1-1). The relativelylimitedsupply of riverinewillow

KatakturukRiver. East of the SadlerochitRiverthe foothills within the 1002 area is of significanceto severalwildlife

are fartherfrom the coast. species,as are riparianareas that are often snow4ree

earlierthan other parts of the coastalplain. Smaller

Vegetationis dominated by sedges and tussock- streams and quiet interchannelareas of the largerrivers

forming sedges. Dwarf willowor birch are common but have lush sedge and willowstands. Willow heightvaries

sparsely distributed. Mosses and lichensare important with the amount of winter snow cover and summer

components of tundravegetation.The main Landsat cover temperature regime. Willows near the coast are mostly

classes in the foothillsare moist graminoid tussock tundra, prostrate,whereas near the south boundary of the 1002

mesic erect dwarf scrub,and moist prostratedwarf scrub. area,shrubs occasionallyexceed 6 feetin height.

18 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Land-cover categoriesfor thisarea include clear MOUNTAINS

water, barren and scarcely vegetated flood plain,wet

graminoid, moist/wet tundra complex, dry prostratedwarf Alpine terrainreprese

'

nts only a few square milesin

scrub, and moist graminoidtussock tundra. the 1002 area (about 0.05 percent),mostly above 1,970 feet

elevationwest of SadlerochitSpring. SadlerochitSpring is

of specialinterestbecause poplar and other distinctplant

HILLY COASTAL PLAINS

speciesoccur there (Murray,1980a).

Extensive areas of gently rollingtopography cover

Vegetation communities in these areas are complex

more than 22 percent of the 1002 area. East of the and are interspersedwith unvegetated rocks and talus

Hulahula River and parallelto the coast are numerous

slopes. The characterof the well-vegetatedslopes varies

considerably,but the more completelyvegetatedareas have slightlyelevatedridgesand depressions,most having less

extensivemoss mats with numerous prostrateshrubs, such than 100 feetof relief.Flat,gentlysloping(5 percentor

as mountain avens, prostratewillow,and small forbs. less) interfluveareas contain complexes of moist/wet

Limestone areas are of particularinterestbecause unique tussock tundra associated with poorly developed flatassemblages of plants,such as the bryophytes associated centered ice-wedge polygons. Ridges are mainlyvegetated

with seeps in limestone,are present (Brown and Berg, with moist prostratedwarf scrub, moist graminoidtussock,

1980; Steere and Murray, 1976). The main land-cover and moist/wettundra complex, Frost boilsand hummocky

classes includebarren and scarcelyvegetated scree and ground are common. The depressions between ridges

dry prostratedwarf scrub. contain thaw-lakesof clearwater and wet graminoidtundra.

Stream drainages are well definedand have largeexpanses

of relativelywell drained terrain.

- Special Terrestrial and Aquatic

Environments

FLAT THAW-LAKE PLAINS

Within the 1002 area, four distinctareas have been

Thaw-lakes, drained lake basins,and expanses of identifiedfortheirspecialnaturalcharacteristics.

low-centered ice-wedge polygons occur locally,primarily

near the flatbraided-riverdeltas,and cover 3 percent of the SAIDLEROCHIT SPRING SPECIAL AREA

1002 area. Thaw-lakes are generallyelliptical, shallow (2 to

6 ft),and geornorphologicallyshort-lived.They form as a - Sadlerochit Spring and the immediate area (640

resultof disruptionof the vegetationand organiccover of acres),inthe southern part of the 1002 area west of the

the polygonizedtundra. Thaw of the ice-rich,near-surface SadlerochitRiver (pi.1A), have been nominated as a

materialsand meltingof icewedges can resultin a pool of NationalNatural Landmark (Blissand Gustafson, 1981).

standing water and development of a shallow pond that The NationalNaturalLandmark program was establishedto

eventuallybecomes a thaw lake. The best examples of encourage the preservationof areas illustrating the diverse

thaw-lake topography are: (1) at the confluenceof the ecologicaland geologic character of the United States.

Canning and Tamayariak Rivers,(2)a narrow coastalbeft Areas qualifyingas NationalNaturalLandmarks must be

extendingeast of the Canning and Tamayariak Rivers,and free of disturbance and capable of retainingand

(3)a narrow zone between the deltaof the HulahulaRiver perpetuatingtheirinherentnaturalqualities,as well as

and a pointa few miles east of the Jago River. having exceptionalscientificresearch and education values.

SadlerochitSpring is unique on the coastal plainbecause

Except for the vegetated basins of relativelyrecently of its large discharge and almost constant temperature,

drained lakes,some form of microrelief,mostly low-centered which maintains an open channel for nearly5 miles

polygons and stringbogs, is nearlyalways presenton downstream during the coldestpart of the year. Located

thaw-lakeplains. on the coastal plainnear the foothills,itis one of the

largestperennialsprings on the North Slope of Alaska.

The microtopography of thaw-lakeplains(elevation Reported dischargesrange from 21.2 to 88.3 cfs (Craigand

variationsof only a few feet)is the major influenceon the McCart, 1974; Craig,1977; Williams,1970); itswaters are

distributionof plant communities, and small elevation warm (500-580F)and support a dense populationof tiny

differencescreatedistinctpatternsof plantcommunities and organisms (macro-invertebrates) (400 to 500 per cubic foot)

soilassociations (Wiggins,1951; Cantlon, 1961; Britton, and populationsof arcticchar and arcticgrayling(Craig,

1957; D. A. Walker,1981). The perched water tableis very 1977; Craig and McCart, 1974; Williams,1970). Sadierochit

close to the surface,or slightlyabove, formost of the area Springis a winteringarea forfish(pi.1PJ; such placesare

except forpolygon rims and lakebluffs.The Landsat land- extremely limitedon the 1002 area and are generally

cover categoriesin the thaw-lakeplainsincludemoist/wet associatedwith the largersprings. Severalplantand bird

tundra complex, moist prostratedwarf scrub,wet and very species not found anywhere else this far north are

wet graminoid,clearwater,dry prostratedwarf scrub,and associated with this spring, Muskoxen use the area

moist graminoidtussock. throughoutthe year.-

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--BIOLOGICAL 19
The SadlerochitSpring Special Area, as designated suggested that specificareas for inclusionin the natural

by regulations for exploration in the 1002 area, area system (thatis,Research NaturalArea) be selectedby

encompasses an approximately4,000-acrearea within112 refugepersonnel. No selectionshave been made.

mileof the springoutletand extends 1/4mileon each side

of the riverdownstream 5 milesto the aufeisfield[50 CFR

37.32(g)].The springand itssurroundingarea have been

identifiedas a specialarea primarilyfor the unusual plant

communities and associated diverse wildlife(pl.1A).

Because of the spring'sspecialvalues,explorationactivities

have been prohibited.The SadlerochitSpring area is used Coastal and Marine Environment

for traditionalsubsistence harvest, particularlyin winter,

when people from Kaktovikcamp at the springand hunt Coastal-marine habitatsin the 1002 area include

and fish(Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). offshore, nearshore, open coast, delta,and barrier

island/lagoon-mainiandshore areas,and those parts of the

- KONGAKUT RIVER--BEAUFORT LAGOON - coastal uplands directlyaffectedby storm surges and

marine saline intrusions. These areas provide essential

An area of approximately133,700 acres at the mouth shelter,stagingareas,and other lifesupports to resident

of the Kongakut River,and extendingalong the coast from and migratoryfishand wildlifepopulations. Beaches, spits,

Demarcation Bay to Angun Lagoon, was identifiedas a and bars occur throughoutthe area. Although permafrost

potentialNationalNatural Landmark (Koranda and Evans, probably underliesthese sites,itdoes not enter intothe

1975). Most of this proposed NationalNaturalLandmark soil taxonomy. The inlandextent of coastal habitats,

lies east of the 1002 area within the Arctic Refuge biologicallydefinedas the maximum inlandreach of storm

Wilderness. However, about 25,000 acres extends intothe surges,is identifiedin many areas by the "strandline"of

extreme northeastcornerof the 1002 area. The area was largedriftlogs and other debris,and by the extentto

recommended for designation as a National Natural which saltspray and ingressof salinewater affectsthe

Landmark because itcontains: vegetativecover along the coast.

1. An offshore bar and lagoon ecosystem which The North Slope Borough (NSB) Coastal

supports a relativelydiverse marine biota and Management boundary includesState lands withinthe 3-

terrestrialbiota using the area for nesting and nautical-mileoffshore territoriallimit,extending inland

migrationrests. approximately25 miles,and State lands up certainstreams

2. An Arctic riverwhich flows from the mountain front

to includeanadromous fishspawning and fishoverwintering

and enters the lagoon ecosystem, perpetuatingthe

habitat. The NSI3 developed a Coastal Management

marine conditionsof fresh water throughout most of

Program approved by the Stateon April17, 1985, under the

the summer, and the presence of spruce treesin the

framework of the FederalCoastal Zone Management Act

upper course of the river,accompanied by elements

and the Alaska Coastal Management Act of 1977 (AS

of the borealflora(Koranda and Evans, 1975).

44.19.891-894 and 46.40).However, the FederalOfficeof

Ocean and Coastal Resource Management in the

- ANGUN PLAINS -

Development of Commerce denied approval on August 8,

1986. The Program was not approved because the Federal

officialsfeltitdid not provideadequate considerationof the

On the eastern end of the 1002 area, one complete nationalinterestin energy facilitysitingas requiredby

township (T.6 N., R. 38 E.)was identifiedas a potential Section306(c)(8)of the Coastal Zone Management Act. It

NationalNaturalLandmark primarilybecause of itsspecial did not provide an adequate balance between energy

geologic features. The area servesas " * * * a good development and subsistence use, but insteadunduly

example of the glacialgraveloutwash plainsfound near the restrictedenergy facilitysiting.

areas of maximum Pleistoceneglaciation"(Detterman,1974).

Concurrent with the Coastal Management Program,

the NSI3 initiatedplanningprograms and socioculturaland

- JAGO RIVER - economic studies. The NSB Comprehensive Planand Land

Management Regulationsbecame effectiveJanuary 1, 1983.

Ithas been proposed (Viereckand Zasada, 1972)

that parts of the Jago River drainage be includedin a Under section307(c)l of the FederalCoastal Zone

system of "EcologicalReserves" in Alaska. The area Management Act, Federal activitiesdirectlyaffectingthe

contains a complete array of tundra and flood-plain coastalzone must be consistentwith the approved State

vegetationtypes and provideshabitatfora cross-sectionof Coastal Management localprogram to the " * * * maximum

allArcticSlope wildlifespecies. The drainage containsa extent practicable."The NSB Coastal Management Plan

glacierand outwash, an arcticriversystem, deltasand noted that the Hulahula,Okpilak,and AichilikRiverswithin

dunes, an arcticcoastallagoon system, smalltundra lakes the 1002 area had values warrantingspecialattention(NSB,

and streams, and offshore islands. The proposals 1984a).

20 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Goals of the State-approved NSI3 Coastal The traditionalcalvinggrounds of the PCH extend

Management Program relevantto government and economic throughout the Arcticfoothillsand coastalplainfrom the

activitiesin the area are described at the end of this Canning River in Alaska to the Babbage River in Canada.

chapter under "State and Local Politicaland Economic Includingthe entire1002. area, the calving grounds

Systems." Most applicableto the coastaland marine encompass nearly 8.9 millionacres (pi.2A and fig.11-5).

environmentis the program goal of protectingthe natural From year-to-year,the distributionof caribou on these

environment and its capacity to support subsistence calving grounds varies considerably,with most calving

activities. usuallytakingplace in the area between the HulahulaRiver

and the Canadian border (fig.11-5).

- During the recent seismic and surface geologic

explorationprograms on the 1002 area,the FWS consulted Spring migrationsto the calvinggrounds startin

closelywith the State of Alaska,Divisionof Govemmental April-Mayfrom winter ranges,which are usuallysouth of

Coordination,to ensure thatthe explorationproposals were the ContinentalDivide in Alaska and in centralYukon

consistentwith the State'sCoastal Management Program. Territoryand adjacentNorthwest Territoriesin Canada (fig.

Ifdevelopment is allowed on the 1002 area,the FWS would 11-4). Timing and routes of PCH migrationsvary annually

continue this coordination. The State would reviewall depending on winterdistributions,snow conditions,and the

projectsand development plans for consistencywith onset of spring weather. Most PCH cariboumigratefrom

coastalzone management standards.- Canada, moving westward along the northernfoothillsof

the Brooks Range to reach theircalvinggrounds. In some

years caribou also pass through the firstsnow-free

mountain valleyseast of the AichilikRiverin Alaska. As

Fish and Wildlife Resources springprogresses,caribou inthe foothillsspread northward

along a broad front,mostly followingthe major river

The fishand wildlifeon the 1002 area are discussed corridorsand associated terraceswhere snowmelt has

by species,in fivecategories:terrestrialmammals, marine advanced.

mammals, birds,fish,and threatened and endangered

species.

TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS

- CARIBOU -

148, 144- 140- 136, 1321 The Porcupine and part of the CentralArcticcaribou 1

herds are found withinthe 1002 area duringvarioustimes SE,

of the year. Each herd has specificdistributions,

movement patterns,and herd dynamics.

NORTHWEST

The Porcupine caribou herd (PCH) is an international

68' -

11C TERRITORIES

resource, estimated by the Alaska Department of Fish and

Game (ADF&G) to contain180,000 animals in 1986. The d C'.

rM herd is increasingand is the sixthlargestherd in North

America (Whitten, 1987). The Western Arctic herd

(population220,000-240,000)is the only herd in Alaska

largerthan the PCH (Williamsand Heard, 1986). Earlier 661-

estimatesof the PCH populationswere as low as 101,000

(LeResche, 1972). The most currentphotocensus of the

herd was for135,000 animalsin 1983 (Whitten,1984);more

a IDO MILES

I recent estimates are projectionsusing productivityand a 100 KILOMETERS TERRITORY

mortality estimates. The lower levelsof earlierestimates I

I

may reflecteithera trulysmallerpopulationor lessaccurate

or less complete survey techniques,or a combinationof

these factors. Caribou populationsfluctuateunpredictably Figure 11-4.--Generalrange, migrationroutes (arrows),

over the long term. The long-termmaximum and minimum and winter range (shaded) of the Porcupine caribou

populationof the PCH and the carryingcapacityof the herd. Solidcirclesindicateexploratorydrillholes.

area are unknown.

The PCH ranges over 96,100 square miles of

northeastAlaska and northwest Canada (figs.11-4and 11-5),

and constitutesthe largestpopulationof largemammals

shared by the two nations.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--BIOLOGICAL 21
146' 142' 138' 146' 142' 138'

B E

70'

q

0

70' 0

AREA 21

C@ C@

69'

RCTIC NATIONAL

69' -

ARCTIC NATIONAL

71 WILDLIFE REFUGE WILDLIFE REFUGE V17

>

a

M

1973 1972 (r,

- --------------

146' 142' 138' 146' 142. 138'

70- o

70' P

0

41

C@ G@,

rl

69' 691

ARCTIC NATIONAL RCTIC NATIONAL

WILDLIFE REFUGE rr > WILDLIFE REFUGE >

12 a 2

>

>

71 rn

19 76 Cr 1977 (P

146' 14 2' 138' 146' 142' 138'

70'

4

0

70' 0

AREA AREA

C@ C@

69' 69' Z

RCTIC NATIONAL RCTIC NATIONAL --q

WILDLIFE REFUGE M >

WILDLIFE REFUGE rn

Cr >

X >

.4 a

4 a

> >

> > --4 3 M M

1981 1980 Cr

-L- - ------------L--j

146' 142' 138' 146' 142' 138'

70'

P

0

70' 0

AREA REA

C@ C@,

69' -

69' z

ARCTIC NATIONAL ARCTIC NATIONAL -.j

WILDLIFE REFUGE M

WILDLIFE REFUGE Ulz

z C'n >

> -4 V

a > >

>

rn

1984 cc 1985 Cr

------------

Figure11-5.--Total calving areasandconcentrated areasof the Porcupinecaribouherd by year for1972-86 (15maps)

and composite map of allconcentrated calving areas for 1972-86, including maximum extent of scattered calving (1 map).

22 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
14 6' 142' 138' 146' 142' 138'

T

I 1

70'

0

- 70'

I jj

0

G@,

C:I

z 691

ARCTIC NATIONAL ARCTIC NATIONAL

WILDLIFE REFUGE rrl> WILDLIFE REFUGE >

> >

C;

1974 1975

146' 142' 138' 146' 142' 138'

70' 70'

0

AREA

C@

69' -

RCTIC NATIONAL

z 691 -

ARCTIC NATIONAL

WILDLIFE REFUGE I'M > WILDLIFE REFUGE MI >

a 2 C; 2

rp > ce) >

IT Mr

1978 1979 Cr)

I I /_@,

146' 142' 1381 146' 142' 138'

70' 70'

0 0

"? 41

AREA 1002 AR

C@

C:I C:1

69' 7 691

RCI IC NATK :; r)

ARCTIC NATIONAL

r" > rr > WILDLIFE REF'LJGE

C

WILDLIFE REFUGE

a Z

> >

1982 1983

ryi

146' 142' 138' 146' 142' 138'

B E

1 3 ears E

70'

p

0

70' 0

AREA A

years q

69' :z 691

RCI IC NATIONAL ARC IC NATIONAL =j

WILDLIFE REFUGE WILDLIFE REFUGE rn >

C; Z

> Maximum range

>

.-ila 0

> >

ofcalving >

1986 1972 86

L___j -IEXPLANATION

Concentrated calving area Total calving area

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--BIOLOGICAL 23
PCH caribou have calved on the 1002 area every Calculateddensitiesranged from 46 to 128 caribou

year for which detailedrecords have been kept (1972-86). (includingcows, calves,and yearlings)/squaremileforeach

(See fig.11-5.)Usuallythey begin to arriveon theircalving calving concentrationarea, 1983-85 (FWS, unpublished

grounds duringmid- to lateMay. The firstcalvesare born data). Priorto 1983, cariboudensitiesinareas identifiedas

during the lastweek of May; peak calvingoccurs during concentrationareas are largelyunknown. However, limited

June 4-8. Although calvinghas been observed in a variety measurements made in 1972 near the Jago Rivershowed

of terrains,most calves are born in snow-freeareas of densitiesrangingfrom 8.2 to 375 caribou/squaremileduring

sedge tussock uplands. Vegetation provides camouflage; June 10-17 (McCourt and others,1974). As the difference

this background presumably reduces predationon calves. between high densityconcentrated calvingareas,and low

Also,predatordensitiesare apparentlylower in these areas density peripheralor scatteredcalving areas is readily

and, subsequently, calfsurvivalis better(U.S.Fish and apparent, use of the term "concentrated"by previous

WildlifeService,1982; Mauer and others,1983; Whitten and observers was assumed to reflectdensitiesof similar

others,1984, 1985). magnitude.

Detailedobservationsof the PCH calvingareas were On the basis of intensivecounts using helicopters,

made during 1972-86. The earlierinformation,1972-77,was as well as radio-telemetrysurveys, calvingconcentration

gathered as part of the ArcticGas studiesfora proposed areas were found to containpredominantlyadultfemales

gas pipelinefrom Prudhoe Bay across the ArcticRefuge to and theircalves,and peripheralareas had proportionately

Canada. The Canadian WildlifeServiceand Yukon Wildlife more barren females,yearlings,and young males (Whitten

Branch conducted studies of the PCH during 1978-81 and others,1984; FWS, unpublisheddata). Consequently,

because of their concerns with potentialoiland gas the concentratedcalvingareas have been deemed to be

developments in the Yukon and Northwest Territories.The the most importantcalvingareas because (1)they support

most detailedstudies were part of the section 1002 most of the parturientfemalesand theircalves,and (2)they

baselinestudy, 1981-85,by the FWS in cooperationwith are the areas having the highest cariboudensities.

the ADF&G and Canadian wildlifebiologists.As a resultof

these studies,areas have been delineatedwhere caribou

were most abundant (concentrationareas)at the peak of

calvingactivity(pi.2A and fig.11-5). The open rollinghillsand adjacentthaw-lakeplains

between the Hulahula and AichilikRivershave supported

calvingconcentrationsduring 10 of the 15 years,1972-86.

Precise boundaries of concentrations vary annually.

Densitiesfor entirecalvingconcentrationareas in However, there has been a consistentand continuedfocus

each year, 1983-85,were calculatedusing data collected on thisarea by calvingcaribouforseveralgenerations(fig.

from radio-collaredfemales and with the followingsix 11-5). The repeated use of certainportions of the

assumptions. concentrated calving area and the generally high

reproductivesuccess of cows calvingin or near the area

1. The distributionof radio-collaredadultfemale caribou impliespreferenceand value over other areas. Thus, these

are representativeof thatsegment of the herd at the areas are considered valuableand importantto the PCH.

time of calving. Of the 3 millionacres identifiedas concentratedcalving

areas,828,000 acres (28percent)are withinthe 1002 area.

2. The population of the PCH was 135,000,149,000,

and 165,000 in 1983, 1984, and 1985, respectively

(Whitten,1987).

During years when snowmelt on the coastalplainis

3. Adult females (thoseat least3 years old)make up early,a broad zone north of the foothillsis used for

35 percent of the totalpopulation(Whittenand calving. In such years calvingconcentrationstend to be

Cameron, 1981). more northerlyand scatteredcalvingextends to the coast.

In years when calvingis skewed to the east,usuallydue to

4. The natalityrate is80 percent (Bergerud,1980). latesnowmelt on the coastalplainand/or deep snow on

migrationroutes,there has been a distinct,consistent

5. Yearlings make up approximately12 percentof the westward movement to the coastalplainaftercalving.The

totalPCH population(Whittenand Cameron, 1981). annual variabilityin concentrated calvingareas is illustrated

in figure11-5. Directionalmovement lessens once caribou

6. One-thirdof the yearlingsare on the calvinggrounds have reached the calvinggrounds. During and immediately

at calvingtime;up to 60 percentof these are in after calving,foraging caribou use vegetated riparian

peripheralareas and the remaining 40 percent in habitatsas well as tussock uplands. Riparianareas (pl.

concentrationareas (Whittenand others,1984; FWS, 2N are used as travelcorridorsand feedingareas in both

unpublished data). springand summer (Garnerand Reynolds, 1986).

24 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
In allyears of study,1972-86,a majorityof the PCH The postcalving season is the low point of the

used the 1002 area forcalvingand/or postcalv'Ingactivities. annual physiologicalcycle when energy reserves of

Recentlythe percentage of PCH cows using the 1002 area parturientcows are especiallylow. The stressesof winter,

for calvingwas estimatedto be 74 percentin 1983, 35 pregnancy, migration,birth,lactation,hairmolt, antler

percent in 1984, 82 percent in 1985, and 24 percent in growth, and insect harassment draw heavilyupon this

1986. The 1983-86 estimates were extrapolatedfrom segment of the population (Dauphine, 1976; White and

locationaldata from radio-collaredcows (Garner and others,1975). Access to insect-relief habitatand forage

Reynolds, 1984, 1985, 1987; FWS, unpublished data). In duringthisperiod may be criticalto herd productivity.In

1984, 38 percentof the PCH calved adjacentto the 1002 earlyJuly the herd usuallymoves east and south,vacating

area, east of the AichilikRiver,then withina week moved the 1002 area by mid-July. In some years,residualgroups

with theircalvesonto the 1002 area to jointhe 35 percent numbering as many as 15,000 animals have remained on

thatcalved on the area. Although only 24 percent of the the 1002 area and adjacentfoothillsand mountains through

PCH calved in the 1002 area in 1986, essentiallythe entire August. Occasionally,remnants of such groups (up to

herd moved intothe 1002 area afterthe calvingperiod. 2,000 animals) have wintered in northernmountains and

foothills.

In Arcticareas, caribou reproductionis highly

synchronous. The majorityof calvingoccurs withina 2- to A draftinternationalgreement formanagement of the

3-week period,when a singlecalfis born to most adult PCH has been negotiatedbetween the Governments of the

females(3 years old). Caribou calvesare precocious,able United States and Canada, The State of Alaska and

to stand and nurse within1 hour afterbirth.They are Canadian Territorialgovernments, as well as localusers,

capable of travelwith adultswithina week. The first24 participatedin the negotiations.Other interestedparties

hours of lifeis critical,when a behavioralbond is formed also attended the meetings. The purpose of the draft

between the calfand its mother (Bergerud,1974; Lent, agreement is to facilitateU.S./Canadiancooperationand

1964). coordinationof programs and activitiesaimed at long-term

conservationof the PCH. The agreement willensure that

the PCH, itshabitat,and interestsof users of the PCH are

Aftercalving,small bands of cows with newborn giveneffectiveconsiderationin evaluatingproposed activities

calvesgraduallymerge intolargergroups. Yearlings,barren within the range of the herd. All activitieshaving a

females, and bullsoccupying the southern and eastern potentialimpact on the conservationof the PCH or its

peripheryof the calvinggrounds begin to mix with the habitatwillbe subjectto impact assessment and review

cows and calves, ultimatelyforming huge postcalving and may requiremitigationunder the agreement. The

aggregations. By lateJune or earlyJuly aggregationsof agreement would establish an eight-member International

80,000 or more caribou are common. Postcalving Porcupine Caribou Board, made up of four members from

movements and aggregations show considerableannual each country,to make recommendations and provide advice

variation. on those aspects of conservationof the PCH that require

internationalcoordination. The Board would serve as a

means of exchanging informationon and facilitating

Although rathersmall in proportionto the herd's cooperative planning for the PCH throughout itsrange.

entirerange, the calving/postcalvingarea is an important, The draftagreement,initialedby the principalnegotiatorsin

identifiablehabitatrepeatedlyused by the PCH during Seattle,Washington, December 3, 1986, is being reviewed

these criticallifestages. The reason forrepeatedcaribou and discussed through public informationalmeetings in

use of thisarea is unclear.Varyingcombinationsof several both countriesbefore signing.

factorsin any givenyear--forexample, advanced emergence

of new vegetation,scarcityof predators,earlysnowmelt,

topography, and/or proximityto insect-reliefhabitat The PCH is harvestedin both the UnitedStatesand

(Cameron, 1983)--areprobably responsiblefor the annual Canada. The harvestby individualNativevillagesis highly

variationsin use. variable,depending upon herd movements. Recent annual

harvests from the PCH by Kaktovik,the only village

adjacent to the 1002 area, have ranged from 25 to 75

As temperaturesrisein mid- to lateJune, swarms of animals (Pedersen and Coffing,1984). Annual harvest of

mosquitoes emerge in the 1002 area. Harassment on the PCH throughout itsrange was estimatedat 3,000-5,000

warm, calm days by these insectsdrivesthe caribouinto animals (LeBlond,1979). The harvest variesgreatlyfrom

dense aggregationsand resultsin theirmovement to areas villageto villageand from year to year withinthe same

of relief.The groups usuallymove intothe wind, seeking village.The annual harvestat ArcticVillage,Alaska,ranges

reliefon points,riverdeltas,mudflats.aufeis,large gravel from 200 to 1,000 (LeBlond,1979). During 1963-86 annual

bars, barrierislands,shallows of lagoons, and higher harvest of the PCH withinCanada averaged approximately

elevationsin the mountains (pl.2@@). In some years there 1,800 animalsfor the years in which data were available

can be a gradualwestward shiftacross the coastalplain (Yukon TerritoryWildlifeBranch, Canadian WildlifeService,

and northernfoothills. unpublished data).

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--BIOLOGICAL 25
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0 U
Table 11-3.--Observed muskoxrangewithintheArctic MOOSE

NationalWildlifeRefuge and withinthe 1002 area,1982-85.

- Patternsof moose distributionnorth of the Brooks

Range vary seasonally(pl.1g. Winter concentrations

occur south of the 1002 area where as many as 203 and

Within Within Percentof 239 moose have been counted in the Canning and

Arctic 1002 area totaluse Kongakut River drainages,respectively(Garner and

Refuge (acres) area within Reynolds,1986). A few moose are scatteredinotherriver

(acres) 1002 area drainages(U.S.Fish and WildlifeService,1982; Martinand

Garner,1984,1985). -

High seasonalor year- In lateMay or earlyJune small widely dispersed

round use with groups of moose move northwardalong ripariansystems.

calving....................... 251,000 207,000 82 Moose using the 1002 area have dispersed from

High seasonalor year- populationsto the south and use a varietyof habitatsin

round use without Julyand earlyAugust. The number of moose at any one

calving....................... 211,000 158,000 75 time probablydoes not exceed 25. In lateAugust,moose

Totalobserved range, beginto aggregate;the largestgroups are found south of

includinghigh-use the 1002 area in October duringthe rut. Most moose

areas................... .....1,116,000 760,000 68 using the 1002 area move southward to winterinvalleysof

the Brooks Range. Riparianwillowspecies comprise a

major part of the forageused by moose; mountainalder,

Though not migratory,muskoxen apparentlymove in where available,isan importantwinterfood.

response to seasonal changes in snow cover and

Subsistencehuntersfrom Kaktoviktake one or two vegetation. In summer and fall,they are oftenfound in

riparianhabitatsalong major drainages,where they feedon moose annually(Jacobson and Wentworth,1982). Other

hunters harvest a few moose, generallylessthan 10 willowsand forbs. Inwinterand springmany animalsmove

annually,from the North Slope ofthe ArcticRefuge. Most to adjacentuplands havinglesssnow cover in orderto

of this harvestis in the Canning Riverand Kongakut feed on tussock sedges (Reynoldsand others,1985).

drainages,and nearlyallisoutsidethe 1002 area. PreliminaryFWS data indicatethat muskoxen apparently

reduce both theirmovements and activityduringwinter,

probablyas an adaptationto conserve energy. Table 11-3

and plate2C show the extentof muskoxen habitatwithin

the ArcticRefuge and 1002 area and delineatethose

seasonal or year-rounduse areas where muskoxen have

been observed most frequently,year afteryear.

Hunting of muskoxen on the ArcticRefuge under

permit from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game

startedin 1983. Fivebull-onlypermitshave been issued

annually;the 1983, 1984, 1985, and 1986 harvestswere 4,

5, 4, and 3, respectively.

DALL SHEEP

Althoughthe estimatedtotalpopulationof Dailsheep

within the original8.9-million-acreArcticRefuge is

approximately6,800,Dailsheep are rareon the 1002 area,

because suitablehabitatis lacking. The Sadlerochit

Mountains containan estimated270 sheep, and constitute

the northernmostextentof theirrangein NorthAmerica (T.

G. Smith,1979).

Traditionalsummer range consistsmainlyof alpine

slopes and meadows. Winter range,limitedmostly by

topography,consists of usuallysouth-facingwindblown

slopes and ridges. FWS surveys indicatethatDallsheep

have used the lowerfoothillterrainear SadlerochitSpring, 17

mostlyinwinter;in summer, they cross thistundraarea in

moving to other habitats(D. Ross and M. A. Spindler,

unpublisheddata,1981).

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--BIOLOGICAL 27
ARCTIC FOXES

Arctic foxes move seasonally between summer

breeding habitatsin tundra and winter habitatsalong the

northernAlaska coast and onto the sea ice (Chesemore,

1967). Their range is limitedby habitatand interspecific

competitionwith red foxes. Periodicoutbreaks of rabies

can reduce fox populations. Productivityof foxes is related

to abundance of microtines(smallrodents).Foxes regulate

theirfood supply, despite fluctuatingprey availability, by

caching food in earlysummer when prey is abundant and

utilizingthese food caches and carrionin latesummer

when fewer prey are available.At Demarcation Bay arctic

foxes spent most of theirtime in medium-relief,low-center

polygon and meadow habitats,preying on small mammals

and bird nests (Burgess,1984). In 1979 when rodents

WOLVES

were at low populationlevels,foxes at Demarcation Bay

depended mainly on birds and eggs. No pups were

Wolves are found throughout Alaska'sNorth Slope.

produced thatyear (Burgess,1984).

The populationdensityis lower on the 1002 area than in Arcticfoxes are trapped in the winterby Kaktovik

areas farthersouth. Wolves occupy largehome ranges. In residentsfor fur. The number taken annuallyfluctuates

winterwolves tend to congregate in areas of overwintering accordingto theirabundance. In years of abundance more

caribou and possibly moose or Dall sheep. Daily than 100 foxes may be taken. Most trappingiswithin15

movement depends on availability of prey. Estimates of miles of the coast, mainly on or near Barter Island

density for restrictedgeographic areas vary widely,but (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982).

most fallwithinthe range of 6 to 200 square miles per wolf

(Mech, 1970). Wolves mate in March, and pups (usually4-

7 per litter)are born indens 2 months later.Although the

1002 area appears to containsuitabledenning habitat,no WOLVERINES

dens have been found. Dens have been found in

mountainous terrain10 to 40 milessouth of the 1002 area.

Wolverinesfrequentalltypes of terrainfound in Arctic

The number of wolves using the 1002 area on a seasonal areas,as evidentfrom observationsand tracks. Riversand

basis is low and apparentlydoes not exceed 5-10 animals mountains are frequently associated with territorial

annually. boundaries. Snowdrifts are important for wolverineden

sites,and, in the tundra,remnant snowdriftsin small

- Populations in or adjacentto the 1002 area were drainages are used by females for rearingtheiroffspring

depressed inthe late1970's by an outbreakof rabies.A

(Magoun, 1985).

similaroutbreak occurred in 1985 when nine dead wolves,

includingsixradio-collaredanimals,were found. Fiveof the A few wolverines inhabitthe 1002 area. Accurate

animals were confirmed as rabid. Historicalden siteson populationfiguresare unavailable,but a rough estimateof

the Kongakut, Hulahula,and AichilikRiverswere deserted in the 1002 area populationcan be made from the wolverine

1985, and the death from rabiesof breedingwolves was

densitiesand assumptions used by Magoun (1985)for

suspected as the reason. However, four new dens were

estimatingthe population in the Western Arctic. Using

found, three occupied by wolves which were remnants of Magoun's assumptions, the estimateddensityforthe 1002

earlierpacks. -

area is 90 wolverines. This figuremay not be accurate:

Magoun's area and the 1002 area are not identical;Magoun

Wolves on the North Slope prey on caribou,moose,

studied a virtuallyunexploited population whereas

sheep, ground squirrels,small rodents,and birds. Wolves wolverines in the 1002 area and environsare routinely

are typicallyassociatedwith drainage systems which they harvested by Kaktovik residents. Furthermore, sighting

use as travelcorridors.They are also attractedto riparian records forthe 1002 area are sparse;recent FWS studies

areas because of the abundance of prey, includingground have resultedinvery few sightings.

squirrels.Duringthe summer when prey is most abundant,

wolves are distributedthroughout all1002 area habitat Wolverines feed opportunisticallyand have been

types (U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1982; Haugen, 1984,

reportedpursuing largeungulates such as caribou,moose,

1985: Weiler and others,1985). Wolves are hunted and and Dall sheep, though they are more commonly

trapped by Kaktovik residents,who harvestmost in the scavengers than predators. In the Arctic,ground squirrels

Hulahula, Sadlerochit,and Okpilak River areas (Jacobson are an important food (Rausch and Pearson, 1972).

and Wentworth, 1982; Weilerand others,1987). Generally, Caribou are scavenged, particularlyduring May and June

fewer than 10 wolves are harvested annually,usuallysouth when they are numerous. During June and July,wolverines

of the 1002 area.

prey on birdsand eggs.

28 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Kaktovikresidentshunt wolverinesmost frequentlyin Denning occurs in lateSeptember and October,

the foothillsand northern mountainous areas of the depending on soilconditions(thetop soilmust be frozen

Sadlerochit,Hulahula,and OkpilakRivers. ADF&G records to support den excavation)and weather (Pearson,1976;

indicatethatan average of about one wolverineper year is Reynolds and others,1976; Garner and others,1983, 1984,

harvested; this may be an underestimatebecause of 1985). Most dens are in the foothillsand mountains south

incomplete reporting. Magoun (1985)believedthat harvest of the 1002 area;only seven of 199 (3.5percent)known

in Game Management Unit26A (Western Arctic)was 2 to den siteswithinthe northeastportionof the ArcticRefuge

10 times greaterthan reported. During the winterof 1980- have been found on the 1002 area (Garnerand others,

81, seven wolverines were taken by Kaktovik residents 1983, 1984, 1985; Garner and Reynolds, 1986). Cubs are

(Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). Wolverines are born in January and earlyFebruary. Littersrange from one

sometimes harvested by trappers near the villageof to three;the average litterforbears using the 1002 area is

Kaktovik. These animals are mostly subadults thatmay be 1.9 (Garner and others,1984). Brown bears emerge from

dispersingonto the 1002 area from the foothillsto the winterdens in lateAprilthrough May. On the 1002 area

south. Itis not known whether the 1002 area wolverine the survivalrate among cubs and yearlingsranges from

populationis residentor transient. zero to 100 percent. Causes of juvenilemortalityare not

well known, but a major cause is probablythe killingof

juvenilesby mature males such as occurs in other brown

bear populations(Stringham,1983).

BROWN BEARS

Kaktovik residentsharvest an average of 2 brown

bears annually. The bears are taken opportunisticallyon

Brown bears seasonallyuse the 1002 area. Brown

the 1002 area or farthersouth in the foothillsor mountains

bears northof the Brooks Range are at the northernlimitof (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). The sport harvestwithin

theirrange. At periods of greatestabundance (in June) the ArcticRefuge north of the Brooks Range averages 2-4

use is estimated at one bear per 30 square miles,or

brown bears annually. Virtuallyallsport harvestis south of

approximately108 bears (Garner and others,1984). These the 1002 area.

populations are characterizedas having low reproductive

rates as a resultof short periods of food availability, large

individualhome ranges (95 to 520 square miles),and

habitatsthat provide littleprotectivecover (Reynolds and

others, 1976; Reynolds, 1979; Garner, Weiler,and Martin, ARCTIC GROUND SQUIRRELS AND OTHER RODENTS

1983).

Arcticground squirrelsare found throughout the 1002

Brown bears are found throughout the entire1002 area in colonies restrictedto well-drainedsoilsfree of

area. They appear in lateMay and are generallymost permafrost. Ground squirrelshibernatefrom lateSeptember

abundant during June and July when caribou are most through May (Garner and Reynolds, 1986). Activity

plentiful.The bears breed duringthissame period.There resumes in the spring, before the snow begins to

are two known high-useareas. One, used by 50-70 adult disappear. Mating is followedby a 25-day gestationperiod.

bears and cubs, is in the southeasternpartof the 1002 Young ground squirrelsgrow rapidlyin preparationfor

area where caribou calvingis concentrated. The second, winterhibernation.

used by 15-20 bears,is a much smallerarea along the

upper reaches of the KatakturukRiver(pl.1P). Moderate- Ground squirrelsare a subsistencefood forKaktovik

use areas (30-80bears) are locatedbetween and around residents. They are also importantin the dietsof snowy

the high-use areas and are generallyused for a shorter owls, rough-legged hawks, brown bears, golden eagles,

period(June-July).(Notethatbear numbers from each use arcticfoxes,red foxes,and wolves.

area cannot be added because they representdifferent

times of residency. Each bear may use more than one or Other rodents found on the 1002 area includethe

allareas delineated.)Aftercaribouleavethe 1002 area in collaredlemming, brown lemming, and tundra vole. Redearly July,brown bears graduallymove south intothe backed voles and tundra voles may occur in the foothillsin

foothillsand mountains (Garner and others,1983, 1984, the southernpart of the 1002 area. The brown lemming is

1985). Riparianareas are used as travelcorridors.Brown the leading herbivorealong the coast, and in high

bear habitat changes seasonally according to food populationyears can account for more plantconsumption

availability(U.S.Fish and WildlifeService,1982). Spring than ungulates(Batzliand others,1980). Theirimpact on

foods includevegetation,carrion,caribou,ground squirrels, the vegetationiscyclicand corresponds to the 3- to 5-year

and rodents. River courses frequentlycontain abundant population cycle. Lemmings and voles are activeallyear,

prey as well as preferredvegetation.During mid- to late grazingfrozen plantmaterialand breeding under the snow.

summer, brown bears shiftto eatinghorsetail,grasses,and Maximum populationdensitiesoccur aftersuccessfulwinter

sedges. In the fall,they eat wild sweetpea roots, reproduction. Shallow snow depths resultin low

crowberries,blueberries,bearberries,and ground squirrels temperatures under the snow, creatingan energy stress

and other rodents (Phillips,1984). thatcan reduce winterreproductivesuccess.

EXISTING ENVIRONIVIENT--BIOLOGICAL 29
MARINE MAMMALS Three differentparts of the 1002 area (pi.1g) have

Fourteen species of marine mammals may occur off been generallydelineatedas confirmed clenningareas,that

the coast of the ArcticRefuge. Some of these-4he spotted is,areas in which polar bear dens and clenningactivity

seal and walrus--areoccasionalvisitors.Others such as have been observed during more than one winter. Dens or

the killerwhale, gray whale, humpback whale, finwhale, clenningactivitieshave also been observed in other 1002

narwhal,harbor porpoise,and hooded seal are rarelyseen area locations,but data are inadequateto confirmrecurrent

because thispartof the BeaufortSea is at the extreme use. Ten of the 12 land dens found through radio

margin of theirranges. Fiveof the species were evaluated: telemetrystudies(1981-86)have been locatedon the Arctic

polarbear,ringedseal,bearded seal,beluga whale, and the Refuge;the othertwo were on Hershel Island,Canada. -

endangered bowhead whale.

Female polar bears that den on land move onshore

- All marine mammals in U.S. waters are protected to seek out den sitesin October and November, depending

under the Marine Mammal ProtectionAct of 1972 (16 U.S.C. on ice movement and ice buildup (Lentferand Hensel,

1361). The goal of thatAct is to restoreand maintain 1980). Denning females give birthto 1 or 2 cubs in

marine mammal populations at theiroptimum sustainable December or January,and bears emerge in lateMarch or

population levels,as well as to protect subsistence earlyApril,depending upon weather conditions.The female

opportunitiesfor Alaska Natives. The Act establishesa

and cubs generallyremain near the den, making short

moratorium on the taking (includingharassment) and foraysfor 1 to 2 weeks untilthe cubs gain strengthand

importationof marine mammals except by Alaska Nativesfor become acclimatedto outside conditions.Soon thereafter,

nonwastefulsubsistence or handicraftpurposes. Required they move to the sea iceto feed on seals. Many females

negotiationsto encourage internationalarrangements for with new cubs concentratetheirforagingon the shore-fast

research and conservation of allmarine mammals have ice,which can extend out to 30 miles.

resultedin the 1976 internationalgreement on polarbears

as discussed inthatsection.

POLAR BEARS

-

Polarbears are closelyassociatedwith pack ice of

the Arctic Ocean throughout most of the year. The

BeaufortSea populationof polar bears is estimatedto be

1,300-2,500(Amstrup and others, 1986). Some females

move to coastal areas,and occasionallyfartherinland,

during October and November to seek maternityden sites.

Pregnant polar bears,and latertheircubs, probably spend When the nearshore ice breaks up in the spring,the

more time on the 1002 area than other segments of the bears move with the sea ice and many concentrateat the

polar bear population. Other groups of polar bears south edge of the pack ice. This positionvariesseasonally

seasonally frequentthe coastal peripheryof the area. but usuallyis between the coast and latitude720N.

Recapture of polar bears marked by the FWS in recent

years indicatesthat an influxof females accompanied by Except for a shore lead, the Beaufort Sea is ice

cubs as old as 20 months and subadultanimals coincides covered year-round. Nearshore open water begins to

withthe fallice-edgeadvance to the shoreline.-

freeze in September or October, and nearshore ice does

not melt untilMay or earlyJune. Male and nondenning

- Polarbear dens have been found as faras 250 miles female polar bears inhabitthe sea ice throughout the

offshoreand 32 miles inland. Eighty-fivepercent of dens winter. The distributionof polarbears is influencedby the

located in 1983-86 were offshore. The onshore area from availability of theirmajor prey species,ringed and bearded

the Colvilledeltato the Canadian border is used by the seals, which concentratein areas of driftingpack ice

BeaufortSea populationfor denning. However, the most (Lentfer,1971 ; Stirlingand others,1975). Ringed seals

consistentlyused land clenningareas were on and adjacent probably constitute95 percent of the polar bear's diet

to the 1002 area where 1-2 dens were found by radio (Burnsand Eley,1978).

telemetryin 5 of the 6 years between winter1981-82,when

the FWS began a continuingstudy of North Slope polar Polarbears are protectedunder the provisionsof the

bears, and winter 1986-87 (Amstrup, 1986; FWS, Marine Mammal ProtectionAct of 1972. Additionally,an

unpublisheddata). The idealclenningsitesare riverbanks, internationalagreement forthe conservationof polarbears

draws, and the leeward side of bluffsand hillswhere snow

was ratifiedin 1976 by the governments of Canada,

accumulation is sufficientto support den construction. Denmark, Norway, the Union of SovietSocialistRepublics,

Sixteendens were found in the 1002 area between 1951 and the United States of America. The treatyrequires

and 1986 through FWS radio telemetrystudiesand Native management of shared populationsby consultation.Article

reports (pl.IIE;Garner and Reynolds,1986, table15, p.

11requiresthat appropriateactions be taken to protect

293; FWS, unpublished data). Another fivedens have been ecosystems of which polar bears are a part,especially

locatedon icenear the 1002 area. -

clenningand feeding sites.

30 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Large numbers of polar bears have concentrated Bowhead whales are taken for subsistence by

seasonally in some years along the coast of the Arctic Kaktovikresidents,During 1981-85 the annual harvesthas

Refuge near the villageof Kaktovikwhere whale carcasses averaged one whale, with an average of one additional

can be scavenged (Amstrup and others,1986). Each year whale struckand losteach year.

many bears are availableto localsubsistencehunters,but

in most recent years the killhas been small (FWS, BIRDS

unpublished data). Annual subsistence harvestof polar - One hundred thirty-fivespecies of birds have been

bears by localresidentswas as high as 23 to 28 in 1980- recorded on the ArcticRefuge coastalplain(Garnerand

81;at leastone polarbear was confirmedas being taken in Reynolds,1986, 1987). The majorityare migratory,present

each of the following6 years,with two bears being taken only from May to September. Six species are considered

in 1984-85 and three in 1985-86 (table11-7)(Schliebe,1985; permanent residents--rockand willow ptarmigan,snowy owl,

Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982; FWS, unpublished data).

common raven, gyrfalcon,and American dipper. The

Restrictingthe take of females and familygroups to ensure

common and hoary redpoll,ivorygull,and Ross' gullare

populationstabilitywas a purpose of the November 1986 occasionallyseen in winteron the 1002 area. Twenty-one

agreement between the North Slope Borough Fish and species are found offshore,mostly from lateJuly to midGame Management Committee and the InuvialuitGame September, with distributiongenerallylimitedto within35

Council in Canada. -

miles of shore. Sixteenoffshorespeciesbreed locallyon

coastal tundra or barrierislands (Bartels,1973; Divoky,

SEALS AND WHALES 1978). Greatest concentrations of summer resident

waterbirds on the Arctic Refuge occur in two general

Ringed seals, bearded seals and, occasionally, habitats: shallow coastal waters and tundra wetlands

spotted seals are found in the BeaufortSea and along the (pl.3, A and

coast north of the coastalplain,includingthe lagoons of

the 1002 area (Garnerand Reynolds, 1986; U.S. Fish and - Birds begin using coastallagoons when the snow

WildlifeService,1982). Although there is some evidenceof melts in lateMay and riveroverflowscover lagoon deltas,

ringed seals withinthe refuge in summer and fall,their providingthe firstopen water of the season. Habitatuse

primary habitats are generallyoutside the 1002 area. during the breeding season (mainlyJune and July)varies

Ringed seals use stable,shore-fastice as theirprimary with birdspecies. Peak numbers of birdsare oftenseen in

pupping habitat(T.G. Smith, 1980). To improve chances August and September duringstagingand earlymigration.

of successfullyrearingpups, older,more-dominant female Smaller numbers are present untilfreezeup in late

ringed seals selectand activelydefend territorieson stable September or early October, when most birds leavethe

shore-fasticefor pupping. Subadult and younger females area. -

are forced to constructlairson activepack ice,increasing

the chances of predationby polar bears. Bearded seals - Lagoon areas are importantduringallphases of the

are chieflyassociatedwith the pack-iceedge throughout avian lifecycle. More than 35,000 waterbirdsof up to 33

the year. Primary breeding and pupping habitat is species (primarilyoldsquaw) may use the coastallagoons

associatedwith the ice edge. A smallnumber of bearded duringthe open-water period (July-September)(Garnerand

seals remain in northernice-bound areas. The extentof Reynolds,1986). As many as 11,000 birdsmay be present

activepack ice use by seals withinthe 1002 area is not in a lagoon at one time. Some birdsmove from terrestrial

well understood. However, seals in Canada do occupy nestinghabitatsintoshallowlagoons, bays, and sand spits

activepack ice,a preferredhuntingarea forpolar bears (T. to molt, finding protectionfrom predationduring this

G. Smith, 1980). flightlessstage. The lagoons are also importantfeeding

areas for oldsquaw, eiders,scoters,and other ducks,

Kaktovik residents harvest spotted, ringed,and loons,phalaropes,terns,gulls,jaegers,and black guillemots

bearded seals for subsistence,though relativelyfew are (Divoky,1978). -

taken (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982).

Migratory birds range internationally; nesting and

Bowhead and gray whales are listedas endangered winteringgrounds and migrationroutesmay occur not only

species. Gray whales are occasionallyfound in the in differentcountriesbut on differentcontinents. InterBeaufortSea north of the 1002 area (U.S.Fish and Wildlife nationaltreatiesforthe protectionof migratorybirds have

Service, 1982). The bowhead whale inhabitswaters been ratifiedbetween the United Statesand the Union of

offshorefrom the ArcticRefuge in September and October SovietSocialistRepublics,Japan, Canada, and Mexico. In

duringitsfallmigrationalong the BeaufortSea coast. The addition,measures forthe protectionof migratorybirdsare

southern boundary of the bowheads' fallmigrationcorridor contained in the Convention on Nature Protectionand

is generally the 66-foot isobath,although they are WildlifePreservationin the Western Hemisphere, an

occasionallyseen in shallowerwater. These whales feed in agreement to which the United States isa party.

Demarcation Bay east of the 1002 area;they also may use

waters offthe 1002 area (NationalMarine FisheriesService, Species-specificinformationfollows,under five

1983). Belukha (beluga)whales also migratethrough categories: swans, geese, and ducks; seabirdsand

waters north of the 1002 area. shorebirds;raptors;ptarmigan;and passerines.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--BIOLOGICAL 31
SWANS, GEESE, AND DUCKS the 400- and 1,000-footcontours. Staginggeese move as

faras 225 miles west of theirsouthward migrationcorridor

- Tundra swans are common breeding birds of the on the Mackenzie River to take advantage of the food

thaw-lakeplains. As many as 100 nests and 280 to 485 resources on the Yukon and the ArcticRefuge coastal

adultswans have been counted on the 1002 area during plain. The geese feed heavilyto accumulate fatreserves

annual surveys (Garnerand Reynolds,1986). Swans arrive forthe fallmigrationflight.Significantweight gains have

in late May and early June and concentrate on the been reported in fallstagingsnow geese on the North

Canning-Tamayariak delta,the Hulahula-Okpilakdelta,Barter Slope (Patterson,1974; Brackney, Masteller,and Morton,

Island lakes, Jago River wetlands, the Aichilik-Egaksrak 1985a).-

deltas,and lakes in the Demarcation Bay area (pi.3N.

Spring surveys in 1982-85 showed an average densityof 1 As many as 10,000 greaterwhite-frontedgeese and

swan per 0.67 square mile in concentrationareas. These 10,000 black brantuse the ArcticRefuge coastalplainfor

areas apparently offerhighlydesirableswan nestingand fallstaging and migrationfrom lateAugust through midfeeding habitat. Average densityfor the overall2,960- September. The white-frontedgeese congregate with snow

square-milearea studiedwas 1 swan per 7.7 square miles. geese and move east duringmigration(Martinand Moitoret,

Swans depart the breeding grounds from lateAugust to late 1981) to the Mackenzie River,then south through the

September, those swans with young being lastto leave Mackenzie Rivervalleyand intothe Canadian Provincesand

(U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1982; Bartelsand Doyle, the western U.S. (Koski,1977a, b; Bellrose,1980; Barry,

1984a, b; Bartelsand others,1984; Brackney and others, 1967). Coastal salt marshes and mudflats in the river

1985a,b). - deltas are especiallyimportanthabitatfor the westwardmigratingblack brant at thistime (pi.3P). During spring

Four species of geese regularlyuse the 1002 area: migration,reported arrivaldates for geese range from midCanada geese, black brant,greaterwhite-frontedgeese, and May to earlyJune (Martinand Moitoret,1981; Garner and

lesser snow geese. Canada geese and black brant may Reynolds, 1987). Brant rely heavilyon vegetated coastal

breed there each year; however, the size of the breeding mudflats during spring migrationwhen the availability of

populationis unknown, and the coastalplainis not a major suitableforagingareas is criticalto ensure healthyarrivalon

nesting area. Geese nest on islands and peninsulas the breeding grounds.

associatedwith the drained-basinwetlands of the thaw-lake

plainsand riverflood plains. Canada geese with broods Several species of ducks use the 1002 area,the

seek lakes and lagoons for protectionshortlyaftertheir coastallagoons, and nearshore BeaufortSea waters during

goslings hatch. Brant breeding areas are usuallyfound summer. Ducks arriveduring springmigrationin lateMay

near the mouths of large rivers.In lateJune, nonbreeding and early June (Martin and Moitoret,1981; Garner and

and failedbreeding pairsbegin to molt. Some of these Reynolds, 1986). Early-arrivingducks are attractedto

individualsmay move west priorto molting(pi.3D). Several overflowwater at rivermouths untilopen water becomes

hundred molting Canada geese and brant have been availablein nearby lakes and wetlands. Northern pintail,

observed in lateJuly and earlyAugust along the Arctic American wigeon, greaterscaup, oldsquaw, common eider,

Refuge coastline. and kingeiderbreed on the 1002 area;the oldsquaw isthe

most numerous breeder. Nesting densitythroughout the

- Staging lessersnow geese congregate on the Arctic 1002 area is generallylow; locally,nesting densitiesin

Refuge coastal plainin mid-August and may remain through wetland complexes around riverdeltasand other coastal

lateSepiember (pi.3P). These geese nest chieflyon areas may be higher.

Banks Island (200,000breeding birds),Anderson Riverdelta

(10,000breeding birds),and KendallIsland(1,000breeding Probably more importantthan breeding habitat,the

birds)(Krebs,1983) in Canada and, priorto fallmigration, lakes and wetlands, coastal lagoons, and nearshore

most move westward intothe 1002 area only as faras the BeaufortSea waters provideimportantmoltingand staging

Hulahula River. Severalhundred snow geese may use the areas for severalduck species. Oldsquaw are the vast

Canning River delta and Katakturuk Plateau during fall majorityof waterbirdsusing the 1002 area. As many as

staging. More than 595,000 birds were estimatedfor the 33,000 postbreeding oldsquaw congregate in coastal

entirestagingarea on the coastalplainin Alaska and the lagoons,nearshore waters,and largeopen lakes duringthe

Yukon Territory,Canada in 1985 (FWS, unpublisheddata). midsummer molt period and remain throughout the summer.

The maximum estimated forthe ArcticRefuge coastalplain The movement of oldsquaw and common and king eider

(the1002 area plus adjacentWilderness coastalplain)was continuesto latesummer. Fallmigrationincludesmovement

325,760 in 1978 (Spindler,1978),with an 11-yearaverage of of females,juveniles,and late-moltingindividualsalong the

136,000. The average number of geese using the 1002 Beaufort seacoast. Many ducks that breed outsidethe

area is 105,000,an approximate average of 22 percent of 1002 area use coastallagoons and nearshore waters as

the Western Arcticpopulation.Distributionof stagingsnow stagingareas duringmolt and fallmigration.In midsummer,

geese on the 1002 area is highlyvariable. Preferred scoters (especiallysurf scoters)and eiders(especially

stagingareas shiftannuallyamong the Niguanak-Okerokovik common eiders) move westward along shorelinesand

area,the Jago-Bitty-Okerokovikarea, the Jago-Bitty-Okpilak lagoons. At the same time,pintailsmigrateeastward over

Riverarea,and the lower Aichilikand Angun Riversbetween the coastaltundra.

32 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Waterfowl and theireggs are taken forsubsistence. the foothillsand mountains of the Brooks Range; gyrfalcons

The largestharvest occurs from May through earlyJune, nest on the cliffsalong riversor on isolatedupland cliffs;

though birdsare taken throughoutthe summer (Jacobson and owls nest on the open tundra (pi.3P). These birds

and Wentworth, 1982). From July 1985 to July 1986, use the coastal plainmostly as a feedingarea. Raptors

Kaktovik residents harvested approximately513 geese, generallyarrivein mid-May, except for gyrfalconswhich are

mostly brant,and 251 ducks (S. Pedersen, ADF&G, residentand begin nestingas earlyas March. Raptors

unpublished data).Virtuallyallspecies of waterfowlare prey upon small rodents,ptarmigan,waterfowl,and other

used, oldsquaw being the most abundant and geese the birds,and so theirpopulationsand distributionsvary with

most prized.- the availabilityof prey. Snowy owl and short-earedowl

populationpeaks are directlyrelatedto the microtinecycle.

SEABIRDS AND SHOREBIRDS Concentrations of 25-75 golden eagles (mostlyimmature

birds) are found on the PCH calvinggrounds and

Seven species of seabirdsare known to breed inthe postcalvingareas,where they prey on young calves and

1002 area: three jaegers(pomarine,parasitic,and long- scavenge cariboucarcasses (Mauer,1985). -

tailed),two gulls(glaucousand Sabine's),arctictern,and

black guillemot. Jaegers are widely distributedover all PTARMIGAN

habitattypes, but theirbreedingpopulationis comparatively

small except in years of high microtinepopulations. Willow ptarmigan and rock ptarmigan are common

Glaucous gulls and arcticterns are widely distributed, breeders and fairlycommon winterresidentsof the 1002

reaching greatest densitiesin tundra wetlands near the area. Both species are less common near the coast than

coast,but they occur in limitednumbers on the 1002 area. inland,but rock ptarmigan are more common than willow

Sabine's gullsand black guillemotsare highlylocalized. ptarmiganat coastalsites. Littleis known of the wintering

The only known nestingareas of Sabine'sgullin the 1002 status of these species on the 1002 area,although they

area are on the Canning Riverdelta. Black guillemotsnest are present. A general northward migrationof willow

only on the coastalbeaches and shorelines,Gulls,terns, ptarmiganoccurs in Apriland earlyMay as flockstotaling

and jaegersfeed and nest along the coastlineand major severalthousand birds move from the Brooks Range north

coastal rivers. Jaegers feed on small birds,eggs, insects toward the 1002 area. In the spring,ptarmigan are

lemmings, and carrion(U.S.Fishand WildlifeService,1982). commonly observed in riparianwillowor on exposed ridges

and bluffswhere the earliestsnowmelt occurs; laterthey

- Shorebirds are present on the coastalplainfrom mid- move elsewhere for nesting. Rock ptarmigan nest in nearly

May through the end of September inallhabitats(pi.3g. allhabitatsexcept the very wet sites;willowptarmigan

Tundra habitatswithinriverdeltaareas and riparianhabitats preferdrierupland siteswith moist sedge shrub or tussock

are particularlyimportantto nesting and stagingshorebirds. habitat.In the postbreedingseason, flocksand broods of

Eighteen species of shorebirds have been recorded as both species usuallymove intoriparianwillowhabitat.

breedingon the coastalplain. Most abundant are pectoral

and sernipalmatedsandpipers,lessergolden plovers,red- Willow and rock ptarmigan are frequentlyhunted for

necked and red phalaropes,ruddy turnstones,and long- subsistence by Kaktovik residents. In midwinter,willow

billeddowitchers. Other common breeders are Baird's,stilt, ptarmigan are hunted on the 1002 area. Rock ptarmigan

and buff-breastedsandpipers; dunlin;black-belliedand are hunted mostly inthe spring(April-May).

semipalmated plovers;and wandering tattlers.Occasionally

snipes and whimbrels nest on the coastalplain.Along the

coast, seasonal fluctuationsin shorebird numbers are PASSERINES

characterizedby highs each year in mid-June (arriving

birds),earlyJuly (nonbreedingtransients),and lateAugust Many passerines,or perching birds,use the 1002

(departingbirds). More than 2 millionshorebirdsare

area duringsummer (pi.3g. Erect riparianwillowstands

estimatedto be presenton the coastalplainfrom mid-June support the highest nesting density and diversityof

to mid-July(U.S.Fish and WildlifeService,1982). Mudflats passerinespecies. The common and hoary redpolls,whiteon riverdeltas,particularlythe Canning, Okpilak/Hulahula, crowned sparrow, yellow wagtail,and American tree

and Jago, and thaw-lake ponds along the coast are

sparrow are largelyrestrictedto riparianwillowthicketsor

importantstopping pointsfor severalspecies of migratory adjacentriparianDryas terraceor gravelbars which also

shorebirds.- support willow growth. Savannah sparrows use similar

habitats,but are also found in uplands, tussocks,and

RAPTORS coastalareas. Snow buntingsseem to be limitedto bluffs

near the coast and around buildings.Lapland longspurs

- Rough-legged hawks, golden eagles, gyrfalcons, are the most abundant species nestingin alltundra types.

merlins,snowy and short-earedowls, as well as the Only two passerinespecies are resident,the common raven

threatenedarcticperegrinefalcon are found on the coastal and the American dipper. Some raven nestingareas are

plain. (Additionaldetailsare in the subsequent sectionon shown on plate 3D. American dippers are probably

the peregrinefalcon.) Rough-legged hawks nest on river restrictedin winterto the only open water available,which

bluffsand near steep foothillslopes;golden eaglesnest in is near Sadlerochitand ShublikSprings.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--BIOLOGICAL 33
FISH The drainages that originatein or transectthe 1002

area range from smallintermittent-flow tundra streams to the

Fish in the Arctic have developed extreme Canning River which has an estimated 50-year flood

adaptations to a harsh environment. There is a limited discharge of 13,500 efs (Childersand others,1977).The

period in which food is availableto fishand generallya integrityof riparianareas is importantfor maintenance of

limitedarea in which they can surviveduring the long waterqualityand fishstocks on the coastalplain.Most of

winter.- the water resultsfrom precipitation,surface permafrost-thaw

processes, deep-lake drain,or springs. Peak flows are

Coastalwaters of the BeaufortSea inAlaska contain associatedwith snowmelt in earlysummer or with rainfall

62 marine and anadromous species,includingarcticchar, during latesummer and fall.By lateOctober,most rivers

arcticcisco,arcticflounder,arcticcod, borealsmelt,and have no measurable flow. As riffleareas freeze to the

fourhornsculpin(Craig,1984). Nearshore waters and the bottom, overwinteringfishbecome isolatedin deeper pools,

brackish lagoons provide migrationalcorridors for spring areas, or brackish riverdeltas. Substantial

anadromous fishand are extremelyimportantfeedingareas movement from summer feedingareas to smalloverwintering

forthese species. areas has been recorded (West and Wiswar, 1985). Ice

accumulationis thickestfrom lateMarch through earlyMay.

Marine nearshore waters are importantspawning and

overwinteringareas for some marine fishessuch as arctic Availablefish overwinteringhabitat,such as deeper

cod, arcticflounder,and fourhornsculpin. Riverdeltasare pools, is greatlyreduced in earlyspring. Although pool

also believed to be important overwinteringareas. depth is important,severalother factorsaffectsuitability for

Suitabilityof deltasfor overwinteringdepends largelyon the overwintering. These factors,which ultimatelyaffect

salinitytolerancesof species using the areas. dissolved oxygen concentration,include density of

organisms in the pool area, species' physiological

- The Canning River has been studied more than any tolerances,volume of the pool, temperature,amount of

other fresh-water system in the 1002 area. Species organic matter,and the influenceof springs. Overwintering

reportedinclude arcticchar, arcticgrayling,round whitefish, habitatis probably the greatestfactor limitingArctic

ninespinestickleback,and burbot. Arcticflounder,fourhom anadromous and fresh-waterfishpopulations(pi.1E).

sculpin,broad whitefish,arcticcisco,and leastcisco have

been reported in the lower rivernear the mouth. Pink, Springs supply most, ifnot all,of the free-flowing

chum, and sockeye salmon have been reported in the water during latewinter. The importance of springsfor

Canning River but are thought to be straysfrom other spawning, rearing,and overwinteringarcticfishpopulations

systems. Lake troutare found in severallakes withinthe has been well documented in the ArcticRefuge and other

Canning Riverdrainage but outsidethe 1002 area. Other Arctic areas. Macro-invertebrates (aquatic insects

streams in the 1002 area (pi.1D thatsupport major fish consumed by fish)are generallymuch more abundant and

populationsare listedbelow. - diverse in springs and spring-fedsections of stream

channels than in other ArcticRefuge stream habitats

Articchar

(Glesne and Deschermeier,1984).

Lakes are uncommon in the 1002 area. The few that

Arctic existare generallythaw lakes located along the coast.

Riversystem grayling Resident Anadromous Lakes less than 6 or 7 feetdeep generallylackfish overwinteringcapabilities:they eitherfreezeto the bottom by

latewinter or theirwater qualityis poor due to freeze

Tamayariak River......... X

concentrationsof dissolvedsolidsand low dissolved-oxygen

ItkilyariakCreek .......... X X

levels. Lakes near the coast may be brackish,owing to

SadlerochitRiver......... X X

saltwaterintrusionor windblown ocean spray. In contrast

Hulahula River............. X X

to lakes furtherinland,some shallow coastallakesmay be

Akutoktak River........... X

importantsummer feeding areas for anadromous and marine

Okpilak River ............. X

fish,depending on access.

AichilikRiver................X X Coastal lakes near the Canning Riverdelta,sampled

during summer, have contained arcticchar, arcticgrayling,

These and many other smallerstreams and coastal arcticflounder,round whitefish,and broad whitefish(Ward

takes have populations of ninespine sticklebacks. The and Craig,1974). In deeper mountain and foothilllakes

other major streams (KatakturukRiver,Marsh Creek, Carter south of the 1002 area,arcticchar,arcticgrayling,and/or

Creek, Jago Riverand tributaries,Niguanak River,Sikrelurak laketroutmay be found. The lakesbest known and most

River,Angun River,and Kogotpak River)apparentlydo not widelyused forrecreationand subsistenceare Lake Peters

support major fish populations. They may support fish and Lake Schrader in the headwaters of the Sadlerochit

locallyand serve as summer feedingareas fora few fish River. These containallthree of the aforementionedfish

but seemingly lackadequate overwinteringhabitat. species.

34 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Most Nativesubsistenceuse of fishoccurs along the Peregrinefalcons are highlymigratoryand spend a

coast. Arcticchar and arcticcisco are the primaryspecies relativelyshort time in Alaska. Arcticperegrinesgenerally

caught during summer when they are present in large arriveat theirNorth Slope eyriesbetween April21 and May

numbers in the ArcticRefuge lagoons. The arcticciscois 7, layand incubate eggs between May 15 and July21, and

an internationalresource believed to originatein the young fledge(leavethe nest)duringAugust (U.S.Fish and

Mackenzie River in Canada. Some subsistence use of WildlifeService,1982). Generally,the breeding season is

arcticcod occurs in winterin apparent response to its definedas the periodfrom April15 to August 31.

increasedabundance duringthat time, Arcticcod (Lowry

and others,1978) also constitutemore than 95 percentof There appears to be a significantmovement of arctic

the dietof ringedseals which, in turn,are the major prey peregrinefalconsthrough the 1002 area from lateAugust to

of polar bears. Some winter subsistence fishingalso mid-September (Martinand Moiteret,1981; U.S. Fish and

occurs at fresh-wateroverwinteringsites.The most notable WildlifeService,1982). The number and timing of these

of these are Fish hole 1 and Fish hole 2 on the Hulahula observationssuggest that at leastsome North Slope arctic

River (pl.1B) where arcticchar and arcticgraylingare peregrines migrate along the coast of the BeaufortSea.

caught through holes in the riverice. The lagoons,rivermouths, and bays concentrateshorebirds

and waterfowl,which are favored prey of the peregrine.

Sport fishingis currentlyminimalbecause of difficulty

in access and seasonal limitationson fishabundance. Nesting of peregrinesin the ArcticRefuge north of

the ContinentalDivide was documented in 1972-73 when

three sitesnear the confluence of the Marsh Fork and

THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES Canning River40 miles south of the 1002 boundary were

occupied (Roseneau, 1974),and in 1984 and 1985, when

- The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 U.S.C. pairsnested along the Canning and AichilikRiversoutside

1531) provides for the conservationof endangered and the 1002 area. SeveralsightingsduringJune and July have

threatened species. Taking, importing,transporting,or been reportedfrom the 1002 area (U.S.Fish and Wildlife

sellingendangered and threatened species is prohibited Service,1982; Amaral, 1985; Amaral and Benfield,1985;

under the Act, except for nonwastefulsubsistencepurposes Oates and others, 1986). The significanceof these

by Alaskan Natives or non-Natives who are permanent observationsis unclear,as the birdsdid not appear to be

residents of Alaskan villages. Federal agencies are associatedwith nest sites,yetthe observationsdo indicate

prohibitedfrom any action that would jeopardizethe that,in additionto those present during migration,a few

continued existenceof listedspecies.- scatteredperegrines(possiblynonbreeders)can be found

inthe 1002 area during the breeding season.

BOWHEAD AND GRAY WHALES

Bowhead and gray whales are listedas endangered HUMAN ENVIRONMENT

under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended.

Both species migrate into or through the BeaufortSea, Population

north of the 1002 area, although sightings of gray whales

are rare. In-migrations of bowheads occur after spring The North Slope Census Region comprises the entire

breakup, and out-migrations take place before fallfreezeup. 88,281-square-mile northern coast of Alaska. The region is

sparsely populated, having a density of one person per 220

ARCTIC PEREGRINE FALCON square miles. With the exception of Anaktuvak Pass, the

human population lives on or near the coast. The majority

Listed as a threatened species under the Endangered of residents are Inupiat Eskimo, but about 6,200

Species Act of 1973, the arctic peregrine falcon is the only nonresidents are employed in isolated,self-sufficientlarge to

terrestrialthreatened or endangered species found in the medium-sized industrialor militaryenclaves (NSB, 1984a).

1002 area. In Alaska, most peregrine falcons nest on

ledges of cliffsor bluffs along rivercourses, but cliffhabitat Population figures for the Census Region are derived

is not abundant in the Arctic Refuge north of the Brooks for several purposes and must be checked to see which

Range. But a few peregrines have been reported nesting data are used. For example, the U.S. Census 1980

there in past years (Cade, 1960; Roseneau and others, population was 4,199 but did not include workers at

1976; Amaral, 1985; Amaral and Benfield, 1985). Prudhoe Bay as "residents"; the 1980 population including

Historically,peregrines occupied eyries along the Canning, both residents and the nonresident workforce was 9,234

Katakturuk, Sadlerochit, Hulahula, Jago, Aichilik,and (NSB, 1984b). In comparison, the 1970 population of

Kongakut Rivers (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). Prudhoe Bay was 217.

Among the eyries formerly or potentially occupied by

peregrines within the Arctic Refuge, only two are within the The NSB Comprehensive Plan uses an annual

1002 area. These sites are on bluffs along the Sadlerochit population growth rate of 2 percent and assumes a

River near the spring and at Bitty Benchmark on the Jago doubling of the Eskimo population for the region in 35

River (pl.3Q). years (3,034 in 1980 to 6,000 by 2015).

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--HUMAN 35
Kaktovikis the only settlementnear the 1002 area. Existing Land Use

The 1980 U.S. Census listedKaktovik'spopulationas 165,

a 34-percentincreaseover the 1970 population,The 1983 SUBSISTENCE USE

population shows another increase, although counts

differed:185, accordingto an April1983 populationcount - Responsibilitiesfor subsistencemanagement and use

by Pedersen, Coffing,and Thompson (1985),and 203 on Federal lands are derived from TitleVIIIof ANILCA.

according to the North Slope Borough (NSI3,1984b). Under section803, "subsistenceuses" are definedas "the

Nearly 90 percent of the populationis of NativeInupiat customary and traditionaluses by ruralAlaska residentsof

Eskimo descent. The populationincreasesince 1970 has wild,renewable resources for directpersonal or family

primarilyresultedfrom the returnof residentsformerlyliving consumption as food, shelter,fuel,clothing,tools,or

in Barrow to the villagebecause of improved housing and transportation;for the making and sellingof handicraft

employment opportunities.Key featuresof the community articlesout of nonedible byproducts of fishand wildlife

are familyand culturalties,tiesto the land,and economic resources taken for personal or familyconsumption;for

opportunityfor both jobs and subsistence. Community barter,or sharing for personalor familyconsumption; and

growth willprobably continueifcurrenttrendsfor services for customary trade."Under the Marine Mammal Protection

and other villageimprovements continue (U.S.Bureau of Act of 1972, and the Endangered Species Act of 1973,

Land Management, 1978). Alaska Natives are also permitted,under certain

circumstances,to harvest marine mammals and endangered

- Sociocultural System

or threatenedspecies when such harvestisforsubsistence

purposes. -

In both the Inupiatand the Athabascan culturesof

- Fish and wildlifepopulationsin or adjacentto the the Arctic,subsistenceproductionis closelyand intricately

tiedto a largerculturalframework of values The harvestof 1002 area are utilizedfor subsistence by communities in

renewable resourcesfor localconsumption isthe culturalas

northern Alaska and in the northernYukon. Because itis

wellas economic foundationof human lifeformany of the located adjacent to the 1002 area,the community of

people in thisregion. Embodied inthe subsistenceway of Kaktovikis of primaryconcern relativeto subsistenceuses

lifeis harvestingof the resources to meet nutritionalneeds, withinthe 1002 area.-

development of a self-image,transferof Culturalvalues to

offspringduring harvestingactivities, and weaving of the KAKTOVIK

socialfabricthrough resources distributionto the extended The ADF&G Division of Subsistence recently

familyand beyond. completed a detailedinvestigation,begun in 1980, of

Western culturewith itscash-based economy has

Kaktovik subsistence use (Pedersen and others, 1985).

already had a significanteffecton the traditionalNative

That study elaboratedupon the previouswork by Jacobson

culture,and the rate of change has acceleratedin recent

and Wentworth (1982)and Wentworth (1978).The 1981-82,

decades. There are benefitsin the form of increased 1962-83,and 1983-84 caribou harvestby Kaktovikresidents

material well-being,education and health services. was also reportedby ADF&G (Pedersen and Coffing,1984).

Nonetheless, alcoholism,drug abuse, and mental illness Figure11-7displaysKaktovik'ssubsistence species use by

have increased dramaticallyduring this period of intense season.

culturalchange. Approximately 68 percent of Kaktovik'spresent

The present subsistence way of lifecontinuesto

subsistenceuse area is withinthe ArcticRefuge (Pedersen

support the materialand emotional well-beingof the

and others,1985). This area extendsas farsouth as the

villages. But severe strainsare being placed on the headwaters of the Hulahula Riverand includesthe entire

adaptabilityof the cultureby such recentmajor events as

1002 area (23 percentof the totalsubsistenceland use

ANSCA, ANILCA, and economic developments.

area)(fig.11-8).The Statelands along the coast west of

Subsistence activitieshave served as an anchor forNative

the refuge are used during summer, oftento BullenPoint

culturesin these times of change and willcontinueto do

and occasionallyas faras Foggy IslandBay. Those and

so as long as adequate resources areavailable.The ability other State lands,though lightlyused, account for 30

of the villagersto maintaintheirpresent way of lifein percent of the Kaktovik subsistenceuse area. Kaktovik

combination with a mixed cash/subsisterceeconomy will InupiatCorporation(KIC) lands adjacentto Kaktovikare the

depend on severalfactors,among them the manner in remaining 2 percent.

which resources are developed; regional,localand

individualeffortsto manage socioculturalimpacts;and the

healthof subsistence resources. - Participationin subsistence activitiesis a major

aspect of Kaktovikresidents'life. In 1978, 85 percentof

The Native culturein the area is not weaning itself Kaktovik households obtained allor most of theirfood

from a subsistenceway of lifeand purposefullyconverting supply from hunting,fishing,and gathering(J.W. Peterson,

to a cash economy; rather,itis using each forthe support 1978, as summarized in Pedersen and others,1985). More

of the otherto providea balance. recent studies,also summarized by Pedersen and others

36 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
(1985),found that 80 percentof Kaktovikhouseholds daily

consumed meats that were obtained from hunting and

fishing.

Kaktovik residents depend mainly on caribou,Dall

sheep, bowhead whales, fish,waterfowl,and otherbirdsfor

subsistence(table11-4).Seals,polarbears,furbearers,and

small game are also widely used, although they are not

major components of the local diet. Brown bears and

moose are occasionallytaken. Many residentsharvest

berries,wild rhubarb, and roots. Driftwood is gathered

from the beach and used to supplement oil heat,and

willowsare used for heatingand cooking whilecamping.

Subsistence activitiesare most intensiveduringspring

and summer months--the time of long hours of daylight,

relativelymildweather, and species abundance. During the

snow-free months, usually mid-June through September,

overland travelis difficult.Shallow water prevents access

to inland areas by river;however, by earlyJuly,coastal

areas are accessibleby small motorboats. From October

through May, snow cover and frozenground greatlyexpand

the area used for subsistence hunting. Longer days,

adequate snow cover,and milderweather make Apriland

May the best months for snowmachine travel.Travelthen

extends across the tundra and to hunting camps along the Table 11-4.--Kaktovikparticipationi subsistenceuse,

Hulahula and SadlerochitRivers. During winter,foothills accordingto resource harvested.

and mountain valleysare the most importantplaces for

subsistence hunting. [Of Kaktovik's46 households, 21 were surveyed. Ten of

the households not surveyed were teachers,or shortSummer Fall Winter Spring

term residents,or without active hunters. NA, not

Jun.-Aug. Sep.-Oct. Nov.-Mar. Apr.-May available.Adapted from Pedersen and others,1985]

Whale

Seal/Ugruk Participation(total21)

Polarbear Resource harvested

House- Percent

Birds/Eggs holds

Caribou Fish .................................................. 21 100

Caribou ........................................... 20 95

Moose Sheep ......... ..................................... 20 95

Grizzlybear Wildfowl.......... ................................. 20 95

Furbearers Seals................................................ 19 90 (hunt/trap) Polar bears ..................................... 18 86 Small

mammals Small mammals ............................... 18 86

Trapping furbearers. ...................... 16 76

Sheep

Moose ............................................. 16 76

Fresh-water Vegetation....................................... 15 71

fish

Ocean Whales ............................................ 14 67

fish Hunting furbearers......................... 12 57

Grizzlybear.................................... 11 52

Figure 11-7.--Yearly cycle of subsistence use by Kaktovilk Walrus ............................................. 6 29

residents.Patternsindicateperiodsforpursuitof each Wood, fuel,and structural

species,based on abundance, hunter access, seasonal materials....................................... 5 24

needs, and desirability.Modifiedfrom Jacobson and Invertebrates................................... NA

Wentworth (1982,p. 29).

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--HUMAN 37
Caribou is the stapleland mammal in the Kaktovik more than 80 percent of Kaktovik'scaribou harvestwas

subsistence diet. Itis a source of freshmeat throughout from the PCH; in 1982-83,about 70 percent was from the

the year,and is also frozenand dried. Itisimportantin PCH; and in 1983-84,approximatelyhalfthe community's

holidayfeasts. Caribou hides are used forgarments,boot harvestcame from each herd (Pedersen and Coffing,1984;

soles,and blankets. Coffingand Pedersen, 1985).

Caribou hunting and harvestare usuallygreatestfrom Most wintercaribou hunting occurs along rivervalleys

earlyJuly to lateAugust, when they are hunted primarily in the mountains. Occasional hunting occurs on the

along the coast from outboard-powered boats (pl.2PJ. coastal plain,especiallyat favored locationssuch as

Other major hunting periods are lateOctober to late Konganevik Point. The HulahulaRivervalleyis one of the

November, when there is enough snow for overlandtravel most intenselyused areas forwintercaribou hunting;the

by snowmachine and daylightis not too brief,and from late Okpilak River and Okpirourak Creek drainages are also

Februarythrough March and April,when daylightis longer important winter-huntingareas. The Jago and Niguanak

and weather conditionsare better. Rivers,the Niguanak Hills,and the Niguanak Ridge area

immediatelysouth are otherwinter-huntingareas.

Availabilityof the PCH to localhunters is highly

variable.During the summers of 1978-81,the PCH migrated In spring,caribou are hunted along the Hulahula,

past BarterIslandand intoCanada before breakup of sea Sadlerochit,Okpilak, and Jago Rivers. The greatest

iceallowed Kaktovikpeople to travelby boat. Caribou from expanse of huntingterritoryis covered at that time.Some

the CAH in the vicinityof the Canning River deltaare tripsare made up the OkerokovikRiverand to the foothill

especiallyimportantduring such years. For 1972-84 the country of the AichilikRiver. Occasionally,in latewinteror

annual harvestwas estimatedat 40-300 cariboutotal,from early spring,people travelto the Canning River in the

both herds. More detailedstudiesinrecentyears show an vicinityof Ignek Valleyand ShublikIslandand hunt caribou

annual harvestlevelof about 100 animals. The proportions as farupriveras the Marsh Fork.

of caribouharvested from the two herds varies:in 1981-82,

148, 147, 1461 1451 144o 143, 1421 141,

70'

691

30'

691 -

B R 0 0 K S

R A N G E

a 10 20 30MILES

0 1 0 20 30 40 KILOMFERS

Figure 11-B.--Extremeextent(patterned)of subsistenceuse by Kaktovikresidentsinthe years 1923-83.

Data from Pedersen, Coffing,and Thompson (1985).

38 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Because they are rare withinthe 1002 area, Dail In recent years, most harvested polarbears were

sheep are generallyhunted outsidethe area,the hunting foragingon BarterIsland,usuallyattractedby the remains

occurringfrom mid-October through March. The Hulahula of a beached whale or the Kaktoviklandfill.They are

River drainage within the mountains is hunted most activelyhunted on the ice seaward of the barrierislands.

extensively,beginningat the Over'sexitfrom the mountains The main hunting area for polar bears extends from the

near Fish hole 2 and continuing upstream to the Hulahula-OkpilakRiver deltaon the west to Pokok Lagoon

headwaters. The SadlerochitRiver,creeks along the on the east. Hunting is often best near decaying

easternsides of the Shublik Mountains and Third Range, bowhead carcasses. Harvest variesconsiderablyfrom year

and the WhistlerCreek area at Lake Peters are other to year;as many as 28 were taken in the 1980-81 season,

locationswhere sheep are occasionallyhunted. During but an average of one bear has been taken annuallysince

recentyears hunting has increased in the upper Okpilak, then (Schliebe,1985; Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982; U.S.

Jago, and, especially,the AichilikRiverdrainages(Jacobson Fishand WildlifeService,unpublished data).

and Wentworth, 1982).

Arcticchar is the fishspecies most extensivelyused

The number of sheep taken by Kaktovikhunters has by localpeople. In earlyJuly,sea-runchar are caught all

fluctuatedgreatly;only a few were killedin some years and along the coast,around the barrierislands,and along the

as many as 50 in other years. The number of sheep killed navigableparts of the riverdeltas. Arcticcisco,the most

is closelytiedto the success of the whaling season and commonly caught whitefishspecies,is taken in the ocean

the number of caribouavailablefor harvest. Snow cover, by nettingor seining. Cisco begin appearing in the nets

weather, and travelconditionsin the mountains are also about mid-Julynear the peak of the arcticchar run.

important factors. During 1982-84, Kaktovik hunters took

only about halfthe 50 sheep forwhich they could obtain - Willow and rock ptarmigan are hunted year-round,

permits (Pedersen and others,1985),mainlybecause of with greatestsuccess duringApriland May. Waterfowlare

theirsuccess in procuringother resources. hunted along the coast, mostly in the springfrom May

through early June, although less Intensivehunting

- According to older residents,Kaktovik was a continuesthrough the summer and intoSeptember. People

prehistoricwhaling sitewith whale bones used for a usuallyhunt black brant,common and king elder,snow and

walkway to the beach. In the period of recorded history, Canada geese, pintail,and oldsquaw. More oldsquaw are

though, no whaling occured, perhaps because of unsuitable usuallytaken than any other species,usuallyincidentalto

ice conditionsand lack of equipment. Beginning again in other forms of huntingor when fishingnets are checked.

1964, whales (particularlybowheads and occasionally However, during July 1985-July 1986, 531 geese were

belugas)have been activelyhunted. Whaling is viewed as harvested; most were brant. During that same period,

one of the village'smost important annual activities people from Kaktovik harvested 251 ducks (S. Pedersen,

(Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982), expressingthe cultural ADF&G, unpublished data). A few birdeggs are collected

values of largegroup cooperationand sharing of resources, each spring.-

and being a way of passing these values to the younger

generation.The harvestquota for Kaktovik,as determined Winter is the season for trapping and hunting

through the cooperative agreement between the Alaska furbearers. Some Kaktovik residentshunt wolves and

Eskimo Whaling Commission and the NationalOceanic and Wolverinesand trap red foxes in the foothills,chieflysouth

Atmospheric Administration,has never been exceeded. of the 1002 area. Others concentrateon arcticfoxes on or

Kaktovikhuntersfilledtheirquota of 3 whales in 1981. In near the 1002 area. Furs are used locallyin making parkas

1981-85 an average of one whale was harvested annually, and ruffsor are sold to the VillageCorporationor to fur

with an additionalannual average of one whale struckand buyers.

lost by the village.Approximately22 whales were taken

during 1964-81. Kaktovik's bowhead whaling season Brown bears are taken by villagersstrictlyon an

occurs during the westward migrationof bowheads near opportunisticbasis (Jacobson, 1980),recentlyabout two for

the coast,from lateAugust untilearlyOctober. There is no the entirevillageper year. One or two moose are

springwhaling season in Kaktovikbecause the leads (open harvested each year by Kaktovikon an opportunisticbasis.

water channels) are too far from shore. Whales are They are most oftentaken in the SadlerochitValleyand in

generallyhunted within10 miles of land,but sometimes as the foothillsalong Old Man Creek, Okpilak River,and

faras 20 milesoffshorefrom BarterIsland.Aftera whale Okpirourak River. Expanding muskoxen populationsare a

is butchered,the meat and muktuk (blubberand skin)are limitedsource of subsistence hunting. Arctic ground

divided among the captain,crew, and the restof the squirrelsare hunted mainlyfrom March through May along

village.- the banks and sandy mounds of the major rivers,especially

the Jago, Okpilak,Hulahula,and Sadlerochit(Jacobson and

Kaktovik people hunt bearded, ringed,and spotted Wentworth, 1982).

sealsforoil,meat, and skins. Seals are hunted throughout

the year and make an importantcontributionto the diet.

Most seals are hunted from boats along the coast from

July intoSeptember.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT-HUMAN 39
Several goals of the State-approved North Slope

Borough Coastal Management Program (see "Coastaland

Marine Environment") relateto subsistence resources.

These goals are: (1)to protectthe naturalenvironmentand

itscapacityto support subsistenceactivities; (2)to protect

and enhance subsistence resources;(3)to preservethe

Inupiatculture;and (4)to maintainand enhance access to

subsistence resources.

- OTHER COMMUNITIES - Approximatelyhalfthe food consumed by people in

Old Crow comes from the land;of this,caribou isthe

Several communities located relativelyfar from the most important. The major hunt for caribouisin the fall;

Arctic Refuge utilizemigratoryspecies which may spend some huntingoccurs in winterand in springdepending on

partof theirlifecyclesin or near the 1002 area. Caribou the year. In September, largenumbers of caribou pass

are of particularsignificance,as well as snow geese, polar through the Old Crow flatsand cross the Porcupine River

bears, and bowhead and beluga whales. Use of these en routeto winteringareas. At thistime they can be taken

migratory populationsby other communities in Alaska and on land or by boat. Annual harvestof the PCH by Old

Canada is discussed below. Crow ranged from 250 to 1,000 between 1963 and 1986

(table11-5).People of Old Crow also harvestfishduring

Caribou the summer; moose, muskrats and waterfowlduringspring;

and rabbitsand ptarmiganwhen available.

Archaeologicalevidence indicatesthat people have

been using caribou for at least27,000 years,beforethe last Other villagesutilizingcaribou from the PCH are

glaciationin northernAlaska and Canada. Work done at locatedon the edge of the PCH range,and take caribou

sitesoccupied up to 1500 years ago near Old Crow, Yukon only in years when animals are available(U.S. Department

Territory,documented a subsistenceeconomy centered on of State,1980). The estimatedannual caribouharvestin

the interceptionof spring and fallmigrationsof caribou Aklavik,Inuvik,ArcticRed River,and Fort McPherson,

(Garnerand Reynolds, 1986). Canada, ranged from less than 100 to over 2,000 during

1963-86 (table11-5).Most of these animals are taken by

Today, harvest of caribouby communities in both the two communities of Aklavikand Fort McPherson (B.

Alaska and Canada depends largelyon the variable Pelchat,Yukon WildlifeBranch, and Don Russell,Canadian

distributionof the PCH from year to year. In some years, WildlifeService,unpublished data). Alaskan villagesof

migrationroutes or winteringareas may not bring caribou Venetie,Fort Yukon, and Chalkyitsikharvested 300-400

near enough to a villageto make huntingfeasible.Still,the caribou in 1980-1981 (Pedersen and Caulfield,1981).

largeamount of resources sharing and tradingwhich Sharing and tradingof resources occurs between villages.

occurs between villagesreduces yearlyvariationbetween Ifcaribou are not availablein Fort Yukon, for example,

communities. The two villagesotherthan Kaktovikthatare residentsmay trade salmon for caribouwith residentsof

most dependent on caribou using the 1002 area are Arctic ArcticVillage. Because of the well-establishednetwork of

Village,Alaska, and Old Crow, Yukon Territory;both are exchange, those who are unable to obtain subsistence

inland villageshaving littleor no access to marine resources forthemselves are able to procure itfrom friends

resources. Other communities whose residentshunt or relatives(Berger,1977).

Porcupine caribou include Venetie,Fort Yukon, and

Chalkyitsikin Alaska and Fort McPherson, Inuvik,Aklavik, Use of CentralArctic Herd (CAH) cariboualso

ArcticRed River,and Tuktoyaktuk in the Northwest occurs in communities other than Kaktovik. Residents of

Territories. Nuiqsut,and some Barrow residentswho travelto Nuiqsut

for hunting, harvest caribou from both the CAH and

Caribou is the most importantfood source forArctic Teshekpuk herd. The portion of the harvestfrom these

Village. Caribou from the PCH are usuallyavailablefrom respective herds is unknown (S. Pedersen, ADF&G,

August to April.Fallhuntingis conducted near the village; unpublished data). Residents from Anaktuvuk Pass harvest

winterhunting occurs fartheraway because snowmachines severalhundred caribou annuallyfrom the Western Arctic

can be used. In the 1970's,the hat-vestat ArcticVillage herd,as well as some CAH animals. Through the harvest

was reported to be 200-1,000animals (LeBlond,1979). composition from each herd is not well known, itis

Moose, fish,Dailsheep, waterfowl,and small mammals are believedthat Anaktuvuk Pass residentsrelyprimarilyon

also important, with an estimated 50 to 90 percent of all Western Arctic herd animals. and harvest from the CAH is

food consumed in the community derived from local wild less than 100 animals (K. R. Whitten, ADF&G, unpublished

resources (Caulfield,1983). data).

40 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
- Table 11-5.--Estimated Canadianharvestfromthe

Porcupinecaribouherd,1963-86.-

[Most ofthe estimateswere obtainedby conservationofficers

or biologistsinthe communitiesor by door-to-door

interviews.Many figuresareprobablyunderestimatesand

reflectproblemsinherentinthe data-collection methods.

NA, not available]

Harvest Yukon Territory NorthwestTerritoriesTotal

year Old Dempster TotalAkla-FortMc- Total Canada

(12mo) Crow Southl vik Pherson

1963-64 706 0 706 621 395 1,016 1,722

1964-65 769 0 769 774 492 1,266 2,035

1965-66 ? 0 ? 647 479 1,126 ?

1966-67 592 0 592 477 479 956 1,548

1967-68 590 0 590 996 1,130 2,126 2,716

1968-69 557 0 557 541 742 1,283 1,840

1969-70 478 300+ 778+ 465 363 828 1,306

1970-71 450 300+ 750 414 723 1,137 1,887

1971-72 485 250 735 616 250 866 1,601

1972-73 297 61 358 NA NA 1,331 NA

1973-74 607 184 791 1,300 500 2,000 2,791

1974-75 382 24 406 NA NA 1,331 NA

1975-76 785 29 814 NA NA NA NA

1976-77 NA 239 NA NA NA NA NA

1977-78 537 29 556 114 350 564 1,120

1978-79 900 11 911 187 12 199 1,110

1979-80 Boo 44 844 147 168 315 1,159

1980-81 558 107 665 9 40 120 785

1981-82 1,000 42 1,115 300 1,500 1,800 2,915

1982-83 500 29 529 500 1,141 1,641 1,670

1983-84 1,000 100 1,100 NA 584 584 1,684

1984-85 250 37 287 ----1,500---- 1,700 1,987

1985-86 349 543 892 ---1,570--- 1,570 2,462

1From Dempster Highway game check station.Accordingto Don

Russell(CanadianWildlifeService,Whitehorse,Yukon Territory,March

1987),onlya smallproportionofthisharvestisconsideredto be

subsistenceharvest.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--HUMAN 41
Snow Geese - Table 11-7.-AlaskaBeaufortSea harvestofpolar

bears,1980-87.-

Birdsfrom the Western Arcticsnow geese population

occur as fallmigrantson the 1002 area. The major [From Schliebe(1987). Harvestyear is July1-June 30.

subsistenceuse of thisspeciesis inthe coastalareas of 1986-87 data through January 1987, Only part of the

the Northwest Territoriesof Canada near the major nesting PortLay harvestisbelievedto be derivedfrom Beaufort

coloniesand fallstagingareas,and along the Mackenzie Sea stock]

River, a major spring and fallmigrationcorridor.

Subsistenceharvestin springand fallis importantto the

coastalcommunitiesof Aklavik,Inuvik,Tuktoyaktuk,Sachs

Harbor,and Paulatuk,and the Mackenzie Rivercommunities Year ............. 1980- 1981- 1982- 1983- 1984- 1985- 1986-

of Fort McPherson, Fort Good Hope, ArcticRed River, 81 82 63 84 85 86 87

Norman Wells,and Fort Norman (T.W. Barryand W.

Spencer, Canadian WildlifeService,unpublished data).

Scanty data are availablefrom some of these communities Kaktovik....... 23 1 1 1 2 3 1

(table11-6).Snow geese do not appear to be an important Nuiqsut........ I 0 0 0 0 2 1

subsistenceresourcein the northernYukon community of Barrow......... 6 4 13 27 31 12 14

Old Crow because they are not easilyaccessiblethere(J. Wainwright.. 3 16 16 32 18 4 6

Hawkings, Canadian WildlifeService,unpublisheddata). PointLay..... 1 4 1 9 0 7 0

Table 11-6.-Springand fallsubsistenceharvestof

snow geese in the NorthwestTerritories, Canada. Harvest estimatesforcommunitiesin Alaska utilizing

the BeaufortSea stock of bears are shown forthe years

[Dataavailableintermittently for1967-85. From 1980 through January 1987 (table11-7).Harvestin Canada

Barry(1985)]- is accordingto a quota system. Communities of Inuvik,

Aklavik,and Tuktoyaktukhave a combined quota of 32

polar bears. The combined quota for communities of

Community 1967 1968 1978 1985 Paulatukand Sachs Harbor,of which onlya portionapply

Spring Fall Spring FallSpring Spring to the BeaufortSea stock,is39 (Taylorand others,1987).

& Fall Polar bears representa substantialcomponent of the

culturaland economic base of the Inuitpeople of the

Tuktoyaktuk......... 2,162 1,158 --- --- 4,348 3,500 Canadian Western Arctic. Hides have directeconomic

Aklavik/Kendall value,and inrecentyears the principalmotivationforpolar

Islandl.............. 144 280 --- 845 -- -- bear huntinghas been the sale of hides (Stirlingand

Sachs Harbor.....1,055 45 --- --- others,1975). Fur exportsare an importantsource of cash

Paulatuk............... --- --- 335 56 in the economies of Mackenzie and 'rim"villages.

FortMcPherson . 4 10 --- Accordingto Brackel(1977),marinefurs(whitefox,polar

ArcticRed bear,and ringedseal)provided5 percentand 19 percentof

River.................. --- 0 0

--- the earned income inthe Mackenzie and "rim"economies,

respectively.

KendallIslandisa huntingcamp primarilyused by

Aklavikresidents.

Whales

Inupiatresidentsof the community of Nulqsut also

Polar Bears harvestbowhead and beluga whales near the 1002 area.

Although the community itselfis not locatedon the coast,

In additionto harvestin or near the 1002 area by marine mammals are an importantsubsistenceresource.

residentsof Kaktovik,the BeaufortSea populationof polar Nuiqsut hunters in company with Kaktovikhunters

bears is harvestedby InupiatEskimos of otherNorth Slope sometimes hunt bowhead and beluga whales. Bowhead

communitiesin Alaska as wellas by communitiesin the whaling usuallyoccurs between lateAugust and early

coastalareas of Canada's NorthwestTerritories.These October, the exact timingand length of the season

communities includeNuiqsut, Barrow,Wainwright,and depending on ice and weather conditions.The season

probablyPointLay inAlaska,and Tuktoyaktuk,Aklavik,and may lastbetween 2 weeks and 2 months. The bowhead is

Inuvikin the Northwest Territories.Sachs Harbor and shared extensivelywithother North Slope communitiesand

Paulatuk,NorthwestTerritories, may harvesta smallpercent peopleas faraway as Fairbanksand Anchorage. Whale

of theirkillfrom bears of the BeaufortSea stock,according baleen is barteredin traditional networksand is used in

to currentsatellitetelemetrydata (S. L. Schliebe,FWS, making traditionalhandicrafts(U.S.MineralsManagement

unpublisheddata). Service,1986).

42 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Beluga whales are harvestedduringthe periodof The Stateof Alaska has solicitedcomments and is

open water and are taken incidentallyto the bowhead developinga preliminaryanalysisforState offshoreoiland

whale harvest in Nuiqsut (U.S. MineralsManagement gas leasesales,includingsubmerged lands. Approximately

Service,1986). Communities of the Mackenzie Riverdelta 127,000acres immediatelyoffshorefrom the 1002 area

(Inuvik,Aklavik,and Tuktoyaktuk)and Amundsen Gulf between the Canning and Hulahula Rivershas been

(Sachs Harbour,Holman, and Paulatuk),are also partially identifiedfora May 1987 Statesale;about 300,000acres

dependent on subsistenceuses of belugawhales. Beluga offshorefrom the ArcticRefuge between the mouth ofthe

whales are presentinthe BeaufortSea northof the Arctic Hulahula River and the Canadian border has been

Refuge during spring and fallmigrationswhere they proposed fora May 1988 Statesale.

generallyfollowthe pack ice edge (Seaman and others,

1981). They are harvestedin the Mackenzie partof the - Nativeallotmentsare scatteredthroughoutthe 1002

BeaufortSea, where whales enterwarmer watersof the area, and are largelytraditionaluse sites,such as

bays near the Mackenzie RiverdeltaduringearlyJulyand campsites,

remainuntilthe middleof August. Whalingforbeluganear

the Mackenzie deltaisnot regulated,and approximately120 NATIVE ALLOTMENTS

whales are takenper year (Brackel,1977). Whale products

are primarilyused locally,althoughsome productssuch as - Withinthe 1002 area,the FederalGovernment has

muktuk are occasionallysold. Beluga mukluk is often begun to process toward conveyances some 25

shared with relativesin Kaktovikand otherAlaskanand applications,involving34 parcelsfor Nativeallotments.

Canadianvillages.A variationin diet,and the sportand None of these parcelshad been issued a certificate of

recreationof the hunt,with opportunitiesforsocializing, are allotmentas of January 1987. Intotal,these applications

allimportantfactorsinwhaling(Brackel,1977). coverapproximately2,315 acres. A Nativeallotmentisa

parcelof land,containing160 acres or less,which can be

LAND STATUS conveyed to a Nativebased on thatindividual's use and

- Land ownership withinand adjacentto the 1002 area occupancy of the land under the authorityof the Native

is a complex of Federal,State,and privateinterests. AllotmentAct,May 17, 1906 (43 U.S.C.270-1),as amended

Federallyowned landto the south and eastismanaged as August 2, 1956, and repealedby the Alaska NativeClaims

the ArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge. Oiland gas exploration SettlementAct of December 18,1971 (43U.S.C.1617). -

has occurredon State landswest of the Canning River.

Leases on 119 tractstotaling592,142 acres of Statelands Subsurface ownership under an allotmentwillbe

west of the Canning Riverwere offeredJanuary 27, 1987. reservedto the governmentifitis determinedthat itmay

Bids were receivedby the State on 26 tractstotaling be valuableforcoal,oil,or gas. The government or Rs

100,632acres.- lessee would then have the rightto enterand use the

lands forthe developmentof the reservedminerals,subject

- The KaktovikInupiatCorporation(KIC)has statutory to the duty to pay the allotmentowner for damages to

entitlementto ownership of 92,160surfaceacres withinthe surface improvements and a bond to guaranteesuch

ArcticRefuge north of the 1002 area. Subsurface payments. Ifthe allotmentarea isknown to be valuablefor

ownership ofthese landswas conveyed to the ArcticSlope mineralsotherthan coal,oil,and gas, an allotmentis not

RegionalCorporation(ASRC) by the UnitedStatesunder granted.

the terms of an August 9, 1983,agreement. The KIC/ASRC

holdingsare privatelands;however,in accordancewith INDUSTRIAL USE

section22(g)of the ANCSA, theselands remainsubjectto

the laws and regulationsgoverningdevelopment of the There has been no industrialland use of the 1002

Arctic Refuge. As such, oiland gas leasingand area other than oiland gas explorationunder the 1002

development cannot occur on the KIC/ASRC lands until program.

authorizedby an Act of the Congress (Section1003 of

ANILCA). - GOVERNMENT AND MILITARY USE

Submerged lands beneath the coastallagoons inthe ArcticContractors(PET-4 Contractor)establishedan

area between the mainlandand the offshorebarrierislands explorationcamp at BarterIslandin1947. The camp also

from Brownlow Pointto the mouth of the AlchilikRiver(with supported the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey coastal

the exceptionof lagoonsnorthof KIC lands)were included surveying parties. ArcticContractorsconstructedthe

withinthe area of explorationauthorizedby section airstripin 1947.

1002(b)(1).The United Statesand the Stateof Alaska

disputeownership of these lands and have presentedtheir - The U.S. Air Force constructeda DistantEarly

arguments to a SpecialMaster appointedby the United Warning (DEW) LineStation(DEW LineSiteBAR MAIN) on

StatesSupreme Court. A finaldecisionhas not been BarterIslandin 1955 as part of a largernetwork of radar

rendered. Untilthisdecisionismade, allactivityon these installations acrossthe North AmericanArctic.In1956 they

submerged lands requiresconcurrentFederaland State builtthe DEW Line hangar adjacentto the airstrip.The

approval. establishmentand expansionof the siteforcedthe village

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--HUMAN 43
of Kaktovikto relocatethree times,but also brought KIC isa villagecorporation;itwas formed under the

employment opportunitiesto villagers.The siteisabout 1/2 provisionsof ANCSA in1972 to manage surfaceresources

milefrom the presentvillageand is largelyself-contained, surroundingthe villageof Kaktovikthatwere transferred

functioningas an entityseparatefrom the village.As many under the provisionsofANCSA and ANILCA.

as 70 DEW Lineemployees liveat the site,most ofwhom

are hiredfrom outsidethe North Slope. In 1986 the site - Employment in the NSB increasedfrom 977 jobs to

employed three Inupiatand two non-Inupiatresidentsof 5,598 between 1970 and 1979. By September 1985, 9,234

Kaktovik. Modernizationof the Bar Main DEW Line site workers were employed in the North Slope Borough; 86

startedin 1986 when a new pad and tower were percentof thisemployment was in the followingmajor

constructed.Testingnew equipmentwillrun through 1988, categories:mining,includingoildevelopment,4,150 (45

afterwhich minor facilitymodificationmay be necessary. percent);Stateand localgovernment,1,409 (15 percent);

The Bar Main DEW Linesitewillcontinueto be staffedfor construction,1,258 (14 percent);and services,1,110 (12

at leastthe next20 years.-

percent).The remaining14 percentwere scatteredinother

smalleremployment sectors (NSB PlanningDepartment,

The Alaskan DEW Line also includedintermediate 1986). The majorityofjobs,principally at Prudhoe Bay and

sitesat Camden Bay (POWD) and BeaufortLagoon the militaryenclaves,are held by non-Nativeworkers.

(Humphrey Point,BAR A), which were constructedfor However, participationby Inupiatsin the labormarkethas

communications relays. Advanced communications been encouraged through NSB and ASRC programs.-

technologyresultedintheirdeactivationin 1963. The lands

(approximately876 acres)formerlywithdrawnforthe two The economy recentlymade a majortransitionfrom

sitesbecame a partof the ArcticRefuge on December 28, largelysubsistenceto mixed subsistenceand cash.

1982. Through local-hirepolicies,the NSB has providedsome

employment for more than 50 percentof the resident

State and Local Political

Inupiatadultsand has contributedsignificantly to increased

and Economic Systems

per capitaincome. A major factorcontributingto increased

Nativeemployment is the capitalimprovement program.

Four levelsof government operatewithinor affectthe

However, long-term Inupiatemployment opportunities

1002 area: Federal,Stateof Alaska,North Slope Borough,

depend on: (1) NSB's continuingabilityto providejobs;

and the villageof Kaktovik.Two corporations,ASRC and

and (2)abilityand desireof Nativesto work at sitesaway

KIC, have a major influenceon privatelands adjacentto from theirhomes.

the 1002 area. Many Nativeresidentsbelongto and have The region has been isolatedfrom the periodic

directinputto the NSB, ASRC, KIC,and KaktovikVillage. boom-and-bust economic cycles of forest/fishery/gold

The State (1)establisheslaws and regulations

extractiontypicalof other parts of Alaska. Except for

governingcertainlocalactivities, (2)providesfinancialand

whalingitremained virtuallyunchanged untilafterWorld War

technicalassistance,(3) exercisescertainpoliceand

11.The primarydrivingforcethen became nationaldefense

regulatorypowers such as huntingand fishingbag limits

(researchat the Naval ArcticResearch Laboratoryat

and subsistence and commercial harvestof natural

Barrow,and DEW radarsitesalongthe coast).Today,the

resources,and (4)setsstandardsforwater quality.

productionof oilat Prudhoe Bay is the basic economic

influence.

The NSB was organizedin 1972; in 1973 itwas

convertedto a home-rulecharter--thestrongestform of The State-approved NSB Coastal Management

localgovernment under Alaskalaw (NSB, 1984a).The NSB

Program was described under "Coastal and Marine

has an elected mayor and an elected seven-member Environment.' Of the goals relatingto economic and

assembly. Itis responsible(among otherfunctions)for

government activitiesthose particularlypertinentto this

borough-wide planningsuch as the coastalmanagement reportare:

program,and itoverseesthe capitalimprovementsprogram. Preserve opportunitiesfor traditionalactivitiesand the

Kaktovikwas incorporatedas a second-classcityin

Inupiatway of lifein the North Slope,regardlessof

1972,and has a council-mayorform of government. The ownership and jurisdictional boundaries,

mayor isappointed from the electedseven-member council. Increaseeconomic opportunityin villages,

The ASRC is the regionalprofit-makingNative Create employment forNSB residentswhich willprovide

organizationformed in 1972 under the provisionsof the flexibility for traditionalInupiatculturaland subsistence

Alaska Native Claims SettlementAct (ANCSA). Itis

activities,

responsibleto nearly4,000 Inupiatstockholdersfor

management of 5.6 millionacres and $75 million(ASRC, Develop new industriesbased on the Inupiatculture,

1985;NSB, 1984b). ASRC owns subsurfacerightsforthe

entire5.6-million-acre area and about 4.8 millionsurface

acres scatteredacrossthe North Slope ofAlaska.

44 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Protectlifeand propertyfrom naturalhazards and The Trans-AlaskaPipelineSystem (TAPS) connects

phenomena, Prudhoe Bay and associatedoilfieldsto a marinetanker

terminalat Valdez,Alaska. Recent offshoresales by

Provideguidance and directionfor presentand potential Federaland StateGovernments have been based on the

resource development,onshore and offshore,including assumption thatfeeder pipelineswillconnect any new

exploration,extraction,and processingand related commercialdiscoveriesto the existingoilpipelineand that

facilities, halfthose pipelineswould be locatedonshore. Many

factorsincludingpotentialocationsof productionplatforms

Cooperate and coordinatewith privatedevelopment, and size of commerciallydevelopablefieldsare unknown.

Possibleoffshorepipelineroutesand landfallsincludethose

Improveenergy supplyforlocalcommunities,and suggestedforSales71, 87, and 97. Of significanceto the

1002 area isan assumed landfallat BullenPoint,west of

Develop localenergy resources. the Canning River(Roberts,1987).

- The NSB provides water,sewage, sanitary,lightpower-heating,public housing, education,health,and

public-safetyfacilities in Kaktovik. At Kaktovikthe school

PUBLIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES complex consistsof a two-room elementaryschool and a

high school with four classrooms,library,gymnasium,

- Existingpublicservicesand facilities are describedin swimming pool, and kitchen. A vocationaleducation

the semiannualeconomic profile(NSB PlanningDepartment, buildingwas completed in 1981. Juniorand seniorhigh

1986). New oiland gas facilities assumed to resultfrom schoolenrollmentwas 45 studentsas of January1987. -

existingoffshoreFederalleasingare describedinscenarios

foroildevelopmentinthe BeaufortSea (Roberts,1987). - Kaktovikhas a healthclinicstaffedby a healthaide.

Two NSB Department of PublicSafetyOfficersare stationed

Airtransportationis the singlemost extensiveall- at Kaktovik. Federalfacilities includethe Post Office,the

season form of travelinthe region.Airfacilities range from ArcticRefuge fieldoffice,and the Bar Main DEW site.

long,well-maintainedpaved runways to unimproved strips,

sand bars,and locallargelakes. Duringthe winteroiland

gas explorationissupportedby artificially createdicestrips.

Commercial airtransportationfacilities are locatedat all

communitiesin the NSB. Except for Barrow and Prudhoe

Bay, most lack sophisticatednavigationaids,lighting,and

snow-removal equipment. The only militaryairfacilityof Archeology

significanceto the 1002 area isat BarterIsland(Kaklovik),

and is shared by the NSB and U.S. Air Force (NSB, Approximately100 archeologicalsitesare known

1984b). Originallyconstructedby the military,airstrips withinthe 1002 area (pl.1N. Dated sitesappear to be

locatedat Camden Bay, Demarcation Bay, BeaufortLagoon, comparativelyrecent and of eitherHistoricInupiat

and BullenPointhave been abandoned. (approximatelyAD 1838-present)or Western Thule (about

AD 900-1838)origin.Severalsmallersiteson the 1002

Marine transportationis controlledby ice conditions area--mostlyscattersof lithicdebrisfrom the manufacture,

and shallow nearshore waters. Major portfacilities are maintenance,and use of stone tools--arenot yet datable

locatedat Prudhoe Bay. At BarterIsland,shallow-draft but may be considerablyolder.

vesselslanddirectlyupon the beach. Militarysiteshave in

the past been served by marine transportation.Most Near the 1002 area siteshave been dated to be as

portsof embarkationare inWashington and California;only old as 6,000years(U.S.Fishand WildlifeService,1982). A

a smallpartof ocean freightis shippedfrom Alaskaports. fairlywidelyaccepted date from the Old Crow area of the

The riversinthe 1002 area are too smalland shallowfor Yukon Territory(about 150 miles southeastof the 1002

inlandcommercial navigation. area) indicatesthat people have been presentin the

generalarea forthe last27,000years. Even though sites

The Dalton Highway is an all-weatherroad of such an earlyperiodare few,sites5,000-6,000yearsold

connectingPrudhoe Bay to the Alaska highway system. may occur on the 1002 area,but are yetto be discovered.

No road networkconnects populationcentersinthe NSB.

Cross-countrytransportationto and from the 1002 area is Archeologicalsitesmay occur almostanywhere inthe

limitedto winter,using specialequipment on the snow or 1002 area. However, some areasare much more likelyto

sea ice. Nearlyevery community and militarysitein the have sites,especiallycoastalareas and barrierislands.

NSB has an internalgravelor dirtroad system linkingairor Most identifiedsitesconsistof the remainsof sod houses,

marine transportationfacilities.Villageresidentsuse log cabins,burials,caches, lookouttowers,and related

motorbikes,three-wheeledall-terrain vehicles,cars,or trucks features. Older sitesmay be buriedunder considerable

in summer, and snowmachines inwinter. sediment.

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--HUMAN 45
Archeologicalsitesare also likelyalong riversand Wilderness and Esthetics

streams that cross the 1002 area from the PhilipSmith The Arctic Refuge is the only conservationsystem

Mountains. These riverscould have providedfishingand unitthat protects,in an undisturbedcondition,a complete

would have been naturaltravelroutes between the coast spectrum of the arctic ecosystems in North America.

and the foothills.Sitesknown from the rivercourses are Approximately8 millionacres of the refugeis designated as

chieflytent rings,although two interiorsiteshave sod wildernessby ANILCA section702(3),and adjoinsthe 1002

houses. Points of particularpossibilityare high,well- area on the south and east,includingthe coastalplainfrom

drained banks, especiallynear stream confluences. the eastern1002 area boundary to the Canadian border.

Undiscovered sitesmay also be on high pointsof Wilderness is described by the WildernessAct of

land that provide overlooks above the surroundingmoist 1964 (PublicLaw 88-557) as " * * * an area of

tundra;such spots are known to containarcheologicalsites undeveloped Federal lands retainingRs primevalcharacter

throughout most of northernAlaska and Canada. There and influence,without permanent improvements or human

are relativelyfew such locationson the 1002 area,and habitation,which is protectedand managed so as to

sites that have been identifiedin such locationsare preserveits naturalconditionsand which (1) generally

uniformlysmallscattersof lithicmaterial. appears to have been affectedprimarilyby the forces of

Archeological sites are even less likelyon the

nature,with the imprintof man's work substantially

unnoticeable;(2)has outstandingopportunitiesfor solitude

relativelystablesandy areas in riverdeltas. As with the or a primitiveand unconfinedtype of recreation;(3)has at

overlook sites,materialfrom blowouts in deltasis currently leastfivethousand acres of land of sufficientsizeas to

limitedto lithicremains. make practicableitspreservationand use in an unimpaired

The remainder of the 1002 area consistslargelyof

condition;and (4)may also containecological,geological,

flatto gentlyrollingtundra,now very wet. Such areas are

or other features of scientific,educational,scenic,or

historicalvalue." With the exceptionof the two abandoned

leastlikelyto containsites,or to containsitesthat are DEW Line siteson the coast,the entire1002 area meets

susceptibleto discovery. these criteria(Gamer and Reynolds,1986). The coastal

plain in its present state has outstandingwilderness

Recreation qualities: scenic vistas,varied wildlife,excellent

Recreationaluse of the ArcticRefuge is variedand is opportunities for solitude,recreationalchallenges,and

relatedto wildlifeor wildernessvalues. Types and amount scientificand historicvalues.

of recreationare limitedby the refuge'sremoteness, harsh

climate,and poor access. Fewer than 3,000 visitsoccur - The 1002 area isthe most biologicallyproductivepart

annually. Wet and moist ground conditionsin the short of the ArcticRefuge forwildlifeand isthe centerof wildlife

summer season make surfacetraveldifficult, and extended activity. Itserves as an importantcalvingground forthe

periods of cold and darkness during the winterreduce Porcupine caribou herd; itcontains a high percentage of

recreationaluses at thattime. Access is almost exclusively the refuge'sobserved muskoxen range; itis an important

by aircraftand is costly. Nonetheless,recreationaluse of fallstagingarea forlessersnow geese; itprovidesnesting

the 1002 area is slowlyincreasingas itbecomes better habitatfor waterfowland shorebirds;and itis frequently

known and as scheduled airlineservicesto BarterIsland used by denning polar bears from the BeaufortSea

improve. population. Migratingcaribou and the postcalvingcaribou

aggregation offeran extraordinaryspectacle. The area

The most common forms of recreationarea are presents many opportunitiesfor scientificstudy of a

hunting,backpacking,and floattripson the largerrivers relativelyundisturbedecosystem. -

such as the Canning, Hulahula, and Aichilik.Other

recreationalpursuitsare wildlifeobservation,photography, Visualresources of the 1002 area encompass diverse

sightseeing,cross-countryskiing,fishing,and naturestudy. ecotypes and landforms. The irregularcoastlineof the

Most recreationistspursue severalof these activities. Beaufort Sea--characterizedby itsbarrierislands,lagoons,

Kaktovikresidentsalso engage in snowmobiling. beaches, submerged bars,spits,and riverdeltas--givesway

to the south to the gently risingcoastalplain. The

- In 1986, 14 hunting guides operated on the refuge, backdrop of the steeplyrisingBrooks Range, with itsdeep

though none guided on the 1002 area. Another 9 rivervalleysand glacier-cladpeaks, accents the abruptness

recreationalguides conducted group floator backpack trips and rugged beauty of the area.

on the refuge. One or two guides operated recreational

trips,at leastin part,on the 1002 area duringthe past 5 - Although the estheticvalue of the 1002 area had

years. Float-tripgroups average 6-12 people. Figureson been temporarilyreduced as a resultof seismic exploration,

nonguided recreationistsare unavailable,but probably fewer the area remains noteworthy and itswildernessvalues have

than 100 unguided visitsoccur annuallyon the ground in not been diminished. Recent botanicalstudiesshow that

the 1002 area. Several hundred visitorsflyover the 1002 recovery on the 1002 area is starting,with seismictrails

area annuallyto sightseeor en routeto otherpartsof the less visiblein the second year afterdisturbance(Felixand

ArcticRefuge. - others,1987).

46 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
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inGarner and Reynolds (1984).

BRAIDED RIVER OF THE COASTAL PLAIN

EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--REFERENCES 53
. ........ ........

T v Q

LOW-CENTERED POLYGONS

54 ARGTIC REFUGI RFSOURCIF A,'-',SE.@SMENT
CHAPTER III

ASSESSMENT OF OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL

AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF THE 1002 AREA

INTRODUCTION This chapter is organizedas follows:first,significant

resultsof the resource assessment are summarized;

This chapter presentsthe assessment of the oiland second, the geology of the 1002 area is brieflydescribed,

gas potentialof the 1002 area of the ArcticRefuge. This indicatingthe types of rocks and structureswhich might be

assessment and the discussionof the petroleum geology of present; third,the likelihoodthatoiland gas resourcesare

the 1002 area are based on surfacegeology studiesand present is assessed through the use of geological"play"

1,336 linemiles of seismicsurveys (approximatelya 34-mile analysiswhich leads to estimates of the amount of

grid)conducted by industryand the Department of the resource potentiallybeneath the surfaceof the 1002 area,

Interior. Although all seismic data were collectedby without reference to its recoverability;and fourth,the

industry,the analyses presented here are based on possibilityof recovering these potentialresources is

interpretationsof that informationby the U.S. Geological assessed by including technologicaland economic

Survey (GS) and the Bureau of Land Management (BLIVI). considerations.

146, 145, 1440 1430

Raman B E A U F 0 R T S E A

Isjand,t-,@Brownlow

Point

Ka

n USA

CAMDEN BA

70'

00,

Angun

nt

A R E

I*1_7 B

4@

dill-h

SPSadlemchi mountains Australia//,,,

6\e

69,

30,

0 10 20 30 MILES

0 10 20 30 KILOMEFERS

Figure III-l.--Seismically mapped prospects (1-26) and resource blocks (A-D) in the 1002 area.

(Preparedby the Bureau of Land Management,)

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL--INTRODUCTION 55
SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS AND PERSPECTIVES

The 1002 area is potentiallyrich in oiland gas additionto the Nation'sgas resources, At some time in

resources. Seven different"plays"(areas with common the future,thisgas resource could become economic and

geologicalcharacteristicsfavorablefor oiland gas resource benefitthe Nation.

occurrence) were identified.From these plays,in-place

resources were calculated.According to these estimates,

there is a 95-percentchance the 1002 area containsmore

than 4.8 billionbarrelsof oil(BBO) and 11.5trillioncubic

feet of gas (TCFG) in-place,and there is a 5-percent

chance that the 1002 area containsmore than 29.4 BBO

and 64.5 TCFG in-place.The average of allthe in-place

estimates made in this study, calledthe mean in-place

estimate,is 13.8 BBO and 31.3 TCFG in-place. Table III-l.--Estimatesof undiscovered,conditional,

economicallyrecoverableoilresources in the 1002 area

Not all in-place resources are recoverable. To and in Outer ContinentalShelf (OCS) planningareas

estimatethe amount of the in-placeresource which may be (unleasedlands). For OCS planningareas,some of the

recoverable,26 prospects were delineatedand assessed reported marginal probabilitiesmay be based on the

(fig.111-1).These 26 prospects were subjectedto petroleum probability of occurrence of commercial gas

engineering and economic considerations,resultingin accumulations. For the 1002 area, only oilwas

estimatesof economicallyrecoverableresources. Ifthere is considered.

economicallyrecoverableoilpresentin the 1002 area (fields

of more than 440 millionbarrelsof oil,the chance of which [In billionsof barrels.Data for OGS resources from Cooke

is estimatedto be about 19 percent),itis estimatedthat (1985). MPHC, the probabilitythat economically

there is a 95-percentchance formore than 0.6 BBO and a recoverableoilresources occur somewhere inthe area.]

5-percentchance for more than 9.2 BBO recoverableinthe

area as a whole. The average of allthe estimatesofthe

conditionaleconomicallyrecoverableresources,the mean, is

3.2 BBO. 95-percent Mean 5-percent

Planningarea case case case MPHC

- The statementthat there is a 19-percentchance of

findingrecoverable oilin the 1002 area needs to be

interpretedin the context of past experience in oil 1002 area.......................... 0.61 3.23 9.24 0.19

explorationand resource assessment. Generallyspeaking,

the chance of oil'sbeing presentwillbe lower,the smaller CentralGulfof Mexico .... .95 2.66 4.97 1.00

the unexplored area being considered. The 19-percent Western Gulfof Mexico.. .55 1.83 3.49 1.00

chance for the 1.5-million-acre 1002 area thus indicatesa Eastern Gulf of Mexico ... .03 .36 1.48 .99

very high potentialwhen compared to the 27-percent Southern California...........58 1.22 2.01 1.00

chance for the 37-million-acreNavarin Basin or the 22- Northern California............15 .42 .76 .60

percent chance for the 70-million-acreSt. George Basin CentralCalifornia............. .18 .56 1.01 .65

(table 111-1). Furthermore,the chance of findinga

recoverablefieldwillbe lower, the greaterthe minimum Washington-Oregon ..........04 .18 .54 .20

economic fieldsize. This occurs because, as past South AtlanticOcean ...... .34 .82 1.46 .25

discoverystatisticsshow, the number of fieldsof a given Mid-AtlanticOcean ............07 .23 .47 1.00

size is much lower for largerfields.There are fewer 1- North AtlanticOcean ....... .18 .35 .54 .30

billion-barrel fieldsthan 100-million-barrell fields.Because of FloridaStraits...................01 .04 .12 .11

the high cost of operationsin the Arctic,the minimum

economic fieldsize for the 1002 area is estimatedto be Navarin Basin ................... 1.81 3.28 5.09 .27

440 millionbarrels,an amount much higherthan forareas BeaufortSea .....................21 1.18 3.07 .70

inthe lower 48 States. Despitethishigh thresholdand the St.George Basin ............. .37 1.12 1.98 .22

small acreage involved,the chance of findinga recoverable Chukchi Sea .....................96 2.68 4.88 .20

fieldin the 1002 area is 19 percent. This is an Gulf of Alaska................... .12 .49 .86 .08

exceptionallyhigh potentialforoiland gas. - North AleutianBasin ....... .08 .36 .76 .20

Norton Basin.................... .05 .28 1.02 .12

Gas was not included in the calculationof Kodiak ............................... .04 .15 .26 .05

economically recoverable resources. Gas resources are Hope Basin....................... .13 .17 .40 .02

unlikelyto be economic in the 30-yeartime period being Shumagin .......................... .05 .05 .09 .03

considered. Nevertheless,the gas resource estimatedto Cook Inlet......................... .03 .18 .40 .04

be in-placeis considerable,and would representa major

56 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
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RECOVERABLEOIL,IN BILLIONSOF BARRELS 

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A 8 = P) ID ID 8) 
The separate methods used meet specific Sedimentary Rocks

requirementsofthe1002 areastudy.First,assessmentof

the naturalendowment of hydrocarbonresourcesismet by The area in and adjacentto the 1002 area is

asssessingwhat isin-place,employinga broad-basedview underlainby sedimentaryrocks severaltens of thousands

without economic constraints.Second, a site-specific of feetthick. These rocks range inage from Precambrian

evaluationof what may be a recoverableresourceat a (greaterthan 570 millionyears old)to Quaternary(Bader

given prospect is made, taking into consideration and Bird,1986). In northernAlaska,rocksprospectivefor

economics, technology,and transportationunder various petroleum(oiland gas)are mostlyMississippianto Tertiary

assumptions. This recoverableestimateis then used to in age and overliefoldedand truncatedpre-Mississippian

develop scenarios,impact assessment and nationalneed rocks. These rocks are dividedintotwo sequences: the

determinations.- Ellesmeriansequence of Mississippianto EarlyCretaceous

age, and the Brookiansequence of EarlyCretaceousand

Assessment of in-placeresources used a "play younger age. Depositionof the Ellesmeriansequence

analysis"method whereby prospects(potentialpetroleum occurredwhen the land area was to the northand the

accumulations)are grouped accordingto theirgeologic seaway was to the south. During depositionof the

characteristicsinto"plays"or naturalassociationshaving Brookiansequence, the geography was reversed--theland

common characteristics.Inthe assessment of recoverable areawas to the south (theancestralBrooks Range) and

resources,a site-specificanalysisof largerindividual the seaway was to the north,much as itistoday. The

prospectswas used in orderto model the elementswhich differentiation of these two sequences is importantin

determine recoverabilityand determine exploration, understandingdepositionalhistory,and inprojectingtrends

development,production,and transportationat thatlevel. of reservoirrocks. Furthermore,reservoirpropertiesof the

Ellesmeriansandstones are generallybetterthan those of

- Estimatingeitheroilor gas in-placeor the extentto the Brookiansequence.

which itisrecoverableinan undrilledfrontierarea isdifficult

because of the uncertaintiesinherentinthe process. The Figure 111-4is a generalizedstratigraphiccolumn of

existenceof potentialhydrocarbonformationsor prospects the rocks inthe area,showing oil-bearingformationswest

is not known with certaintypriorto exploratorydrilling. of the 1002 area, potentialsource rocks,and significant

Informationconcerningthe existenceof potentialproducing geologic events. The followingdiscussionsummarizes

fieldsis derivedfrom inferences,extrapolationsand pertinentinformationon the sedimentaryrocks relatingto

subjectivejudgments. Geophysicaldata providecluesas the oiland gas assessment and reviewstheirdepositional

to the existenceand locationof possibletrapsand their history.

generaldimensions,but geologicdata on the qualityof

potentialreservoirrocks are usuallyabsent or limited.No PRE-MISSISSIPPIAN ROCKS (BASEMENT COMPLEX)

dataare availableon the natureand distributionof included

hydrocarbonsor whether hydrocarbonsare presentat all. Pre-Mississippianrocks inthe mountains adjacentto

An exact predictionof resourcequantitiesunder such the 1002 areaconsistof more than 20,000feetof a variety

conditionsof uncertaintyis impossiblebecause the ofrock types such as phyllite,argillite, quartzite,chert,and

uncertaintiesin the inputdata translateto uncertaintiesin volcanic and carbonate rocks, and are mostly of Prethe answers.- cambrian age. Because most of these rocks are weakly

metamorphosed and are not prospectiveforpetroleum,they

are considered to be economic basement and are not

discussedfurther.However, the carbonaterocks--limestone

and dolomite-mightcontainporous zones thatcouldserve

as reservoirsfor oilor gas thatmay have been generated

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY in overlyingyounger rocks. These conditionsapparently

existinthe Exxon AlaskaStateF-1 and Sohio AlaskaIsland

The 1002 area of the ArcticRefuge liesalong the 1 wellson the barrierislandsnorthof PointThomson (fig.

foothillsand coastalplainnorthof the Brooks Range (fig, 111-3),where oiland gas have been recovered from

111-3).Much of thisarea iscovered by soilor vegetation, carbonaterocks in the basement. Similarsituationsmay

and the few outcropsthat are presentare mostlyof the occur in the 1002 area,and these rocks are importantto

younger partofthe stratigraphicsequence. Our knowledge the petroleumassessment.

of the geology of the area isbased on these few outcrops,

extrapolatingknown geology of adjacentareas, and At least6,500feetof carbonaterocks,ranginginage

integratingthiswith the geophysicaldata (mainlyseismic from Precambrian(?)to Devonian and known as the

surveys)acquiredwithinthe 1002 area. This section KatakturukDolomiteand Nanook Limestone,crops out in

reviewsthe overallgeology,emphasizingthose aspects that the Sadlerochitand Shublik Mountains. Unnamed

relateto petroleumgeology. More detailedand technical carbonaterocks as much as 200 feetthickhave been

discussionsof the geology,geophysics,and assessment penetratedina few wellsinthe PointThomson area. Their

methods are containedin GS Bulletin1778 (Birdand distributionithe subsurfaceof the 1002 area isunknown,

Magoon, 1987). because they had been foldedand eroded priorto

58 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
147' 146' 1450 1440 1431

AlaskaAlaskaIslandI

W.W

point Z.

F1

laskaStateF-1 B E A V F 0 R T S E A

Thomson Brownlow

Point

Plat X kt Vik

West Staines2 U

rea of f u nd ot KIC-1

CAMDEN BAY

a n s,

701 -

T s Kss

Plate4

S

0 2 A R E A

K

J

MARSHCREEK

ANTICLINE

Ss s

1.0 abbath

s Creek

Kavikga

TK

S 1--h section

field Ksc; K sp,m

"s mouprains \11

K

TKsc: TKss

691

K

K ctio

30' Z S b S rcticCreek

K area

K

1,@l1,, Thid Ra@ge

5MP,

K

\HAITI-,/

L.k,

=P

B R 0 0 K S

'300cy's

'%laceo @ q R A N( IS E

0

Fa,kln

Mo.ntains

0 10 20 30 MILES

0 10 20 30 40 50 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Tertiarysedimentary rocks

Figure 111-3.--map of the 1002 area and adjacent Paleocene and uppermost Cretaceous sedimentary rocks

mountains showing locations of Cretaceous and Shallow marine and nonmarine sedimentary rocks and conglomerate

Tertiary outcrops and lines of sections of figure 111-8

and plate 4. (Prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey.) Deep-water marine sandstone and shale

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks

0 Drillhole

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL--GEOLOGY 59
UJQ@

CD C.@ STRATIGRAPHIC LITHOLOGY AGE CD CD GEOLOGIC EVENTS UNIT (Sw@ (NE)

HOLOCENE Surficialdeposits

.............

PLEISTOCENE Gubik Formation CD

Upliftof Sadlerochit

Mountains;moder- PLIOCENE CD

0

7_ 7--=-

ate deformation

in coastalplain

MIOCENE

- - - - - - - - - - -

Sagavanirktok

Formation

Z 6000-7500 It

OLIGOCENE

<

0

EOCENE CD

Majordeformation

ineasternpart EXPLANATION

of 1002 area

PALEOCENE Conglomerate

Canning I'm Sandstone

4000-6200 It

Siltstone

. ........ LATE

Red-weatheringtuff CRETACEOUS Shale

Hue Shale

300-900 It Limestone

Inoceramuszone

-Ga-mma-rayzone

EARLY

Subsidenceinnorth CRETACEOUS x Dolomite

Pebbleshaleunit x

Transgression Kemik Sandstone LATE NEOCOMIAN + +

Granite

Differential uplift, 14 + + +

normalfaulting EARLY Bentonite KingalkShale CRETACEOUS(?)

0-1500it AND

JURASSIC Siliceous

Transgression Ka Concretion

Slow fluctuatingsubsidence ShublikFormation

FireCreek Inoceramus

Siftstone Mbr_

E RIASSIC

Regression < LedgeSs T

Member

Kavik

Member

Ec`hooka@ PERMIAN Transgression Formationion

Epeirogenicupliftand erosion

PENNSYLVANIAN

LisburneGroup

0-2500 It

C.0 MISSISSIPPIAN

Marinetransgression ak Shale

_. ":'--: EV K kiktukCM

TO CAMBRIAN Folding,uplift.and erosion Nanook

OR PROTEROZO Limeslo. ne

E

Katakturuk PROTER

Dolomite

igneousintrusion 0

E Argillite, phyllite, quartz

Burialmetamorphism volcanicrocks.carb

rocks.granite

Figure 111-4.--Generalizedstratigraphicolumn for the 1002 area showing significantgeologic events, oil-bearingformations

west of the Arctic Refuge, and potentialsource rocks. The Hue Shale may range into the Paleocene in parts of this

area. (Prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey.)

60 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
depositionof Mississippianand younger strata.Seismic In and adjacent to the 1002 area,the Ellesmerian

reflectionsbeneath these younger strataare not adequate sequence ranges in thicknessfrom a few hundred feetto

formapping these oldercarbonaterockswithoutcloserwell about 5,000 feet. This wide range is due to a regional

control. Hence, theirpresence as possiblereservoirsfor unconformityin the upper partof the sequence in which

petroleumisriskedaccordinglyinthe assessment. progressivelymore of the sequence had been removed by

erosion in a north or northeastward directionpriorto

deposition of the uppermost part of the Ellesmerian

ELLESMERIAN SEQUENCE sequence (fig.111-5;pi. 4). This unconformityis of great

importanceto the petroleum potentialof the 1002 area

Rocks of the Ellesmeriansequence recordmarine because itcontrolsthe northern distributionof most

and nonmarine depositionalong a slowly subsiding Ellesmerianrocks. In addition,the porosityof reservoirs

continentalmargin inwhich the landarea was to the north directlyunderlyingthe truncatedsurfacemay be enhanced

and the seaway to the south. These rocks consist owing to solutionof calcitecement,and the shaleoverlying

dominantlyof limestone,shale,and sandstone thatrange in the unconformitymay providea seal and sourcerock for

age from Mississippianto earliestCretaceous(fig.111-4), a truncatedreservoirs.Well controlwest of the 1002 area

timespan of about210 millionyears. Allthe oilproduction and seismicdata indicatethatmost of the Ellesmerian

inthe Prudhoe Bay-KuparukRiverfieldareas isfrom rocks sequence is missingin the northwesternquadrantof the

of the Ellesmeriansequence. By far the greatest 1002 area (fig.111-6),but seismicdata suggest that a

productionis from the Ledge SandstoneMember of the significantpartof the sequence may be presentin the

IvishakFormation,but almostallthe sandstone unitsof the easternpartof the area (pi.5). The presenceor absence

Ellesmeriansequence and some of the carbonatesof the of these rocks in thatarea greatlyaffectsthe petroleum

LisburneGroup arepotentially productiveinsome fields(fig. potentialbecause very largestructuresoccur inthe eastern

111-4). and southeasternpartsofthe 1002 area.

SOUTH NORTH

SHUBLIKMOUNTAINS SADLEROCHITMOUNTAINS 1002AREA

Pebbleshaleunit emikSandstone

LCU

.CC., Sall Hill

-00-:.;Fso@@ s erosion, P I rocks are probabl@

no h of the northwest

pa 1002 area

10

s o in o d roterto Devonian carbonate rocks

ruk Dolomite and Nanook METERS FEET

8) 2000 600-

EXPLANATION 400 -

Shale Siltstone 1090

200 -

i7; Limestone Sandstone

Dolomite 0, Conglomerate 0-- 0

-Approximately 30 miles

Figure 111-5.-Diagrammaticsectionshowingstratigraphic relationsof theEllesmeriansequence alongthe mountain

frontsouth of the 1002 area. (Preparedby the U.S. GeologicalSurvey.)

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL--GEOLOGY 61
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E

E

0

o .2 cu co

0) CO (D

C

3: -0

a)

0

-0 75

E

CD LLI :3

0

co 0)

0

E

cn

M

'C

Z

co

3:,

Co'a

0

0

0

M (co:03 3:

>

W

>Ma co

M0

M

E

-O

M U)

E

co

C- 0,.

O

-0

2

@r

co<

(U

v

0

> r0

C)

Z 3: to

AZ

CL

w

r

'Ow 2)

P --S

E

CL to0

0

>,0 C)

M

co

w

Z

3:

E cd

C)

C)

cu

0

4) 0

.4-M

E

0

0

E

0) EL CD

15

LU

0

u)

ctsE

0

U)

< to

CO

a) El

LLJ CL .0<O .0

0

0

wcn
Member (formed from the upper offshoremuds). The Potentialreservoirsin the Brookian sequence would

Ledge Member is 200 to more than 400 feetthick(fig111-7pj be primarilylenticularturbidite(deep-water)sandstone beds

and is the main producing reservoirat the Prudhoe Bay in the lower part of the Canning Formation. These beds

field.The Ivishakand Echooka Formations togethermake are generallythin,but locallythickerbeds are present.

up the SadlerochitGroup. They are potentiallyproductiveof oiland gas in several

wells in the Point Thomson area west of the northwest

Continued subsidence of the basin followed corner of the 1002 area (pi.4). Sandstones and

Sadlerochitdeposition,and offshoremuds and chemical conglomerates of the SagavanirktokFormation also would

sedimentationpredominated in a sea rich in organisms in be good reservoirsforpetroleum. However, because of the

Middle and Late Triassictime. This formed the black dominance of sandstone in the section,effectivepetroleum

shales, siftstones,and dark phosphatic fossiliferous sealsfortraps may be limited.Rich oil-pronesource rocks

limestonesof the ShublikFormation,which is 150 to 500 occur in the lower halfof the Hue Shale. These rocks are

feet thick adjacent to the 1002 area. The Shublik is consideredto be the main potentialsource for oilin the

consideredto be an importantsource rock forPrudhoe Bay 1002 area.

oil.A minor regressionor increaseinclasticinputfrom the

northern source resultedin depositionof widespread sift DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY

and finesand on a broad shelf,which formed the 10- to

125-foot-thickKaren Creek Sandstone. Mountain buildingof the ancestralBrooks Range may

have startedin Jurassictime,and the mountain beltwas a

The basin subsided during Jurassicand earliest dominant source of sediment during earliestCretaceous

Cretaceous time and thickdepositsof mud accumulated on time. But, as the formerland area to the northsubsided,

the shelf,basin slope,and basin bottom. These muds initialdepositionfrom the risingmountain beltto the south

make up the Kingak Shale,which, aftersubsequent erosion, and southwest was very slow in the 1002 area because a

is0-1,200feetthickadjacentto the 1002 area. Partsof the deep trough (theColvilletrough of the centralNorth Slope,

Kingak are thought to containenough organicmatterto be fig.1-1)that developed immediatelynorth of the mountain

a source rock forsome of the Prudhoe Bay oiland gas. belt(which then was much farthersouth than the present

mountain front)had to be filledfirst.Consequently,initial

Upliftof northernmost Alaska and the offshorearea Brooklan depositionin the 1002 area consistedof clayand

to the north in EarlyCretaceous time resultedin removal by volcanicash that settledout of suspension,probablyin

erosion of progressivelymore of the Ellesmeriansectionto deep water, These depositsformed the Hue Shale,which

the north. This was followedby subsidence of the area is 500 to 1,000 feetthick. Because of poor circulationand

and northward inundationby the seaway again. Lenticular low oxygen contentof the bottom water duringdeposition

sands were deposited along the advancing shorelineand of the lower halfof the Hue Shale,pelagicorganisms that

offshore shelf,and mud was deposited fartheroffshore. also settledwith the clay were preserved in the sediments

These depositsformed the Kemik Sandstone, as much as to eventuallyform an organic-richshale,a good oilsource

too feetthick,the Thomson sand, as much as 345 feet rock.

thick(fig.111-7g,and the pebble shale unit,200-300 feet

thick. Deposition of the Ellesmeriansequence ended as Deposition became more rapidas delta4rontdeposits

the northern land area subsided and was never again a prograded intothe area from the southwest. Initially, deepsediment source. water mud and sand that slumped or flowed down the

basin slope as turbiditycurrentsfrom the frontof shallowwater deltasto the southwest were depositedat the base

of the slope. Concurrently,thickdeposits of mud were

accumulating on the northeastward-progradingbasin slope.

BROOKIAN SEQUENCE

These deposits formed the Canning Formation,vvh6 is

4,000-6,000feetthickinwellsadjacentto the 1002 area (fig.

The Brookian sequence consists of thick 111-8;pi. 4). In much of the 1002 area, however,

northeasterlyprograding basinal,basin-slope,and marine compressional forces folded and faultedthe strataduring

and nonmarine shelf deposits derivedfrom the ancestral latePaleocene and earlyEocene time,resultingin upliftand

Brooks Range to the south and southwest. These erosion of some earlierdeposited Brookian sediments and

deposits consist dominantly of shale, sandstone, more depositionin adjacent low areas. Deformation and

conglomerate,and bentonite (consolidatedvolcanicash) associated deposition continued during middle and late

that range in age from lateEarlyCretaceous to Quaternary Tertiarytime in the eastern part of the 1002 area but the

(fig.111-4),a time span of about 120 millionyears. In wells depositionalpatterns are poorly understood. In the

immediatelywest of the 1002 area,the sequence is as

southeasternpart of the 1002 area (fig.111-3),a 10,000-tootmuch as 13,000 feetthick(fig.111-8;pi.4),but seismicdata thick section of nonmarine sandstone, conglomerate,and

indicatethat Brookian rocks may be as thickas 26,000 feet shale containingthin beds of coal,which is latest

in the centralpart of the 1002 area. However, this Cretaceous to Paleocene in age and is known as the Jago

thickeningcould be due in part to duplicationcaused by River Formation,probably was displaced northward by

thrustfaulting. thrustfaulting.

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL--GEOLOGY 63
1481 147' 146' 145' 144' 1430 142o

0

0 0

A-.

F 0 R T S E A B f A

A@A

AM DE! A 70'-

A

0n9 ARE

Northernextentof Prooks Range, Iting

involvingthe @isburne Groui

691

30'

517

Akk 0or

4",

A

69+ ti

0

-b@

T

B E A U F

0 0 0

0

70- -

N ern extei in

I g in 2 R E

Wembeu,..

mation f

6911"-- aid...

30' ..........

Z

R A N G

691,

64 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
148' 147' J4EP 145' 1440 1431 142'

t I

Thmm and of

@151"4

701

10 2 R E A

Kemi ndstone fl,

00 A

_4

69, h

30, 7 X

EXPL

?OD- Thicknessof Kemik Sandstoneor Thomson sand of localusage in

feet-Dashed where approximatelylocated

WellpenetratesintervalofKemik Sandstoneor Thomson sand of local

usage

Outcropsectionof Kemik Sandstone

B R 0 0 K S R A N G E

69, I I I -1

EXPLANATION

A B

Zone of truncationof LisburneGroupby Lower Cretaceousuncon- Zone of truncationof Ledge SandstoneMember of lvishakFormation

formity by Lower Cretaceousunconformily

Outcropof LisburneGroup Outcrop ofLedge SandstoneMember

Unconformity-Queriedwhere uncertain -?- Unconformity-Queriedwhere uncertain

Thrustfauft-Sawteethon upper plate Thrustfauh-Sawtefton upperplate

Normalfault-Hachuresindicatedownthrown side Normalfault-Hachuresindicateclownthrownside

_2000- Thicknessof LisburneGroup in feet 300- ThicknessofLedge SandstoneMember infeet-Dashed where approximatelylocated

Wells Wells

LisburneGroup present 0 Ledge Sandstone Member present

LisburneGroup absent 0 Ledge Sandstone Member absent

Figure 111-7.-Maps (facingand above) summarizing regionaland local geologic trends of the Lisburne Group UA,

Ledge Sandstone Member of the IvishakFormation UB , and Kernik Sandstone and Thomson sand UQ . (Prepared by

the U.S. Geological Survey.)

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL-GEOLOGY 65
WEST EAST

i

25 miles

WEST STAINES

STATE-2 1002 AREA

FEET

0

ENE(?) Gamma ray

PLIOCENE

AND

MIOCENE

MIOCENE

AND

OLIGOCENE

5000 -

EOCENE

shalefacies

ale)

Canning Formation 1\

Progradingbasinslopeo,-> \1

PALEOCENE &0000--

Turbiditesandstonefacies

shaleand interbeddedsandstone)

UPPER

CRETACEOUS

VerticalexaligerationXIO

Figure III-B.-Diagrammatic section showing stratigraphicrelationsof the Brookian sequence between the Mobil West

Staines State 2 well and the northwest comer of the 1002 area. Dashed linesrepresent time linesas inferredfrom

seismic reflections.Depths on well logs are in feet. Ages based on micropaleontologicdata. See figure111-3for

locationof section. (Prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey.)

66 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Meanwhile,in the northwesternquadrantand areas Seismicreflectionsas wellas outcropsindicatethat

to the west, afterthe thickdepositsof prodeltaor slope Cretaceousand Paleocene rocks are generallymuch more

muds filledin deeper partsof the seaway, sand, mud, deformed than eitherthe underlyingpre-Kingakor overlying

gravel,and peat were depositedalong and adjacentto a post-Paleocenestrata.The-reason isthatthe Cretaceous

deltaicshorelineas the sea oscillatedback and forth and Paleocene rocks are mechanicallyweaker than the

across the area. These deposits make up the underlying pre-Kingak rocks and thus deform more

SagavanirktokFormation,the youngest bedrock unitin the plastically; they are detached from and inplacesseparated

1002 area,which is5,000-7,000feetthickin areas to the by an unconformityfrom the gentlyfoldedoverlyingpostwest (fig.111-8;pi.4). Paleocene section. Seismic reflectionsare discontinuous

and verydifficult, ifnot impossible,to map forany distance.

Figure111-9shows the near-surfacestructuraltrends in

Brookianrocks.

Structure The Eocene and younger strataare only moderately

deformed in the northeasternpartof the 1002 area. There

Seismicand surfacedata indicatethatallbut the seismiclinesshow a discontinuity(an unconformity)

northwesternquadrant of the 1002 area is extensively between the more complexly folded Cretaceous and

foldedand faulted.This structureis vastlydifferentfrom Paleocene rocks below and the gentlydeformed Eocene

the relativelysimple structurethat underliesthe coastal rocks above (pi.5). This discontinuityindicatesthatthe

plainwest of the ArcticRefuge,such as the Prudhoe Bay major deformationprobably occurred in latePaleocene to

area. The lineof change in structuralstylefrom the simpler Eocene time,before depositionof the younger Eocene

structureto the west and the complex structureobserved in rocks. Deformationcontinued,probablyepisodically,into

most of the 1002 area cuts across the northwestpartof the lateTertiary.Indeed,on the northflankof the Marsh

the 1002 area,approximatelycoincidingwiththe north flank Creek anticline(fig.111-3),tiltedEocene stratadip 600 and

ofthe Marsh Creek anticline(fig.111-3).This dividinglineis overlyingPliocenestratadip 150.

importantin separatingthe varioustypes of prospectsfor

assessment purposes. Twenty-sixpotentialhydrocarbon traps have been

seismicallymapped at or near the top of the preSeismic data,which are of good qualityin the Mississippiansurface (fig.111-1).Generally,prospects

northwesternquadrant of the 1002 area,show thatthe occurringnear thishorizonhave threeor more objective

strataare littledformed exceptfor a generallynortheast reservoirs. Table 111-2summarizes the pertinentdata for

gentledip. One very low-reliefstructure,which is an oil each prospect.

and gas prospect,is mapped at the top of the preMississippiansurface. The remainingpart (southeastern No prospects were adequatelyresolvedwithinthe

partof the 1002 area)ischaracterizedby complexlyfolded detached and highlydeformed Mesozoic and Tertiaryrocks.

and faultedstructures.Lateralcompressionalforces have However, figure111-10shows the distributionof structural

foldedand faultedstrataintowhat iscalleda forelandfold- culminationsinthese deformed rocks. Structuralanalogs in

and-faultbelt.The thrustfaultsmove older strataover Canada-the Albertadisturbedbelt--andin the Montanayounger strata;in the 1002 area,the directionand amount Wyoming thrustbeltsuggestthat the probabilityof traps

oftransporthas been to the northseveralmilesto tens of occurringinthe subsurfaceinthisstructuralsettingishigh,

miles. The north-vergingthrustfaultsoriginateat depth, althoughdeterminingtheirlocationon the basisof existing

tend to cutthroughshalelayersat low angles,and cut up- seismicdata is difficult.In addition,a narrow zone of

sectionmore abruptlyin overlyingsandstone layers.In the north-dippingstrataalong the southernmarginof the 1002

mountainsand foothillssouth of the 1002 area,these area (fig.111-10)may be interruptedby faultswhich could

detachment surfaces(thrustfaults)are in Jurassicand trappetroleum.

olderrock. In the 1002 area,the detachmentsurfacesare

mostly in Cretaceous and younger rocks,althoughthe

olderrocksare also involvedinthrusting.Severallargeoil Petroleum Geochemistry

and gas fieldsoccur in thistype of structuralsettingin

western Wyoming, northern Utah, the foothillsof the Petroleumgeochemistrydealswith (1)identifyingand

Canadian Rockies,and inotherpartsofthe world. quantifyingpetroleum source rocks (which rock units

containsufficientorganicmatterand how much), (2)

The structuralpatternsproduced by thistype of determiningthe type of source rock (oil-proneversus gasdeformationare very complex, and because the strataare prone),(3)identifying the specificsource rock responsible

highlyfoldedand faulted,interpreting the seismicdata is for oiland gas from seeps, outcrops,and wells,(4)

difficult.Nevertheless,a seismicreflectionfrom the top of determiningthen-nalmaturityof the source rock (whether

the pre-Mississippianbasement, which was mapped over subjectedto enough heat to convertorganicmatterto

most of the area, shows severalvery largestructural petroleum),and (5)determiningthe timeof generationof oil

closures(fig.111-1).These closuresare discussedwiththe and gas and the directioninwhich R migrated.Inthe 1002

variousprospectsor playslater. area (wherethereis no wellcontrol),most of these data

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL-GEOLOGY 67
1460 1450 144' 143'

'I

Flaxrnao

Islandle-1 Brownlow

Point

6.441>ihiHAY

KI

10F

Q@

00,

able Mountains

690

30'

20 30 MILES

10 20 30 KILOMETERS

Figure 111-9.-Generalized near-surface structural trends in Brookian rocks, based on seismic data. Because of

structuralcomplexity,not allfeaturesare shown, particularly inthe eastpartofthe 1002 area. (Preparedby the U.S.

GeologicalSurvey.)

1460 1450 1440 1430

I I I

Haman B E A U F 0 R T S E A

Island't,@ Brownlow

int

CAMDEN BAY

I Lan

700

00,

illinW Sadlemch mountains

111111fl Iflf

11

\\\\ifo

690-

3

0 10 20 30 MILES

I

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS

Figure 111-10.-Trends of structural culminations in highly deformed Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks (shaded) and area of

monoclinal north-dipping strata (line pattern) that may have petroleum potential in the 1002 area. (Prepared by the

Bureau ofLand Management.)

68 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Table 111-2.--Dataon seismicallymapped petroleumprospectsinthe

1002 area shown in figure111-1.

[Depthsarebelow mean sea level.Potentialobjectives:1,pre-Mississippian carbonaterocks;2a,Ellesmerianclastic

rocks;2b,Ellesmeriancarbonaterocks;3,Thomson/Kemik sandstones;4,turbidites; 5, lowerNeogene(?)topsets.

Data from Bureau of Land Management, 1986.]

Prospect Area Size Crestal Lowest Potential Number

(acres) (miles) depth closing objectives of

(feet) contour seismic

(feet) 1 2a 2b 3 4 5 lines

1 48,5121 18 X 6 14,000 15,000 X X X X X 5

2 11,793 8 X 3 14,820 15,000 X X X X 2

3 13,120 12 X 3 13,000 14,200 X X X X X 3

4 12,922 8 X 3.5 14,900 15,500 X X X 4

5 34,234 16 X 4 12,700 15,000 X X X X 6

6 11,940 10 X 3 11,500 13,800 X X X 3

7 18,970 16 X 2 8,500 10,500 X X X X X 6

8 4,880 4 X 2 16,300 17,000 X X X - 2

9 2,200 4 X 1 12,500 13,200 X X X - 1

10 6,291 11 X 1 11,900 12,500 X X X 3

11 9,4301 8 X 3 5,200 6,000 X X X X 2

12 3,950 6 X 1 19,000 21,000 X X X 2

13 1,344 4 X 0.8 10,900 11,500 X X X X 1

14 4,9151 5 X 2 5,640 6,000 X X X X 1

15 42,5001 13 X 10 22,500 23,000 X X X 6

16 6,720 6.3X 2.4 1,230 2,300 X X 3

17 3,170 3 X 2 21,600 22,000 X X X 1

18 226,8221 27 X 15 13,500 >24,000 X X X 16

19 129,587 22 X 13 9,790 17,000 X X X X X 10

20 79,738 30 X 7 11,900 17,500 X X X 10

21 65,3001 21 X 4 7,500 14,500 X X X 7

22 4,5601 5 X 2 11,600 12,000 X X X 1

23 3,706 5 X 1.5 16,300 16,500 X X X 1

24 11,8721 8 X 3 10,400 12,000 X X X 4

25 2,3601 4 X 1 11,950 12,000 X X X 1

26 4,954 5 X 3 16,500 17,000 X X X X X 2

lProspectareaincludesextensionsor projectionsoutsidethe 1002 area as shown infigure111-1.

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL--GEOLOGY 69
come from surfacesamples and seismicshot-holesamples

or the data must be projectedfrom wellsor outcropsin STRATIGRAPHIC LITHOLOGY AGE PLAYS

UNIT

adjacent areas. Because of the differentand complex (SW) ME)

structuralhistoryof most of the 1002 area compared with Surficill deposits HOLOCENE

thatofadjacentareas to the west,some of the projections

........

PLEISTOCENE G.bikFormation

are tenuous.

PLIOCENE

Analyses of different rock units throughout ................

northeasternAlaska indicatethat the ShublikFormation,

Kingak Shale,pebble shaleunit,Hue Shale,and shalesin MIOCENE

the Canning Formationmay be potentialoilor gas source

rocks(fig.111-4).The firsthreeunitsare consideredto be Sagavanirktok

- - - - - - - - - -

the source forthe oilinthe Prudhoe Bay field.However, Formation

Z 6000-7500II OLIGOCENE

analyticaldata on a limitednumber of samples of some

units in or adjacent to the 1002 area indicatethat allthe

above unitsexceptthe Hue Shale are gas-pronesource ....... EOCENE

rocks of fairto good quality and that the Hue Shale is a

good to excellent oil-prone source rock. In addition,the 5

distributionof the Shublikand Kingakis not known and, @': PALED CENE 2

because of pre-pebbleshaleerosion,these rocksmay not Canning I'm

be presentinmuch of the 1002 area. 4000-6200 It

Analyses of oilscollectedfrom seeps and stained LATE

Red-w"edng CRETACEOUS

outcrops in or adjacent to the 1002 area, and of the HueShale

differentpotentialsource rocks,suggestthatthe Hue Shale 300-900It Inoceramus zone -- - - ---- -

EARLY isthe most likelyoilsource rock inthe 1002 area. None Ti-mm"Ayzone CRETACEOUS Pebbleholeuni ofthe sampled oilsare similarto Prudhoe Bay oil. KemikSandstone LATENEOCOMIAN

EARLY

KingakShale CRETACEOUSM

Maturationstudiesindicatethat,in the outcrop beft 0-1500ft ANDJURASSIC

South of the 1002 area, allpotentialsource rocks are

matureto overmature,the latterhavingbeen overheatedby KarenCreekSs

Shublik Formation

deep burialand so petroleum had alreadybeen generated FireCreek

SHIstaneMbo

and expelled. In wells in the PointThomson area,where I L=SS TRIASSIC

therocksarenowatorneartheirmaximumburialdepths, Z

the Hue Shale and pebble shaleunitare at the beginning Member 7

of hydrocarbon generation. According to maturationdata @ftho-,k,

and downward-extrapolatedtemperaturegradientsfrom Formation PERMIAN

these wells. the maturity thresholds of oil, condensate, and PENNSYLVANIAN

thermal gas are about 12,000, 22,500, and 28,000 feet

LisburneGroup depth, respectively. These threshold values can be 0-2500 It

extrapolated into the northwestern quadrant of the 1002 e

MISSISSIPPIAN

area with a fairdegree of confidence, but in the structurally -rL7LrLr-Lr

complex area to the east thereare complications.Where V -

le

KeiktkT the Hue Shaleisat or nearthe surface,itisimmature,but Nanook TOCAMBRIAN

seismicdata indicatethat itcould be as deep as 25,000 Limestone ORPROTEROZOIC

rE

feet in nearby areas. Thus, depending on itsstructural Katakturuk PROTEROZOIC

position,the Hue Shale ranges from immatureto mature or

Dolomite 4

Argillite.phyllite,quartzitc..

overmature. vokanic racks,csrb PRE-MISSISSIPPIAN

rocks, granite

In the deformed easternpartof the 1002 area,data

are insufficient to determinethe time of oilgenerationwith

respectto the formationof petroleumtraps. Itseems likely,

however, the generationoccurred before,during,and after EXPLANATION

formationof the traps because the Hue Shale,the main ConglomeratePEP Limestone Bentonite

source rock,occurs insuch a wide range of burialdepths

Sandstone Dolomite Siliceous and maturationstages. The time range of oilgeneration

was probablylong enough forreservoirsin early-formedas siltstone Granite Concretion

well as late-formedtraps to be charged by migrating Shale Inoceramus

petroleum.

70 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT OF THE OIL AND DESCRIPTION OF PLAYS

GAS POTENTIAL

Briefdescriptionsof the seven plays follow,including

In-PlaceOil and Gas Resources a cross section showing geologic relationsand maps

showing the play limits(fig.111-12).Some plays are similar

The method employed for estimatingin-placeoiland or equivalentto oiland gas plays havingknown petroleum

gas resourcesfor the 1002 area is a modifiedversionof inadjoiningareas. The plays are presentedin the order

the play analysistechnique developed by the Geological that they were assessed ratherthan accordingto their

Survey of Canada to assess Canada's oiland gas estimatedoiland gas potential.

resources (Canada Department of Energy, Mines and

Resources, 1977) and used in earlierassessments of the 146' 145' 1440 1430

NationalPetroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA) and the 1002 Point I I

B E A U

I

Thomson Alaska F 0 R T

area (U.S. Department of the InteriorOfficeof Minerals StateA-1 Locationof

Policyand Research Analysis,1979; Mast and others,1980; cross section Better Manning

lFig.111-12) Island

Miller,1981; Bird,1986). But the presentassessment uses CAMDE

a more efficientcomputer program (Fast AppraisalSystem 70'- B A Y ngun

nt

for Petroleum--FASP),utilizingprobabilitytheory ratherthan I

Monte Carlo simulation(Crovelli,1985, 1986).

In this method, geologicsettingsof oil and gas ......

occurrence are modeled, risks are assigned to geologic 10" I..W 7

attributesof the model necessary for generationand EXPLANATION a 10 MILES

accumulation of petroleum, and ranges of values are Explorato well

A 1 I

assessed for the geologic characteristicsof traps and

7 1 1

10 10 KILOMETERS

146o 145o 1440 143'

reservoirswhich controlpetroleum volumes withinthe Alaska I I I

star PoIntThomson B E A U F 0 R T modeled accumulations of each play. S E

The volumes of F-e / Alaska

petroleum in the hypotheticaltrapsare determined using State A-1 Locationof

cross section Better Manning

reservoirengineeringformulas,and summed for the play as lFig.111-12) Island

CAMDEN

a whole. Consequently, a play can be viewed as an

70o B A Y

Angun

aggregate of prospects which are conceived as having int

similargeologic characteristicsand sharing common

geologic elements. They are definedby a known or

suspected trapping condition,which may be structural,

stratigraphic,or combination incharacter.

In thisappraisalmethod, geologistsmake judgments

EXPLANATION 0 10 MILES

. Exploratorywell

about the geologicfactorsnecessary forformationof an oil

I

I

0 10 KILOMETERS,

or gas deposit and quantitativelyassess those geologic NW

propertieswhich determine itssize. The computer program SE 1002 AREA KM

FT Sadlerochir 2

(FASP) then does the resource calculationbased on that 5000 -

Mountains

MARSH CREEK M B E A U F 0 R T -1

information. This arrangement utilizesthe geologist's ANTICLINE 0

S E A

expertisewith geologicfactorsand the computer'sfacilityin 0 - -5 0

manipulation of numbers. The method provides for a

too Ian. . . 1

systematicanalysisand integrationof the geologicfactors 5000 -

ki

sequ nce.

essentialfor the occurrence of oiland gas, a thorough 6

2

documentation of the analysis,and an assessment which 5

10,000- Pre-M

I

-3

providesinformationon the size,distribution,and number of basement "'S"'s ompPP -3 - -

petroleumaccumulations as wellas theirsum. 15,000-

C

ssissippian 5

In this assessment, seven plays were identified, 20,000_L_ nt

4 F

encompassing Precambrian to Cenozoic rocks (fig.111-11), EXPLANATION

and in-placeoiland gas resources were estimatedforeach - - Playboundary Faull-Arrowsindicatedirection Unconformity

play. Estimates for each of the seven plays were

ofrelativemovement

aggregated using probabilitytheory to produce estimatesfor Figure 111-12.--Maps and schematic sectionshowing the

the 1002 area. seven assessed plays in the 1002 area:1, Topset; 2,

Turbidite;3, Thomson-Kemik; 4, Undeformed PreFigure 111-1l.--Generalizedstratigraphiccolumn (facing Mississippian; 5, Imbricate Fold Belt;6, Folded

page) forthe 1002 area showing intervalsof assessed Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian;and 7, Undeformed

plays. (Preparedby the U.S. GeologicalSurvey and the Ellesmerian. (Prepared by the U.S. GeologicalSurvey

Bureau of Land Management.) and the Bureau of Land Management.)

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL--ASSESSMENT 71
TOPSET PLAY TURBIDITE PLAY

The Topset play consistsof stratigraphic trapsin The Turbiditeplay consistsof stratigraphictrapsin

sandstone reservoirsof Tertiaryage and includesthose deep-marinesandstone reservoirsof Late Cretaceous and

rocks representedon the seismicrecordsin the topset Tertiaryage which occur inthe foresetand bottomsetunits

positionin a topset-foreset-bottomset sequence. This play of the Canning Formationas shown by seismicreflectors.

islimitedto the northwesternpartof the 1002 area and is The play is limitedto the northwesternpartof the 1002

generallyunaffectedby Brooks Range foldingand faulting area that is generallyunaffectedby Brooks Range folding

(fig.111-12A,C). The southeasternboundary is the line and faulting(fig.111-12A.C). The southeasternplay

marking the northflankof the Marsh Creek anticline. boundary is a linemarking the boundary between folded

These rocks,on the basis of wellpenetrationsimmediately and faultedrocks of the Marsh Creek anticlineand the

west of the 1002 area,are assignedto the Sagavanirktok adjacent undeformed rocks. On the basis of well

Formationand consistof marine and nonmarine deltaic penetrationsadjacentto the 1002 area,these rocks consist

sandstone, siltstone,shale,conglomerate, and minor of relativelydeep-marine shale,siltstone,and turbidite

amounts of coal. A maximum thicknessof 10,000feet, sandstone. Maximum thicknessfor rocks in thisplay is

estimatedfrom the seismicrecords,occurs in the eastern about 5,000 feet. Drillingdepths range from 4,000 to

partof the play;the sequence thinswestward to about 22,000 feet.

7,000feetinwellsjustwest of the ArcticRefuge. Drilling

depths range from 100 to 10,000feet. Reservoirrocks,which are turblditesandstones,may

occur anywhere withinthe play interval,but inwells

adjacentto the 1002 area they occur mostlyin the lower

The reservoirrocks are composed of sandstone and

thirdas toe-of-slopeor basin-plainturbidites.Sandstone

conglomeratewhich may constituteas much as halfthe

bodies are expected to be laterallydiscontinuousand to

totalthicknessof the play interval,even though individual

have an aggregate thicknessof severalhundred feet,

reservoirbeds seldom exceed 50 feet. Fairto good althoughindividualbeds are expectedto be lessthan 50

reservoircontinuityin sand bodies is expected parallelto

feetthick.Abnormallyhighfluidpressuresare expected in

depositionalstrike(northwestward),but marked changes

the lowerpart of the playintervalas inwellswest of the

may occur over short distancesperpendicularto strike.

ArcticRefuge, and so porositiesshould be betterthan

Porosityof reservoirocks is expected to be excellent,

normallyencountered for turbiditesandstones at these

averaging 10-32 percent,and permeabilityis in the

depths.

hundreds of millidarcies. Potentialsource rocks includedeep-marine shale

adjacentto the reservoirs(theCanning Formation)and

Potentialsource rocks immediatelyassociatedwith

below the reservoirs(theHue Shaleand pebbleshaleunit).

the reservoirsare deltaicshalesand mudstones which are

These shales are gas prone (CanningFormationand

immatureand probablybiogenicgas prone. The underlying

pebble shaleunit)and oilprone (Hue Shale)and are

marine shalesare both oilprone (Hue Shale)and gas

mature below about 12,000feet. Oiland gas have been

prone (CanningFormationand pebble shaleunit),and are

recoveredfrom turbiditereservoirsin severalwellsadjacent

mature below about 12,000feetin the play area. As a

to the ArcticRefuge. The oil,generally210 to 270API

consequence, oilaccumulationsinthisplayare likelyto be

gravity,but as high as 440 in one occurrence,has been

the resultof verticalmigrationalong faultsor inclined

recoveredon drillstemtestsat ratesof as much as 2,500

foresetbeds in the underlyingCanning Formation. Oil barrelsper day. Gas flows of 2.25 millioncubicfeetper

shows are reportedin severalwellsin the PointThomson

day were also measured in the Alaska StateA-1 well

area from the lower partof the rock sequence includedin

adjacentto the northwestcornerofthe 1002 area.

this play. The multi-billion-barrel heavy oiland tar Postulatedtrapsin thisplayare mostlystratigraphic

accumulationsjustwest ofthe Prudhoe Bay fieldCNest Sak and are relatedto facieschanges or trapsformed against

and Ugnu fields)and the smalloilaccumulationsin small-displacementnormal faults;threebroad, low-amplitude

northeasternNPRA (Simpson and Fish Creek fields)are structureshave been identifiedseismically.Faultsand the

consideredto be analogsforpotentialaccumulationsinthis surroundingthickmarineshalesare expectedto providefair

play. to good seals.

Postulatedtrapsinthisplayare mostly stratigraphic, THOMSON-KEMIK PLAY

relatedto facieschanges, or combinationstructuraland

stratigraphictrapsformed againstsmall-displacementnormal The Thomson-Kemik play consists of stratigraphic

faults. Faults,interbedded shales,facieschanges, traps in sandstone reservoirsof Early Cretaceous

permafrost,and asphalticpetroleumare expected to provide (Neocomian)age inthe Kemik Sandstone or the equivalent

only fairto poor seals. Poor seals--thatis,barriersto Thomson sand. This play is limitedto the northwestern

petroleum migration--mayhave allowed preferentialescape partof the 1002 area thatisgenerallyunaffectedby Brooks

of gas,leavingmostlyoilaccumulationsinthisplay. Range foldingand faulting(fig.111-12B, C). The

72 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
southeasternplay boundary is a linemarking the boundary Potentialreservoirrocks may be dolomite,limestone,

between folded and faultedrocks of the Marsh Creek and sandstone. Dolomites may be vuggy as observed in

anticlineand the adjacent undeformed rocks. Sandstone in outcropping KatakturukDolomite. Sandstone may also be

this play overlies the Lower Cretaceous regional present. Under favorableconditions,leachingof calcareous

unconformity,was deposited under shallow marine to cements may have improved the reservoircharacter.

possibly nonmarine conditions,and is expected to be Although carbonate rocks may locallyhave porosityof as

discontinuous. Drillingdepths range from 12,000 to 25,000 much as 25 percent,the average porosityis expected to be

feet. less than 10 percent. Fractures are expected in these

rocks and should enhance the observed low permeabilities

The reservoirrock may range from fine-grained,well- of the matrices. Flow ratesfrom basement rocks in the

sorted quartzose sandstone (Kemik)to detritaldolomiteand Alaska State F-1wellwere about 3 millioncubic feetof gas

quartzconglomeraticsandstone (Thomson). Thicknesses of and 150 barrelsof 350API gravityoilper day. Saltwater

as much as 345 feet have been penetratedby wells,but was recoveredfrom the Alaska StateA-1 wellat a rateof

the distributionof sandstone is unpredictableand appears 6,800 barrelsper day and fresh water was recoveredfrom

to be seismicallyundetectable. Average porosity is the KatakturukDolomitein the Canning RiverA-1 wellat a

expected to be about 12 percent. Abnormally high fluid rate of 4,800 barrelsper day. Abnormally high formation

pressuresare expected in thisplay as inwells west of the pressures are presentin the basement rocks in some Point

ArcticRefuge in these same units. Owing to abnormal Thomson wells.

pressures,porositiesare expected to be betterthan normal

for similarsandstone at these depths. Source rocks withinthe pre-Mississippianbasement

are unlikelybecause of the regionalmetamorphic character

Potentialsource rocks includethe overlyingCanning of these rocks. Hence, juxtapositionof younger

Formation,Hue Shale,and pebble shale unitand, possibly, (Cretaceous or Tertiary)source rocks with basement

the Kingak Shale and Shublik Formation where these reservoirrocks is criticalfor petroleumaccumulationsin this

formationsare present beneath the regionalunconformity. play. The Hue Shale is expected to be a mature oil-prone

Geochemical data indicatethat the Hue Shale is oilprone source rock, and the Canning Formation and pebble shale

and the other unitsare gas prone and, in the play area, unit,gas-prone source rocks. Possibleasphalticpetroleum

may be marginallymature to mature. Both oiland gas are is describedfrom the KatakturukDolomite in the Canning

presentin the Thomson sand in the PointThomson field, River A-1 well,and oiland gas have been recoveredfrom

which is reported by the Exxon Corporationto contain PointThomson wells.

reservesof 5 trillioncubic feet of gas and 375 million

barrelsof condensate. Flow ratesare reportedto be as Postulatedtraps in thisplayare stratigraphicand are

much as 13 millioncubic feetof gas and 2,283 barrelsof located in areas where truncationplaced Cretaceous or

oilper day. Oil gravitygenerallyranges from 350 to Tertiarysource rocks in contact with reservoirsin the

450API. but some oilas low as 180API has been reported. basement.

Postulatedtraps in this play are mostly stratigraphic IMBRICATE FOLD BELT PLAY

and are relatedto facieschanges or traps formed against

small-displacementnormal faults;threebroad, low-amplitude The Imbricate Fold Belt play consistschieflyof

structureshave also been identifiedseismically.Faultsand structuraltraps in sandstone reservoirsof Cretaceous and

the overlyingthickmarine shales are expected to provide Tertiaryage. Structuraltraps are the resultof Brooks

fairto good seals. Range foldingand faulting.This play encompasses that

part of the area southeast of a linemarking the limitof

UNDEFORMED PRE-MISSISSIPPIAN PLAY deformationof rocks along the north flankof the Marsh

The Undeformed Pre-Mississippianplay consistsof Creek anticline(fig.111-12A,g. Rocks includedin thisplay

stratigraphictraps in carbonate or sandstone reservoirsin are bounded below by a major structuraldetachment zone,

the pre-Mississippianbasement complex. In thisplay,itis which in the area of the SadlerochitMountains lieswithin

criticalthat the reservoirrocks be charged and sealed by the Kingak Shale,and in the subsurfaceto the north is

source rocks in the overlyingEllesmerianor Brookian believedto cut stratigraphically up-sectionand eventuallyto

sequences. Pre-Mississippianrocks were metamorphosed, die out withinrocks of the Marsh Creek anticline.

folded,faulted,uplifted,and eroded priorto depositionof

younger rocks. The occurrence of reservoirocks inthe Sandstone reservoirsin this play may includethe

basement complex is unpredictable.This play is limitedto Kemik Sandstone, Canning Formation turbidites,and

the northwesternpartof the 1002 area thatis unaffectedby SagavanirktokFormation deltaicdeposits. Drillingdepths in

Brooks Range foldingand faulting(fig.111-12B,g. The thisplay range from 100 to about 26,000 feet.The turbidite

southeasternplay boundary is a linemarking the boundary reservoirsare expected to be most prospectiveinthisplay.

between folded and faultedrocks justnorth of the Marsh Distributionof the Kemik is expected to be unpredictableas

Creek anticlineand the adjacent undeformed basement in the Thomson-Kemik play. Deltaic sandstones are

rocks. Drillingdepths are expected to be 12,000 to 25,000 generallyexpected to have the same excellentreservoirbut

feet. poor sealingcharacteristicsas described in the Topset

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL--ASSESSMENT 73
play;also includedare the very poor reservoirsandstones which erosion has removed an undeterminedamount of

and conglomeratesthat crop out along Igilatvik(Sabbath) underlying strata. The IvishakFormation and Lisburne

Creek east of the Jago Riverin the southeasternpart of Group can be projected eastward from the Sadlerochit

the area (fig.111-3).The distributionf thisthicksectionof Mountains intothe subsurface of the southernmost partof

rocks (Jago RiverFormation)beyond the area of surface the 1002 area with a relativelyhigh degree of confidence,

exposure is unknown. North of this area, the characterof seismic reflections

offersthe possibilityof theirpresence. However, their

Potentialsource rocks include the Kingak Shale, northern extentdepends on severalfactors,such as the

pebble shale unit,Hue Shale, and Canning Formation. rate of truncationon the unconformity,the amount of

These shales may be presentwithinthisplay or below the northward transportby thrustfaulting,and the possible

detachment zone in the subjacent Folded Ellesmerian/Pre- existence of downdropped faultblocks north of the

Mississippianplay. The Canning Formation is expected to truncationedge, about which we have littledirect

be a poor, submature source rock,whereas Cretaceous information.Drillingdepths range from 2,000to 25,000 feet.

and Jurassicshales are expected to be fairto good source

rocks in the submature to mature range. Oil seeps at Potentialsource rocks includemarine shales in the

Manning Point and Angun Point are thought to be from Kayak Shale, IvishakFormation,Shublik Formation,Kingak

rocks assigned to this play. In addition,oil-stained Shale,pebble shale unit,and possiblythe Hue Shale. The

sandstone is known from many outcrops of these rocks. Hue Shale is expected to be the best oil-pronesource rock

where itoccurs at depths shallowerthan the thermalgas

Traps in this play are mainly structuraland are threshold (about 22,000 feet). The other shales are all

expected to consistof relativelysmall but numerous fault- apparently gas-prone source rocks. They are generally

cored anticlines. Stratigraphictraps, such as updip mature to possibly overmature. As with reservoirrock

pinchouts on the flanksof anticlines,may also be present. described above, truncationisexpected to reduce the areal

Shales withinthe play are expected to providefairto good extent of all pre-pebble shale unitsource rocks by an

sealsforthese traps,althoughfaultingand relatedfracturing unknown amount.

may reduce theireffectiveness.

Traps in this play are mostly structuraland are

FOLDED ELLESIVIERIAN/PRE-MISSISSIPPIAN PLAY expected to consist of a relativelyfew large,broad

anticlinesand faulttraps. A significantnumber of structures

The Folded Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippianplay smallerthan the present3- by 6-mileseismicgridis also

Consists mostly of structuraltraps in sandstone or expected to be present. Stratigraphictraps relatedto

carbonate reservoirsof earliestCretaceous to pre- truncationby the EarlyCretaceous unconformityare also

Mississippianage. The structuresare the resultof Brooks possible. The pebble shale unitand younger shales are

Range foldingand faulting.This play underliesnearlythe expected to providegood to excellentseals.

same area as the ImbricateFold Beltplay. The play area

liessoutheast of a linemarking the approximatenorthern Withinthis play area,two extremelylargestructures

limitof deep basement faultingwhich liesjustnorth of the were seismicallyidentified(prospects18 and 19 shown on

surfacetrace of the Marsh Creek anticline(fig.111-12,B, g. figure111-1and table 111-2).These two structureswere each

Rocks in this play liebeneath the major structural assessed independently from the other structures

detachment zone which marks the base of the overlying composing this play,and specialconsiderationwas given

ImbricateFold Belt play,and reservoirsconsistmainly of to theirpositionrelativeto the Ellesmeriantruncationedge

Ellesmerlanand pre-Ellesmerianrocks. Depending on the and the relationof trapfillto petroleum-columnheight.

stratigraphiclevelof the main structuraldetachment zone,

some Brooklan rocks may also be included. UNDEFORMED ELLESMERIAN PLAY

Reservoirsin this play consistof both carbonate The Undeformed Ellesmerian play consists of

rocks and sandstone. Potential carbonate reservoirs stratigraphictraps in carbonate or sandstone reservoirsin

includethe KatakturukDolomite, Nanook Limestone,other the Ellesmerian sequence. The play is limitedto the

unnamed pre-Mississippian carbonate rocks, Lisburne northwesternpart of the area thatis unaffectedby Brooks

Group, and Shublik Formation. Potentialsandstone Range folding and faulting(fig.111-12B,C). The

reservoirsinclude pre-Mississippiansandstone, KekIktuk southeasternplay boundary is a linemarking the boundary

Conglomerate, Echooka Formation,IvishakFormation,Karen between foldedand faultedrocks and adjacentundeformed

Creek Sandstone, Kemik Sandstone, and possiblyturbidite Ellesmerian rocks. This boundary coincideswith the

sandstones in the basal part of the Brookian sequence.

northwest boundary of the Folded Ellesmerian/PreThe most importantsandstone reservoiris expected to be Mississippian play. A wedge of Ellesmerianrocks is

the IvishakFormation (Ledge Sandstone Member) and the selsmically mapped beneath the Lower Cretaceous

most important carbonate reservoirs,the LisburneGroup unconformity only in the southwesternmost comer of the

and Katakturuk Dolomite. The areal distributionof playarea. Elsewhere in the play area,theremay be one or

reservoirsin this play is uncertain. The uncertaintyis more fault-bounded,downdropped blocks which preserve

caused by the Lower Cretaceous regionalunconformityin Ellesmerian rocks. Such fault-bounded blocks are well

74 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
known in the Prudhoe Bay area but have not been

identifiedthus far on the seismicdata in the 1002 area. ESTIMATES

Drillingdepths to Ellesmerianrocks are 12,000to 25,000 Z Mean 13.8

Median 11.9

feet. 0.75 Mode 8.8

F95 4.8

cr F75 8.2

0 F50 11.9 Potential reservoirs consist of both sandstone and 2 F25 17.2

carbonate rocks. The most importantreservoirsare LL

- F05 29.4

00.50-

expected to be dolomite in the Lisburne Group and

sandstone inthe Ledge Sandstone Member of the lvishalk

Formation. Reservoirpropertiesmay be improved by <

WO.25- proximityto the unconformity,as at Prudhoe Bay. Average 0a:

carbonateporosityisexpected to be about 4 percentand CL

averagesandstoneporosity,about 15 percent. or0 10 20 30 40 50

Potential source rocks include marine shales within IN-PLACE OIL, IN BILLION BARRELS

the Kayak Shale, IvishakFormation,ShublikFormation,

Kingak Shale,and the overlyingpebble shaleunitand Hue

Shale. These shales are expected to be submatureto

mature. Only the Hue Shale isexpectedto be an oil-prone

source rock.

Postulatedtraps in this play are stratigraphic and ESTIMATES

Z Mean, 31.3 depend for seals on the pebble shale unitor younger < Median 27.3

X0.75 Mode 20

,

8 shales. F95 11.5 Uj F75 19.2 M

0

F50 27.3

M. F25 38.8 ESTIMATES AS DISTRIBUTIONS LL

F05 64.5

00.5

The estimates of in-placeoiland gas resources

includedin thisreportare in the form of complementary

cumulativeprobabilitydistributions, as shown in figure111-13. MO.25-

0 -

These distributionsummarize the range of estimates a:CL -

generated by the FASP computer program as a single

probabilitycurvein a "greaterthan"mode. Because ofthe 01 I

uncertaintyattached to the many geologicvariables,no 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

single answer is possible to the question of how much oil IN-PLACE GAS, IN TRILLION CUBIC FEET

and gas are present;instead,an infinitenumber ofanswers

are possible,each with itsown confidencelevel.There is

a 100-percentprobabilityof occurrenceofsome oiland gas

somewhere inthe 1002 area. Innature,onlyone realvalue Figure 111-13.--Probabilitycurvesshowing the estimated

existsand the curve is an expressionof the uncertainty in-placeoiland totalgas resourcesofthe 1002 area.Oil

about itssize. The degree of uncertaintyisexpressed in in billionsof barrels;gas in trillions of cubicfeet.F,

the "spread"or varianceofthe distribution.The curvefor fractile.(Preparedby the U.S.GeologicalSurvey.)

in-placeoilis read as: thereis a 50-percentchance that

the resourceisgreaterthat11.9billionbarrels,and thereis

a 5-percent probabilitythatthe resourceis greaterthan may be no exploitablepetroleum resourcesinthe 1002

29.4 billionbarrels. Large quantitiescorrespond to lower area. For perspective,the Prudhoe Bay fieldiscalculated

probabilities--that is,there is less confidencethat those to have initially containedabout 23 BBO in-placeand more

quantitiesare present. Our estimatesare reportedat the than 35 TCFG in-placein Triassicreservoirs.Furthermore,

mean and at the 95th and 5th probabilitylevels,considered an area similarin size and shape to the 1002 area,

by us to be "reasonable"minimum and maximum values. centered at Prudhoe Bay, encompasses 10 oiland gas

accumulations,both economic and subeconomic,containing

ESTIMATED IN-PLACE RESOURCES nearly60 BBO and 45 TCFG in-place.Mean estimatesfor

the 1002 area are calculatedto be 13.8BBO in-placeand

In-placeoiland gas resourcescontainedwithinthe 31.3TCFG in-place;these mean valueshave probabilities of

1002 area are estimatedto range from 4.8 billionto 29.4 40 percentor lessof beingexceeded.

BBO and from 11.5 to 64.5 TCFG, at the 0.95 and 0.05

probabilitylevels,respectively(fig.111-13).Though indicating To facilitatewighingof land-usevalueswithinthe

a relativelyhigh degree of uncertaintyregardingthe true 1002 area, the mean values of in-placeoiland gas

value,thiswide range of valuesdoes indicatethe potential resources were assessed forfour separate geographic

forunusuallylargeresources,or the possibilitythatthere blocks as shown infigure111-14.

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL--ASSESSMENT 75
This assessment of oiland gas in-placerepresents However, in these and severalotherplays,the estimated

those depositswhich constitutethe resourcebase without accumulationsizes,though perhaps substantial,are oftenof

referenceto recoverability.Included are accumulations such sizeas to be of littleor no currenteconomic interest

estimatedto range in sizefrom very small(farlessthan 1

ifoccurringsingly,and are often mapped with great

millionbarrelsof oilin-placeor equivalent)to very large difficulty.Ifoccurringabove deeper and largerdepositsor

(greaterthan I billionbarrelsin-place).Includedare both closeto them, such accumulationsmay be ofinterest.

stratigraphictraps and structuraltraps,not only traps

unequivocallyidentifiedand measured by seismicdata,but

also trapsinferredto existon the basis of framework

geology. Clearly,this in-placeresource includesmany

depositswellbelow any economic sizelimitwhich may Economically Recoverable

currentlybe assumed forthe Arctic,and includesdeposits Oil Resources

which have reservoircharacteristics thatprecludethem from

being economic (see sectionon EconomicallyRecoverable - The estimate of economically recoverableoil

OilResources). resourcesforthe 1002 area representsan assessment of

onlythe structuralprospectswhich were identifiedon the

Estimatedin-placeresourcesof individualplays are basis of the seismic interpretation (fig.111-1).As noted

shown in figures111-15and 111-16.The most significantplay above,the 1002 area is expected to containa very large

in terms of contributionis the Folded Ellesmerian/Pre- additionalvolume of oiland gas in numerous smaller

Mississippianplay,containingapproximately50 percentof structurallycontrolledaccumulations(forexample, the

the area'sestimatedin-placeoiland 60 percentof the Imbricate Fold Belt play) and large stratigraphic

estimatedtotalgas. This play has severalunusuallylarge accumulations(Topsetplay).The economicallyrecoverable

structuralprospectsand is estimatedto containlarge resourceestimateshould be viewed as an "Identifiable

accumulations.Next in orderof decreasingimportanceare minimum" volume,which is constrainedby economic and

the ImbricateFold Belt play and the Turbiditeplay. technicalrecoverability considerations.-

Conditionalestimates of potentialeconomically

1461 145' 144' 143'

recoverableoilresourceswere calculatedforuse inenvironmentalanalysesand to assess the potentialcontributionof

B E A U F 0 R T

S E A

the 1002 area to the Nation'sdomestic energy supply.

These estimatesare conditionalupon the occurrenceof at

leastone economic-sizeoilaccumulationin the area,the

probabilityof which isabout 19 percent.The estimatesare

700 reportedas a range ofvalues,which reflectsthe uncertainty

inherentinsuch estimates.The conditionalmean estimate

was used to providea singlepointvalueforthe indicated

purposes.

METHODS

0 10 MILES The estimate of economically recoverable oil

i I I

0 10 KILOMETERS resourcesforthe 1002 area is the resultof a prospectAPPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION

specificanalysisusing the computer simulationmodel

OF IN-PLACEOIL PRESTO 11. PRESTO is an acronym for Probabilistic

MEAN ESTIMATE Resource Estimates--Offshore, developed and currentlyused

OIL IN PLACE GAS INPLACE Bl. by the U.S. Minerals Management Servicefor generating

JBBO) (TCFG) petroleum resource estimatesfor Outer ContinentalShelf

BLOCK A 5.5 12.7 planning areas. The PRESTO process is describedby

BLOCK B 1.5 2.9

BLOCK C 5.1 11.5 Bl.

BL Cooke (1985).

BLOCK D 1.6 4.2

PRESTO 11 uses prospect-specificgeologicand

DISTRIBUTION OF GAS ISVER geophysicalvolumetricinputdata foridentifiable prospects

SIMILARTO THAT OF OIL and produces prospect-specificand areawide resource

estimates.The uncertaintyin a frontierarea isaddressed

by allowingthe user to inputgeologicriskfactorsand a

Figure 111--14.-ResourceblocksA-D ofthe 1002 area range of valuesforeach volumetricinputparameter. The

(shaded) and the approximatedistributionof mean PRESTO model also allows for input of a minimum

valuesof in-placeoiland gas resources. (Preparedby economic-fieldsize. Any fieldsmallerthan thiseconomic

the U.S. GeologicalSurvey and the Bureau of Land fieldsizeis not counted in eitherthe prospector area

Management.) conditionalresourceestimates.

76 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
1.0

Mean estimate 3.4.7

(BBO)

Play 1. Topset 0.6

Play 2. Turbidite 2.5

Play 3. Thomson/Kemik 0.3

0.75 Play 4. Undeformed Pre-Mississippian <01

< Play 5. Imbricate Fold Belt 3.3

Play 6. Forded Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian 6.9

UJ Play 7. Undeformed Ellesmerian 0.2

ix

0

2

LL 0.50 0

Relative contribution based

on mean value

co

R 6

iL 0.25

5

-.I--

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

TOTAL IN-PLACE OIL, IN BILLION BARRELS

Figure 111-15.-Estimated in-place oil for plays in the 1002 area, showing individual probability curves and relative

contributions of the plays. Triangles show mean values on principal distribution curves. (Prepared by the U.S.

Geological Survey.)

1.0

Mean estimate

(TCFG) 1,4.7

Play 1. Topset 0.2

Play 2. Turbidite 5.4

Play 3. Thomson/Kemik 1.5

Play 4. Undeformed Pre-Mississippian 0.1

z

0.75 Play 5. ImbricateFold Belt 3.5

< play 6. Folded Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian 19.3

Play 7. Undeformed Ellesmerian 1.1

LLJ

a: 6

0

LL 0.50 0

Relativecontributionbased

< on mean value

co

R 0.25 2

0-

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 .70 so 90

TOTAL IN-PLACE GAS, IN TRILLION CUBIC FEET

Figure 111-16.-Estimated in-place total gas for plays in the 1002 area, showing individual probability curves and

relative contributions of the plays. Triangles show mean values on principal distribution curves. (Prepared by the

U.S. Geological Survey.)

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL-ASSESSMENT 77
PRESTO uses a "Monte-Carlo" random sampling ZONES

technique. The model repetitivelysimulatesan exploratory

drillingprogram forthe area, 'finding"variouscombinations Each prospect is modeled as having one or more

of prospects and variouscombinations of valuesforvolume prospectivereservoirzones. For the purpose of the 1002

parameters in the prospects for each simulation"pass." area recoverable resource assessment, the number and

This process, ifrepeated enough times,resultsin a range geologic characteristicsof zones within prospects were

of values which represents allpossible combinationsof based on the arealdistributionof the equivalentgeologic

subsurface conditions that affecthydrocarbon volumes. plays used forthe in-placeassessment. The major partof

Similarmodels and the Monte-Carlo method are described the economically recoverable estimate is modeled as

more fullyby Newendorp (1975).

occurringin Ellesmerianclasticand carbonate reservoirs.

Afterallinput data are entered,PRESTO startsits VOLUMETRIC PARAMETERS

simulation,drillingeach prospect in the area based on

prospect and area risks. Afterthe area has been 'dolled" Each reservoirzone in a prospect requiresinputof

a sufficientnumber of times,PRESTO then computes the hydrocarbon volumetricparameters,includingthe productive

prospect-specificresource volumes foreach trialwhere, by area, pay thickness,and a barrel/acre-footoilrecovery

sampling from the inputdistributions,a prospectwas found factor.Gas recoveryfactorsand the associatedgas input

to be economically productive. The average of these parameter (gas-oilratio)were "zeroed out" forpurposes of

productive trialsfor each individualprospect is the the 1002 area assessment. Allvolumetricparameters are

conditionalmean prospect resource. For each trialwhere a

ranges of values,with an associatedprobabilitydistribution

prospect is found to be productive,prospect resources are

to account for uncertainty.The ranges and distributions

added to give areawide resources for thattrial.The area

used for recovery factors were derived directlyfrom

conditionalmean is the average of these area-wide equivalentparameters developed for the in-placeresource

resources. The resultsof allthe productivetrialsare then assessment.

arranged in ascending order to give the cumulative

frequency of the conditionalarea resources,that is,the GEOLOGIC RISK

percentage chance of findingresourcesgreaterthan a given

value. The resultsof alltrials(includingzero, nonThe probabilityof occurrence of hydrocarbons in an

economic, and productivetrials)are used to generaterisked area or prospect is normallyexpressed as a geologicrisk

resource estimates and an economic riskfactor(Cooke, factorwhich is the complement of the probabilityof

1985, p. 11).

occurrence (1 minus probabilityof occurrence). Itis the

probabilitythathydrocarbons willnot be found.

The PRESTO model requires user input of

unconditionalrisk factorsfor the area and for each

prospect and each zone beingassessed. At the prospect

and zone levels,these riskfactorsare internallyadjustedby

the model to a conditionalbasis,and these conditionalrisk

PRESTO MODEL INPUTS

factorscontrolthe frequency with which prospects and

zones are found productiveduringa PRESTO "run"(Cooke,

The PRESTO model requiresthe development of user

1985, p. 9). This sampling frequency determinesthe relative

inputvaluesin much the same way as describedforthe incontributionof each prospect to the area resourceestimate.

place resource assessment. The major differenceis that

volumetricparameters and riskfactorsare developed for - Prospect riskfactorswere assessed on the basis of

specific,identifiedprospects,and that technologicaland the probabilityof occurrence of significantquantitiesof oil,

economic factorsaffectingrecoverabilityare considered. taking into considerationprobabilitiesasociatedwith the

Specificvariablesare discussed inthissection. occurrence of minimum values and probabilitydistributions

forthe reservoirparameters used forthe variousplays in

PROSPECTS the in-placeresource assessment. New fieldwildcat

success ratesforthe U.S. and forAlaska were considered.

Twenty-six structuralprospects, identifiedand Prospect riskfactorsused range from 90 to about 98

delineatedas a resultof interpretationof seismicdata,were percent, depending on such prospect specificfactorsas

considered in the 1002 area recoverable resource data coverage and quality,confidencein the interpretation,

assessment (fig.111-1;table 111-2).The minimum arealsize confidence in the existenceof reservoirhorizons,and type

of prospects is a functionof the seismicgriddensityand of trap. The average prospectriskvalue used forthe 1002

the resolution(quality)of the data on seismic record area prospects was about 95 percent. For perspective,the

sections,which is variablewithinthe area. A largevolume reportednationalaverage fornew fielddiscoverywells has

of additional,possiblyeconomicallyrecoverableresources in been about 16 percent forthe years 1972-1985,but the

small structuraltraps and stratigraphictraps may also be average size of discoveriesincludedin these statisticshas

present,as reflectedinthe in-placeresourceassessment. probably been less than 1 millionbarrels,while the

78 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
conditionalmean size of the smallestprospect assessed in Sensitivityanalyses were conducted to determine

thisanalysiswas about 20 millionbarrels(recoverable).For effectsof variationsin several economic parameters,

Alaska,from 1982 through 1985, two new fielddiscoveries including oil prices, on the economics of "typical"

have been announced for 106 exploratorywells drilled,or prospects in the western and easternparts of the 1002

about 2 percent(Jones, 1983; Jones and Hiles,1984; Boyd area. The lowest oilprice modeled was $22 (year2000

and Hiles,1985; Steenblock,1986; Johnston, 1983, 1984, price,1984 dollars). The MEFS for the eastern Arctic

1985, 1986). The Alaska statisticsreflecthe economic Refuge prospect using this price is more than 2 billion

realitiesof a high-costenvironment.- barrels(recoverable).For western ArcticRefuge,the MEFS

would be about 1.4 billionbarrels.Minimum fieldsizesfor

- As generallydefined foruse in the PRESTO model,. actualprospects in the 1002 area,using this price,were

area risk is based on the probabilitythat at leastone not estimated,but itis likelythatthe minimum forthe area

accumulation existsas modeled in the area. For this would be close to that for the "typicalwestern Arctic

analysis,the area riskwas based on the probabilitythatat Refuge" prospect (1.4 BBO). All else being equal,the

leastone of the fivelargestprospects existsas modeled. effectof thiswould be to lower the marginalprobabilityfor

Based on individualprospect riskfactors,this probability commercial hydrocarbons from the 19 percent most likely

was 30 percent (70 percentarea risk).The rationalefor case. -

using thisapproach isthatthere must be at leastone field

in the area large enough to bear the cost of a regional Table 111-3.--Undiscovered,conditional,economically

transportation infrastructurein order for commercial recoverableoilresources in the 1002 area.

development to occur. This may be considered overly

conservative,in that itdoes not take into account the [BBO, billionbarrelsof oil.Prepared by

possibilityof offshore development. Commercial the Bureau of Land Management]

development in the eastern BeaufortSea would lower

regionaltransportationcosts,resultingin a lower minimum

economic fieldsize. However, itis beyond the scope of Greater Economic scenariothisanalysisto speculate on the probabilityof commercial than Most likelyMost favordevelopment inthe eastern BeaufortSea. - case able case

ECONOMIC INPUTS A. Conditional,economicallyrecoverableoil

The economics of petroleum development for the Probability............................ 99% 0.49 BBO 0.18 BBO

area and for each prospect are appliedin the PRESTO 95% .59 .23

analysis.This is accomplished by means of an estimateof 75% 1.12 .67

the volume of recoverableresourcesthat would be required 50% 2.21 1.49

for a prospect to be economically successful. This 25% 4.24 3.67

estimate,referredto as the minimum economic fieldsize 5% 9.24 7.85

(MEFS), is based on estimateddevelopment,production, 1% 17.19 15.73

and transportationcosts, and various forecasts and Maximum simulated oil......... 22.34 22.34

estimates of futureeconomic factors,such as oilprices,

Mean (arithmeticaverage).... 3.23 2.66 inflation,and discountrates. Pertinentassumptions used in

Marginal probabilityl............. 19.0% 26.0% the derivationof IVIEFSfor prospects in the 1002 area are

shown in table111-3and are discussed at greaterlengthby

Minimum economic field....... 0.44 BBO 0.15 BBO Young and Hauser (1986).

Under the most likelycase economic scenario,the

B. Significanteconomic assumptions minimum economic fieldsize forthe 1002 area as a whole

is about 440 millionbarrelsof economicallyrecoverableoil.

For individualprospects,the IVIEFSvaries,depending on

Crude oilmarket price(1984 dollars/ prospect-specificcharacteristicssuch as drillingdepths, well barrelin year 2000) ......................... $33.00 $40.00

spacing,and pipelinedistance. The areawide minimum is Annual inflationrate............................ 6.0% 3.5%

equal to the MEFS for the prospect with the lowest Discount rate:

development costs. Real .................................................... 10.0% 8.0%

Nominal ............................................. 16.6% 11.78%

Minimum economic fieldsizes were also calculated Federalroyaltyrate............................. 16.67% 12.5%

using alternative,more optimisticeconomic assumptions.

Development cost multipliei ................ 1.0 0.75

Under these assumptions, the areawide minimum economic

fieldsize (thatis,leastcostlyprospect)isabout 155 million 1The marginal probabilityis the probabilityof

barrelsof technicallyrecoverableoil.This is referredto as occurrence of economicallyrecoverableoilsomewhere in

the "most favorablecase MEFS." the 1002 area.

OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL-ASSESSMENT 79
PRESTO ANALYSIS RESULTS percent probabilityfor the 70-million-acre St. George Basin

(table111-1).Furthermore,the marginalprobabilityof finding

Economically recoverableestimatesof oilresources a recoverablefieldwillbe lower,the greaterthe minimum

were calculatedusing two economic scenarios.The results economic fieldsize,because, as discoverystatisticsshow,

and economic variablesthatsignificantly affectthe estimate the number offieldsof a givensizeismuch lowerforlarger

of the minimum economic fieldsizeare shown in table111-3. fields.There are fewer 1-billion-barrel fidsthan 100-millionbarrelfields.Because ofthe high cost ofoperationsinthe

The most favorablecase resourceestimatewas made Arctic,the minimum economic fieldsize is 440 million

to assess the effectsof differenteconomic conditionsor barrels,which is much higherthan forareas in the lower

projectionson the estimate. Except for economic inputs 48 States. Despitethis high threshold,the chance of

(theminimum economic fieldsize),allothervariableswere findinga recoverablefieldin the 1002 area is 19 percent.

held constant. On a conditionalbasis,the area resource This shows an exceptionallyhigh potentialforoiland gas.

estimate is lower because the prospect resources For perspective,in 1982, 1,402 new-fielddiscoverieswere

contributingto the area resourceare lower. The range of reportedforthe United States,but only652 millionbarrels

valuesforeach prospectmodeled istruncatedat a lower of hydrocarbonliquidswere discoveredinthe new fields.

levelby the lower minimum economic fieldsize,resultingin

a widerrange ofconditionalvaluescontaininglowervalues. RESOURCES BY BLOCK

This is offsetby the increasedmarginalprobabilityof

occurrenceassociatedwith the wider range of values, To providea basisforassessingthe consequences

because prospectsand the area are found economic more of management decisionsin terms of the oilresource

oftenduringthe Monte Carlosimulation(Cooke, 1985,p. potentialof the 1002 area,the unconditionalresource

1 1). potentialforthe area was allocatedon a percentagebasis

to the blocks shown in figure111-14.This allocationis

To assess the effectof variationsin geologicrisk, based on the unconditionalresourcepotentialof the

PRESTO runswere made at differentlevelsof unconditional individualprospectscontainedineach block. See figureIIIrisk.These runs produced no significant variationsin the I and table 111-4.A similarresource allocation,by

conditionalarea resourceestimate. percentage,was made to "activityareas"in Section105(b)

Economic and PolicyAnalysisforthe NationalPetroleum

- MARGINAL PROBABILITY -

Reserve inAlaska (U.S.Department ofthe Interior,1979).

The marginalprobabilityisan outputof the PRESTO Table 111-4.--Distribution, by block,of estimateduncondimodel that indicatesthe chance thatan area havingthe tionalmean recoverableoilresourcesin the 1002 area.

characteristics specifiedby the inputswillcontainat least (Preparedby the Bureau of Land Management.)

one fieldwith economicallyrecoverableresources. The

inputparameterswhich most directlyaffectthisoutputare

the area geologicrisk(afunctionofthe individualprospect Block Locationin Resource Number of

geologicrisks)and the minimum economic fieldsize 1002 area distribution prospects

estimatedfor each prospect(see "Economic inputs,"this (percent) inblock

chapter).

As a consequence of the area geologicrisk,the A ........................ West 9 14

resultsshow a 30-percentchance thatan exploratory B ........................ Central 3 3

drillingprogram would findhydrocarbons. There is a 63- C ....................... East 63 4

percentchance that,ifhydrocarbonsare found,the amount D ........................ South 25 5

would exceed the minimum economic fieldsizeforat least

one prospect,resultingin the marginalprobabilityof 19

percent. Statedanotherway, assuming 1,000areas similar NATURAL GAS ECONOMICS

to the 1002 area,300 would have hydrocarbonsand 190 of

these would have at leastone prospect containing - For thisanalysis,crude oilisassumed to be the only

resourcesexceedingthe minimum economic fieldsize. potentiallyeconomic hydrocarbon in the 1002 area which

would attractdevelopmentinterestinthe mid-to late-1990's,

The statementthat thereis a 19-percentchance of and which could be exploredfor,developed,and marketed

findingrecoverableoilin the 1002 area needs to be withinthe 30-yeartimeframeat expected costs and prices.

interpretedin lightof past experienceinoilexplorationand This studyrecognizedfourfactors:(1)the high costsof

resource assessment. Generally speaking,the marginal North Slope naturalgas at market,(2)uncertaintythatany

probabilityof findingoilwillbe lower,the smallerthe gas transportationsystem willbe developedforthe North

unexplored area being considered. The 19-percent Slope,(3) additionalcosts of transportinggas from the

probabilityforthe 1.5-million-acre 1002 areathus indicatesa

1002 area to the northernterminusof such a pipeline,and

very high potentialwhen compared to the 27-percent (4)the quantityof known reserveselsewhereon the North

probabilityfor the 37-million-acre NavarinBasin or the 22- Slope thatwould presumably be developed beforethe 11002

80 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
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OIL-FIELDDEVELOPMENT

82 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
CHAPTER IV

DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSPORTATION

INFRASTRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT,

AND PRODUCTION

Section 1002(h)(3)requiresan evaluationof the - The explorationand development of an oilfieldon

effectsof furtheroiland gas exploration,development,and the North Slope of Alaska and the transportationof oilto

production, should itbe permittedon the 1002 area. markets entailseveralactivitiesand the constructionof

Section 1002(h)(4)requiresa descriptionof oiland gas many types of facilities.The various activitiesinclude

transportationfacilities.To meet these requirements, seismic exploration;drillingof exploration,confirmation,

scenarios were needed to describepossibleoiland gas delineation,and production wells;and the planning,

development within the Arctic Refuge coastalplain,and engineering,and constructionof fieldproductionfacilities,

transportationof the oiland gas to processing facilities. support facilities, and transportationsystems. Followingis

The scenarios in this chapter are based on general a general descriptionof the activitiesand facilities that

concepts germane to oildevelopment and productionin an would normallybe requiredto transportNorth Slope oil

arcticenvironment. Advances in arcticengineeringand oil- from the 1002 area to market. The exploration,

fielddevelopment and/or sitespecificfactorsin the 1002 development, and constructionscenarios presented herein

area may allow for the constructionof smallerpads and are generalconcepts and must not be consideredto be

roads requiringless gravelthan those describedin the finalengineeringsolutionsfor oiland gas productionfrom

followingscenarios.Determiningthe possible magnitude of the 1002 area.-

such development in the 1002 area requiredan estimateof Exploration the amount of potentiallyrecoverable hydrocarbon

resources. Chapter IIIdescribes how these recoverable

ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL AND

resource estimates were derived,and the limitations

GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

connected with theiruse. -

Additional surface geology work would probably

Gas was not considered in the recoverableresource occur priorto drillingexploratorywells. This would consist

assessment; at presentcrude oilisassumed to be the only of hand sampling of rock and furtherstudy and

potentiallyeconomic hydrocarbon which would attract measurement of geologic sections. Access would be by

leasinginterestifthe 1002 area were opened to leasing. helicopter,and actualtime on the ground would be only a

Conceivably,at some futuredate,gas as wellas oilcould few hours for each survey.

be economically produced from the Arctic Refuge.

Therefore,a general discussionof gas development and Additionalseismic explorationwould also take place

transportationis presented at the end of thischapter. to obtain more detailedinformationon subsurfacegeology.

Use of vibratorequipment would probably be the preferred

- For this chapter and Chapter VI, the recoverable method, based on the resultsof seismicactivitiesalready

estimates used are those attributedto the mapped conducted in the 1002 area. Although the totallinemiles

structures(fig.111-1).This is not to implythatthese are the of new surveys might not differmuch from the cumulative

only areas of oiland gas potentialon the 1002 area. It totalof about 1,300 linemilesalready collected,more crews

merely provides a less speculativetool from which to may be on the area for two reasons: (1) different

projectpotentialdevelopment activityand from which to companies have differentideas as to where to concentrate

evaluate possible environmental impacts. Areas outside detailedsurveys (closergrid spacing);and (2)different

mapped structuresmay prove to be of greater,lesser,or types of data and parametersare usefulto companies in

equal potential. Without exploratory drillingas a theirinterpretationsof subsurface geologicalstructuresor

confirmationand delineationtool,allestimatesmust be style. Thus, there could be requestsforauthorizationsto

considered uncertain.Of course,ifno oilis present,there run '3-D surveys,'which use closelyspaced, parallel

willbe no impacts from development and production. survey lines.

INFRASTRUCTURE-41NITRODUCTION 83
EXPLORATORY DRILLING averaging 2 feet deep over the tundra surface. This

materialis used to backfillthe reservepitupon pad

Exploratorydrillingis a large-scaleoperationusing abandonment. -

heavy equipment,but itis usuallyconfinedto a localized

area. For environmental,engineering,and economic The drillingpad is connected to the airstripand the

reasons,exploratorydrillingon the North Slope istypically camp watersource by iceroads. Initially a sourceofwater

conducted during the winter. If exploratorydrilling sufficientfor ice-roadand airstripconstructionand camp

operations,includingconstruction,drilling, and testing,can and drillinguses must be located.Water inthe 1002 area

be completed withinapproximately170 days,a wellcan isconfinedto surfaceresources,and thereare few lakesof

probablybe completed ina singlewinterseason (Mitchell, appreciablesizewithinthe area. The water requirements

1983b). On the North Slope, exploratorywellsto a for drillingan exploratorywellare approximately:(1)1.7

moderate depth Gan usuallybe drilledin a singleseason, millionto 2.0 milliongallonsforthe drillingoperationsand

whereas most deep wells(deeperthan 10,000feet)would domesticuse, (2)1.2millionto 1.5milliongallonsper mile

requiretwo seasons. Decisionsto allowyear-rounddrilling for constructionand maintenanceof ice roads,and (3)7

activitywillbe made on a case-by-casebasis.- millionto 8 milliongallonsforconstructionand maintenance

of an airstripon the tundra. Therefore,as much as 15

A single-winter-seasonoperation involvesthe milliongallonsof water may be needed to drillone

mobilizationof constructioncrews and equipment,followed exploratorywell.

by the mobilizationof the drillingrig. Afterthe rigand

supportequipment are deliveredto the siteand assembled, - The limitedavailability of freshwater on the Arctic

drillingbegins,and continuesuntilthe desireddepth is CoastalPlain,particularly inwinter,isnot a problem unique

reached. Afterdrilling,testing,and suspension or to the 1002 area. The varioussources used and methods

abandonment of the well,the rig,supportequipment,and developed to satisfywater requirementsin otherareas in

camp are demobilizedand the pad areaisrehabilitated. the Arctic(the Prudhoe Bay developmentarea near the

mouths of the Sagavanirktokand Kuparuk Riversto the

Constructionequipment is hauledcross-countryby west) willbe applicableto activities in the ArcticRefuge.

low-ground-pressurevehiclesto the exploratorywell site. Just as water availability variesby location,solutionsto

Once the equipment and crew arriveon site,construction providing/obtaining water willhave to be consideredon a

beginsforiceroads,an iceairstrip,and the drillingpad. site-by-site basis. The severalsources and methods used

The drillingrigand the ancillaryequipment can be to obtain winterwater suppliesin earlierexploratory

transportedoverland by low-groundpressurevehiclesor development and productionactivitiesin ArcticAlaska are

flowninby C-130 aircraft. mentioned elsewhereinthisreport. These includeexisting

naturallydeep lakesand deep pools along riversthatdo

- The drillingpad can be constructedof ice,excavated not freezeto bottom in winter;meltinglake and riverice,

material,gravel-foam-timber, or otherpossiblecombinations. includinglargeaufeisdepositsdownstream from the several

The pad is largeenough to hold the rig,camp, and largespringssouth of the 1002 area (Childersand others,

support equipment,and to providestoragefor drilling 1977),trappingand meltingsnow; creatingwater reservoirs

supplies(drillpipe, casing,drillingmud, cement,etc.).A by excavatingdeep pools inlakesor along streamchannels

typicalpad (includingreservepit)covers5-10 acresof in conjunction with gravelremoval operations:and

ground surface. The constructionand drillingcamps desalinatingmarine waters obtainedbeyond the barrier

contain sleeping and eating accommodations, islands.-

communication equipment,power generatorunits,storage

space, shops, and offices.An initialconstructioncamp Ifa suitablewater source can be found,iceroads

containsfacilities for50-75 peopleand the drillingcamp for would probablybe constructed,typicallyby applyinga layer

50-60 people. The actualnumber of peoplevarieswiththe of water over snow cover along the desiredroute,using

type ofactivity.- speciallydesigned watertrucks. This process isrepeated

untilan icelayerof sufficientthicknessis created. One

- A reservepitis excavatedat the edge of the pad mile of ice road generallyrequiresabout 1.5 acre-feetof

immediatelyadjacentto the well.The purpose ofa reserve water. Iceairstripsare usuallyplacedon nearbylakesif

pitis twofold:(1)to containthe used drillingmuds and they are of sufficientsize;otherwise,the airstripis

..cuttings" from the well,and (2)to containformationfluids constructedon leveltundrain a manner similarto an ice

originatingfrom a "kick."- road except with a minimum icethicknessof 12 inches.

The airstripmay be as longas 5,000-6,000feetand about

150 feet wide, usuallyto accommodate Hercules C-130

- Reserve pitsgenerallycover 0.5to 2.0 acres (parallel aircraft.

to the drillingpad);theyare 10 to 20 feetdeep. A small

flarepitis excavatedat the cornermost distantfrom the Drillingoperationsbegin by augeringa hole typically

drillingrig,in case itis needed for gas flaringduring 50-100 feetdeep for the conductor casing. Then the

testing.The materialexcavatedfrom the reserveand flare drillingrigis placedon the pad. To prevent differential

pitsis used to levelthe drillpad, providinga cover settlingduringdrilling, the rigis placed on pilingsor

84 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
timbers. The conductor casingis run and cemented in the same winter. Ifso, the airstrip, roads,and pad for

placeand the wellisspudded. Drillingbeginsand the hole support of the drillingrigscould be shared. Ifthe

is drilledto a competent geologicformation,usuallyto a discoveryis significantand appears to be economically

depth of about 2,000 feet. Test logs are run and the developable,some of the-roads and delineation-drill pads

surfacecasingis run intothe hole and cemented with a may be constructedwith gravelso they could be used

specialarcticcement. This casing passes throughthe duringproduction.

entirepermafrostzone and providesan anchor forblowoutpreventionequipment untilthe next casingstringis set. From time of discovery through delineation,

Drillingcontinuesto the nextcasingpointwhere the wellis evaluation,and engineering,the lesseeor lesseesconduct

logged and intermediatecasing is run and cemented. environmentalstudiesand plan forthe developmentand

Drillingcontinuesuntilthe targetzone is reached and productionof the reservoir.Once the studiesand plans

tested. Afterfinaltestingand logging,the wellis are completed, the lessee'splans for construction,

suspended or abandoned by placingseveralcement plugs development,and productionare submittedto appropriate

inthe wellbore and casing. Federaland Stateagenciesforreview,possiblemodification,

and approval.

Usually demobilizationof the drillingrigand camp

startsimmediatelyafterthe well is abandoned. Within Assuming that the decisionis to proceed with

severalweeks, the equipmentand most of the debriswill developmentand thatplans of operationare approved,the

have been removed or the equipment made secure for firston-the-groundactivityisestablishmentof a temporary

movement to the nextwellsite.A final-cleanupcrew returns constructioncamp for workers. This camp providesthe

to the siteinthe summer to pickup any remainingdebris necessitiesfor livingand working on the North Slope and

or garbage and to check on the rehabilitation. may house as many as 1,500 workers during peak

constructionand development. Gravel extractionand

For wellsthatcannot be completed ina singlewinter constructionof roads, drillingpads, and airstripare

season two optionsexist: (1)year-rounddrilling or (2) priorities,because these facilitiesreceiveimmediateand

interrupteddrillingduringtwo or more winterseasons continuoususe. Firsto be constructedisthe airstripto

(Mitchell,1983a). Year-roundexploratorydrillinguses the handle the heavy supply loads. With connectingroads,

same facilities as the wintermethod, but the pad, roads, such an airstripcould serveseveraloilfields,were others

and airstripare usuallyconstructedwith gravelinsteadof to be discoverednearby. Next would be gravelroads to

ice. Therefore,a source of gravelforconstructionmaterial planned drillingpads, and then all-seasonpads.

must be available. Constructionwould begin at the main camp, againwithan

all-seasongravelpad. Once each pad iscompleted,drilling

- Mufti-winterdrillingis similarto single-winterdrilling, rigscan be moved on locationand productiondrillingcan

exceptthata portionof the drillingpad isconstructedwith begin.

enough gravelto providea stableand suitablesurfaceon

which to storethe drillingequipmentand camp duringthe

summer. A wood and timberdrillingplatformor base may The buildingsand engineeringequipment for the

be an alternativeto using gravel.At the end of the first permanent camp and most of the productionfacilities are

drillingseason the wellis freezeprotectedwith a low- usuallyconstructedas largemodular unitselsewhere(lowerfreeze-pointfluidand suspended, At the beginningof the 48 States,Anchorage,etc.).The modules, often several

second or subsequent winterdrillingseasons,the roads, storieshigh,are sent by barge on an annual sealiftduring

airstrip,and drillingpad are rebuiltto the extentnecessary the open-waterseason to a suitableportsitehavinglargewith ice,the low-freeze-point fluidin the upper partof the scaledock facilities. From there,they are eithertruckedor

wellisremoved,and drillingisresumed. - moved by trackedvehiclesto the projectlocation.On-site

the modules are assembled and functionallytested. The

Development actualyears of constructionmay depend on the overall

scope of the fielddevelopmentand is usuallya continuing

Followinga discoveryof oilfrom explorationdrilling, a operation. For example,constructionwas begun on the

confirmationor delineationwellis drilled.This welltests Prudhoe Bay fieldduring the early1970's,yet major

the same prospectand isdrilledina similarmanner as an constructionsupported by annual sealiftshas continued

explorationwell. Ifthe well resultsare positive,further intothe 1980'swithexpansion of the initialproductionfield

delineationdrillingoccurs. The purpose fordelineation and improved technology for extractionof additional

drillingis to determinethe size of the discoveryand the petroleumresources. Constructionmay continueformany

geologiccharacteristics of the reservoir.Delineationdrilling more years.

continuesuntilenough informationhas been collectedto

determinewhether or not the reservoircould be produced Constructionof a hot-oiltransmissionpipeline

economically. The actualnumber and schedulingof presumablyto TAPS (Trans-AlaskaPipelineSystem) Pump

delineationwellsare tailoredto each reservoir.The drilling Station1 at Prudhoe Bay would proceed concurrentlywith

method is similarto thatfor discoveryand confirmation constructionof productionfacilities(see "Transportation

wellsexceptthattwo or more wellsmightbe drilledduring optionsforoiland gas production,"thischapter).

INFRASTRUCTURE--DEVELOPMENT 85
Once the major productionfacilities, including

gatheringpipelinesand main pipeline,are in place,

productionbegins. The initialproductionratedepends Drilling Pa -,Wellheads

Groundsurface

upon the number of productionwellsdrilledand connected

to productionfacilities; peak productionisprobablyattained

in2 to 5 years,and expectedto be 5-10 percentof total

recoverableresourcesannually. Productionmay remain at Kickoffpoint

thatlevelfor 3-8 yearsand then decline10-12percentper

year. The productivelifeof an oilfieldis usually20-30 Angleof

years (NationalPetroleumCouncil,1981). Afterproduction deviation

from the reservoiris no longereconomic,the fieldwould

presumably be abandoned, althoughthis has not yet

occurred on the North Slope. Most facilities, buildings,

structures,equipment,and above-ground pipelineswould be

removed to permitrehabilitation of the surface.

vilreservoir Horizontaldeviation'

The time period from lease acquisitionto initialoil

productionfrom a new reservoiron the NorthSlope is

difficult to determine. Even under optimum circumstances, Figure IV-1.--Directional drilling from a

about 10 years willelapsebeforeproductionstartsfrom a singlelocation.

new lease.

- Unless advances in technology dictateotherwise,

most developmentwellsforthe 1002 area would likelybe

Production drilledwithan angleof deviationbetween 00 and 600 from

an assumed kickoffpointas shallowas 500 feet. The

The physicalcharacteristics(size,shape,depth)and actualkickoffpointdepends upon geologicconditionsand

performance (spacingand productionrateof wells)of a reservoirdepths. The maximum practicalangle for

fielddeterminethe number and locationof surfacefacilities directionaldrillingon the North Slope is now about 900,

needed fordevelopment and production. withthe horizontaldeviationreachinga possibledistanceof

more than 12,000 feet in some of the deeper reservoirs

The size and shape of the productivefieldroughly (thatis,deeper than 10,000 feet)(U.S.Army Corps of

define the areal extent of surface disturbance from Engineers,1984).-

production-relatedfacilities.The lateraldimensionsof the

reservoir,projected to the surface,would typically Reservoirdepth alsoinfluencesthe number of drilling

encompass allor most of the productionfacilities such as pads requiredfor development and production. A deep

drillingpads, reservepits,infieldroads,and gatheringlines. reservoircan be produced from fewer drillingpads because

The camp, airstrip,or otherfacilities not directlyrelatedto more wells can be drilledfrom a singlepad (fig.IV-2).

actual production could be positionedto best suit Conversely,a shallowreservoirequiresmore drillingpads,

environmentaland engineeringconcerns. because fewer wellscan be drilledfrom each pad.

For environmentalor technicalreasons,itmay be

desirableto shiftthe locationofthe drillingpad. Directional

drillingallows multiplewells to be drilledfrom a single

gravelpad (fig.IV-1).This typicalNorth Slope practice Wellheads

reflectseconomics, engineering considerations,and

environmentalimpactmitigation.A verticalhole isdrilledto ,,Kickoffpoin

a predetermined"kickoff'pointwhere a controlleddeviation

(drift)from verticalis begun. The angle of deviation

increaseswith depth untilitreaches the necessaryangle

forthe wellto reach a specificbottom-holelocationinthe

producing geologicformation. The horizontaldeviation Horizontal devia 'Oilreservo'l

(horizontaldistance between surface and bottom-hole

locations)depends upon the angle of deviationand the

verticaldepth of the hole. The amount of horizontal

deviationthatispossiblefora group ofwellsdrilledfrom a

singlepad determinesthe degree of flexibility in choosing "Oilreservoir

the surface locationof that drillingpad. Increased true

verticaldepth of a reservoirincreasesthe degree of

flexibility in pad location. Figure IV-2.--Horizontaldeviationversus welldepth.

86 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Reservoirtype and performance influencethe spacing depends on the amount of insulationnecessary to protect

of productionwells,which in turn affectsthe number of the permafrostfrom thawing,but a 5-footthicknessshould

drillingpads requiredfor development and production. The providethe needed insulationfor most of the 1002 area.

wellspacing for a producing fieldis designed to effectively Structureswould be builton pilingsand elevatedabove the

draina specificarea surroundingthe well bore. On the pad surfaceto ensure foundationintegrityfor the project

North Slope, well spacing,or well density,ranges from 1 life.

per 5 acres (West Sak PilotProject)to 1 per 320 acres

(initialPrudhoe Bay development),depending on production Living quarters must provide sleeping

performance and needs (Williams,1982; Petroleum accommodations, kitchens,food storage.dining areas,

InformationCorporation,1985).- sanitarystations,and recreationfacilities forallproduction,

maintenance, and administrativepersonnel at the CPF,

Production drillingon the 1002 area is assumed to about 200-500 people depending on the magnitude of

be on 160-acrespacing,the presentpracticein portionsof operations. Support services,administration,engineering,

producing fieldson the North Slope and the spacing herein communications,and projectmanagement would be housed

assumed forthe development scenariosand the minimum in an adjacentadministrativeofficecenter. The workshop,

economic fieldsize determinations. Each productionwell maintenance center,and main garage would be located

would then drain 160 acres. This spacing is "reservoir nearby,for fire,safety,and oil-spillequipment as well as

spacing" in the subsurface and should not be confused partsand supplies.

with surface well spacing. Also, ifgas were to be

produced, reservoirspacing would probably be greater(320 Productionfacilitiesincludethe equipment necessary

or 640 acres). Injectionwells are requiredfor fluid to process hydrocarbons from the producing wells,

disposal, gas reinjectionfor storage and pressure beginning with a series of three-phaseseparatorswhich

maintenance, and waterfloodingforpressure maintenance. resultin three products--oil,gas, and water. Each product

is run through additionalseparators untilthe required

- Infrastructureforany oilproductionon the 1002 area separationis obtained. Oilis piped through a salesmeter

requiresmany facilities, likethose forthe Kuparuk Riverand and then to the pipelinepump station.The gas is available

Prudhoe Bay oilfields(U.S.Army Corps of Engineers, for on-sitefuelrequirementsor is used for producing

1984; Andrews, 1984). These major facilities includecentral additionaloil(enhanced oilrecoveryor gas lift).Ingas lift,

productionfacilities, drillingpads, roads, airstrips,pipelines, the separated gas is compressed, returned to the

water and gravelsources, base camps, constructioncamps, productionwell,and injectedinto the space between the

storage pads, powerlines, powerplants,support facilities, casing and tubing,where itentersthe tubingthrough a

and possibly a coastal marine facility.Allwould be of gas-liftvalve. The oilin the tubing mixes withthe gas and

permanent constructionand have a usefullifeof 30-50 is raised to the surfaceby the expanding gas (American

years. The airstrips,roads,pads, and dock facilities would Petroleum Institute,1976). In enhanced oilrecovery,any

typicallybe constructedof gravelmined from nearby upland excess gas is injectedback intothe reservoirthrough gas

sites,terraces,or streambeds. Most structuresand injectionwellsto maintainreservoirpressure.

productionfacilities would be builtoff-siteas modules and

transportedto and assembled on location.- The separated water is pumped to water injection

wells forsubsurface disposalor reservoirwaterflooding.A

CENTRAL PRODUCTION FACILITY waterflood system for secondary oil production would

probably be necessary for developinga reservoirin the

- The centralproductionfacility(CPF) is the primary 1002 area. Waterflooding involvesthe injectionof large

operationcenterfor productionactivitiesand may possibly amounts of water intothe reservoir(400,000barrelsper day

be the headquarters for each field. Typicallythe CPF forthe Kuparuk Riverfield,and up to 2 millionbarrelsper

includes: production facilities;livingquarters and day forthe Prudhoe Bay field),and servesto sweep the oil

administrativeoffice center;workshops, maintenance toward producing wells and to maintainreservoirpressure

buildings,and garages; fuel and water storage;electric- (Lynch and others,1985). This process increasesthe

power-generation unit; solid-wasteand water-treatment recoverablereservesof the reservoir.

facilities; and a crude-oiltoppingunit,ifneeded. -

Sea water is the likelychoice fora waterfloodproject

Ifthe fieldbeing developed is small,allfacilities may ifsufficientquantitiesof produced water are not available.

be locatedon a singlegravelpad. However, fieldsizesin A sea-water waterfloodsystem includesa sea-water intake

the 1002 area may be on a scalesimilarto Prudhoe Bay or structureand treatmentplant,an insulatedpipelinefrom the

Kuparuk River. This would requirelocatingsome facilities plantto each CPF, and heat generatorsspaced at intervals

on separate pads, and additionalCPF's could be along the pipelineto preventthe water from freezing.The

necessary. Pad sizevades accordingto the magnitude of sea-watertreatmentplant probablywould be locatedat the

the field,good arctic engineering practice, and coast as in Prudhoe Bay (Williams,1982). For the Prudhoe

environmentalconcerns. Each pad would be about 5 feet Bay facilityhe entireplantwas builtin a singlebarge unit

thick and could cover 20-100 acres, requiring180,000- towed up during the open-water period and grounded at

900,000 cubic yards of gravel. Actual pad thickness the prepared coastalsite. The treated-sea-waterpipeline

INFRASTRUCTURE--PRODUCTION 87
would be routedto the CPF where additionalpumps would needs. Potablewater forcamp use would be storedat the

increasethe pressure to meet injectionneeds. The treated CPF in insulatedtanks. Additionalwater and sewage

sea water would then be piped to the appropriatedrilling treatmentfacilities are normallyplaced at each CPF.

pads for injection.

The fuel-storagearea would hold dieseland other

- Fresh water for camp use is normallyobtainedfrom necessary refinedpetroleum products and would be diked

various sources--lakes,water-filledgravelpits,enhancement to containany spills.A crude-oiltopping plantmay provide

of existinglakes and riveroxbows, or by clesalinationof allthe field'sneeds for arcticdieseland jetfuel,or fuel

sea water. Requirements forcamp use could be as much needs could be transportedintothe field. An electric

as 10,000 gallonsper day, and drillingwater requirements generatingplant,fueledwith produced gas, would provide

could be as high as 30.000 gallonsper day per well.- power for each field. Backup dieselpower would be

availableat allsitesfor use in power outages.

Data from water-availability studies forthe proposed

Alaska NaturalGas Pipelineare shown in tableIV-1. The DRILLING PADS AND WELLS

data were obtained 12-27 miles inland,approximatelyin the

middle of the 1002 area,and suggest thatinwinterriversin Each drillingpad would support drillingactivitiesuntil

the 1002 area are not a potentialsource of water for allthe production and injectionwells had been drilled.

industrialuse. Note thatwater depths beneath ice do vary Productionfrom the pad could begin before allwellsare

throughout the lengthof these rivers. completed, so production and drillingmay occur

simultaneously.The layoutof a pad duringdrillingactivities

Table IV-1.--Winterwater depths at selectedlocations typicallyincludes the following: drillingcamp, fueland

on the 1002 area. water storage, one or two drillingrigs,drillingsupplies,

reservepits,productionfacilities and equipment.

[Data from U.S. Department of the Interior,1976, "Alaska"

volume, p. 99] The drillingpad is normallyconstructedwith gravel

and covers 20-35 acres. A pad thicknessof 5 feetrequires

Dale Thickness Water Approximate 160,000-285,000cubic yards of gravel.The drillingcamp is

River sampled/ of ice depth straight-line similarto the camp facilities at the CPF, but smallerand

observed (ft) (ft) distance(mi) temporary. Housing is requiredforapproximately50 people

(1973) upstream per drillingrig,and support staffand some maintenance

workers for the production wells. Once initialdrillingis

complete, the drillingcamp is disbanded and remaining

Canning .................. 4/18 7.54 0 19.8 personnel are housed at a CPF. Drillingsuppliesat the

(downstream) 1 1J05 1.15 0 14.0 pad would includewelltubulars,drillbits,drillingmud and

Tamayariak............. 11/07 0 0 14.0 chemicals, cement, wellheads, and other assorted

11/07 0 1.15 13.0 equipment.

Katakturuk.............. 11/07 0 0 11.8

Sadlerochit............ 11/07 .03 0 18.9 The wellson the pad are customarilyarranged in a

Hulahula...... ........... 4/18 0 0 21.7 straightline;adjoiningwells may be as close as 10 feet

11/08 0 .82 19.2 (U.S.Army Corps of Engineers,1984). Spacing between

Jago ........................ 4/18 0 0 26.7 wells depends on pad-sizerestrictionsand the number of

11/07 .85 0 26.7 wells required for each pad. Producing-well design

Okerokovik............. 11/07 0 .56 25.7 depends upon well-productionrates,geologicconditions,

Aichilik.................... 11/07 2.16 0 19.8 and drillingdepth. A design example is shown infigure

IV-3.

Water sources may includenon-fish-bearingstreams,

- Drillcuttingsfrom the wellare placed ina reservepit rivers,and lakes year round. Water may be removed from

on the drillpad. Spent drillingmuds are generallypumped fish-bearingwaters, except in winter,providedthat water

intothe annulus of previouslydrilledproductionwells. removal meets Alaska StatuteTitle16 requirements,iswithin

Hazardous solidsand solidscontaininghydrocarbons must terms of other necessary State and Federalpermits,and

be removed to and safelycontained in a government- does not impede fish passage or otherwisemeasurably

degrade aquatichabitats. approved site,such as an abandoned gravelpit.-

The number of pads required to develop and

Desalinated sea water and snow meltingare also produce an oilreservoirdepends upon reservoirsize and

options,particularlyfor domestic use and exploratorydrilling depth, the prqduction-wellspacing,and number of wellson

operations. These sources may not be economically a pad. These factorscannot be determined untilsitefeasibleforiceroads and airstrips.Materialsitesmay also specificengineeringstudiesare completed. However, as an

functionas water reservoirsand, where possible,could be example, a relativelydeep fieldof 35,000 productiveacres

positionedand designed to fulfillboth graveland water developed on 160-acre production-wellspacing may require

88 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
approximately220 productionwells and 90 injectionwells. In-fieldpipelinesor gatheringlineswould run from

Ifthe wellsdrilledfrom a singlepad could effectivelydrain each drillingpad to the CPF. Parallelpipelinescarry gas

5,000 acres, seven drillpads would be necessary;40 to 50 and water from the CPF to the drillingpads forfuel,

wellscould be drilledfrom each pad. injection,or disposal. The pipelineswould probablybe 8-

24 inches in diameterand be builtparallelto the roads

connecting the drillingpads and the CPF. They are

AIRSTRIP

commonly placed on elevated steelverticalsupport

members (VSM). Pipelines,pump stations,and the VSIVI's

An airstripto support each major fielddevelopment are discussed in more detaillaterinthischapter.

and production area in the 1002 area would be a

permanent, year-round structureused forthe entirelifetime

of that field. The airstrip(s)would be designed to

accommodate alltypes of fixed-wingaircraftand helicopters,

and have a length of 5,000-6,000feetand a width of 150

feet. The airstrip(s)would cover approximately20 acres

MARINE FACILITY each; the adjacent taxiway,apron, terminal,and other

airportsupport facilitiescould requireanother 10 acres.

A marine facilitywould be requiredfor major Airstrip(s)and pad(s) for support facilitieswould be

constructed of graveland be about 5 feetthick. The equipment sealifis.The facilitybuilton the coast would

estimated gravel requirementfor each is approximately take into considerationthe locationsof the proposed

250,000 cubic yards. developments and environmentaland engineeringconcerns.

As needed, detailedengineeringstudieswould be prepared

FIELD ROADS AND PIPELINES for the marine facilitysize,design,and location.

Gravel roads would connect allpermanent facilities in The facilitywould contain sea-watertreatmentfacilities

the field(thatis,alldrillingpads, CPF's, airportcomplex, and various supportingoperations. Itwould be designed

water and gravel sources, and waterflocidand marine to receivebarges loaded with the annualsealiftof supplies,

facilities).These roads would have a crown width of other cargo, and production/supportmodules used in the

approximately35 feetand a thicknessof 5 feet. Each mile oilfield'sdevelopment and production. Barging these

of road occupies about 5 acres and requiresapproximately goods with an annual sealiftis the most economical

40,000cubic yards of gravel.The number of milesof roads method of transportationand the only practicalmethod of

constructedwould depend upon the size and physical deliveringvery largemodules to the North Slope. Barge

settingof the field. routes and timingwould be similarto the currentannual

sealiftused by North Slope operators,

The facilitywould requireone or more docks and

Wellhead sufficientacreage in storagepads to facilitate orderlyand

valve To production timely unloading of barges. A temporary camp and

assembly- Surface associated support facilitieswould be requiredduring

unloading periods ifthe main camp were too distantto

provide necessary livingquartersfor marine facilityworkers.

Conductor A transportationcorridorwould be requiredto connect the

marine facilitywith the development site.

-Surfacecasing

c o point(startof Camden Bay and Pokok were selected as two

builduptoangleof possible sites for marine facilities,given the development

True deviation scenarioderived under the Chapter IIIresource assessment ver:ical Buildupcompletion

depth point(angleof (fig.V-11).There may be other potentialmarinefacilitysites.

viationachieved) Allpotentialsiteswould be analyzed in detailbefore final

Angleof Productiontubing

selection.Camden Bay and Pokok were selectedbecause

deviation Intermediatecasing

they are similarto Prudhoe Bay in having sufficientwater

depth seaward of the siteso as not to requiredredging.

They also have open-ice periods similarto those at

Prudhoe Bay (ArcticEnvironmental Informationand Data

Center,1983). These siteswere not selectedon the basis

Horizontal of detailedengineeringstudiesand the locationsmay prove

deviation lessdesirableaftersuch studiesare conducted,should the

area be opened for development. However, Camden Bay

and Pokok were used to assess environmentalimpacts

Figure IV-3.--Production-well design. under the variousscenarios.-

INFRASTRUCTURE--PRODUCTION 89
TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS FOR A conceptused inthe KuparukRiverfieldpipeline,

OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION but notincorporatedinTAPS, was constructionofonlyone

road for use as both a main transportation arteryand a

Thissectionassessesthe technologyinvolvedinthe pipeline-maintenance road. A temporaryiceroadwas used

majorelementsof oiltransportation methods. Pipelinesare duringconstructionof the pipeline,eliminatingthe need for

emphasized as the most reasonabletransportationmethod a constructionwork pad. That constructionplacedthe

because the TAPS is in place and operating.As pipelineon the uphillsideof the gravelroad fill,enabling

productionof the Prudhoe Bay oilfielddeclines,TAPS the road to act as a dam in the eventof an oilspill.

should have adequate capacityto accommodate Arctic Cross drainageforwaterwas providedby culverts,which

Refugeoilby the 1990's.However,ifTAPS capacity(about couldbe quicklypluggedifan oilspilloccurred.Insofaras

2.2millionbarrelsper day,accordingto W. Witten,Alyeska possible,a similardesigncouldbe proposed acrosslevel

PipelineServiceCompany, Jan.9, 1986)were inadequate, terrainin the 1002 area. Where the terrainis irregular,

capacitymight be increasedby loopingor by improving engineeringand environmentalconstraintswould require

pipelinehydraulics,The ultimatemethod to increase adjustmentsso the pipelinecouldbe continuedin a

transmissioncapacitysignificantly isto constructa second straightlinebut the road couldfollowthe contoursof the

pipelineparallelto TAPS between Prudhoe Bay and Valdez. land.

Major elementsof othersystems are also describedand

evaluated. Gas transportationis consideredseparately,

laterinthischapter.

Pipelines

Because ofthe existenceofTAPS, themost probable Severalalternativepipelineroutesfortransporting

method is assumed to be transportationof crude oil crude oilfrom the 1002 area to processingfacilities were

produced on the 1002 area by pipelineto TAPS Pump considered:

Station1, thenceto the ice-freeportof Valdezon the

southerncoastofAlaska. 1. An elevatedpipelinefollowingan east-westinland

routefrom the 1002 area,acrossStatelands,to

Priorto TAPS, littlewas known about constructingoil

TAPS Pump Station1.

pipelinesinan arcticenvironment.Designand construction 2. An elevatedeast-westpipeline(onshore)fromthe

techniquesused duringTAPS construction(1974-77)and in 1002 area along the BeaufortSea coast to TAPS

the ensuingyearsof developmentof the Prudhoe Bay and Pump Station1.

Kuparuk Riveroilfieldshave advanced the stateof the

technologyand have provedthathot-oilpipelinescan be 3. A marine pipelineast-west(offshore)alongthe

constructed,and reliablyand safelyoperated. BeaufortSea coast to TAPS Pump Station1. This

pipelinewould requirenorth-southfeederlinesfrom

Because of ice-richpermafrostconditionsthroughout producingfieldson the 1002 areato the coastalsite.

the area,an elevatedpipelineisthe most probablesystem

fortransportingoilproducedfrom the 1002 areawest to 4. An elevatedeast-westpipelinefrom the 1002 area

TAPS Pump Station1. To preventthawing,elevated acrossStatelandsto TAPS Pump Station1, then a

pipelinessupportedby VSM's placedintothe frozen new pipelineparalleling TAPS to Valdez.

ground aremost effective.

5. An inlandpipelinefrom the 1002 areaeastto the

Canadian border,thence southeastwardthroughthe

Experiencefrom the operationand maintenanceof Yukon and NorthwestTerritories, to connectwiththe

TAPS has shown thatunacceptablesettlingand stressin existingoilpipelinesystems in the Provinceof

buriedpipe may occur despitesystematicgeotechnical Alberta.

investigations. Even insoilsthoughtto be thaw stable,ice

may be presentand go unnoticedduringconstruction,and

itmay createproblems in lateryearsas the icemelts,

causingdifferential settlinginthe pipelines. The most probableroutefora pipelinewas

determinedto be an inlandroute,which roughlybisectsthe

The hot-oil,24-inchpipelinefrom the Kuparuk River 1002areafromeastto west (fig.V-11)and isthe routeused

fieldto Pump Station1 isentirelyelevatedon VSM's and forthe assessmentof environmentaleffects(ChapterVI of

supportbeams. A minimum 5-footclearanceisprovidedfor thisreport).The exactroutewould be determinedprimarily

cariboucrossing;varyingterrainfeaturesallowgreater by the locationof hydrocarbondiscoveries;itwould be

clearancein places. Also,caribouramps (relatively short adjustedto minimizeimpactto surfaceresourcesand to

sectionsof gravelfillplacedoverthe pipe)are provided. meet engineeringrequirements.The existingTAPS is

The Kuparuk Riverfieldpipelinesupport beams are believedto havethe capacityto carryoilproducedfromthe

constructedto carrymore than one pipe. 1002 area by the earliestdate productionwould start.

90 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Spaceforfutureexpansion VALVES

GAS 01

35'

Federalregulations (49CFR 195.260)providecriteria Nominal

forthe locationsand number of valvesrequiredforpipeline

systems. For example,valvesmust be placedon each side 5'

Minimum of a water crossingmore than 100 feetwide. A mainline nal 5'

valve system can be used to reduce the potentialsize of

A an oilspill. Valve locations are selected so that a spillat

any pointis limitedto a predeterminedmaximum quantity

-Steelvertical-support member (50,000barrelson TAPS).

(depthvaries)

On TAPS, remotelyoperatedgate valvescloserapidly

under emergency conditionsto protectpump stationsand

Figure IV-4.--Typicalcrosssectionof pipelineand environmentallysensitiveareas. Check valvesare used

road development. No scale. where the terrainslope allowsthe valveto effectively stop

reverseoilflowand block potentialoilspills.

Figure IV-4shows a typicalpipelineinstallation, i cross COMMUNICATIONS

section.The pipelinecould be designedlikethe Kuparuk

Riverfieldpipeline,with supportbeams largeenough to Maintainingcontinuouscontrolof the pipelinefrom

accommodate additionalpipelines,depending on future the ArcticRefuge to Prudhoe Bay would requirea

needs foroilor gas,or possiblywater. A road constructed communicationcontrolsystem. The primarysystem could

on at leasta 5-footgravelfillwould be needed to supply be a seriesof permanent microwave stationswhich linkall

the oil-fieldfacilitiesand give access for pipeline pump stations,remotelycontrolledgate valves,and pipelinemaintenance. Unless otherwisenecessary for minimizing maintenance centerswith a controlcenter. Each remote

impacts on caribou migrationor to accommodate stationtypicallyincludesa self-supportingsteelantenna

engineeringconstraints,the pipelinecould be builtcloseto tower,two smallbuildings,2 to 4 fueltanks,a heliport,

the upslope shoulderof the road to precludean additional backup generators,and a batterysystem. Such stations,if

maintenance road, Access to valves,which require patternedafterTAPS, could be backed up by a satellite

frequentmaintenance,would probably callfora special system and would be locatedon relativelyhigh ground

work road connectingthe valvesiteto the main road. In about 40 milesapart. Common-carriercircuits,telephone,

criticalcaribouhabitat,the pipelineand main road might and mobileradiosystems would be incorporatedintothe

requireseparation.Ifso, a gravelmaintenancework road overallpipelinecommunication system.

might have to be constructedalong the pipelinefor

segments where the pipelineand road are separated.

FigureIV-5 shows pipelinediametersrequiredfor

variouspumping rates.A pump stationisrequiredevery50

to 100 miles depending on desiredpumping rateand

topography. Therefore,two to three pump stations

probablywould be requiredforan inlandrouteacross the

1002 area. The firstwould be locatednearthe oilfieldor

30 1 1 1 1

fieldsand the second and thirdbetween the oilfield(s)and

Pump Station 1. Each pump stationwould contain ui

pumping, oil-storage,power. pipelineequipment and repair, Z

20-

and communication facilities, livingquartersfor about 30 Z

people,and environmental-supportsystems; the station

would be constructedon a 7-acre(approximately)gravel

pad. Other relatedfacilitiesare described below

< 10 -

(Mechanics Research,Inc.,1977). a

LU

SURGE AND STORAGE TANKS 0.

Pipelinehydraulicdesign analyzesnormal hydraulic o 100 200 300 400 500

gradients and the effects of pressure surges, which are PUMPING RATE, IN THOUSANDS OF BARRELS PER DAY

controlled by means of suction and discharge relief

protectionat each pump station.Tanks at each station

collectoilthat is dischargedthroughreliefvalveswhen Figure IV-5.-Land-pipelinepipediameterversuspumping

surges occur;the collectedoilis laterreturnedto the rate.Modifiedfrom Han-PadronAssociates(1985,

pipeline. fig.7.2-1).

INFRASTRUCTURE--TRANSPORTATION 91
ROADS two additionaltemporarycamps might be required.These

sitescould be used for2 yearsand would be rehabilitated

As noted previously,a road would roughlyparallel when no longerneeded or be used forroad maintenance

the pipelineacross the 1002 area and continueacross camps.

Statelandsto Pump Station1. This permanent all-season

gravelroad would be builtin accordancewith accepted

arcticengineeringpracticeson 5-footgravelfill,with a 35-

foot-widedrivingsurface,and would supportconstructionof

the pipelineand linkcentralproductionand marinefacilities. OIL-SPILL CONTINGENCY,

The pipelinecould be constructedduringwinterfrom a

INCLUDING LEAK DETECTION

snow pad or iceroad. Ifsnow or waterwere not available

in sufficientquantities,a gravelwork road could be built. The firstlinesof defense againstoilspillsare design

Gravelaccess roads would connect the main road to pump

and operationalprocedures (includingpersonnel-training

stations,valves,and maintenance stations. Emergency programs), properlydesigned and maintainedequipment,

access to the pipelineduring the summer would be

adequate alarm systems, and strictadherence to industry

accomplished by rolligonor similarvehicles.The availability

and Stateand Federalgovernment codes and regulationsin

of adequate gravelsupplieson the 1002 area isuncertain.

constructionand operation. It must be recognized,

Gravel could be mined from inactivestreambeds,but

however, that even with the most comprehensive

additionalpitswould have to be opened to obtainthe large precautions,oilspillswilloccur. Operatorsof a pipeline

quantitiesrequiredfor roads,pump stations,airports,and

across the 1002 area would be requiredto have an oil-spill

maintenance-supportfacilities.Gravelmight have to be contingencyplan that,as a minimum, includesprovisions

mined from upland sites,riverterraces,streambeds,

for oil-spill control,which consistof (1) leak-detection

lagoons,or othersites.Siteselectionswould be based on

systems;(2)methods forlocating,confining,and cleaning

environmentaland engineeringconsiderationsas wellas

up spills;(3)notification proceduresforlocal,State,and

availability.No gravelwould be removed from the active

Federalagencies:(4)correctiveactionforthe affectedarea;

stream channels of major fish-bearingriversor from barrier

(5)varioustypes of oil-spill equipment;and (6)site-specific

islands.Allgravelremovalwould followthe guidelinesfor cleanup techniques.

arcticand sub-arcticflood plains(Woodward Clyde

Consultants,1980a, b). Siteswould be designed to A leak-detectionsystem would includeautomatic

providefishand wildlifehabitatafterthey are abandoned.

instrumenteddetectionsystems and periodicground and

For example,gravel-removalsitescould be filledwithwater aerialsurveillance.For best visualground surveillance,

and provideareas for migratory-birdnestingand resting eitherthe all-seasonroad or a gravelwork road should be

habitat,littoralzones for migratorybird and fishfeeding, close to the pipeline.Aerialsurveillanceby helicopteror

and deep water forfishoverwintering.Thus, these gravel

fixed-wingaircraftcoversthe greatestamount of area inthe

pitscan also be potentialwater reservoirs.Bridgesand shortesttime,but couldbe restrictedby weather,hours of

culvertswould be designed and constructedto provide

daylight,and wildlifeconsiderations.

cross drainageforroads ina manner thatpreventserosion

or adverse effectson the fisheries.

AIRFIELDS FOR CONSTRUCTION CAMPS PIPELINE ROUTING

Airfieldsmay be requiredat pipelineconstruction The 1002 area'swidelydiversifiedlocalenvironments

camps and pump stationsor airstripsmay be shared with requirenumerous engineeringconstraintsregardinglocation

oildevelopment facilities.The typicalairfieldforthese and routingof pipelines,roads,and airstrips.This applies

camps would be similarto those supportingairfield particularlyto stream and ravinecrossingswhere, to

development,that is,5,000-6,000feetlong,150 feetwide, minimize environmentalproblems, cutbanks and braided

and 5 feetthick. streams must be avoided,especiallyby road crossings.

CONSTRUCTION CAMPS FOR INLAND ROUTES

ROADS AND PIPELINES

The southernpart of the 1002 area providesmore

Camp buildingswould be portableself-contained feasiblestream crossings,relativelymore stablesoils,better

modules, equipped with functionalfurnishingsfor sleeping, drainage,and more sources of gravelthan a routenearer

eating,recreation,and with sanitationfacilities.A typical the coastline.The actualavailability of gravelisunknown,

camp houses 150-300 people. To minimize surface but at least16 potentialborrow pitsiteslocatedin active

disturbance,these temporarycamps should be locatedat floodplainswere identifiedby the Alaskan ArcticGas

the sites chosen for the permanent pump station. PipelineCompany as possiblesources of about 2.4 million

Productionand transportationon the 1002 area would cubic yards of sand and gravelforthe ANGTS (Alaska

probably requiretwo or three pump stations.Therefore, NaturalGas TransportationSystem--U.S.Department of the

two or threecamps would occupy the pump stationsites; Interior,1976, "Alaska"volume,p. 10).

92 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
An inland pipelinefrom the 1002 area east into lengthof the constructionseason, the natureof the seabed

Canada was discussed in the TAPS and ANGTS reports soil,seabed ice scouring,and, in the permafrostzones,

(U.S.Department of the Interior,1972, 1976). Construction prevention of permafrost degradation. Marine-pipeline

of the pipelinewould requirea cooperative agreement design,installation, and cost considerationsare described

between Canada and the United States, as well as below,

Congressionalauthorityto cross the designatedwilderness

area east of the AichilikRiver.

A major considerationin designing a marine pipeline

forarcticwaters is placement of the linewith regardto ice

and permafrost. Shorefastice includesalltypes of ice,

COASTAL ROUTES broken or unbroken, attached to the shore, beached,

stranded,or attachedto the bottom in shallowwater. The

A coastline route would cross more ice-rich fast-icezone of the 1002 area extends from shore outward

permafrost than an inlandroute (U.S.Department of the to water depths of approximately10 to 66 feet. Intense

Interior,1976, "Alaska"volume, p. 491). More of the route interactionbetween moving pack ice and shorefast ice

would be on thaw-unstablematerial;such materialand the forms a shear zone of ice ridges,which oftenground on

braided-stream crossings would complicate pipeline the seabed. The keels of these ice pressure ridgesand

constructionand could compromise pipelineintegrity.A occasionalpieces of iceislandsscour deep gouges in the

coastalroutewould have fewer stream crossings,but more subsea floor during subsequent movement of the ice.

of the route would be on activeflood plainsand cross Grounded ridges may extend outward to a depth of

wider deltaareas. Work pads and roads in thatflat,poorly approximately 150 feet. From shore to 50-footseabed

drained area could result in water-ponding problems. depth,ice scour is frequentbut relativelyshallow.Scour is

Construction costs of an elevatedoilpipelinewould be greatestat seabed depths of 65 to 100 feet.The deepest

expected to be slightlyhigherfora coastalonshore route recorded scour is 18 feetat a seabed depth of 125 feet.

than for an inlandroutebecause of (1)extralength,(2)

higher gravelrequirements,(3) poor drainage,and (4)

In nearshore areas, ice-bonded permafrost is

poorer soilsfor construction. The earlierANGTS study probablypresent and must be consideredin the design of

(U.S.Department of the Interior,1972) fora buried natural

an offshore pipeline(Heuer and others,1983). But

gas linealong coastal and inlandroutes also estimated nearshore ice-wedge permafrost under shallow water,

slightlyhighercosts forthe coastalonshore route. particularlyalong a rapidlyrecedingcoastline,is even more

criticalfordesign. A hot-oilpipelineplaced in areas of icebonded or ice-wedge permafrostmust be heavilyinsulated

to limitthawing of permafrost. The best locationfor an

SUBSEA MARINE ROUTES offshorepipelineis at water depths of 6.5-65 feet,to

minimizeice gouging. Beyond the 6.5-footwater depth the

For the past 15 years,the petroleumindustryhas top of the ice-bonded permafrostgenerallyis below the

been activelyengaged in research and development of surfaceof the seabed. Inshoreof the 18-footbottom-depth

technology forthe design and constructionof subsea oil contour,ice gouging is typicallyless than 1.6 feet (Mellor,

pipelinesin the Arctic, Large-diameter marine-pipeline 1978).

construction in the BeaufortSea is considered to be

technicallyfeasibleby some authorities(Han-Padron

Associates,198'5). However, to date no marine pipelines An arcticmarine pipelinemust be laidin a trenchto

have been constructedin the Arctic. ensure that the top of the pipe is below maximum icegouging depth. Several subsea trenching methods are

In general,the continentalshelfof the BeaufortSea availablebut have never been used in the Arctic. Because

of the Alaska coast is not more than 50 mileswide,and the constructionseason is short,fast-movingcutter-suction

breaks at a water depth of 225 to 250 feet. The average

dredges or subsea plows would be required. Under

durationof open-water conditions,duringwhich a pipeline development are self-propelledseabed plows, rippers,or

could be constructed,is approximately50 days. A marine cuttingdevices.

pipelinepresents higher environmentalrisksthan does an

onshore pipeline.Wherever a hot-oilpipelineis buriedin - Maintenance and repairwork on a marine pipelinein

permafrost,differentialsettlingis to be expected. Any the Arcticwould be difficult duringthe iceseason (normally

significantsettlingcould rupturethe pipe,causing an oil October through July).The only way to assure continuous

spill. Repair and maintenance of a marine pipelineunder operationis to have a loop line(a second pipelineparallel

ice would impose almost impossibleengineeringproblems to the existingline)or similarbuilt-inredundancy. -

formuch of the year.

Marine pipelinesmust be waterproofed and weighed

Criticalenvironmentalfactorsaffectingthe design and down with a concrete coatingto give negativebuoyancy.

constructionof marine pipelinesincludeice and weather They also must be cathodicallyprotectedfrom corrosionby

conditions,theireffecton constructionequipment and the sea water,in accordance with industrystandards.

INFRASTRUCTURE--TRANSPORTATION 93
Tankers rolling stock.Potential environmental impactsareairand

noisepollution,oilspills,and degradationof fishand

Transportationof petroleumproductsby icebreaker wildlifehabitatcaused by roadbed constructionthrough

tankerin the BeaufortSea has been consideredfor more mountainousterrain.

than 15 years. However, no offshoreloadingterminals

suitablefor the area exist,nor do designsexistfor Possible,but not practical,is operatinga largefleet

icebreakertankers,theirsupport vessels,or loading of trucksto haul oilto a southernAlaskaport,for

terminals. Presumably,icebreakertankerswould transport transshipmentto West Coast ports,or to the north-central

crude oilto an ice-freetransshipmenterminalin the United Statesvia a trans-Alaska-Canadaroute. High

AleutianIslandsor on the AlaskaPeninsula.Severalother operatingcosts,airand noise pollution,and the high

concepts have been considered,with or withoutinternal potentialfor oilspillagemake trucktransportimpractical.

storagecapacity(Han-PadronAssociates,1985,p. 7-30). The existingTAPS haul road (DaltonHighway)would not

Greaterknowledgeoficeconditionsand icedynamics north be adequateforsuch high-volumetraffic,which would

of the BeringStraitisneeded beforethe requirementsand requirealmostbumper-to-bumpertrucks.

risksof operationinthe Chukchiand BeaufortSeas can be

adequatelyappraised. Natural Gas Transportation

A study on using submarinetankers,preparedby a

System

team headed by the Newport News Shipbuildingand

Drydock Company (NNSDC, 1975) forthe U.S.Marine Since the early1970's,industryhas givenserious

Administration,was updated by Han-Padron Associates considerationto developinga transportationsystem to

(1985,p. 7-53). Han-Padron escalatedthe capitaland deliverAlaskanNorthSlope (ANS) naturalgas to the market

operatingcosts to compare transportationcosts for place.Gas producedat Prudhoe Bay iscurrentlyused onsubmarinetankerswiththoseforicebreakersurfacetankers. siteforpower generation,enhanced oilrecovery,or is

A submarinetankerdesignedto operateunder the Arctic reinjected, inasmuchas itisnot yeteconomicalto produce

icepackis limitedas to propulsionmethods and overall formarketing.

size. Currenttechnologylimitsthe power sourceto a

nuclearreactor,althoughfuel-cellpowerplantsmight propel In December 1981, the Secretaryof the Interior

smallersubmarines. The originalstudy (NNSDC, 1975) issueda right-of-wayto the NorthwestAlaska Pipeline

indicatedthatno existingshipyardcould constructor

Company to constructa large-diameter, chilled,buriedgas

maintaina submarineofsufficientsize(200,000-300,000tons pipelineand relatedfacilities from Prudhoe Bay to domestic

deadweight)to be efficientin such an operation.The marketsin the lower-48States. However, by 1985 the

updatedstudysuggeststhatthe unit-transportation costof projectsponsorshad reducedtheireffortsto completethe

a submarinetankerwould not differsignificantly from that AlaskaArcticGas PipelineuntilmarketconditionsforANS

providedby an icebreakertankerof similarcapacity. naturalgas improved, A timeframefor remobilizingthe

Technicalproblems associatedwithloading,construction, projecthas notbeen identified.

and operationhave yetto be solved.

- In 1986,the Yukon PacificCorporation(YPC)

amended itsapplicationto the BLM forFederalpermitsto

Other Transportation Methods constructand operatea buriedgas pipelinefrom Prudhoe

Bay to a tidewaterliquidnaturalgas (LNG) terminalat

Severalothertransportationsystems have been Valdez. That pipelineproject,calledthe Trans-AlaskaGas

proposedand discussedin detail(U.S.Departmentof the System (TAGS),would exportANS naturalgas to markets

Interior,1972,1976). Only a few are discussedhere,as in PacificRim nations,such as Japan and Korea. Export

none is a realistic alternativeto a pipelinein termsof of AlaskaNorth Slope naturalgas outsidethe UnitedStates

safety,economics,and environmentalimpact. The reader would requireapprovalof the Presidentof the United

shouldreferto thecitedreportsforfurtherinformation. States,pursuantto the AlaskaNaturalGas Transportation

Act of 1976.-

Two railrouteshave been consideredfortransporting

North Slope oil. The shorter,intermsof new railroad

Accordingly,itis likelythata gas deliverysystem

construction,isan extensionof the AlaskaRailroad.This from Prudhoe Bay would providereadymarketaccessfor

railroadisState-ownedand has 470 milesof trackfrom any gas discoveredin the 1002 area,shoulditbecome

Seward to Fairbanks.The extensionwould be northward

economicallyrecoverable.

acrossthe Yukon Riverand the BrooksRange to theNorth

Slope oilfieldsnearPrudhoe Bay. The otherroutecrosses

The environmentalimpactstatementforthe Alaska

Alaska and Canada from Prudhoe Bay to Whitefish, ArcticGas Pipelineproject(U.S.Departmentof the Interior,

Montana,viaDawson, Yukon Territory.Eitherroutewould 1976) describedthe overalleffectsthatwould resultfrom

encountermajor constructionconstraintsand operational constructionand operationof a gas pipelinetransportation

problems in accommodating, handling,loadingand system throughthe ArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge. This

unloading,marshalingtrains,and maintainingtrackand pipelinesystem proposedconstructionofa buried,chilled

94 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
gas pipelinethrough the coastalplainof the ArcticRefuge Lynch, C., Siltor,D. L., and Rudolf,R. W., 1985, Arctic

to the Canadian border,to facilitateproductionof gas from summary report:Reston, VA, U.S. MineralsManagement

the Mackenzie Delta region of Canada. However, for Service,84 p.

purposes of thisreport,itis presumed thatcommercial Mechanics Research, Inc.,1977, Technical servicesupport

quantitiesof naturalgas discoveredin the 1002 area would for the Trans-Alaska PipelineProject--Finalreport,6

be processed and transportedwest to Prudhoe Bay using volumes.

facilities shared with oildevelopment and transportationon Mellor,Malcolm, 1978, Undersea pipelinesand cables in

the 1002 area. Ideally,the verticalsupport members forthe polar waters: Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Corps of

oildeliverysystem to TAPS could be designed so that Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering

construction,operation,and maintenance of both oiland Laboratory CRREL Report 78-22.

gas systems could be collocated.Itis also assumed that Mitchell,D. W., 1983a, Design and constructionof the

gas productionand transportationsystems would not be Inigolkwellsite:Anchorage, AK, Husky Oil Co. NPR

constructeduntila naturalgas transportationsystem was Operations,Inc.,18 p.

operationalbetween Prudhoe Bay and markets outside 1983b, Design and constructionof the North Inigok

Alaska,now speculatednot to occur beforethe middle to wellsite: Anchorage, AK, Husky Oil Co. NPR

late1990's. Operations,Inc.,11 p.

NationalPetroleum Council,1981, Transportation,chapter V,

Constructionof an oiltransportationsystem from the p. 63-78,in U.S.Arcticoiland gas: Washington, DC.

ArcticRefuge would have a higher prioritythan a gas Newport News Shipbuildingand Dryclock Company, 1975,

transportationsystem due to the anticipatedeclinein oil Maritime submarine transportationsystem conceptual

from Prudhoe Bay which would make availableoilcapacity design study: Contract reportfor U.S. Department of

in the TAPS duringthe late1990's. Therefore,construction Commerce, Maritime Administration,Officeof Commercial

of the oiland naturalgas transportationsystems would be Development.

sequentialon the ArcticRefuge. The timingforthe natural Petroleum InformationCorporation,1985, Arco begins West

gas transportationsystem would depend upon the final Sak pilotoilrecoveryproject:Alaska Report,v. 30, no.

design and deliverycapabilityof the gas pipelinesystem 44, 3 p.

south from Prudhoe Bay, combined with the consideration U.S.Army Corps of Engineers,1984, Endicottdevelopment

of economic factorsin both domestic U.S. and foreign project,Alaska, [final]environmentalimpact statement:

naturalgas markets. Anchorage, AK, 3 volumes, separatelypaginated,August

1984.

U.S. Department of the Interior,1972, Proposed TransAlaska Pipeline--Finalenvironmental impact statement:

Washington, DC, prepared by SpecialInteragencyTask

Force for the Federal Task Force on Alaskan oil

development, 6 volumes, variouslypaginated;v. 1--

REFERENCES CITED Introductionand summary; v. 2--Environmentalsettingof

the proposed Trans-Alaska Pipeline;v. 3--Environmental

American Petroleum Institute,1976, Primer of oiland gas settingbetween Port Valdez, Alaska,and west coast

production(3d edition;10th printing,1981): Dallas,TX, ports;v. 4--Evaluationof environmentalimpact;v. 5--

81 P. Alternativesto the proposed action;v. 6--Consultation

Andrews, S., 1984, Welcome to the North Slope: Los and coordinationwith others.

Angeles, CA, AtlanticRichfieldCo. U.S. Department of the Interior,1976, Alaska naturalgas

Arctic Environmental Informationand Data Center,1983, transportation system--Final environmental impact

Alaska Marine Ice Atlas: Fairbanks,Universityof Alaska. statement:Washington, DC, 9 unnumbered volumes,

Childers,J. M., Sloan,C. E.,Meckel, J. P.,and Naumann, variouslypaginated.

J. W., 1977, Hydrologic reconnaissance of the eastern Williams,B., 1982, Vast $10.5 billionprogram to maintain

North Slope, Alaska, 1975: U.S. Geological Survey production,hikerecoveryat Prudhoe Bay: Oiland Gas

Open-File Report 77-492,77 p. Journal,v. 80,no. 28,p. 76-80 (July12 issue).

Han-Padron Associates, 1965, Beaufort Sea petroleum Woodward Clyde Consultants, 1980a, Gravel removal

technology assessment: Contractreportfor Minerals studies in arcticand subarcticflood plainsin Alaska:

Management Service;Technical Report 112, chapter 7-- Anchorage, U.S. Fish and WildlifeService FWS/OBS-80-

Transportationtechnology assessment, 54 p. Available 08, 403 p.

from NationalTechnical InformationService,Springfield, 1980b, Gravel removal guidelinesmanual for arctic

VA 22161. and subarcticflood plains: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and

Heuer, C. E., Coldwell,J. B.,and Zamsky, R., 1983, Design WildlifeServiceFWS/OBS-80-09, 169 p.

of buried seafloor pipelinesfor permafrost thaw

settlement,p. 486-491, in Permafrost--FourthInternational

Conference sponsored by Universityof Alaska and

National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC,

NationalAcademy Press.

INFRASTRUCTURE-REFERiENCES 95
,,, .

XI -

4Mmami

I I f g 3

-1@1

RIPARIAN HABITAT

96 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
CHAPTER V

ALTERNATIVES

INTRODUCTION The 1002 area contains a combination of identified

potentialpetroleum prospects having a mean conditional

This chapter identifiesand evaluatesfivealternatives estimated totalof 3.2 billionbarrels of economically

which are considered to be representativeof the full recoverableoilunder currentand foreseeableeconomic

spectrum of possible actionsthat could be taken with conditions(Chapter 111).These prospects are grouped into

respectto a decisionto open the 1002 area to oiland gas 4 geographic areas (blocks)of the 1002 area to facilitate an

explorationand development. analysis of the effectsof oil development on the

environment. The four blocks are depicted in Chapter III

AlternativeA: FullLeasing (fig.111-14).

AlternativeB: Limited Leasing

AlternativeC: FurtherExploration

AlternativeD: No Action AlternativeA assumes that:

AlternativeE: Wilderness Designation

1. Although both oiland gas would be leased,initially

These five options are all technicallyand only oilwillbe developed and transportedto market.

economically feasible. They are distinctlydifferentfrom Associated gas willbe reinjectedand/orused forfield

each other and lend themselves to independent analysis, operationsin a manner similarto other North Slope

thus permittingconcentrationon those issuesthatare truly fields,untilgas productionbecomes economical and

significantto the decisionto be made. Comparisons of the adequate markets are identified.

effectsof each alternativeare providedat the conclusionof

the assessments in Chapter VI. 2. - Development would be sequentialon the area,and

oilproductionwillstartabout the year 2000. -

ALTERNATIVE A-FULL LEASING

OF THE 1002 AREA 3. Development willbe unitizedwithinthe 1002 area and

on privatelyowned subsurface resources.

- Under the alternativeof fullleasing,itis assumed

that Congressional action would allow all Federal 4. A singletrunk oilpipelinewilltransportoilfrom

subsurface ownerships of the 1002 area to be availablefor Federalleases and from any privatelands in.the1002

development through a leasingprogram administeredby the area to Pump Station1 of the Trans-AlaskaPipeline

Department of the Interior.This actionwould also open to System (TAPS).

oiland gas development and productionthe privatelands

withinthe refuge. This is the preferredalternative,as more 5. Development, production,and transportationof oil

fullydiscussed in Chapter VIH, the Secretary's from the 1002 area are considered to be independent

recommendation. The exact terms of the leasingprogram of any offshore production;however, production

would be developed in response to specificlegislation infrastructurecould be shared.

passed by the Congress, and in considerationof the

recommendation of the Secretaryof the Interior.- 6. The Stateof Alaska willallow a trunk oilpipelineto

cross State lands between the western boundary of

Presumably, major portionsof the 1002 area would the 1002 area and TAPS Pump Station1 at Prudhoe

be leased and additionalgeophysical exploratorywork Bay (a distanceof about 50 miles).

would take place on all leased areas before exploration

wells are drilled.Leaseholderswould likelyfocus firston 7. Once the Congress approves leasing,but priorto

those areas and geologic structuresbelievedto have the lease sales, industrywillbe allowed to conduct

highestprobabilityof containingcommercial quantitiesof oil. additional geophysical and surface geological

Itis feasiblefor phased development to occur. explorationwork.

ALTERNATIVES--FULL LEASING 97
According to the size,number, and characteristicsof only aftera specificprospect has been drilled,and a

prospects described in Chapter 111,and the productionand discoverymade and confirmed.

transportationscenarios described in Chapter IV, the

number and types of facilitieslikelyto be requiredfor Chapter IV describes the types and numbers of

development and productionof oilresources in the 1002 facilities that might be necessary for oilproductionin the

area are listedin tableV-1. For the sake of maintaining 1002 area. Typically,these includefor each developed

data confidentiality, figureV-1 shows a highlygeneralized prospect: centralproductionfacility(CPF) and initialpump

placement of productionand transportationfacilitiesbased stationfor the oilpipeline,all-weatherairfield,consolidated

on typicalNorth Slope prospect characteristicsfor three production and reinjectionwell pads, and an internal

localitieswithinthe 1002 area. This assumes successful network of roads and gatheringlinesconnectingpads and

explorationin allthreelocalities.- the CPF. A trunk oilpipelinewould connect the CPF to

Pump Station1. From Pump Station1, oilfrom the 1002

Actual placement of oil productionfacilitiesand area would move through the existingTAPS to Valdez and

marine facilities on the 1002 area,or locationof the trunk then by tanker to market. Depending on the amount of

pipelinefrom producing fieldsto TAPS Pump Station1, finalthrough-put,one or severaladditionalpump stations

depends upon site-specificgeotechnical, engineering, may be required.

environmental,and economic data that can be determined

1461 145- 1440 1431

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C

a 10 20 30 MILES

i I

I

I I

I I

0 in 20 30 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Central

production

facility Drillpad-23 acres Connecting road

0 90 acres Airstrips-30 and 130 Seawater treatment

a 40 acres

acres plant

FigureV-1.--Hypothetical generalized development of three major prospects within the 1002 area

under fullleasing ifeconomic quantitiesof oilare discovered. Numbers indicate three localities

(shaded) having typical prospect characteristics.

98 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
MAN

"CAT TRAIN" FOR SEISMIC EXPLORATION

Table V-1.--Number and area of in-placeoil-relatedfacilitiesassumed to be associated with ultimatedevelopment of

estimatedmean conditionalrecoverableoilresources made availableby fullleasingor limitedleasingof the 1002 area.

[mi,miles;cu yds, cubic yards;ac, acres]

Approximate unitsi

Facility Fullleasing Limited leasing

Main oilpipelinewithinthe 1002 area2 ..................................................................... 100 mi (610 ac) 80 mi (490ac)

Main road parallelingmain pipelineand from marine facilities2............................. 120 mi (730ac) 100 mi (610ac)

Spur roads with collectinglineswithinproductionfields....................................... 160 mi (980ac) 120 mi (730ac)

Marine and salt-water-treatment facilities................................................................... 2 (200ac) 2 (200ac)

Large centralproductionfacilities............................................................................... 7 (630ac) 6 (540ac)

Small centralproductionfacilities............................................................................... 4 (160 ac) 3 (120 ac)

Large permanent airfields............................................................................................. 2 (260ac) 2 (260ac)

Small permanent airfields............................................................................................. 2 (60ac) 1 (30ac)

Permanent drillingpads ............................................................................................... 50-60 30-40

(1,200-1,600ac) (700-1,000ac)

Borrow sites.................................................................................................................. 10-15 B-13

(500-750ac) (400-650ac)

Gravelfor construction,operation,and maintenance................................................ 40 million- 35 million50 millioncu yds 40 millioncu yds

Major riveror stream crossings................................................................................... Maximum 25 Maximum 15

lFiguresgiven in milesreferto linearmilesof the facilities.Areas were calculatedon the basis of 50-footwidths each

forthe main oilpipelineand main road,totalinga 100-footright-of-wayforthe main transportationcorridor.A 50-footrightof-waywas assumed forspur roads with collectinglines.The numbers of nonlinearunitsare also provided.

2The distancefrom the 1002 western boundary to TAPS Pump Station1 is approximately50 miles,across State of

Alaska land. This 50 milesis not includedinthe mileageestimates.

ALTERNATIVES--FULL LEASING OR LIMITED LEASING 99
ALTERNATIVE B--LIMITED LEASING

OF THE 1002 AREA -

The assumptionsinthisalternative are the same as

This alternativediscussesa leasingprogram that forfulleasing,includingthe openingof theKaktovikInupiat

would developifthe Congress chose to pass legislation, Corporation/Arctic Slope RegionalCorporation(KIC/ASRC)

based on environmentalconsiderations, thatwould limitthe lands.Approximately2.4 billionbarrels(800millionbarrels

amount ofthe 1002 areaavailableforleasing.Therewould lessthan in Alternative A) of economicallyrecoverableoil

be no leasing,exploration,development,or transportation of are estimatedas themean conditionalresourcewhich might

oilfrom or throughthatportionof the Porcupinecaribou be availablefordevelopmentunderthisalternative.

herd (PCH) concentratedcalvingarea (as definedin

Chapter11)which has been most frequentlyused (fig.11-5; A highlygeneralizedplacementof productionand

pi.2N. The exactsizeofthisareawould be equalto the transportationfacilities underthe limitedleasingalternativeis

area used for concentratedcalvingin approximately50 shown on figureV-2.

percentof the yearsforwhich calvingdataareavailable,at

the timelegislation ispassed. Thiscouldeliminateallor Productionand transportation facilities wre described

partof BlockD from leasing,based on at least7 yearsof inthe fullleasingalternative.Under limitedleasing,no

most frequentconcentrateduse in the 15 yearsforwhich infrastructure would be extendedintothe southeastern

dataare currentlyavailable(pi.2A). The remainderof the portionof the1002 area,based on thearea most frequently

1002 area would be offeredfor leasing;presumably,all used for concentratedcalving,as describedabove. All

potentially economic prospectswould be leased,explored, otherfacility requirementswould be virtually the same (table

and developed. V-1).

1461 145- 144- 143-

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Port

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30' Shubhk MV1J11tW D)

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0 ID 20 30 MILES

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Central production facility e Drillpad-23 acres Connectingroad

E 90 acres Airstrips-30and 130 Seawatertreatment

o 40 acres acres plant

Figure V-2.-Hypotheticalgeneralizeddevelopmentoftwo majorprospectswithinthe 1002 area

under limitedleasingifeconomic quantitiesof oilarediscovered.Numbers indicatethreelocalities

(shaded)havingtypicalprospectcharacteristics.

100 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
ALTERNATIVE C-FURTHER EXPLORATION

Under this alternative,the Secretary would

recommend additionalexploration,includingexploratory

drilling,to permitacquisitionof more data to aid the

Secretaryand the Congress in theirdecisionof whether or

not to authorizeleasingof the 1002 area. Acquisitionof

additionaldata could be by the Government, or industry,or

both.

Section 1002 of ANILCA (Alaska NationalInterest

Lands Conservation Act of 1980) has afforded the

Department of the Interiorthe opportunityto acquirea

substantialamount of explorationdata in the 1002 area.

During two winterfieldseasons, privateindustryobtained

more than 1,300 linemiles of seismic data on a 3x6-mile

seismic grid over a large part of the 1002 area. A

substantialamount of gravity,magnetic, geochernical,

paleontological,and shallow stratigraphicdata was also

collected.The Bureau of Land Management and Geological

Survey acquired additionaldata through in-house research

and fieldinvestigationsover severalfieldseasons.

Analysisof the availablegeologicaland geophysical

data has revealedthat the 1002 area is a very complex

geological terrane,and additionalgeologicaland geophysicaldata might providea basis for a betterdefined

assessment of itsoiland gas potential.Additionalseismic

data could better define some of the more complex

geologicstructuresthathave been identified.Itis expected

thatifa decisionis made to allowleasingof the 1002 area,

industrywould want to obtain more detailedseismicdata

over particularareas of interestin order to make a more

accuratedeterminationof oiland gas potentialpriorto a

lease sale. These data would also be made availableto

the Department for itsuse in determiningthe fairmarket

value of tractsto be leased.

The locationand size of geologicstructureshave geophysics,and geochemistryof the rock formations. Core

been generallydefined. However, the nature of the rocks samples would be taken to determinethe qualityof the

presentremains virtuallyunknown owing to a lack of deep source rocks,the characteristicsof the reservoirocks,and

stratigraphic,paleontological,and geochemical data specific the availabilityof seals to trap hydrocarbons. Possible

to the 1002 area. Therefore,only indirectinferencesbased locationsfor stratigraphictestwellsare:

on surface and near-surfacegeologicaldata and on well

data from outsidethe 1002 area can be made as to the 1. East of the Canning River in the northwestblock

nature of source and reservoirrocks and the type of (Block A, fig.111-1)to test primarilyfor geologic

hydrocarbon present. A program to drilloff-structuretest conditionssimilarto those of the Prudhoe Bay field.

wells would provide subsurface geologicalinformationon

the 1002 area and eliminatesome of the uncertaintiesin the 2. Near the Hulahula River (Block B, fig.111-1)between

oiland gas assessment such as the probabilityof the the Marsh Creek anticlineto the west and larger

occurrence of adequate source and reservoirrocks, and mapped geologicstructuresto the east (Block C, fig.

also the probable mix of hydrocarbons. This type of

informationmight betterdefinethe more prospectivepans

of the 1002 area thatshould be consideredforleasing. 3. In the northeasternpartof the 1002 area north of the

large mapped geologic structureand south of the

Four deep test wells could be drilledoff-structure KIC lands (Block C, fig.111-1).

similarto the stratigraphictestwells (COST wells)drilledin

the Outer ContinentalShelf. These wells would provide 4. Near the large mapped geologic structuresin the

more definitivedata on the stratigraphy,paleontology, southern foothills(BlockD, fig.111-1).

ALTERNATIVES--LIMITED LEASING OR FURTHER EXPLORATION 101
ALTERNATIVE D--NO ACTION planning,at leastthe CCP, and perhaps some step-down

management plans, would need to be amended or

This alternativedescribes the probable future supplemented to includemanagement of the 1002 area.

management of the 1002 area ifthe Congress chose to

take no furtherlegislativeactionregardingthe 1002 area of Under section 1008 of ANILCA, a policy was

the ArcticRefuge. According to the provisionsof sections establishedto permit certainoiland gas activities,including

1002 and 1003 of ANILCA, an act of the Congress would leasingand development, on Alaska refuges in areas where

be prerequisiteto leasingor other development leadingto such activitiesare deemed to be compatiblewith the major

oiland gas production on the ArcticRefuge. Ifthe purposes for which a particularrefuge was established.

Congress chose instead to designateallor partof the Because of the provisionsof sections 1002 and 1003,

1002 area as wilderness,that too would take legislative section1008 does not apply to any part of the Arctic

action. If,instead,the Congress chose to allow the Refuge. Selection of AlternativeD would preclude

management of the 1002 area to continue under existing production of oiland gas from the Arctic Refuge,and

legalauthoritiesguided by the ArcticRefuge comprehensive leasing or other developments leadingto oiland gas

conservationplan (CCP) outlinedby section304(g) of products.

ANILCA, no additionalCongressional action would be

required. Step-down management plans forthe ArcticRefuge

would be developed for specificactivitiesonce the CCP

was completed. These management plans might address

The management goals of the ArcticNationalWildlife activitiessuch as publicuse, wildlifeinventoriesand other

Refuge, untilfurtherdefinedby the CCP, are to maintain scientificresearch, wild and scenic rivers,wilderness

the existingavailability and qualityof refugehabitatswith management, and firemanagement. Harvest of fishand

naturalforces governing fluctuationsin fishand wildlife wildlifewould generallybe conducted in accordance with

populationsand habitatchange; to providethe opportunity the State of Alaska Department of Fish and Game

for continued subsistenceharvest of naturalresources by regulations,and subsistence use of the refuge would

localresidentsin a manner consistentwith sound natural continue.

resource management; and to provide recreationaland

economic opportunitiescompatiblewith the purposes for The ArcticRefuge would be managed under the legal

which the refuge was established. authoritiesfound in ANILCA and the NationalWildlife

Refuge System AdministrationAct of 1966 (PublicLaw 89-

Section304(g) of ANILCA mandates thatmanagement

669). Other laws and theiramendments that affectthe

of the 16 NationalWildlifeRefuges in Alaska,includingthe

management of the 1002 area and the ArcticRefuge in

Arctic Refuge, be assessed through the CCP. This

general includebut are not limitedto the MigratoryBird

requiresthat the plan: (1) designate areas withinthe

TreatyAct, Endangered Species Act, AntiquitiesAct, Clean

refuge according to theirrespectiveresourcesand values;

AirAct, Clean Water Act, Coastal Zone Management Act,

(2)specifythe programs proposed forconservingfishand

Fish and WildlifeAct of 1956, Marine Mammal Protection

wildlifeand maintainingthe values forwhich the refugewas

Act, National Environmental Policy Act, NationalHistoric

established;and (3)specifyuses which may be compatible

PreservationAct, Refuge RecreationAct, Refuge Revenue

with the major purposes of the refuge. The preferred

Sharing Act, and the State of Alaska Fish and Game

alternativesidentifiedin this process would establishthe

Regulations.Provisionsof the Wilderness Act would apply

long-termbasic management directionforeach refuge. This

to those 8 millionacres of the ArcticRefuge outsidethe

planningallows forthe evaluationof a range of alternatives

1002 area.

for refuge management and consultation with the

appropriateState agencies and Native Corporations. The

Fish and WildlifeService(FWS) is using the environmental Under AlternativeD, activitiesproposed forthe 1002

impact statement (EIS)process to implement the CCP's. area would be subjectto a compatibilitydeterminationas

Followinga seriesof publichearingsand comments on a

required by ANILCA section 304(b) and the Refuge

draftEIS, a preferredalternativewould be chosen by the AdministrationAct, as is the case forthe remainderof the

Alaska FWS RegionalDirector,described in a finalEIS,and ArcticRefuge. Permissibleactivitiescould includehunting,

documented by a Record of Decision. fishing,subsistenceharvest,rivertrips,hiking,photography,

and certain other forms of recreationand compatible

scientificresearch. Guiding for recreationalactivities,

Currently,the CCP for the ArcticRefuge is in the trapping,and other commercial activitiesdeterminedto be

firstor review and data-collectionphase and callsfor compatible with refuge purposes also would be allowed.

completionof the CCP by the spring of 1988. The 1002 These commercial activitiescould conceivably include

area has been omitted from this planning,pending the activitiesas diverseas onshore support and transportation

decisionof the Congress as to itsfuturemanagement. If facilitiesfor offshoreoiland gas drillingand production.

this no-actionalternativewere selectedby the Congress, Any proposed activitywould be reviewedfor compatibility

the 1002 area would be added to the CCP as an integral before it could be permitted. Because compatibility

part of the ArcticRefuge. Depending on the stage of determinationsare site-specific,and the listof probable

102 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
activitiesislong and speculative,effectsof specificactivities The draftreportresultingfrom the originalwilderness

are not assessed in Chapter VI. study recommended thatthe original8.9 millionacres of the

Arctic Refuge be designated as wilderness,with the

The establishmentof aids to navigationand facilities exceptionof 74,516 acres consistingof tractsat Camden

for nationaldefense would be authorizedunder ANILCA Bay (456 acres),BeaufortLagoon (420 acres),Demarcation

section 1310. Weather. climate,and research facilities Point (10 acres),Lake Peters (10 acres),the villageof

could alsobe permitted. Kaktovik(141 acres),the militarywithdrawalon BarterIsland

(4,359acres),and land inthe vicinityof BarterIslandthat

TitleXi of ANILCA governs access on Federallands was to be selectedby the KIC under the Alaska Native

inAlaska. Authorizedforms of access on the ArcticRefuge Claims SettlementAct (ANCSA) (69,120acres). Section

include snowmachines during periodsof adequate snow 702(3) of ANILCA ultimatelydesignated approximately8

cover, aircraft,motorboats, and other means iffound millionacres of wilderness on the ArcticRefuge which

compatible. encompassed allthe pre-ANILCA refugewith the exception

of the 1002 area.

Refuge management could includeactivitiessuch as

wildlifesurveys, reintroductionof nativefishand wildlife This alternativewould resultin wildernessdesignation

species, fisheriesmanagement, prescribedburning for of the entire1.55-million-acre1002 area, except for the

habitatenhancement, and constructionof publicfacilities abandoned DEW linesitesat BeaufortLagoon and Camden

where appropriate.Although these activitiesare allowed by Bay, nativeallotments,and land owned by the KIC. The

law, their actual implementation and the extent of 1002 area would stillbe includedin the CCP, as described

implementationwould be decided through the CCP and in AlternativeD, but would be managed as wilderness

subsequent management plans. under the provisionsof the Wilderness Act, the National

WildlifeRefuge System AdministrationAct, and ANILCA.

Other energy alternatives.including energy

conservation,would have to be pursued to compensate for Permitteduses in wildernessincludehunting,fishing,

the opportunityforproductionof oiland gas from the 1002 backpacking, rivertrips,and photography. Commercial

area which would be forgone ifAlternativeD was activitywould be restrictedto commercial guidingfor such

implemented. activities.These activitiesmay be restrictedor eliminatedif

necessary in designated wilderness areas under the

provisions of other laws or regulations. Motorized

equipment would generallybe prohibited. Wilderness

designation would not affectthe airspace over the area.

The use of motorboats and snowmachines (duringperiods

ALTERNATIVE E--WILDERNESS DESIGNATION of adequate snow cover)would be authorizedfortraditional

activities--for example, subsistence harvestor access to

Under thisalternative,the Congress would designate inholdingssuch as native allotments. Cabins could be

the 1.55-million-acre1002 area as wilderness,withinthe constructedin wildernessareas ifthey were necessary for

meaning of the 1964 Wilderness Act (PublicLaw 88-577). subsistencetrapping,publicsafety,or administrationof the

area.

No furtherstudy or publicreview isnecessary forthe

Congress to designate the 1002 area as wilderness. In contrastto the "no-action"alternative,use of

Previousstudiesand publicdebate have sufficiently covered motorized equipment by the FWS in administeringthe area

the issue. A wildernessreview of the ArcticRefuge was would only be allowed consistentwith the minimum-tool

conducted in the early1970's pursuantto the provisionsof concept. (Minimum-toolconcept is use of the minimum

the Wilderness Act. A draftreportwas prepared in 1973; actionor instrumentnecessary to successfully,safely,and

however, the draftwas never made finalnor was public economically accomplish wilderness management

comment obtained. objectives.) Situationsforwhich motorized access might

be used include emergencies involvingpublic healthor

The issue of wildernessdesignationforallthe Arctic safety and search-and-rescue operations. Landing of

Refuge, includingthe 1002 area,was debated extensivelyby aircraftwould be permitted. Other government agencies

the Congress and the publicin widelyheld hearingsfrom (local,State,Federal)would be allowedto use motorized

1976 through 1980 duringthe development and passage of equipment in carryingout legitimateactivitiesin wilderness

ANILCA (Eastin,1984). The House of Representatives consistent with the minimum-tool concept. An example

generally favored designation of the 1002 area as would be the use of helicoptersby the Department of the

wilderness,whereas the Senate generallydid not. The Interiorto carry out the ANILCA section1010 Alaska

Senate view was that designatingthe area as wilderness MineralResource Assessment Program (AMRAP). Managewas premature untila resource assessment of the oiland ment activitiessuch as wildlifecontrol,prescribedburning,

gas potential was completed and reviewed by the habitatrehabilitation,predator control,reintroductionof

Congress. The Senate view prevailedand became section nativefishand wildlifespecies,and wildlifesurveys would

1002 of TitleX of ANILCA. be permissible,though not necessarilypracticed,in the

ALTERNATIVES--NO ACTION OR WILDERNESS 103
designated wildernessatea. The appropriatenessof these Other energy alternatives,including energy

activitieswould be addiessed in the CGP. conservation,would have to be pursued to compensate for

the opportunityfor production of oiland gas from the 1002

As in the 'no action alternative,placement and area which would be forgone if AlternativeE was

maintenance of navigationaids.communi ;ationsitesand implemented.

relatedfacilities, and facilities fornationalcefense could be

permitted (ANIL.CA sedion 1310) as cculd facilitiesfor REFERENCE CITED

weather,climate.and fishorieire@7ear(;h

Eastin,K. E. 1984, Wilderness review for ArcticNational

WildlifeRefuge's 1002 area: U.S. Department of the

Interior,Officeof the Solicitor,21 p.

104 ARCTiC REFUGE RESOURCE ASS,--SSMENT
CHAPTER VI

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

- INTRODUCTION -

This chapter analyzes and discusses the potential with this 5-percent case would likelyresultfrom the

environmentaleffectsof activitiesthat could occur from extended development of 2 or 3 of the largestprospects if

implementingthe alternativesdescribed in Chapter V: they containa much largervolume of oilthan expected.

AlternativeA: FullLeasing The effectswould not increaseproportionallywithincreased

AlternativeB: LimitedLeasing production.

AlternativeC: Further Exploration

Based on development of the oilfieldat Prudhoe AlternativeD: No Action

Bay, well spacing for prospectus)contributingto the 9.2- AlternativeE: Wilderness Designation.

billion-barrel case would be assumed to be the same as The impacts of AlternativesA through E are summarized

that forthe 3.2-billion-barrel case. For eithercase, fieldlife and compared at the end of thischapter. would be about 30 years. Most additionalsurfaceimpacts

Development, ifitoccurs, may differsomewhat from

would be due to expansion and modificationof the

the scenarios assessed here. The analysis of oil

infrastructureused to develop the individualoilfields.This

development is based on best availableinformationas to

could mean construction of additional drillingand

possiblelocationand size of the prospects delineatedby production pads, additionalproduction facilities,and

the seismicsurveys (fig.111-1).Additionalexplorationwould connecting lines. These facilities willstillbe concentrated

furtherrefinethese data. Oiland gas may be discoveredin

withinthe boundaries of a field,so impacts would be

other partsof the 1002 area or the areas now delineated

largelyconfinedto the same surfacearea as assessed at

may be nonproductive. The magnitude and types of effects

the 3.2-billion-barrel mean recoverablecase, although they

resultingfrom development should be essentiallythe same

would modify some additionalacreage.

for alldevelopment scenarios. Ifoilis not present in The additionalproductionfrom the 5-percentcase is

economicallyrecoverablequantities,then the environmental not likelyto significantly change the impacts of a main oil

effectsof AlternativesA and B would be reduced,possibly pipeline,haul road, airstrips,ports,and supportingroads

to those described forAlternativeC. and infrastructurefrom that requiredto develop the 3.2-

billion-barrel case. A largerdiameteroilpipelinecould be

This programmatic legislativeenvironmental impact used to accommodate increasedoilproduction. Additional

statement (LEIS) discusses the overalloiland gas disturbanceand displacementof wildlifemight occur as a

development programs which might OCCUr on the 1002 area. resultof more intenseactivitiesand increased or prolonged

Without site-specificnformation,precise effectscannot be trafficon the roads and at the ports. The roads and port

predicted. Ifthe area is opened to leasing,this facilities anticipatedforthe mean case development should

programmatic LEIS could sufficeforthe initiallease sale if be capable of handlingthatincreasedtraffic.

the Congress so stated in the enabling legislation.

Whether or not the development of potentialgas However, environmentaleffectswould be reassessed at all

resources becomes economic, gas development and the appropriatestages for each subsequent lease saleand all

infrastructuresto support itwould be expected to share oil development stages, as the required authorizationsare

development and transportationfacilities.Therefore,no obtained.

appreciable increase in the intensityof environmental

The environmentaleffectsdescribed in thischapter impacts is anticipated,althoughthe lifeof a fieldmay be

are based on scenarios developed for the mean estimated extended by gas production. Development of gas would

recoverableresourceof 3.2 billionbarrelsof oil.There isa require separate administrativeapproval and would be

5-percentchance that more than 9.2 billionbarrelsof oil subjectto appropriateenvironmentalreview priorto such

could be recovered. The environmentaleffectsassociated approval.

CONSEQUENCES--INTRODUCTION 105
- Developing the Assessment Corporation/Arctic SlopeRegionalCorporation(KIC/ASRC)

lands which would be availablefor oiland gas

To determine the potential environmental development, production,and transportation,should the

consequences of the variousalternatives, a Fish and Congress choose to open the 1002 area. An exploration

WildlifeService(FWS) environmentalassessment team of wellhas alreadybeen drilledon the KIC/ASRC landsbut all

biologists,formed in February1985, met with Bureau of welldata have been held confidential.Ifhydrocarbon

Land Management (BLIVI)and GeologicalSurvey (GS) resources are present,development, production,and

scientiststo determinethe extentand probablesurface transportationwould (1)be expectedto proceed on a much

modificationsrequiredforoildevelopment on the 1002 area. more rapidschedule,absent the need fora leasesale,and

Maps of fishand wildlifeuse areas(p1s.1-3)were overlaid (2) be expected to influenceleasingand development

withfulland limitedevelopmentscenarios(figs.V-1 and V- patternson the 1002 area itself.This could influence

2),allowingmeasurement ofdirecthabitatlossor alteration. constructionof a pipelinesystem as well,should any

The natureand magnitude of directand indirecthabitat reservesbe found inthe KIC/ASRC landsthatcould,as a

losses,disturbance,mortality,and other potentialeffects single"stand-alone"prospect,supportthe cost of a

were then determined. Effectsare characterizedas major, transportationsystem to the Trans-AlaskaPipelineSystem

moderate,minor,or negligible(tableVI-1)forthe physical, (TAPS)forproduced oil.

biological,and human environmentsof the 1002 area that

would be affected.Effectsthatcouldlikelypersistat least Therefore, as required by the Council on

as long as the fieldlifewere considered"long-term"and EnvironmentalQuality(CEQ) regulations(40 CFR 1502.22),

those likelyto persistlessthan the fieldlife(30years;see oil-related activitiesreasonablyforeseeableat some pointin

Chapter IV)were considered"short-term." time throughoutthe 1002 area were evaluatedfor the

purposes of impact assessment.

The scenariosfor developmentin AlternativesA and

B depicthypotheticalinfrastructures based on a projected Experiencesat Prudhoe Bay and surroundingoil

hydrocarbon potentialat the mean economicallyrecoverable fields,and on the NationalPetroleumReserve in Alaska

resource estimate. Ifthe 5-percent-probability production (NPRA), have provided much valuableinformationwhich

occurs,the effectsremainbasicallythe same, as explained assistedin many of the analysesand conclusionsin this

earlier. report. As furtherrequiredby the CEO's regulatory

amendments (40 CFR 1502.22(b)(3)and (4)),thischapter

Leasing and development, from fieldexploration summarizes existingcrediblescientificevidencerelevantto

through oilproduction,transportation,rehabilitation, and evaluatingreasonably foreseeable significantadverse

abandonment, would be sequentialon the 1002 area. For impacts,based upon theoreticalapproaches or research

purposes of impact assessment, itwas assumed that methods generallyaccepted in the scientificcommunity.

BlocksA, C, and D (forAlternativeA) were leasedand that There is substantialuncertaintyabout the abilityof wildlife

explorationwas successful. Itwas furtherassumed that in the 1002 area to adapt to oilactivityand about the

each of these blocks,plus Block B which would be availability of suitablealternativehabitats.Furtherpotential

crossed by the main pipeline,would at some pointintime problems existwith drawing directconclusionsfrom the

concurrentlyhave some phase of activityoccurringinthem, Prudhoe Bay developments,at leastin the case of the

whether itbe winterseismicinvestigations; explorationwell Porcupine caribou herd (PCH). Nonetheless, the

drilling:constructionof airstrips,port developments, developmentsat Prudhoe Bay over a sustainedperiodof

pipelines;rehabilitation; and so forth. Ifsome of the time have not been adverseformost species. The FWS

currentlyprospectiveareas contain no economically has taken specialcare to identifyin the reportareas of

recoverableoil(ofwhich there is an 81 percentchance), biologicaluncertainty.Biologicalconclusionsthat cannot

then predictedimpacts would be substantiallyless, be drawn with certaintyhave been noted as speculative.

probablylimitedto those associatedonlywith exploratory This is generallyachievedby use of the word "could"or

welldrillingand cleanup as describedunder AlternativeC. similarqualifiers.

This decrease inadverseeffectswould be particularly trueif

delineatedprospects in Blocks C and D produced 'dry A high degree of interestand concernforeffectson

holes`@not onlywould developmentofthE@ fieldsnot occur, caribou,specifically,the PCH, exists.Given the strong

but the main pipelinecould be shortenedby a significant publicinterestand extensiveinteractionslikelyfrom oil

amount, and the Pokok port sitewould be unnecessary. developmenton the 1002 area forthisspecies,the report

Such speculation,however,precludesmeaningfulanalysis. includesa particularly detailedassessment of caribou. As

describedin a subsequent section,caribouis one of five

evaluationspecieschosen forthe resourceassessment.

Untila leasingprogram isactuallydevelopedforthe

area and explorationoccurs,itwould be speculativeas to Because informationdirectlyrelevantto probable

which tractswould be leasedfirst,which areas would reactionsof the PCH to oildevelopmentis generally

prove to containeconomicallyrecoverableoil,and which lacking,the FWS assessment team consultedwithcaribou

areas would be the firstdeveloped. This uncertaintyis biologistsfrom the State of Alaska,the oilindustry,

compounded by the existenceof the KaktovikInupiat universities,Canada, and withinthe FWS itself.In

106 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Table VI-l.--Definitions ofevironmental effects.

Effectlevel Definition

Physicalenvironment

Major............................ Widespread modificationof considerableseverityin landforms,surfaceappearance,or

distributionf physicalresources,or contaminationof those resources.lastingseveral

tensofyears. Modificationcould occur duringdevelopment/productionphase.

Moderate ..................... Localmodificationof considerableseverityin landform,or surfaceappearance,or contaminationof physicalresources,lastingseveraltensof years;or widespreadmodificationof

lesserseverityin surfaceappearance or other characteristics of physicalresources,

lastingfrom a few yearsto severaltens of years. Modificationcouldoccur duringthe

explorationphase.

Minor............................ Localized,relatively isolatedchange lastingfrom lessthan 1 yearto no more than 10

years,with no observableresidualmodificationin surfaceappearance,distribution, or

othercharacteristicsof physicalresources.

Negligible..................... Littleor no change inthe surfaceappearance,distribution, or othercharacteristics of

physicalresources.

Biologicalenvironment

Major...... ...................... Widespread,long-termchange inhabitatavailability or qualitywhich would likelymodify

naturalabundance or distributionof species. Modificationwillpersistatleastas longas

modifyinginfluencesexist,thatis,forthe fieldlife.

Moderate..................... Widespread,short-term(forlessthan the fieldlife)change inhabitatavailability or

qualitywhich would likelymodify naturalabundance or distributionf species;or local

modificationin habitatavailability or qualitywhich would likelymodifynaturalabundance

or distributionatleastas longas modifyinginfluencesexist.

Minor............................ Short-term(thatis,forsubstantially lessthan the fieldlife),localchange ofspecies

abundance, distribution, habitatavailability, or habitatquality.

Negligible.................... Littleor no change inpopulation,habitatavailability, or habitatquality.

Human environment

Major............................ Requiressubstantialchanges ingovernmentalpolicies,planning,or budgeting,or islikely

to affectthe economic or socialwell-beingofresidents.

Moderate..................... Requiressome modificationof governmentalpolicies,planning,or budgeting,or may affect

the economic or socialwell-beingof residents.

Minor............................ Requiresmarginalchange in governmentalpolicies,planning,or budgeting,or may marginallyaffectthe economic or socialwell-beingof residents.

Negligible.................... Not sufficientto have any measurableeffecton governmentalpolicies,planningor budgeting,or any measurable effecton the economic or socialwell-beingof residents.

CONSEQUENCESANTRODUCTION 107
November 1985, the team met with 14 of those biologists The CEQ regulationsdefine mitigation(40 CFR

to specificallyaddress the potentialeffectsof oil 1508.20) as: (a) avoidingthe impact by not takingthe

development withinthe 1002 area on the PCH and Central actionor partsof the action;lb) minimizingthe impact by

Arcticcaribou herd (CAH), and to compare the experiences limitingthe degree or magnitude of an action:(c)rectifying

gained from oildevelopment at Prudhoe Bay and itseffect the impact by repairing,rehabilitating, or restoringthe

on the CAH. These experts evaluated a scenario affectedarea; (d) reducingor eliminatingthe impact over

approximatingthe magnitude of development likelyto occur time by preservationand maintenance duringthe lifeof the

from developing prospectiveareas identifiedby the BLM project;and (e) compensating by replacingor providing

and GS in theirpreliminarystudies. The locationof substituteresources or environments.

development in that scenario was modifiedto prevent

disclosureof any proprietarydata, The FWS mitigationpolicyis based on the CEQ

definitionof mitigation,and suggests planning goals to

On the basis of theirstudies of PCH and CAH protectfishand wildliferesourcevalues in areas proposed

biology,and of caribou reactionsto arcticoildevelopment fordevelopment. These goals are used to guide the FWS

and other disturbances,these experts provided the when it makes recommendations to mitigatedevelopment

assessment team with informationand ideas on the types impacts nationwide for a varietyof projects,including

and magnitude of possibleeffects. Recommendations on Alaska North Slope oiland gas development (forexample,

appropriatemitigationwere developed duringthe workshop, Milne Pointand Kuparuk).

and a reportof the proceedings was prepared (Elisonand

others,1986). This would occur, forexample, under the authorities

of the Fish and WildlifeCoordinationAct and the Clean

Although much has been learned from extensive Water Act, when the FWS makes recommendations for

studies of impacts on fishand wildlifespecies by oil mitigationto the Corps of Engineers in evaluating

development inthe Prudhoe Bay area,analogieshave been applicationsfor permits requiredunder Section 404 of the

drawn with caution. Movements, densities,and traditionsof Clean Water Act. Once those applicationsare receivedby

caribou on the 1002(h) area are differentfrom those at the Corps, they are forwarded to the FWS, among other

Prudhoe Bay or NPRA. Because of theirgreaternumbers reviewers,for comments and recommendations. The FWS

and density on the calvinggrounds, the PCH can be makes its recommendations pursuant to the National

expected to encounter oildevelopment more extensivelyand EnvironmentalPolicyAct, as well as the Fish and Wildlife

intensivelythan has the CAH at Prudhoe Bay. Because of Coordination Act, and uses its mitigationpolicyas a

this,availableinformationdoes not allow a conclusive standardized approach to offering mitigation

determinationof impacts. However, the CEQ regulations recommendations nationally.This same approach would be

requirethat when no informationis availableas to expected to apply to the 1002 area,as ithas elsewhere on

reasonably foreseeable significantadverse impacts, an the North Slope. With thisin mind,the followingis a brief

agency must evaluatethose impacts which have a low descriptionof the factorsthe FWS considersin formulating

probabilityof occurrence but which could be expected to mitigationrecommendations.

resultin "catastrophic"(40 CFR 1502.22(b))consequences

ifthey do occur. The regulationfurtherspecifiesthatthe The mitigationpolicycallsfor selectionof fish and

analysismust be supported by crediblescientificevidence, wildlifespecies (evaluationspecies)to use as indicatorsof

not be based on conjecture,and be withinthe ruleof habitatquality.Evaluationspecies have an importantrolein

reason. Throughout the evaluation of environmental determining the extent and type of mitigationto be

consequences where informationis insufficientfor a recommended. Five evaluationspecies were selectedfor

definitiveanalysis,this guidance was followed. Where the 1002 area (tableVI-2). These species are of high

information is unavailable,a conservativeapproach to publicinterestand have habitatrequirementsthatrepresent

impact evaluationhas been used. the broad ecology of the region. They were used as the

primaryspecies forthe programmatic impact analysisinthis

- Mitigation Measures -

Many potential effects of development can be Table VI-2.--Evaluationspecies forthe

avoided or minimized. The CEQ regulationsrequirethatan 1002 area resource assessment.

environmental impact statement include discussions of

means to mitigateadverse environmentalimpacts of a

proposed actionand itsalternatives(40 CFR 1502.16(h)). Common name Scientificname

The measures recommended to mitigateimpacts of oil

development in this assessment were developed in

consideration of the CEQ regulationsand the FWS Caribou Rangife tarandus g[a[]@

mitigationpolicy(46 FIR7644-7663,January 23, 1981). They Muskox Ovibos moschatus

were based on past North Slope industrypracticesand Polar bear Ursus maritimus

experience,and stipulationsin variousagreements,such as Snow goose Chen caerulescens

the Chandler Lake Agreement between the Department of Arcticchar Salvelinusalpinus

the Interiorand the ArcticSlope RegionalCorporation.

108 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
chapter;however, the otherspecies and resource concerns Table VI-3.--Resource categoriesand mitigationgoals.

describedin Chapter 11have also been considered. Ifthe

Congress chooses to open allor a part of the 1002 area [FWS MitigationPolicy:FR, v.46, no. 15, January 23,

for oiland gas development, site-specificevaluationof 1981, Habitatvalue:a measure of the suitability of

leasedtractscould resultin selectionof differentevaluation an area to support a given evaluationspecies]

species which reflectthe habitatvalues of thatspecific

area.

Designationof resource categoriesis based upon the Resource Designation criteria Mitigation

valueof the habitatto the evaluationspecies. Table VI-3 category of habitatto planning

listsresource categoriesoutlinedin the mitigationpolicy. be affected goal

The policy recommends thatlegallydesignatedareas such

as NationalWildlifeRefuges be given considerationas

eitherResource Category 1 or 2, in recognitionof the

specialvalues for which an area was set aside. As 1 Habitatof high valuefor No loss of existing

described in Chapter 11,high-valuehabitatoccurs on the evaluationspecies. habitatvalue.

1002 area foreach of the fiveevaluationspecies selected Unique and irreplacefor this assessment. Therefore, for this broad, able on a national

programmatic analysis,the 1002 area has been designated basis or in the ecooverallas Resource Category 2 habitat. Itis probable, region.

however, that as site-specificdevelopment proceeds and

the 1.5-million-acrearea is broken into leasabletracts, 2 Habitatof highvaluefor No net loss of indifferentcategory designationswillresult.For example, on evaluationspecies, kind habitat

a site-specificbasis, itwould be expected thatspecific Relativelyscarce or be- value.

areas of habitatused mainlyby shorebirdscould be coming scarce on a

designatedas Category 3 habitat. Conversely,ifthe plant nationalbasis or in

Thlaspiarcticum is eventuallylistedas eitherthreatenedor the ecoregion.

endangered, the specificallydefined areas in which it

occurs would probably be elevated to Resource 3 Habitatof high to medium Minimize loss of inCategory 1. value for evaluation kind habitat

species. Relatively value. No

Itshould be understood that ifthe Congress directs abundant on a national net lossof

the Secretaryof the Interiorto leaseallor a partof the basis. value.

coastalplainof the ArcticRefuge,the mitigationpolicyof

the FWS willbe used as only one of the mechanisms 4 Habitatof medium to low Minimize loss of

availableto ensure that development of the area proceeds value for evaluation habitatvalue.

in the most environmentallysound manner practicable.The species.

listof recommended mitigationat the end of thischapter

provides suggested environmentalmeasures that could be

used as appropriatethroughout allphases of development.

They have been based on applicationof CEQ's five

elements of mitigation--avoiding,minimizing,rectifying, environmental requirements. Site-specificmitigation

reducing or eliminating,and/or compensating for impacts. measures, including design and construction

These, or other site-specificmeasures developed through techniques, would be addressed earlyin planning.

earlyconsultation,can ensure thatno unnecessary adverse These measures would be institutedin contractsand

effectsoccur and that resultsof oildevelopment are held stipulationsrequired in permits and in other

withinacceptable limitsof loss to habitatvalues on the authorizationsrequiredfrom regulatoryagencies.

area.

2. The Secretary of the Interiorwould be authorized to

develop guidelinesthrough regulationsthat would

- Assumptions ensure the environmentalintegrityof the area.

Assumptions used in the assessments include: 3. Planning, design, construction, operation,

maintenance, and rehabilitationwould be

accomplished using the most current available

1. The Secretaryof the Interiorwould undertake early technology and practices. Itis assumed that,as

and continuous consultationand coordinationwith appropriate,the mitigationmeasures at the end of

leaseholders, permittees, and State and Federal thischapter,or measures at leastas effective,would

agencies from the startof planning. Performance be included in plans for development,construction,

standards would be developed for safety and and operation,and would be implemented.

CONSEQUENCES--INTRODUCTION 109
4. Any authorized oiland gas operationsand related Although the totallinemiles of new surveys might

activitieswould comply withallapplicableFederaland not differmuch from the 1,336 linemiles run previouslyon

State laws and regulations,as well as with any the 1002 area,more crews may be on the area. Different

speciallaws the Congress passes or regulations companies have differentideas as to where to concentrate

promulgated by the Secretary of the Interiorto detailedsurveys (closergrid spacing);differenttypes of

govern activitieson the 1002 area. data are useful to companies in theirinterpretationsof

subsurface geologicalstructuresor style. Additionalcrews

5. Special protections for terrestrialand aquatic could increase the overallimpact,mainly from increased

environments and culturalresources,and designation travelto and from the 1002 area.-

of specialareas such as SadlerochitSpring,found in

guidelinesgoverning the seismic explorationprogram The physicaleffectsof seismic explorationgenerally

on the 1002 area and the land-usestipulationsfor resultfrom overland movement of seismic vehicles. The

explorationdrillingon the KIC/ASRC lands (August 9, effectis on the tundra which, ifbroken or scarred,can

1983, agreement between ASRC and the United cause thawing of the upper ice-richpermafrostduringthe

States)would continueto be in effectforoiland gas succeeding summers. Such thawing in flatareas willcause

activitiesin the 1002 area. These stipulationsmay ponding at the junctionof ice-wedge polygons,alteringthe

duplicate some of the mitigation measures appearance of the tundra landscape. Ifthe thawing occurs

recommended in thisanalysis,but they also include on slopingground, erosioncan occur. Ifthat erosionand

specificreferencesto the handlingand disposalof itsproducts terminateat a stream, localsiltingmay result.

garbage, combustible and noncombustible solid

wastes, used equipment, sewage and graywater,fuel

and hazardous or toxicmaterials,and provisionfor

hazardous substance controland contingencyplans.

Mitigation

6. The recent interimconveyance to KIC/ASRC has

been includedon allmaps used in thisreport.This Surlace effectsof seismic surveys can be minimized

20,000-acrearea was assessed in the draftLEIS and by confiningoperationsto the winterafterthe activesoil

has been assessed in the finalimpact analysis. layeris frozento a depth of at least12 inches and the

Although itsremoval from the analysismay resultin a

average snow depth is about 6 inches. Seismic trainsare

lower degree of impact assessment in a few cases,

generallyrouted through terrainwhere itis easierto move

development activitieswhich might occur ifthe area

equipment, so potentialfor surfacedamage is minimized

is opened can indicatepart of the cumulativeeffects even though the routingmay not providethe shortesttravel

likelyfor the entirearea. Consequently, inclusionof distance. Gently slopingbanks would be selectedforthe

these lands inthe analysisis reasonable. entryto and exitfrom all stream crossings,to reduce

equipment strainand avertbank damage which could cause

erosion and stream siltation.This isimportanton the 1002

area where, even though the topographic reliefis not great,

ALTERNATIVE A--FULL LEASING

streambanks are steep along many drainages.

No ice roads or airstripswould be constructedto

Effectson PhysicalGeography support seismic operations. Light,fixed-wingaircraftwould

and Processes be used for resupply,landingon 2,000-foot-longice airstrips

Potentialimpacts on the physicalenvironment(air,

scraped on the nearestlakeor pond. Ski-equippedaircraft

can be landed on the snow-covered tundra ifthere are no

water, gravel,permafrost,and so forth)from a leasing lakes nearby.

program on the entire1002 area would be generatedfrom

geologicaland geophysical (principallyseismic)exploration;

exploratorydrilling;constructionof all-seasonroads, oil

transmission pipelines,and marine and other facilities

requiredto support production.

Conclusion

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

The effectof seismic operationson water resources

Additionalsurface geologicalsurveys during the would be negligible.Seismic trainsuse about 2,000 gallons

snow-free months would not be expected to affectthe of water per day for domestic purposes. Where available,

physicalenvironment on the 1002 area. These surveysare water is obtainedfrom lakesthat do not freezeto bottom.

brief: the investigatorsarriveby helicopter,study and Where such lakes are not available,a smallsnow or ice

measure geologicsections,perhaps take a few hand-sized melteris used to obtain domestic water supplies. Local

samples of rock,and, at most, remain on the ground fora noise and minor air pollutionresultfrom equipment

few hours. The principaleffectis noise generated by the operation;these effectsare briefand transitory.Minor fuel

helicopterduringarrivaland departure. spillsmay also occur.

110 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
- EXPLORATORY DRILLING - The accepted method for abandoning an exploratory

well reserve pit is to injectthe unfrozenfluiddown the

Exploratory drillingrequires heavy construction annulus of the wellat the time drillingis completed and

equipment to prepare a stabledrillingpad, reservepit,road then fillthe reservepitwith enough materialso thatthe

to the water source(s),and airstrip.When the wellsiteis drillingmud and frozen fluidbecome a part of the

completed, the drillingrig and support equipment are permafrost. On the North Slope about 5 feetof cover

transported by Hercules C-130 aircraftor low-ground- materialis required. Ifrevegetationcan be accomplished

pressure vehicles,depending on distancesbetween well over the reservepit,less fillis requiredto insulatethe pit

locations.The area disturbedby activityat the wellsiteis contents,due to the insulatingpropertiesof vegetation.

usuallyabout 10 acres,includingthe area for the reserve Constructionequipment is usuallyrequiredto blade or haul

(mud) pit. fillmaterialintothe pit. The most successfultechniquefor

revegetationinvolvessaving the top organiclayerof the

On the 1002 area, obtainingwater for drillingand tundra when the reservepitis excavated. This layeris

ancillaryneeds such as iceroads and airstripconstruction then replacedwhen the pitis filledand abandoned.

has the potentialfor major adverse effects. Water is

confined to surface areas; there are few lakes of any Conclusion

appreciablesize.

Temporary minor contaminationof the tundra could

As much as 15 milliongallonsof water may be occur in the depressions) where the treatedgray water

needed to drillone exploratorywell. Potentialsources and and other effluentis dischargedfrom the camp's waste

methods to develop requiredwater supplieswere discussed treatmentplant.

in Chapter [V. Many streams containingdeep pools that

do not freezecompletelyinwintersupport overwinteringfish Minor oilleaks and spillsfrom operatingequipment

populations. However, some riversin the 1002 area do not could occur. Human errorand mechanical breakdown in a

support significantfishpopulationsand there should be no rigorous arctic environment create the potentialfor

need to disturbcriticalfishhabitat. accidentalspillsof oiland other hazardous materials.

Off-streamreservoirscould be created in conjunction Short-term(one or two winterseasons) minor noise

with gravel-removaloperations. They would be filled disturbancewould be associated with operations. The

primarilyby high (excess) streamflow during snow-melt visualeffectof the drillingrig,constructioncamp, and

periods (from about lateMay to mid-June) or summer transportationactivitieswould similarlybe a short-term,

rainstorms. These reservoirswould ideallybe constructed minor effectin the 1002 area.

in the unvegetatedflood plainborderingthe activestream

channel. Depending on theirsize,theirpresence could Because of the temporary,highlylocalizednature of

have a visualimpact insofaras they would contrastwith exploratorydrilling,air-qualityimpacts would be negligible.

naturallyoccurringfeatures.

Mitigation

- DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION -

The use of double linersin reservepitsfor both

explorationand development wells is advantageous in Usually severalmillioncubic yards of gravelare

adequately containing pit materials. When drillingis requiredto develop an oilfield.In a tundra environment,

completed,the reservepitcould containformationcuttings; adverse effectscan be minimized by obtaininggravelfrom

drillingmuds composed of barium,bentonite,and heavy exposed and unvegetatedbars along streams that are not

metals (particularlyiron,manganese, zinc,chromium, lead); fish-bearing. As long as the removal is limitedto gravel

salts(principallysodium chlorideand potassium chloride): exposed above the riverice or above the streambed (in

alkali(mainly calcium and magnesium bicarbonates);and those cases where the stream runs dry in winter),the

possibly some liquidhydrocarbons. Detergents,biocides, watercourse would remain unchanged and no siltingwould

and defoarningagents may also be present in the reserve occur because the gravelstend to be clean. In addition,

pits,together with fillers,such as ground walnut shells. the riversin the 1002 area completelyflush duringthe

The amount of water introducedfrom snow thathas blown spring runoff.

into the pit depends on snow and fluidmanagement

practices. The next places from which to obtaingravelwiththe

least disruptionare terracesimmediatelyadjacent to river

- Alaska solidwaste regulationsrequirethe closeoutof beds, using carefulmining practices. Gravel may also be

reserve pits at abandoned exploratoryand development removed from cutbanks of a riverwith minimal disruption.

sites.Effectiveclosureof these pitsrequiresstabilizingthe The State of Alaska has been approving upland sitesin

waste material(by drying),freezeback,filling, and providing recentyears to prevent erosion,alterationsof riverfeatures,

an impermeable gravelcap to preventleaching,as well as and other physicalproblems,althoughthistends to create

monitoring. long-lastingvisualeffects.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 111
Gravel,and sand in the absence of gravel,were but stillminimizethe lengthsof the spur linesto central

obtained from riverbars, riverterraces,and cutbanks, in productionfacilities(CPF's). Thus, the distancebetween

that order,during the constructionof permanent airstrips the pipelineand the work road could vary and occasionally

and access roads for the deep explorationwells on the the two might even cross,as with TAPS and the haul road

NPRA. Placing geosynthetics material(forexample, (J.W. Dalton Highway) where they pass through similar

styrofoam)and insulationbelow the gravelprovidespartof topography. Itis furtherassumed that the pipelinemight

the insulationecessary forpads, and reduces the depth cross some streams on verticalsupport members; in other

and overallgravelrequirements. instancesthe pipelinemight be attached to the road bridge

over the stream.

The FWS has investigatedthe effectsof reserve-pit

fluiddischarges on water qualityand the fresh-watermacro- A pump stationand feeder pipelineswould be

invertebratecommunity of tundra ponds. The aquatic requiredat each CPF, and one or two booster pump

macro-invertebratesstudiedwere indicatororganisms for a stationswould be positionedsomewhere withinthe 1002

wide varietyof environmentalpollutantsand are important area, allof which are described in Chapter [V. CPF's,

food sources forbirdsusing the North Slope. marine facilities,pump stations,and power-generation

facilities to heat water linesrunningtreatedsea water to the

Preliminary results of the investigationsshow CPF's would allbe constructedon 5-foot-thickgravelpads.

significantlyhigher alkalinity,hardness, and turbidityin Pad areas would vary considerably,depending on the

ponds adjacentto reservepitsthan in controlponds (R.L. planned use, but consequences to the physicalenvironment

West and E. Snyder-Conn, unpublished data). Significantly would vary mainly in degree.

higher levelsof heavy metals such as nickel,barium,

chromium, and arsenicwere found in ponds receiving Construction requirements could include5-foot-thick

effluentthan in controlponds. There were also decreases drillingpads and 200-300 linearmiles of all-seasongravel

in totaltaxa,taxa diversity,and invertebrateabundance in roads within several oil fields,assuming discovery of

tundra ponds associated with reservepits Introductionsof multiplecommerciaf-grade oilfields. The totalnumber of

baritemay have physicallysmothered benthic organisms as pads and miles of road would depend on fieldsdeveloped.

wellas benthicstages of other organisms The qualityand Approximately100 miles of road would be necessary east

quantityof organisms used as food by North Slope bird from the Canning River to the Pokok marine facilities.

species may be decreasing with deteriorationin water Construction of four,year-round,5-foot-thickgravelC-130

quality. airstripscould also be necessary.

Impacts from use of reservepitscan also stem from Solid wastes generated from oildevelopment in the

the practiceof using reservepitfluidsfor "watering"roads 1002 area willprobably requirean incinerationunit,a landfill,

to keep down the dust. The bariteand heavy metals in and an oilywaste pitsuch as those operated by the North

these fluidslead to dust which is high in barium,chromium, Slope Borough at Prudhoe Bay. The North Slope Borough

lead, and possibly other metals (E. Snyder-Conn, FWS, landfillcovers approximately22 acres;the oilywaste pit

unpublisheddata). The barium is inthe form of very fine covers lessthan 10 acres. Itmay be possibleto minimize

particulatematterwhich can be detected at elevatedlevels losses due to a landfillby using an upland gravelpitfor

more than halfa mile from roads and during summer that site.Operations of solidwastes treatmentfacilities are

months is apt to be far more predominant than dust from regulated by the Alaska Department of Environmental

beaches, sand bars, and the like. Other metals occur at Conservation.

high concentrationsin sediments nearer roads. Dust from

these fluidsalso contributeto gradientsof increased Limiteddata availablefor the Prudhoe Bay area do

alkalinity, pH, and salinitydepending on distancefrom the not allow predictionof air-qualityconsequences of oil

roads. development withinthe 1002 area. The degree and kinds

of air pollutionwillprimarilydepend on the chemical

Possible effectsof watering roads with reservepit composition of the crude oilobtainedand on combustion

fluidsare adverse impacts on invertebratesand on acid- equipment design.

loving plants. This could eventuallyaffectgrazingmammals

and/or waterfowland other birds. Inasmuch as the 1002 - Air emissionswillbe generated by exploration,drilling,

area is considerablydrierthan the Prudhoe Bay area,itis construction,excavation,vehicularand airtraffic,pipelines,

more likelythat reservepitfluidscould be used on roads, electricalgeneration,and oilproduction and associated

because otherlocalwater sources are limited. facilities.The maximum annual emissions from the 1002

area would probably be analogous with present North

Chapter IV describes many of the sitingand Slope operations. Measurements in the Prudhoe Bay area

constructionaspects of a pipelineto transportoilfrom the forthe periodApril1979-March 1980 showed thatthe 24-

1002 area to the Trans-AlaskaPipelineSystem (TAPS) Pump hour maximum for total suspended particulatesis

Station1. An above-ground oilpipelinewould not be as sometimes violatedand the 6-9 a.m. maximum for nontopographicallyconfinedin itsroutingas would the main methane hydrocarbons was above NationalAmbient Air

road, and would be expected to be as straightas possible Quality and Alaska Department of Environmental

112 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Conservation standards, However, the data show no Section 165 standards forNationalWildlifeRefuge areas. If

violationsin nitrogendioxide,ozone, carbon monoxide, or itis determined that deteriorationwillexceed these

sulfurdioxide.- standards using proposed

'

emission equipment,a permitis

not issued. The PSID permitprocess thus guards against

- With the exception of one recent Lisburne unacceptable levelsof adverse airqualityimpacts.

development well, allPrudhoe Bay/Kuparuk wells contain

..sweet"crude oil low in hydrogen sulfide and, ARCO's recentlyinstalledCentral Gas Facilityin

consequently,low in sulfurdioxide. Thus, acidificationin Prudhoe Bay contains improved flareequipment and has

the Prudhoe area is unlikely.The FWS has monitoredthe resultedin greatlyimproved combustion at that facility.

pH at numerous ponds and lakes in the Prudhoe Bay These recent improvements in flaredesign should reduce

vicinitysince1983. The pH of most ponds and lakes and potentialair-qualitydegradationduring emergency gas-flaring

of snow inthe Prudhoe fieldhas been shown to be near activities.

pH 7 or higher,oftenabove pH 8. The data clearlyshow

thatacidificationhas not occurred in the Prudhoe area. - Conclusion

Mitigation Moderate effects would be expected from

translocationof gravel from naturalsitesto construction

Gravel requirementswould be reduced by use of areas. This would change topography at borrow areas and

gravel-foam-timberpads where feasible. Gravel removal at placement areas. Impacts at borrow areas would last

should be prohibitedfrom activefish-bearingwatercourses wellbeyond the lifeof the project.

and their tributaries.Proper insulationshould reduce

permafrostdegradation. Localizedremoval or destructionof tundra vegetation

resultingfrom the constructionof gravelpads, gravelroads,

To ensure maintenance of water qualityin the vicinity and gravel mines could occur. Some thermokarsting

of drillingand productionpads, drillingmuds, cuttingsand (caused by the meltingof ground iceand settlingor caving

other wastes should be reinjectedwhere geologically of the ground surfaceso thatpits,hummocks, depressions,

feasible.Reserve pitsshould be double-linedor otherwise and small ponds result)of the tundra would be expected.

rendered impermeable. Constructionof "reservoirs"as a Permafrost may melt under borrow sites and under

byproduct of gravel extractioncould augment fresh-water vegetationdisturbedby other development activities.This

availability. would resultin sloughing, erosion,and stream pollution

lastingbeyond the lifeof the project. Minor erosion in

Because reserve pit fluidswould be minimized connection with culvertsfor in-fieldroads crossingminor

through water conservation,reuse, and reinjection,large drainages,some ponclingupslope of airstrips,roads, and

quantitiesof these fluidswould not be availableforroad pads, and dryingclownslopeof such pads would also be

wateringto controldust. This willminimize contamination expected.

of adjacent tundra vegetationby the chemicalsfound in

such fluids. The dedicated industrialuse of the limitednatural

fresh-watersources of the 1002 area would be a major

To reduce stream pollution,transportationcrossings effect.

should be limitedand permanent facilities should not be

placed within3/4 mile of the high-watermark of specified At work sitesduring both the productivelifeof the

watercourses,determined on a site-specificbasis. fieldsand at restoration,noise generated by aircraft

operations,drillingoperations(especiallythat arisingfrom

Allsources of airpollutionin the 1002 area,whether power generation),and trafficwould be major and continue

or not they are relatedto oiland gas activities,must throughout the fieldlife.Similarly,the visualeffectof such

comply with applicableEnvironmental ProtectionAgency activitieswould be a major,long-termconsequence of full

(EPA) and Stateof Alaska airpollutioncontrolrequirements. leasing.

It is,therefore,expected that these requirementsare

sufficientto ensure that any emissions generatedin the Current EPA and Alaska procedures and regulations

1002 area (or from relatedactivitieselsewhere)willnot are adequate to ensure no significantdeteriorationof air

cause a significantdeteriorationof airquality. quality.

Priorto any development, air-qualitybackground data,

chemicalcomposition data on the crude oilto be produced, Effects on Biological Environment

and data on sensitivevegetationshould be gathered.

These data together with air-qualitymodeling data are Although thisanalysistreatsspecies individually, the

presented by unitproducers to obtain a PSID (preventionof dynamic interrelationshipsexistingamong species and

significantdeteriorationof air quality)permit. Under a between species and theirenvironments are recognized.

cooperativeagreement with the FWS, the NationalPark Vegetation is a key component of the environment;it

Serviceevaluatestechnicaldata in relationto Clean AirAct providesfood and cover essentialto allwildlife.Therefore,

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 113
a thorough discussion is presented under "Vegetation, EXPLORATORY DRILLING, DEVELOPMENT, AND

Wetlands, and TerrainTypes" regardingthe effectsof full PRODUCTION

development on that foundationof wildlifehabitat.This

forms the basis forlaterdiscussionsof effectson individual Ifthe entire1002 area were leased,subsequent oil

species. development, production,and transportationactivities,and

associated infrastructurewould eventuallyresultin

VEGETATION, WETLANDS, AND

approximately5,000 acres of vegetationbeing covered by

TERRAIN TYPES

gravelfor roads, pipelines,airstrips,and other facilities

(tableV-1),assuming allexplorationis successful.Physical

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

disturbances such as erosion and sedimentation,

thermokarst,impoundments, clearing,gravelspray, dust,

More detailedseismic surveys would createa closely snowdrifts,and pollutionwould alterthe habitatvalues of

spaced (2x2-mileor closer)network of temporarilyvisible many more acres.

trailsover partsof the 1002 area. The effectsof winter

Effectson vegetationfrom iceroads and airstripsare seismictrailswould be similarto those from the 1984 and

1985 seismic operations--decreasesin plantcover, changes not well-documented. Itis generallythought that properly

in plantspecies composition,patches of exposed peat and builtice roads protectvegetationfrom adverse impacts. Ice

mineral soil,destruction of hummocky microrelief, roads delay plantgrowth in the firstyear afteruse, and

compression of the vegetativemat, deepening of the active may appear as green trailsfor severalyears. Higher sites,

soil layer,and surface depression of trails(Felixand common in the 1002 area, may be scraped during road

Jorgenson, 1985; Felixand others,1986a, b).

constructionor duringuse ifthe ice is not sufficiently thick

(Adam, 1981). On Alaska Statelands,ice roads are not

Trailsthrough wet graminoid tundra and moist

allowed in the same location2 years in a row to avoid

prostrateshrub scrub appear greener due to compression

compounding impacts on vegetation.

of standing dead leaves. Green trailsmay persistas a

- Well pads may be builtof ice,gravel-timber-insulation, resultof increasedplant productivityand nutrientlevelsor

or gravel. Ice well pads have the leastimpact on changes in species composition in futureyears (Challinor

vegetation,similarto that for ice roads and airstrips. and Gersper, 1975; Chapin and Shaver, 1981; Envirosphere

Gravel-timber-insulation pads use timber/insulationi place

Company, 1985; Felixand others,1986a, b).

of some graveland often use reservepitmaterialsforany

On heavilydisturbedtrails,surfacedepression could remaininggravelneeds. This minimizesthe need forgravel

occur due to compression and possibly subsidence. borrow pits and, thus, loss of vegetation. One

Standingwater may be presenton these trails.In moist disadvantage of the gravel-timber-insulation pads is that

graminoid tussock tundra or other vegetationtypes with foam insulationcan break down or erode into smaller

hummocky microrelief,moundtops could be scraped or

pieces that can be very difficultto effectivelyremove from

crushed. Trailshere appear brown because of the the tundra. When the timber and insulationare removed, a

exposed peat or increasedlitterfrom dead plants.The thin much thinnerlayerof materialremains,oftencontainingsoil

vegetationmat on dry prostrateshrub riverterracesis as wellas gravel.-

easilydisturbed,and largedecreases in plant cover would

Rehabilitationis more successful for gravel4imber- be expected. Trafficthrough riparianareas could break

shrubs,at some sitesnearlyto ground level.Most effects insulationpads. Pioneer species are slow to colonizealloccur on narrow trailswith multiplevehiclepasses, and gravel pads because of limitednutrients,limitedwater

occur more oftenon trailsmade by mobile camp unitsand availability, and lack of fine-grainedmaterials(Everettand

fuelor supply sleighs. others,1985).

- Mitigation-

- To reduce the possibilityof negativeeffectson

vegetation,and eliminatethe need for largereservepits,

Itis assumed thatsummer seismicexplorationwould subsurfacedisposalof drillingmuds by reinjectionshould

not be permitted,and ice-roadplacement would continueto be used. This method is currentlybeing used in some

be prohibitedin the same location2 years in a row.

Alaskan oilfieldsand provides permanent disposal of

Multiplevehicle passes over the same route should be contaminants. Overflow from reservepits,breaching,or

avoided in allcases. Stipulationsgoverning surface leachingmay killsurroundingvegetation(Frenchand Smith,

activitiesforthe seismic programs in 1983-84 and 1984-85

1980). Drillingmuds may containdieselfuel,solublesalts,

(50 CFR Part 37) would also resultin avoidance or

heavy metals,and ethyleneglycol,allof which can be toxic

minimizationof impacts to vegetation.

to vegetation(D. W. Smith and James, 1980). Improper

closure of reserve pits can resultin leaks or erosion

- Conclusion -

(French,1980).-

Overalleffectsfrom additionalseismic exploration Spillsof diesel fuel,gasoline,crankcase oil,

would be minor or negligible. antifreeze,and hydraulicfluidcould affectmany smallareas

114 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
of vegetation. During the 1984 and 1985 seismic constitutingnearly halfthe reportedspills,with other

explorationprograms, reportedspillsincludetwo spillsof petroleumproducts accountingforfewer spills.Most spills

50-100 gallons,23 spillsof 1-20 gallonsand 46 spillsof were small;51 percent of spillswere no more than 10

lessthan 1 gallonor of undetermined quantity. gallons,yet those spillsequaled only 1 percentof the

volume spilledin 1985. The most common causes of spills

inasmuch as exploratorydrillingrequires large were leaks,rupturedlines,and tank overtopping. Effects

amounts of fuel,spillsof much greatermagnitude than have generallybeen localized. To date, the cumulative

those that occur during seismicexplorationcould occur. effectof spillshas not been significant.-

The extentof vegetationdamage would depend on the time

of year, type of material,size of spill,and vegetationtype. - Culvertswould need to be designed to ensure that

Dieselfuelis highlytoxicand killsallplantson contact;it slumpingfrom roadcuts and erosiondid not occur. Altered

may penetratedeeply intosoil,killingroots and rhizomes drainagepatternscaused by roads and pads would result

and remainingtoxicfordecades (D.A. Walker and others, in some ponding, a generallywetter environmenton the

1978; Lawson and others,1978; Mackay and others,1980). nearby upslope side of a road or pad, and a drier

Spillsin the winter are less toxicthan summer spills. environmenton the nearby downslope side. Impoundments

Winter spillsare easierto containand clean up, do not caused by blockingdrainages could cause changes in plant

penetratethe soilas deeply,and lose some of theirtoxicity species composition or eliminatesome plantsdepending on

by evaporation. the depth and durationof flooding. Thermokarst, which

commonly occurs on the edges of roads and pads,

Crude oilcan cause severe decreases in vegetative extends the affectedarea offthe facilitysiteand causes

cover but may not killallvegetation,even in heavily long-termchanges in moisture conditionsand plantspecies

saturatedareas (Johnson and others,1981). Mackay and composition(Walkerand others,1984).-

others (1980)noted that crude oildegraded much faster

than diesel,especiallyifit had not penetrateddeeply into - Gravel,dust, and changes in snow accumulation

the soil. Revegetation sometimes began in less than 3 patterns would affect areas surrounding petroleum

years. Areas where oilhad penetrateddeepest (20-30mm) development facilities.Changes noted in the Prudhoe Bay

remained toxicformore than 4 years. Large spillsInhibited oilfieldinclude:

recovery by alteringthe physicalpropertiesof the soils,

1. Depositionof gravelspray 100 feeton eitherside of

making them drier,thus reducing or preventingseed the road (Klingerand others,1983; Envirosphere,

germinationand vegetativegrowth. Deep spillsmay also

1@64; Walker and others,1984).

resurfacein lateryears with toxiceffectson the vegetation.

Because oil penetrationis relatedto soilmoisture,

2. Dust depositionas faras 250 feetfrom the roadside

wet vegetationtypes undergo less initialdamage. Standing

with heavy dust out to 80 feet(Everett,1980; Klinger,

water or saturatedsoilspreventfuelfrom penetratingto the

1983; Walker and others,1984).

roots or rhizomes. Wet sitesalso usuallyrecoverfaster. 3. Earlysnowmelt along heavilytraveledroads (Benson

In addition,those species most resistantto oilspills and others,1975).

(sedges and deciduous shrubs) are the best recolonizers

followingdisturbance(Walkerand others,1978). On the basis of this information,secondary effectsfrom

Directcontact with oiloften resultsin immediate

graveland dust spray were assumed to extend 100 feeton

damage to above-ground vegetation. Injuryto the root

each side of allroads. Impoundments and altered

system may not be immediatelyobvious,but can cause a

snowmelt patternswere also assumed to occur withinthis

same 100-footarea,as the terrainin the 1002 area has

slow deteriorationof plantsand a high degree of winterkill greaterreliefand impoundments are not expected to be as

in futureyears (Deneke and others, 1975; Mackay and extensiveas those measured in the Prudhoe Bay oilfield

others,1980). (Walkerand others,1984). Similarmodificationswould be

expected adjacent to drillpads and other facilities.

- Accidentalspillsof crude oiland refinedpetroleum Therefore,approximately7,000 acres of existingvegetation

products are an inevitableconsequence of oil-field could be modifiedby these secondary effects.-

development. Throughout the operationof Prudhoe Bay,

the very largespills(on the order of at least10,000 gallons) An additional500 to 750 acres may be mined for

have been of crude oil,gasoline,and diesel. Larger spills gravel at as many as 15 differentlocations,or by creating

not only cover a largerarea,but they alsopenetratedeeper 20 to 30 deep holes for use as water reservoirs.The

intothe soil.An indicationof the frequency and volume of effectsof gravel mines on vegetationdepend on the

potentialspillsis provided by recent records for Prudhoe locationof the borrow pits,amount of gravelremoved, and

Bay. According to 1985 records (the firstfullyear of the vegetationtype. Vegetationwould not be directly

computerized oil-spilldata) there were 521 reportedspills affectedifgravelwere mined from unvegetatedriverbars,

totaling82,216 gallons (Alaska Department of Environmental unvegetated coastal beaches, coastal lagoons, or lake

Conservation, Fairbanks,unpublished data). Diesel and bottoms. Borrow pitson partiallyvegetated riverbars or

crude oilwere the most commonly spilledproducts, vegetated riverterraceswould cause losses of alluvial

CONSEOUENCES--FULL LEASING 115
deciduous shrub and dry prostrateshrub riverterraces, distributionof Thlaspiarcticumin the ArcticRefuge is along

which cover only a smallpartof the 1002 area. In upland the KatakturukRiver(pl.1N, adjacentto potentialeconomic

areas,vegetationwould be lostin the area of the borrow prospects in Block A. Furtherstudy to betterdefinethe

pit,the area covered by overburden,and any area affected locationsand numbers of Thlaspiarcticumplantsoccurring

by erosion. Gravel removal in upland areas would be the on the 1002 area,in conjunctionwith carefulsitingof pads

most visuallydisruptiveand would be extremelydifficultto and routingof collectinglinesand associated roads in

rehabilitateto pre-projectnaturalconditions. Block A, would avoid most impacts to thatspecies.

Pipelinesmay transport sea water from coastal - Conclusionmarine facilitiesinland for waterfloodor other purposes.

The effectsof sea-water spillson tundra vegetationare An overallloss of approximately5,650 acres (0.4

poorlyunderstood,but depend on the spillsize,season of percentof the 1002 area)of existingvegetationcould result,

occurrence,moisture,pH levelof the site,and vegetation based on the estimatedfacilityneeds for developingthe

type. Sea-water spillsaffectdry sitesmore severelythan entire1002 area. Habitatvalueswould be lostwhen these

wet sites. Sea water rapidlypenetratesdry soil,resultingin habitatsare covered by pads, airstrips,roads, and other

high saltconcentrationsnear the rootingzone. Recovery support facilities.

can take many years (Simmons and others,1983). Sea

water would be dilutedand more rapidlyflushedaway at Additionally,at least7,000 acres could be modified

wet sites.Many wetland sedge and grass species are salt by the secondary effectsof gravel spray and dust

tolerant,but large sea-waterspillsthat inundatethe tundra deposition, altered snowmelt and erosion patterns,

could severelydisturbvegetation,even in wet tundra sites. thermokarst,impoundments, and pollution.Habitatvalues

Major storm surges have killedallvegetationon flooded would decrease to varyingdegrees.

sites(Reimnitzand Maurer, 1979).

The modificationof approximately12,650 acres (0.8

- Mitigation- percent of the 1002 area)would be a minor effect(tableVl1) on area vegetationand wetlands.

Effects on vegetation could be reduced by

appropriatefacilitydesign and operation. Facilitiesshould

- SPECIAL TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC be consolidatedas inuch as possibleto avoid unnecessary

ENVIRONMENTS -

directloss of acreage. Culverts should be carefully

designed to precludeimpoundment problems. Trafficspeed

SADLEROCHIT SPRING SPECIAL AREA

controlswillreduce dust deposition. Reinjectionof drilling

muds and other fluids,and carefulconstructionwillhelp Within the 1002 area, the SadlerochitSpring Special

reduce toxic spills. Appropriate containment procedures Area (approximately4,000 acres)was the only area which

and absorbent pads must be used to minimizeand clean was closed year-roundto explorationactivitiesduringthe

up any fuel,sea-water,or other spillswhich did occur. previousexplorationprogram. This was due to the spring's

Effectivecleanup procedures for spillsand subsequent unique continuous flow of warm water,the only major flow

revegetationeffortscan reduce the amount of vegetation of warm water in the 1002 area during the winter,

originallyaffectedand the length of time needed for Prohibitingsurface occupancy and certainother activitiesin

recovery (McKendrick and Mitchell,1978@ Johnson, 1981; the SadlerochitSpring Special Area would preventmost

Pope and others,1982: Brendel,1985). negativeeffectsfrom oildevelopment.

Rehabilitationof disturbed sitesmay partiallyrestore The increased human populationexpected under full

lost habitat. Complete restorationmay not be possible, leasingcould increaseuse of the SadlerochitSpring area,

inasmuch as constructionactivitiesdramaticallyaltersurface particularlyby workers from adjacent Block D. The

featureswhich determine plantspecies compositionin the resultingincreasein disturbancecould cause muskoxen to

naturalhabitat. Severalliteraturereviews of revegetationin avoidthe area (pl.2g or could affectbirds. Inwinter,the

Alaska have concluded that areas north of the Brooks open water in the SadlerochitSpring area provideshabitat

Range are the most difficultto revegetate,and successful forthe American dipper,one of only two passerine species

rehabilitation techniques have not yet been developed for residentyear-roundon the 1002 area (pl.3g. Fishing

these areas (Johnson and VanCleve, 1976; Johnson, 1981; pressure could also increase,competing with and disturbing

Kubanis, 1982; Oakley, 1984). Native subsistence users in the SadlerochitSpring area

W. 110.

Careful siting of petroleum explorationand

Mitigation development facilitiesand activitieswould be requiredto

prevent disturbance of Thlaspi arcticum plantsand their The existing"no surfaceoccupancy" restrictionforoil

habitat. Some indirectplantloss might resultfrom dust explorationand development should remain in effect.This

deposition. This species is currentlyunder review to precludes surface development and disturbance,thereby

determine ifitqualifiesas a threatenedor endangered plant maintainingthe area'sphysicalfeaturesand importantfish,

(category2 candidate--45FR 82480). The widest known wildlife,and subsistence resource values.

116 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Conclusion JAGO RIVER

Under current protectivemanagement regulations, Under AlternativeA the fullrange of development

development as a resultof leasingthe entire1002 area activitiescould be expected to occur withinthis general

would have negligibleeffectson the SadlerochitSpring area (such as geologicaland geophysical exploration,

Special Area. exploratorydrilling,developmental drilling,constructionof

roads,and pipelines).The environmentalconsequences of

these activitieshave been describedelsewhere.

KONGAKUT RIVER-BEAUFORT LAGOON Mitigation

Based on the hypotheticaldevelopment scenario, Itis recommended that the need for establishing

exploratorydrillingand development activitiesare not "Research NaturalAreas" on the North Slope be reviewed

expected, so there would be no impacts in this area. and specificlocations(ifany) withinthe Jago River

Furtherseismic explorationin thisarea could resultinminor drainagethatmeet these needs be identified.

adverse impacts on vegetationand estheticvalues. Minor

amounts of localnoise and airpollutionwould resultfrom Conclusion

equipment operation. Temporary disturbance and/or

displacementof wildlifecould occur;these effectswould be Specificareas withinthe Jago Riverdrainagehave

short-term.Minor fuelspillscould also be expected. not yet been identifiedfor inclusionin an "Ecological

Mitigation

Reserve System," and so itis not possibleto assess the

projecteddevelopment's effectson the proposed Jago River

Limitingsurface occupancy in the zone from the

ecologicalreserve.

coastlineinland3 miles would effectivelymitigateimpacts

withinthisarea.

Conclusion

AlternativeA isexpected to have negligibleffectson

COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT

the proposed Kongakut River-BeaufortLagoon National

Natural Landmark.

Petroleum development and production in the 1002

area and associated transportationat both onshore and

offshoresiteswould have a varietyof effects.Docks and

causeways can affect dispersion, nutrienttransfer,

ANGUN PLAINS temperatures, salinities,invertebrateabundance and

diversity,fishpassage, and other uses of those areas by

Furtherseismicexplorationcould be expected in this fishand wildlife.Disruptionof naturalnearshore currents

area,resultingin minor adverse impacts on vegetationand can resultin sea-water intrusionsinto lagoons, causing

estheticvalues,temporary disturbanceand/or displacement lower water temperatures and highersalinities.Salinityand

of wildlife,and minor fuelspills.Impacts on thisarea by temperature changes could alterinvertebrateabundance;

exploratorydrillingand development are expected to be decreases in invertebrateswould mean lower coastalarea

negligible.Ifdevelopment activitiesdo occur, the geologic valuesforfishand wildlife.Such intrusionsmay also alter

featuresfor which this area was identifiedas a potential fish movements by reducing existingfavorablehabitat

NationalNaturalLandmark would probably only be affected conditionsin nearshore zones.

by gravelextraction.

Noise created by constructionand other operations

Mitigation in coastal areas could be a disturbance,sufficiently

reducingthe qualityof the coastaland marine habitatsto

Gravelextractionshould be limited.Any proposal for cause avoidance by some marine birdsand mammals.

gravel extractionwithinthis area would be evaluatedfor

possible adverse impacts on the geologicfeatureswhich Debris washing ashore from transportand offshore

make thisarea unique. activitiescould increasewith increasedhuman activitiesin

the area. The driftline is used fornestinghabitatby several

Conclusion species of waterfowl and seabirds (pl.3A, B, C).

Disruptionand physicalalterationof the driftlineby activities

Given the recommended mitigation,development as a associated with oildevelopment could affectbird nesting

resultof fullyleasingthe 1002 area would have negligible success by disturbingnesting birdsor alteringtheirnests.

effectson the proposed Angun Plains NationalNatural Debris and disruptionof driftlineswould also affect

Landmark because itwould not alteror disturbthe area's esthetics. Occasional fish and wildlifemortalitiescould

naturalcharacteristics. occur where animals become entangled inor ingestdebris.

CONSEQUENCES--FLILL LEASING 117
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The kev determinantof impacts on caribouwillbe Results of disturbanceincludeavoidingdevelopment

where development occurs,not necessarilyhow much. If areas which can displace caribou from historicallyused

adverse effectsresult,development in the southeast partof habitats. Disturbanceis generallybelievedto resultmore

the 1002 area willhave substantiallygreatereffectson from human activity(noise,traffic,presence of people),than

caribou than development elsewhere. Calving and insect from the mere physicalpresence of the roads, pipelines,

reliefwere considered importantfunctionswhich could be and buildings.

disruptedby activityin the 1002 area Forage availability,

predatoravoidance,and free access to these habitatsare

other key factorsconsidered in thisassessment. Caribou avoidance of development and human activity

has been reported by numerous investigators(Dau and

Cameron, 1985; Fancy, 1983; Urquhart,1973; Wright and

Effects of HabitatModification-Ifallprospective Fancy, 1980). The extentof displacement or decreased

regions of the 1002 area were leased, successfully habitatuse varies. Displacementof the CAH from historic

explored, and subsequently developed, directlymodified calvinggrounds in response to oildevelopment at Prudhoe

caribou habitat--thatis,the actualarea covered by roads, Bay has been documented (Dau and Cameron, 1985;

airstrips,well pads, and other structures--couldtotal Cameron and Whitten,1979).

approximately5,650 acres. About 3,650 acres of this,east

of the SadlerochitRiver,would be used by the PCH; the

remaining 2,000 acres west of the SadlerochitRiverare Aircraftdisturbance of caribou has also been

used by the CAH. Direct and secondary habitat documented. For example, Calef and others (1976)

modificationsdue to changes in surfacewater flow,snow reportedthat helicopterswhich hazed cariboufrom the rear

accumulation,roadside dust deposition,and so forth,as caused a severe panic reaction. Large numbers (up to

described in the previoussectionon impacts on vegetation, 60,000animals)could be herded by flyingat altitudesof up

would reduce the habitatvalue of approximately7,000 to 2,000feetabove ground level(AGL). Calves were more

additionalacres. Therefore,totalmodificationof caribou sensitivethan other age classes and caribouon calving

habitatwould occur on about 12,650 acres,or 0.8 percent grounds reactedthe most.

of the 1002 area. This would representlosses in calving,

insect-relief, foraging.and predator-avoidancehabitats.

Effectsof disturbanceand displacementon caribou

calving,insect-relief, and other activitiesare detailedbelow.

Mitigationof Effectsof HabitatModification-These

acreage figures were developed in considerationof Effects on Calving from,Displacement/Disturbance.--Plates

mitigationmeasures that would requireconsolidatedfacilities

2A and 2B show substantialoverlap of potentialoil

sitingand other measures to reduce the amount of actual development facilitieson the 1002 area with PCH calving

acreage required. Carefulroad design and adequate culvert

areas, and a smalleroverlapwith CAH calvingareas. It

placement should amelioratechanges in surfacewater flow. has been hypothesized that caribou selectcalvingareas

Enforcement of speed limitsand other trafficcontrols because of earlysnowmelt, advanced emergence of new

should reduce gravelspray and roadside dust deposition. vegetation,relativeabsence of predators,proximityto

Proper road maintenance should furtherminimize gravel insect-reliefhabitat,lack of disturbance, or some

spray and effects of alteredsnowmelt on adjacent combination of these and other factors(Cameron, 1983).

vegetation. Maternal cows and theircalves are most sensitiveduring

calvingand immediatelythereafter(Calefand others,1976;

Effectsof Displacement and Disturbance-Biologists

Millerand Gunn, 1979; Elison and others, 1986).

Disturbance to cow-calfgroups on the calvinggrounds participatingin the FWS caribou assessment workshop

could interferewith bond formationand increasecalf agreed that displacementof PCH and CAH from areas of mortality.

oil-relatedactivitieswould occur (Elisonand others,1986).

Historicallythe entire1002 area has been used by caribou

with minimal disturbance. Disturbanceis unavoidableifoil

development occurs on the 1002 area. Itcan resultfrom a Concentrated calving areas depicted on figure11-5

varietyof causes--presenceof pipelinesand roads, aircraft and plate 2A have been used by caribou in densities

operations,general construction,routinefieldoperations, rangingfrom 46 to 128 caribouper square mile (1983-86).

and the presence of humans. Reactions to disturbance As described in Chapter 11,densitiesof simlarmagnitude

depend on severalfactorsincludingcaribou age and sex, are assumed for earlieryears. Oil development in these

aggregationsize, presence of calves,and the nature of areas is of particularconcern. Twenty-seven percent of the

disturbance. Cows with newborn calves are most sensitive concentratedcalvingareas used by the PCH (1972-86)are

to disturbance;bulls,barren cows, and yearlingsare the withinthe 1002 area. When compared with the CAH, the

least sensitive. In Prudhoe Bay, as many as 4,000 bulls, PCH is much more crowded on itscalvinggrounds,but of

barren cows, and yearlingsof the CAH remain near the greater importance is that substantiallymore of its

development area. concentrated calvingarea may be developed.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 119
Dau and Cameron (1986) reportedthat maternal post-constructionstudy. Under fullleasing,most roads in

groups of CAH caribou showed declinesin habitatuse the 1002 area would be expected to have much greater

within3 kilometers(km) of eitherside of the road inthe traffic.There would be more drillrigsand other facilities in

North Slope's Milne Pointoilfield.Furtherreview of the many areas. Thus, predicted resultsin the 1002 area,

Dau and Cameron data shows that statistically significant using the Milne Point study as a basis,are likelyto be

declinesin use occurred out to 1 km (P=0.05)and 2 km conservative.

(P=0.1). Dau and Cameron compared the distributionof

caribouduringthe 4 years (1978-81)before constructionof For thisassessment, a 3-krnsphere of influencewas

the 29-km-long road and the 4 years (1982-85)after assumed, on the basis of the Milne Pointstudy. Ifthisis

construction,which occurred duringthe winterof 1981-82. appliedto the development scenarioforAlternativeA, about

The road was constructedthrough one of the two reported 303,000 acres of PCH concentratedcalvinghabitat(tableVICAH concentratedcalvingareas (Shideler,1986).

4) could be affected.This representsabout 37 percentof

For allcaribou and for calves,linearrelationships

totalconcentratedcalvinghabitatwithinthe 1002 area,of

between cariboudensityand distancefrom the Milne Point

which approximately 130,000 acres are within the

road differedsignificantly for the two periods. Afterroad

statistically significant(P=0.05)1-km area and an additional

construction,fewer adult caribouand calveswere in the 3

104,000 acres are withinthe statistically significant(P=0.1)

km closestto the road. Greater numbers of adultsand

1- to 2-krnarea. These areas would mainlybe avoided by

calves than normally expected were in the area 3-6 km

pregnant or parturientcows and calves. Total avoidance

away from the road. The data show thatthe area within3

up to 3 km from the Milne Pointroad did not occur,and

km of the road had about 50 percentof the number of

totalavoidance of the 303,000 acres within3 km of the

caribou that used the area priorto construction.Most

AlternativeA development scenariowould not be expected.

adult caribouin the study area were maternalcows; their

Calvingwould occur throughout the area at reduced levels

displacement and that of calves were most noticeable. with the decline in habitatuse varyinginverselywith

Effectsdecreased as the distancefrom the road increased,

distancefrom the road or other development.

Itis importantto note thatthe Milne Pointfieldisthe Pank and others (1987)estimatedthe extentto which

smallestdevelopment area on the North Slope. Activity individualcaribou could come in contactwith development

levelswere low (fewerthan 10 vehicletripsper day) and activities.They analyzed dailymovements of 10 adult

there was one activedrillrigduring2 of the 4 years of caribou cows relativeto the AlternativeA scenario(fig.V-1

- Table VI-4.-- Porcupinecaribouherd concentratedcalvingarea potentiallyaffectedby development under full

leasingor limitedleasing,assuming a 3-kilometersphere of influence.-

Acres

Totalconcentratedcalvingarea in the UnitedStates and Canada ........................ 3,046,000

Totalconcentratedcalvingarea withinthe 1002 area.............................................. 828,000

Sphere of influence

0-1 km 1-2 km 0-3 km

Area (acres)potentiallyinfluencedby development:

Fullleasing..................................................................................................... 130,000 104,000 303,000

Limitedleasing............................................................................................... 96,000 72,000 214,000

Percent of 1002 calvingarea potentiallyinfluencedby development:

Fullleasing..................................................................................................... 16 13 37

Limitedleasing............................. ................................................................. 12 9 26

Percent of totalU.S. and Canada area potentiallyinfluenced

by development:

Fullleasing................................... .................. _ .............................. .............. 4 3 10

Limited leasing............................ r ................ I..."..'......................................... 3 2 7

120 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
and table V-11).The caribou--twofrom the CAH and eight established,or restrictionson activitiesand access

from the PCH--had been radio-collaredon winterrange in imposed, during criticalperiods in areas of caribou

the Arctic Refuge. Assuming no facilitiescompletely concentration--forcalving,approximatelyMay 15-June 20.

obstruct caribou movements, the satellite-telemetry data Off-roadvehicleuse should be prohibitedwithin5 miles of

showed that 34 percent of routes taken by collaredPCH allpipelines,pads, roads, and other facilities,xcept for

caribou were within 3 km of possible development traditionaluse by local subsistenceusers. Methods to

infrastructure. The two CAH caribou would have facilitatecaribou passage at pipelines(as discussed in the

encountered development on 83 percent of theirroutes. insect-relief sectionbelow) would also facilitateaccess to

Annual variationsin movement patternsand the limited calvinghabitats.

sample size and timeframe of the analysis must be

recognizedinreviewingthese findings.Still,they providea

preliminaryindicationof the extentto which activitypatterns

- Table VI-5.--CentralArcticcaribou herd population,

of some caribou could interactwith development. calving in Prudhoe Bay area, and Prudhoe Bay

Although there is no evidence thatthe initialPrudhoe

development activities,1969-85.-

Bay development area was ever a concentratedor highly [Informationfrom Shideler(1986);some variationexists preferredCAH calvingarea (Shideler,1986),some calving in calvingareas surveyed. Long-term investigations

occurred there when development began (Child,1973; of the CAH begun in 1974 by the Alaska Department

White and others,1975). Laterstudiesindicatean absence of Fish and Game. N.A.,not available]

of calvingnear the coast at Prudhoe Bay during 1976-85,

possiblydue to avoidance of development activity(Cameron

and Whitten, 1979, 1980; Whitten and Cameron, 1985).

Table VI-5 compares calvingin the Prudhoe Bay area and Year Total Number Development

the population size of the CAH to development of the CAH cows and activities

Prudhoe Bay oilfield. population calves

As evidenced by the dramatic increasein CAH

numbers, displacementappears to have had no significant 1969-70 (1) (1) Oildiscovered.

adverse effect. In consideringeffectsof displacementof 1972 N.A. 13 Deadhorse airport,road

the CAH from calvinggrounds. Whitten and Cameron

system, severaldrill

(1985) contend that the CAH has not experienceda 1973 N.A. 42 pads developed.

reduction in productivityor a consequent population

decline,because: (1)suitablealternativehigh-qualityhabitat 1974 N.A. 51 Constructionof TAPS;

appears available;(2) the CAH has been displacedfrom rapidarea growth

only a part of itscalvinggrounds to areas alreadyused for inroads, facilities,

calving;and (3) overalldensityof CAH caribouon their and drillpads.

calvinggrounds (even afterdisplacement)is much lower

than the densityof otherAlaskan Arcticcaribou herds. 1976 N.A. (2) Oilproduction begins.

1978 6,000 (3) Drillsitesand road

Because CAH calvingdensityis low, overcrowding connecting Kuparuk

and consequent habitatstressthat might resultin reduced with Prudhoe Bay

productivityand survivalhave not yet occurred,despitethe developed.

herd's population increase. Nor have CAH caribou been

displacedto areas of apparentlyreduced habitatvalue or 1981 9,000 N.A. Kuparuk pipelineconnectincreased predation. The CAH has been exposed to ing to TAPS completed.

minimal predation in recent years. With the influxof

workers and use of the Dalton Highway for Prudhoe Bay 1983 13,000 (4) 0 Expansion of Kuparuk

development, the wolf populationin the centralArctic oilfield.

decreased in the mid-1970'sas a resultof illegalhunting.

At that time CAH numbers began increasing.The wolf 1985 15,000 (5) N.A. Pipelineto Milne Point

populationhas remained low and brown bears,which also constructed.

prey on caribou,are only moderately abundant inthe area.

Mitigationfor Effectson Caribou Calving-Nonessential lReports of area used for calvingby the 3,000 or

development facilitiesshould be located outside so caribou residingin Prudhoe Bay area,early1970's.

concentrated calvingareas and riparianhabitats(pl.2N. 2A handful.

Essentialfacilities (drillpads and associatedpipelines/roads) 3About 10.

should be consolidated so as to minimize acreage 4From photocensus (Smith,1985).

requirements,and should be constructedand maintainedto 5Extrapolatedfrom photocensus based on mortality

minimize disturbance. Time and area closuresshould be and productivityestimate.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 121
Recommendations for aircraftrestrictionsdiffer. and others,1982; Smith and Cameron, 19135a,b; Klein,

According to Calefand others(1976),flightelevationsof 1980). This is of concern in the 1002 area because the

500 feet AGL would prevent most injury-causingcaribou probable main pipeline/haulroad route would bisectthe

reactions(forexample, stampedes). Altitudesof 1,000 feet area,ratherthan run parallelto cariboumovements as it

AGL would avoid mild escape responses. These does in the Prudhoe Bay development. The probabilityof

investigatorsrecommended aircraftaltitudesof 1,000 feet avoidance, though unknown, is anticipatedto be low for

AGL during calving,rut,and earlywinter. Davis and bachelor bulls and high for maternal cows and calves

Valkenburg (1979),who also noted an inverserelationship (Elisonand others,1986).

between the altitudeof aircraftand severityof caribou

reactions,recommended altitudesof 2,000 feetAGL from Studies at Prudhoe Bay show varyingsuccesses of

May to August. Caribou of the Peary herd in Canada caribou in crossing roads and pipelines (Fancy, 1983;

reacted similarlyto helicopters(Millerand Gunn, 1979); Curatolo,1984; Curatolo and Murphy, 1983; Smith and

altitudesof 2,000 feetAGL were recommended for May to Cameron, 1985a, b). Crossing success appears to depend

November and 1,000 feet AGL at other times. The FWS on factorssuch as trafficand other activity,pipelinedesign,

does not have authorityto regulateminimum flightaltitudes, season, and insect harassment. Caribou usuallycross

but can enforce aircraftharassment prohibitions. roads freelyiftrafficlevelsare low and avoid heavy traffic

(Curatoloand others,1982). In summarizing the 1981-83

Effectson Other Activitiesfrom Displacement/Disturbance.- studies of caribou crossing in the Prudhoe Bay and

Dau (1986) recentlyinvestigatedthe distributionand Kuparuk oilfields,Curatoloand Murphy (1986) attributed

behaviorof caribouon Alaska'sNorth Slope in relationto lower crossing frequenciesat pipeline/roadsitesto the

weather and parasiticinsects. During the briefsummer combined stimulusof vehicletrafficand a pipeline.In

season caribou attemptto optimizeforagingto meet the studiesinvolvingeffectsof the Kuparuk pipelinesand roads,

needs of lactationand growth, and to buildbody reserves Curatoloand others (1982)found thatfoi roads with no

forthe coming winter. Abundant high-qualityforageoccurs traffic,aribou reactionsranged from no observablereaction

inlandfrom the coast. Nonetheless, during warm, calm to actuallyselectingthe road foroestridflyrelief.

days which favor insectactivity,large numbers of caribou

seek insectreliefby moving to the cooler,breeziercoast. During the oestrid (nose bot and warble) fly

Summer activitypatterns are characterizedby pulsating harassment period from lateJuly to earlyAugust caribou

movements between coastal insect-relief areas and optimal seek reliefon gravelroads and well pads or in the shade

inlandforagingareas,in response to the frequentweather of pipelinesand buildings(Curatolo,1983: Fancy, 1983).

changes. The insectharassment periodfor the PCH while on the

1002 area is brief,and the majorityof the PCH is usually

In the absence of availableinsect-reliefhabitat, gone from the 1002 area before oestridflyseason peaks.

caribou aggregate intolargegroups or continueto move The primarysource of insectharassment forthe PCH while

intothe wind without feeding. Ifthe period of insect on the 1002 area is generallythe swarms of mosquitoes

harassment is extensive,weight loss ensues. This earlyin the summer season. Large groups of mosquitodetrimentaleffectisin additionto the loss of blood (up to harassed caribou do not readilypass beneath elevated

125 grams/day)to mosquitoes and the increasedparasitism pipelines(Curatoloand Murphy, 1983; Smith and Cameron,

from skin warbles and nasal bot flies.Investigationsof 1985b). Deflectionsof up to 20 miles,duringwhich caribou

caribou-insectrelationshipsindicatethat in a typicalJuly in ran or trotted,have been observed in the centralArctic.

the Kuparuk oilfield,conditions for severe insect

harassment occur on 10 days and mild harassment occurs Smith and Cameron (1985a, b) and Curatoloand

an additional12 days. Murphy (1983) documented reduced crossing success

where caribou have been exposed annuallyto major oiland

Ifcaribou are delayed or prevented from freeaccess gas development for extended periods since the early

to insect-reliefhabitat,the resultmay be deteriorationin 1970's. Because some habituationwould presumably have

body condition with consequences of decreased growth, occurred,the CAH may be more likelyto cross an oil-field

increased winter mortality,and lowered herd productivity development inthe 1002 area than would the PCH. Elison

(Dau, 1986). and others (1986)agreed they did not know how much

habituationwould occur over time. Even large groups

Reduced access to importantinsect-relief, forage,and (1,000 animals)in the CAH that successfullynegotiate

predator-avoidancehabitatscould resultfrom development structureslike pipelinesare much smallerthan the PCH

on the 1002 area. Postcalvingaggregations could be postcalvingaggregations(up to 80,000). Ifthe largerPCH

inhibitedfrom moving between inlandfeedingareas and groups react negatively,as Smith and Cameron suggest,

coastalor mountainous insect-relief habitatswithinand to there could be significantexclusionof PCH cariboufrom

the south of the 1002 area as a resultof development. coastalareas.

Several investigators have described inhibited The amount of PCH insect-relief habitatwhich could

passage of caribou through developed areas due to linear be avoided may be quantifiedin two ways. Eighteen

oil-developmentfacilitiesand associated activities(Curatolo percent (294,000 acres) of the 1002 area and adjacent

122 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
KIC/ASRC lands liesnorth of the proposed pipeline/road Ifthis major effectoccurred,itwould manifestitself

corridoranalyzed for AlternativeA. Ifcaribou are inhibited as a widespread, long-termchange in habitatavailability or

by road/pipelinedevelopment,then use of 52 percentof qualitywhich would likelymodify naturalabundance or

estimated insect-reliefhabitats(includingas much as 80 distributionof the PCH in the 1002 area. This modification

percent of the coastal habitat)could be reduced. could persistat leastas long as modifyinginfluencesof oil

Alternatively, by using the 3-km zone of influencedescribed productionexist(tableVI-1). "Catastrophic"consequences

for calving,habitatuse on as many as 72,000 acres (29 (40 CFR 1502.22(b)(4))are not expected to occur; but if

percent) of insect-reliefhabitatwithinthe 1002 area and significantadverse effectscoincidedwith a populationlow

KIC/ASRC lands could be reduced (Pank and others,1987). in the naturalfluctuations,theireffectswould be greater

Decreased use of the insect-relief areas would be greatest than at a populationhigh.

for cows with calves. Ifcaribouavoid coastalinsect-relief

habitat,they may compensate by using the foothillssouth There is riskthatdisplacingthe PCH from historically

of the 1002 area,although thisarea may be lessfavorable used habitatscould resultin significantlong-termchanges

due to higherpredatordensities. in distribution,adverselyaffectinghabitatuse and behavior

patterns.The main oilpipelinewould bisectthe 1002 area

Mitigationfor Effectson Other Activities-Timeand area between the western and northeastern boundaries.

closures should be established,restrictionson activities Disturbancewould occur from the presence and activitiesof

and access imposed, or trafficcontrolledduring periods up to 6,000 people, many vehicles,and major construction

when caribou activelyseek out insect-relief, forage,and and production activitiesthroughout the 1002 area,

predator-avoidance habitats--approximatelyJune 20-August including sensitive,repeatedlyused, concentratedcalving

15. Curatolo and Murphy (1983)suggested that caribou areas.

passage could be facilitatedby separatingpipelinesfrom

heavilytraveledroads and constructingramps at strategic Approximately 37 percent of PCH concentrated

locationsover elevated pipelines. Other researchers have calvinghabitatcould be affected. Sixteenpercent of this

concurred (Curatoloand others,1982; Robus and Curatolo, area is within1 km of the fulldevelopment scenario,an

1983; Elisonand others,1986). The optimum separation additional12 percent is within1 to 2 km and another 9

depends upon terrain.Preliminaryinformationindicatesthat percentis within2 to 3 km (tableVI-5). A declinein

a separation of 400-800 feet improves crossingsuccess caribouuse of the area within3 km of fulldevelopment is

(Curatoloand Reges, 1986). To permit use of coastal expected. Significantdeclinesin use by maternalcows and

insect-reliefhabitats,allmethods to facilitatecaribou calvescould occur withinat leastthe 2-km zone,

passage should be used, as appropriateand feasible(that

is, elevating,ramping or burying pipelines;separating

A significantportion of the most repeatedlyused

pipelinesand roads; and implementing time and area concentratedcalvingarea in the upper Jago Riverdrainage

closures,as well as access restrictions,for vehiclesand is within the 1-, 2-, and 3-km zones adjacent to activities). development. Ifthe area used for concentratedcalvingin

approximatelyhalfthe years for which detailedobservations

From the coastlineinland3 miles,surfaceoccupancy exist(7 of the 15 years,1972-86)is considered(fig.11-5and

should be restrictedto marine facilitiesand other pl.2N, then caribou avoidance could occur within48

infrastructureessentialto support inlandactivities.Drill percent of the most repeatedlyused PCH calvingarea (18

pads and productionfacilities could be allowed withinthe percentat 1 km, an additional18 percentfrom 1 to 2 km,

zone 1.5to 3 milesfrom the coast,on a site-specific, case- and another 12 percentfrom 2 to 3 km).

by-case basis only.

Use of 29-52 percent of estimated insect-relief

habitatswithin the 1002 area and KIC/ASRC lands also

could be substantiallyreduced. Failureto obtaininsectreliefcould lead to poor physical condition,increased

Conclusion susceptibility to predationifinsect-relief areas south of the

1002 area are sought out as an alternative,and reduced

Major effectson the PCH could resultifthe entire over-wintersurvival. This could disproportionallyaffect

1002 area were leased and alloil prospects contained cows with calves,which could be expected to reduce

economicallyrecoverableoil. Leasing and developingthe recruitment. Reduced habitatvalues on the 1002 area

southeast quadrant of the 1002 area could resultin the because of obstaclesto free movements forforagingand

greatestdegree of effecton the PCH. This conclusion predator avoidance could similarlyaffectcaribou.

assumes allrecommended mitigationmeasures are in place

and effective,and considers peak levelsof activity.The

effectsof oildevelopment on caribouwould need to be

monitored and studiesof caribou populations,productivity,

movements, distributions,and generalhealthwould need to

continue,to ensure that mitigationmeasures were effectively

applied and to ascertainactualeffectsof development.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 123
Although no recognizablelong-termeffectupon the Muskoxen are present on the 1002 area throughout

CAH as a resultof displacementby oildevelopment in the the winterwhen most explorationand constructionactivities

centralArctichas been demonstrated to date, loss of would take place. Dailymuskox activitydecreases during

important habitat has been shown to directlyimpact winter(Reynolds,1987) as part of theirbehavioralstrategy

ungulatepopulations(Wolfe,1978; SkovIin,1982). for energy conservation. Repeated disturbanceduring the

winter causing increased or prolonged muskox activity

Reductions in calvinghabitatvalues,reduced access would resultin energy drainswhich could adverselyaffect

to insect-relief areas, obstacles to freemovement required survivalof individualsand productivityof pregnant females.

for foraging and predator avoidance, increased energy

expenditureas a resultof disturbance,higherlevelsof

Effectsof stresson muskoxen have been difficult to

stress,and other factorscould cumulativelyaffectcaribou measure. Millerand Gunn (1979)concluded that lack of

physiology.

visibleresponse does not necessarilymean the absence of

physiologicalchanges or energy drainwhich may have a

A change in distributionof the PCH could reasonably

major effecton the populationover time. The amount of

be expected. The potentialforoccurrence of a population

physiologicalstress required to increase mortalityor

declineresultingfrom loss of habitatand reductionin

decrease productivityis not known,

habitatvaluescannot be predictednor the sizeof a decline In theirextensivestudy of muskoxen reactionto

estimated. Nevertheless,there is a riskthata decline helicopter disturbance on Banks Island,Northwest

could occur. However, no appreciablepopulationdeclineis Territories,Canada, Millerand Gunn (1979) reportedthat

expected as a resultof oildevelopment. cows and calves and solitarybulls were the most

For the CAH, the change in theirdistribution the

responsive;the reactionwas similarto response to a

1002 area could be moderate. However, the effecton the

predator;and the degree of reactionwas generallyinversely

entireCAH populationthroughout itsrange would be minor.

relatedto the distanceof the helicopter.The presence of

The effectson the segment of the CAH withinthe 1002

people on the ground in associationwith helicoptersthat

area would be generated from disturbance,displacement

had landed increasedthe disturbance.Although muskoxen

and obstructionsto free movement.

disturbedby helicoptersusuallymoved less than 0.2 mile,

Millerand Gunn (1979)recommended minimum altitudesof

2,000 feetAGL during May-November and 1,000 feetAGL

duringDecember-April. Muskox reactionto helicopterscan

depend on a wide number of variables--sexand age of

animals,group size,number of calves in a group, the

positionof the sun and directionof the wind relativeto the

disturbance,what the animals are doing at the time of

disturbance, and terrain(Millerand Gunn, 1979).

Harassment may resultin a net energy drainifitoccurs

during the criticalwinter period,and can thereby reduce

survival.

Muskoxen also respond to seismic vehicles.

Experience in the 1002 area from winterseismic exploration

in 1984 and 1985 and summer surfaceexplorationin 1983,

1984, and 1985 indicatesthat these activitieshad only

minor disturbanceeffects.One herd was reportedto have

run about 0.6mileafterbeing disturbedby seismicvehicles

MUSKOXEN -

1.9 milesaway (Reynolds and LaPlant,1985).They reported

no long-termor widespread changes in distributionor use

Recentlyreintroducedto the ArcticRefuge, muskoxen

of traditionalareas in response to this disturbance.

are rapidlyexpanding theirrange and pioneeringnew areas.

Jingforsand Lassen (1984) also found that muskoxen

The population has grown from the 64 muskoxen

disturbedby seismic vehicleseitherran or graduallymoved

introducedin 1969-70 to 476 in 1985. Carrying capacity

away. Other investigators(Carruthers,1976; Russell,1977)

has apparentlynot been reached.

reported similarresponses in Canada. Temporary

displacementof up to 2 miles has been observed on both

Directloss of muskoxen habitatfrom oildevelopment

sides of seismic lines (Russell,1977). Although oil-field

could totalapproximately2,700 acres (pi.2g. information

development and operationwould be much more intrusive

is scanty regarding the reactionof muskoxen to oil-field

and sustained than seismic exploration,the increased

development and operation. Disturbancecaused by routine

disturbancemay be partiallyoffsetby habituationwhich has

oil-fieldoperation and associated infrastructurecould be

been observed by Millerand Gunn (1979) during

expected to exclude or reduce muskoxen from use of their

experimentalhelicopterharassment.

preferred habitats. Muskoxen residenton the 1002 area

Muskoxen frequent riparianareas which could be

would be exposed to year-roundactivity. major sources forgravelneeded forconstruction.Important

124 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
forageareas may be lostdue to displacementand habitat valuablecalvinghabitatcould have a negativeinfluenceon

destruction. herd productivity,

As described in the previoussectionon caribou,loss Directmortalitycould resultfrom hunting,vehicle

of important habitat has been shown to have major collisions,and other accidents associated with

negative effectson ungulates. Muskoxen have a high development. Muskoxen are highlyvulnerableto hunting,

fidelityto relativelysmallareas and presumably selectthem and directmortalitywould be expected to increaseover

because of factorsfavorableto herd productivityand time as access into previously undeveloped areas

survival: availability of preferredforage,betterweather or increased.

snow conditions,relativeabsence of predators,lack of

disturbance, or some combination of these and other Mitigation

factors. Displacement from high-useareas could have a

negative effecton muskox production. The magnitude of Negative effectson muskoxen could be mitigatedby

that effectis difficultto accuratelypredict,particularlyin prohibitingdisturbance and implementingnecessary time

view of the expanding natureof the population,but would and area closures similarto the measures describedfor

likelybe related to the magnitude and duration of caribou. Continued monitoringof the population'sgrowth,

displacement, No informationisavailableon the reactionof distribution,movements, and behavioralresponses would

muskoxen to sustained oil-developmentand production detect changes and determine what, ifany, additional

activities. mitigationmay be needed.

Based on the displacement observed by Russell Because riparianareas are favored habitats,closure

(1977) and Reynolds and LaPlant(1985) resultingfrom of importantriparianareas to sitingof permanent facilities

seismic activities, a 2-milesphere of influencewas assumed and limitingcrossings of those areas by transportation

in calculatingthe muskox range which could be affectedby facilitieswould minimize Potential interactionsand

fullleasing. Given the much lower levelof activitiesand disturbance,which would reduce effectson muskoxen (pf.

resultantdisturbancefrom seismic explorationas compared 2g .

to constructionand production phases of oildevelopment,

thisassumption may be conservative.Consequently,table Increased hunting regulationand enforcement would

VI-6 shows that habitatvalues could be lostor greatly be requiredto regulateharvest.

reduced throughoutabout one-third(256,000acres)of the

muskox range withinthe 1002 area. Habitatsused forhigh

seasonal or year-round use, includingcalving,would be Conclusion

disproportionatelyaffected;habitatvalues could be reduced

in up to 53 percentof those habitats.Habitatvaluescould Major negative effectson the 1002 area muskox

be lost or reduced on nearly75 percentof the high-use populationcould occur from oildevelopment, based on the

calving habitats. Such a large percentage of loss in possibledisplacement from preferredhabitats.

Table VI-6.--Observed muskox range potentiallyaffectedby development under fullleasing

or limitedleasing,assuming a 2-milesphere of influence.

High-use range seasonally Other Total

or year-round range range

Without calving With calving

Totalmuskox range (acres)withinArcticRefuge.................. 251,000 211,000 654,000 1,116,000

Area (acres)withindevelopment sphere of influence:

Fullleasing............................... ............................................... 46,000 112,000 98,000 256,000

Limitedleasing........................... ............................................. 46,000 110,000 98,000 254,000

Percent of ArcticRefuge range influencedby development:

Fullleasing................................. ............................................. 18 53 15 23

Limitedleasing........................... ............................................. 18 52 15 23

Totalmuskox range (acres)within1002 area........................ 207,000 158,000 395,000 760,000

Percent of 1002 area influencedby development:

Fullleasing................................. ........ .................................... 22 71 25 34

Limitedleasing......................................................................... 22 70 25 33

CONSEQUENCES-FULL LEASING 125
Muskoxen could be displacedfrom a significant Mitigation

portion of high-use habitatsused year-round and for

calving,with a probable declinein productivity.This, - Mitigationwould includeprotectionof riparianwillow

coupled with any directmortalityand the unavoidable habitats,limitinguse of transportationcorridorsand closing

disturbances expected, could cause a declinein the the area within5 miles of projectfacilities to the discharge

population rate of growth and a change in distribution. of firearms. Moose harvest on the ArcticRefuge is

Effectswould be most pronounced on the small isolated regulatedby the State of Alaska in cooperationwith the

subpopulation of approximately 80 animals using the FWS, and could be kept within sustainablelimitsby

Niguanak-Okerokovik-Angun River area, in the eastern part modifyingharvestseasons and bag limits.-

of the 1002 area.

Conclusion

Predictingchanges in muskox numbers as a resultof

petroleum development would be highlyspeculative.There Effectson the regionalmoose populationfrom habitat

are no referencesin the literatureto analogous activitiesin loss and mortalitydue to oildevelopment would be minor.

othermuskox ranges.

DALL SHEEP

As noted elsewhere in this report,muskoxen are

being reestablishedin Alaska. Oildevelopment on the 1002 Dailsheep are rarelyfound north of the Sadlerochit

area is unlikelyto affectthisoverallre-establishmenteffort. Mountains, although they are common in the Brooks

Range, south of the 1002 area. Increased hunting

MOOSE pressure, air traffic,and harassment by sightseerscould

The 1002 area is not high-qualitymoose habitat. cause some indirectadverse effectsto Dailsheep.

Peak use is during the summer when the population

probably is less than 25; duringthe winter,moose are rare Mitigation

on the area. The portionof the totalrefuge population

representedby thisfigureis not known. More restrictivehunting regulationscould be required

ifincreased harvest affectsthe health of Dail sheep

Directloss of habitatis expected to be about 140 populations or reduces the qualityof hunting and

acres out of the 96,000 acres of the 1002 area identifiedas associated recreationaluse.

moose-use areas. Affectedareas are low-densityhabitats

(lessthan one moose per 26 square miles),mainlyin Block Conclusion

D (pl.1g.

Indirecteffectson sheep outside the 1002 area

Moose adapt readilyand habituateto the presence

would be minor. Fullleasingwould have a negligibleeffect

of human activity;they are not easilydisturbed(Denniston, on Dail sheep in the 1002 area; average age and,

1956; Peterson,1955). They have expanded theirrange in consequently,horn size of rams may declinesomewhat as

North America at the same time that human disturbance hunting pressure increases.

has spread (Davisand Franzmann, 1979). On the Kenai

National WildlifeRefuge in Alaska, helicopter-supported WOLVES

winter seismic surveys using explosivesdid not modify

moose distributionpatterns,movements, or behavior(Bangs Five to ten wolves seasonally use the 1002 area

and Bailey,1982). Most studieshave dealtwith moose in (Weilerand others,1985),mainlyin the summer forhunting

forestedareas. The response of moose to disturbancein when prey is most abundant. Wolf dens have not been

tundra areas has not been demonstrated. documented. Wolves have denned infrequentlyon the

coastalplaineast and west of the 1002 area. Although

Increased human development on the Kenai wolves occur throughout the ArcticRefuge, totalnumbers

Peninsula,Alaska, has resultedinincreasedmoose mortality forthe refugeare not known.

from hunting,collisionswith vehicles,poaching, and other

causes (Bangs and others,1982). Moose mortalityon the The effectsof directhabitatloss to wolves would be

1002 area could occur as a resultof huntingor accidental negligible. Reduction of prey species (primarilycaribou)

death,especiallycollisionswith vehicles. Because so few caused by oildevelopment could reduce wolf vigor and,

moose use the area and because of the area's open consequently, productivity.The abundance of wolves is

nature,the number killedwould probably be very low. ultimatelydetermined by the biomass of ungulate prey

(Keith,1983). Harringtonand others (1983)reporteda

Moose populations south of the 1002 area would positivecorrelationbetween prey availability and survivalof

come under increased huntingpressure due to the influxof young wolves. Abilityof adultsto readilyprovidefood isa

workers to the area. Declines in the populationage key determinantin wolf-pup survival(Van Ballenbergheand

structureand average antlersize would probably occur. Mech, 1975). Reduction of prey species would be greatest

Moose concentratein riparianhabitatssouth of the 1002 inthe area east of the HulahulaRiverwhere caribouactivity

area where they are highlyvisibleand vulnerableto hunting. and, consequently,wolf use have been the greatest.

126 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Development activityisnot expected to cause wolves Arcticfoxes regularlyfed in dumps around construction

to avoid the area. During constructionof the Dalton camps durino constructionof TAPS (Eberhardt,1977).

Highway and TAPS, instances of wolves becoming Foxes have high fecundity rates which are directly

habituated to human activitywere recorded. In some influencedby food availability. MacPherson (1969)reported

cases, wolves readilyaccepted handouts from construction an average littersize of 10.6 at Demarcation Bay. Under

workers (Eberhardt,1977; Follmann and others,1980). naturalconditionsproductionand survivalof arcticfoxes

are directlylinkedto oscillationsin rodent abundance

Shooting or trapping,which may be the most likely (Speller,1972). Consequently, arcticfox populationscan

causes of directmortalityto wolves, could increasewith increaserapidlywhen rodents are abundant. The effectof

increased human access. Zimen and Boitani(1979)and increasedartificial feeding may resultin increased density

Mech (1970)reviewed the drasticreductionof the former and, subsequently,increased exposure to rabiesand other

range of wolves,not justin North America but throughout diseases.

the Northern Hemisphere. The declinein wolves has

largelybeen a resultof human effortto reduce wolf Mitigation

populations.

No mitigationbeyond that already outlinedforother

Mitigation species is recommended.

Measures designed forprey species such as caribou Conclusion

will also help reduce adverse effectsto wolves.

Enforcement of existingregulationsby the Stateand the The effectson the arcticfox populationare uncertain.

FWS would reduce potentialeffectsof hunting. A few Populationcould increase because of the potentialfor

wolves might be killedforpublicsafety(tocombat rabies), increased artificial food supplies,or decrease as a resultof

with a minor effecton the population.Strictenforcementof directmortalityfrom shooting,accidents,or rabies. Any

prohibitionsagainstfeedingwildlifeand providingadequate effectisexpected to be minor.

garbage handling would prevent wolves from becoming

nuisances around camps, decreasing the probabilityof WOLVERINES

these animals being shot or trapped.

The wolverinepopulationis scatteredthroughout the

Conclusion 1002 area at low density(Mauer, 1985a). Recent wolverine

observationson the 1002 area (Mauer, 1985a) relativeto

A moderate declineof the wolf populationusing the levelsreportedat other siteson the North Slope (Magoun,

1002 and surroundingarea could resultfrom the cumulative 1979) suggest that current1002 area wolverinenumbers

effectsof directmortalityand reduced productionor survival may be at a low levelin relationshipto habitatquality.

of young caused by reduced prey availability. Data regardingwolverineuse at specificlocationswithinthe

1002 area are lackingas are population estimatesfor the

ARCTIC FOXES entireArcticRefuge.

Arcticfoxes are common and widespread on and Throughout theircircumpolardistribution,wolverines

around coastalareas. Winterfox habitatis primarilyalong occur exclusivelyin remote regions where human activityis

the coast and on the sea ice outsidethe 1002 area; low (van Zyllde Jong, 1975; Myhre, 1967). The wolverine

denning occurs up to 15 miles inland. Habitat loss has been displacedfrom southern portionsof itshistoric

associated with oil development would be negligible. range in Eurasiaand North America (Myhre, 1967) and is

Experienceon the North Slope has demonstrated thatfoxes known to be cautiousand wary of humans (Kroft,1960).

are not greatlydisplaced. One fox den was reported Wolverine distributionsand movements would be alteredby

abandoned when a seismic camp parked next to it the presence of human activityassociated with oil

(Eberhardt,1977),but foxes readilyused culvertsand other development. Displacement of wolverinesfrom localareas

constructionmaterialsaround active TAPS construction of development is very likely. In considering potential

camp sitesfor denning. populationeffectson wolverinesby the proposed Susitna

hydroelectricproject,Whitman and Ballard(1984)thought

Directmortalityas a resultof shootingand trapping that localavoidance of work camps would not significantly

would cause a minor population reduction. Regulations influencewolverinemovements or productivity.

would limitmost of thiseffect.Some foxes would be shot

for public safetyreasons (rabies).Once habituatedto Because wolverines are primarilyscavengers,their

people,foxes become very bold which may increasetheir abundance is relatedto the biomass and turnoverof large

vulnerabilityo shooting or trapping. Accidents such as herbivorepopulations(van Zyllde Jong, 1975). Thus, the

road killswould annuallyclaim a few individuals.Improper magnitude of anticipatedeffectson populationsof cadbou,

garbage handlingand illegalfeeding of foxes could provide muskox, and moose upon which wolverinesdepend will

an unnatural supplementary food source which could directlyaffectthe degree of effectson wolverines. Major

enhance overwinter survivaland production of young. effects have been projected for caribou and muskox

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 127
populations,minor effectsfor moose. Magoun (1985) Brown bears use the 1002 area mainlyforfeeding

statedthatsuccessfulmanagement of wolverinesin Game from lateMay throughJulywhen caribouare present.The

Management Unit26A on the North Slope was directly potentialdeclinein cariboupopulationand change in

relatedto successfulmanagement of the Western Arctic distributionprobablewith fullleasing(majorforthe PCH

and Teshekpuk Lake caribouherds. She furtherstatedthat and moderatefor the CAH) could cause a declinein an

a declinein these herds could resultin a declinein importantfood source forbrown bears. This couldresult

wolverineproductivity.Whitman and Ballard(1984)believed in decreased bear productivityand survivalof young in

thata decrease in the populationsof moose and other years when alternatefood sources,such as rodents,are

prey as a resultof the proposed Susitnahydroelectric scarce.

projectcould eventuallyaffectwolverinedensities,

populationsize,and movements. Reductionin abundance Brown bears are not readilydisplacedby human

of the primarypredators(wolvesand brown bears,for presence or activity.Brown bears alongthe TAPS corridor

which moderate and minor effectsare predicted, became so habituated to development that they

respectively)could also decrease the abundance of prey occasionallyenteredoccupied buildingsin search of food

carcassesavailableforscavengingby wolverines. (Follmannand others,1980),routinelyfed at garbage

dumps, and waited along roads and otherareas for

- During the winter,wolverineson the tundraare handouts. Electrifiedfencing successfullyeliminated

vulnerableto hunting from snowmobiles and aircraft. problems withboth brown and blackbears intwo summer

Increasedhuntingand trappingcould occur as a resultof camps of 100 people each inthe Brooks Range (Follmann

the greatlyimproved access providedby the roads,trails, and Hechtel,1983).

and airstripsassociatedwith oiland gas development,and

the increasedhuman populationsinthe region.Van Zyllde - Disturbanceto brown bears denning on the 1002

Jong (1975)felthat human predationwas the factormost area could occur,particularly from winterseismicexploration

likelyto affectwolverinenumbers. - because such activityoccurs afterbrown bears have

denned and den sitesmay not be known. Disturbanceof

Mitigation denning bears,once development is complete,should be

negligiblebecause bears would likelyavoiddenninginareas

Measures designed forpreyspeciessuch as caribou, where activitywas occurring.Reynoldsand others(1983)

muskox, and moose willalso benefitwolverines.Controlof found that radio-collared brown bears in theirdens were

access and harvestto minimizedirectmortalitywould be disturbedby seismicvehiclesor shot detonation1.2 miles

the most importantdeterminantof effects.This controlis away, as demonstrated by increased heart rate and

recommended as mitigationforeffectson severalspecies. movement withinthe den, but no negativeeffectsuch as

den abandonment was documented. Harding and Nagy

Conclusion (1980)reportedbrown bears successfullywinteringwithin1

to 4 milesof oilexplorationcamps. Conversely,they

The cumulativeeffectsof displacement,avoidance, reporteda den being abandoned when a seismicvehicle

and reduced food resourcescould resultin localized,long- drove overit,and alsoden destructionduringgravelmining.

term changes (a moderate effect)inwolverinedistribution. Quimby (1974) reported that 5 of 10 brown bears

Inadequatecontrolson access and harvestcouldpossibly apparentlyabandoned dens in earlyOctober afterbeing

reduce by halfor more the 1002 area wolverinepopulation. followedto theirdens by helicopters.-

Ifthisoccurred,itcould resultin a major effecton that

population. - Only 7 of 149 (3.5percent)den sitesdocumented

duringthe ArcticRefuge baselinestudieswere locatedon

the 1002 area (Garnerand others,1984,1985). Therefore,

BROWN BEARS the potentialto disturbdenning habitatand disruptdenning

activitiesof the regionalbrown bear populationby oil

Brown bears are common on the 1002 area during explorationand developmentwould be low, and impacts

May-September when they forageand range widely. The would be expectedto be minor.-

1002 area contains habitatused seasonallyby bears at

moderate or high density(pl.1D). Habitatuse and Aircraftdisturbanceofbears isunavoidable.Dolland

populationsthroughoutthe ArcticRefuge have not been others(1974)and McCourt and others(1974)reported

similarlydelineated. variablereactionsby bears to aircraftdisturbanceat 1,000

feetAGL or less. Douglass and others(1980)reported

Under fullleasing,directloss of brown bear habitat bears reactedstronglyto hazingby vehiclesand aircraft.

would totalabout 3,500acres. Oil-field activities would take

place throughoutapproximately17 percentof brown bear - Directbear mortalitieswilloccur from accidentsor

high-and moderate-use areas. Quantifyingthe number of theirbeing shot in defense of human lifeand property.

animalsinvolvedisdifficult.Seasonal densityaverages one

Drug-induceddeath of bears occasionallyoccurs when

bear/30 square miles,but localdensitiescan range from nuisance bears are immobilizedfor relocation.Accidents,

one bear/18.5square milesto one bear/2,200square miles. such as collisionswith vehicles,could also reduce bear

128 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
numbers. Follmann and others (19801)reported13 brown Mitigation

bears killedin conjunction with TAPS constructionand

operation during 1971-79. The BLM (1983)estimatedthat No additionalmeasures are recommended.

oildevelopment on the NPRA in an area havinga bear

densitysimilarto that of the 1002 area would produce a Conclusion

loss of approximatelyone bear annuallyas a resultof

confrontationbetween bears and oil-developmentpersonnel. Developing oilresources throughout the 1002 area

The rate of mortalitywould presumably be similaron the would cause minor to moderate effectson squirrel

1002 area. Most deaths would probably resultfrom bears' populationsbecause of habitatloss and alteration.Effects

being attractedby improper garbage or food handling,or on lemmings and voles should be minor.

illegalfeeding.-

Bears that seasonallyuse the 1002 area are part of MARINE MAMMALS

the same regionalpopulationinhabitingthe mountains and

foothillsof the Brooks Range. Hunting pressure on this Fourteen species of marine mammals may occur off

population could increase ifoilworkers remained on the the coast of the ArcticRefuge. The fivespecies most

1002 area during off-dutyperiods to pursue recreational common to the coastal plainor nearshore area were

activities. Increased harvest of bears occurred during evaluated: polar bear, ringed and bearded seals,and

constructionof TAPS (Follmann and Hechtel, 1983). beluga and bowhead whales.

Schallenberger(1980)similarlyreportedan increasein bear

harvest as a result of increased human presence

associated with oildevelopment. Further regulationof POLAR BEARS

hunting by the State and the FWS would probably be

required. Polarbears are one of the few largemammal species

present on the 1002 area duringwinter.

Mitigation

- Polar bears are particularlysensitiveto human

In additionto those measures listedearlierin the activitiesduringthe denning period. Belikov(1976)reported

chapter, strictenforcement of prohibitionson feeding that females willusuallyabandon theirdens prematurelyif

wildlife,adequate food storage,controlof harvest,and disturbed. Earlyden abandonment can be fatalto cubs

controlof aircraftflightaltitudesand corridorswould lessen unable to fend for themselves or travelwith theirmother.

adverse effectsof development resultingfrom fullleasing. Development of potentialpetroleum prospects in Block C

An activeprogram monitoringbrown bears during seismic could have a moderate adverse effecton the continued

exploration,construction,and other development would help suitabilityof the eastern portionof the 1002 area for

avoid disturbance of denning bears. Bufferzones of at denning polar bears, substantiallydecreasingthe habitat

least1/2 milewould be establishedaround any known dens values. Between 1951 and 1987, 16 maternitydens were

as requiredforpreviousexploration(50 CFR 37.32 (c)). found on land withinthe 1002 area and 3 confirmeddens

and 2 possible dens have been found justnorth of the

Conclusion study area on the shorefastice(pl.1E).-

A moderate decline in number or change in Factors that may influenceresponses of clenning

distributionof brown bears using the 1002 area could result female polar bears to disturbanceincludefrequency and

from the additiveeffectsof directmortality,decreased prey levelof disturbance,distanceof disturbancefrom the den,

availability, harassment, and disturbancein clenningareas. and stage of denning at time of disturbance. Pregnant

females beginning to den in the fallare especially

ARCTIC GROUND SQUIRRELS AND OTHER RODENTS vulnerable. A radio-collaredfemale polar bear clenningin

the 1002 area emerged from her den in earlyFebruary1985

Arctic ground squirrelsare commonly found (Amstrup, 1986), the suspected resultof repeated

throughoutmuch of the 1002 area. Moderate effectswould disturbance by motorized explorationsupport equipment

resultfrom localizedhabitatalterationssuch as placement within1,600 feetof the den site.The bear was suspected

of gravelpads over squirrelcolonies. Minor effectswould of being pregnantwhen she entered her den in December.

be expected from road kills.

Pipelinesand roadways may prevent female polar

Other rodents,primarilylemmings and voles,aro bears from moving to and from inlanddenning areas

naturallycyclicin abundance but can be affectedsomewhat (Amstrup and others,1986; Lentferand Hensel, 1980).

by development. Some effectsmay be positive--structures Disturbanceby oilexploration,construction,and production

and debris would provide protectivecover from hawks, inthe immediate vicinityof polarbear dens could cause the

owls, or other predators @!egativeeffectscould include bears to abandon dens. Productionactivitiescould create

localizeddestruction of nesting sties and increased disturbancesthatwould likelykeep bears from returningto

mortalitiesfrom entrapment and traffic. those preferreddenning areas.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 129
Development and production facilitiesin confirmed - Mitigationcoastalclenningareas could produce a major reductionin

the availability of denning habitat.Although the number of Some adverse effectson polar bears could be

bears returningeach year variesdepending on ice,snow, reduced by documenting den locationsand use areas so

and weather conditions,some researchersbelievefemale that oil-developmentactivitiesavoid them to the maximum

polar bears show fidelityto birthsitesand tryto reach extent possible. Avoidance of suitabledenning habitatis

areas previouslyused for derming (Lentferand Hensel, most important.To preventdisturbancewhich could cause

1980). Recent analyses suggest that mortalitiesof female earlyden abandonment, bufferzones of at least112 mile

polar bears are now about the maximum the BeaufortSea should be establishedaround known dens, such as the

populationcan sustain(Amstrup and others,1986) without zones described for brown bears (50 CFR 37.32 (c)).

a decrease inpopulationlevels.Thus, undisturbedonshore Conflictswith bears that do den on the 1002 area along

denning habitatis importantforthe 12 to 15 percent of the coast could be minimized by limitingconstruction

femalesdenning on land. Moreover, the coastalland of the activitiesduring the denning period. Where possible,

1002 area and the refugelands to the east are especially orientingseismic lines,pipelines,and roads at rightangles

significantareas for denning on land in Alaska (U.S.Fish to the coast in coastal areas could furtherminimize

and WildlifeService,unpublished data).- interferencewith bears coming ashore to den. Also, ice

qualityand movement data collectedby industryshould be

made availableto the FWS to augment researchattemptsto

- Additionallosses and reduction of habitatvalue understand polar bear movements and behavior. Such data

would resultfrom development of marine facilities.The would be invaluablein learninghow to predictand minimize

potentialPokok port sitewould be in a confirmedcoastal adverse effectsof industrialactivitieson polarbears.

denning area; polar bears were known to have denned

withinapproximately1 mile of the potentialsiteforat least Ifattractedby garbage,polar bears could become a

3 years. The Camden Bay area has also been used by nuisance or threatto personnel and would need to be

denning polar bears; one radio-collaredbear denned there relocated. Proper garbage controland fencingof camps

in 1986-87. The cumulative effectsof additionalhuman would reduce this problem. Except for purposes of

activitylevelsand expansion of facilities offshoreor other scientificresearch or other authorizedtakings,such as by

potentialdevelopments could resultin changes in bear Alaskan Natives,nuisance bears would have to be trapped

distributionand prey distribution.Possiblecontaminationof and relocatedas requiredby the Marine Mammal Protection

prey species (due to such thingsas a catastrophicoilspill) Act of 1972. The exceptionwould be extreme situations

could furtherreduce habitatvalues inthe 1002 and offshore where other methods of humane takingare necessary for

areas.- eitherthe welfareof the animalor protectionof the public

healthand welfare.

The effectsof oildevelopment on nondenning

segments of polar bear populationsare not well known.

These segments generallyinhabitpack ice throughout the

year, although in the falla number of animals,primarily - Conclusion -

familygroups composed of females and juveniles,are seen

along the coast (Amstrup and others,1986). Potential Recent studies of radio-collaredfemale polar bears

adverse effectson bears inhabitingpack ice could be have documented the consistentuse of the 1002 area for

caused by shippingtrafficand concomitantdisturbanceof denning. However, they do not indicatethe fullextentof

water and ice,or by an accidentaloilspillfrom a ship or denning in thisarea because radio-collaredbears constitute

loadingfacility. approximately5-20 percent of the denning segment of the

Beaufort Sea polar bear population. Exclusion of these

bears from areas consistentlyused fordenning would have

Disturbancealone may not greatlyaffectnondenning a moderate impact on that segment of the BeaufortSea

bears. Directeffectsof oilcontaminationare not well populationbecause some declinein the reproductionrate

known. Initialresultsof a study conducted in Canada could result. Given the apparently stableBeaufortSea

(Hurstand others,1982) indicatethat bears forcedto enter population of approximately1,300-2,500polar bears, such

an oilslickand then subjectedto cold temperaturesand exclusionand declinein natalitywould likelynot affectthe

wind willdie;thatstudy did not determine ifpolarbears will species' overallsurvival,so long as similarintensive

voluntarilyenteran oilslick. developments did not occur along the entirenortherncoast

of Alaska and Canada. However, the cumulativeeffectsof

such potentialdevelopments are a concern with the

Polar bears are attractedby garbage dumps and population. Biologistsbelieve that the Beaufort Sea

could become a nuisance or threatto personnelin camps. populationcan sustainlittle,ifany, increasein mortalityof

Because bears are sometimes attractedto the BarterIsland females because populationsurveys and calculationsshow

area to scavenge on whale carcasses,nearby oilfacilities that the number of animals dying each year is

could experience a higher occurrence of nuisance bears approximately equal to the population increase from

than other facilities report. reproduction(Amstrup and others,1986).

130 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
SEALS AND WHALES migrationof bowheads is seaward from the coastline.If

icebreaking vessels are used to supply 1002 area

Oil-development activitieshaving the greatestpotential development needs, artificial leads may be created. These

for affectingseals and whales would be those occurring leads could altermigrationchronology,encouraging early

along the immediate coast or just offshore. Under full movement into northerlyareas before safe open-water

leasingany oildevelopment and productionwould probably conditionsexist.

occur farenough inlandto have no directeffecton either

seals or whales. Marine and air support facilities could Short-term behavioralmodificationcould occur near

affectsome marine mammals, because noise-producing proposed marine facilities:changes in migrationalrouting,

activitiesgenerallydisturbmarine mammals. decreased time spent at the surface,concentrationor

dispersion of aggregations, or changes in swimming

Major sources of noise are low-flyingaircraftor speeds. These changes would probably not preclude

equipment that produces high-frequency,high-pitched successfulmigration.But,the ultimateeffectof disturbance

sounds. Low-flyingaircraftare known to panic hauled-out may be abandonment of a particulararea,and possibly

seals. Ifthe disturbance is frequentduring molting, reduced productivityand population size. Long-term

successfulregrowth of skin and haircellscan be retarded, behavioraleffectsfrom noise and vessel disturbancehave

increasingphysiologicalstresson seals during a normally not been demonstrated or measured.

stressfulperiod (U.S. MineralsManagement Service,1984).

Another source of noise is vehiculartrafficon coastalice Dredging or gravel deposition during construction

roads, of concern because noise transmittedthrough the could affectmarine mammals through disturbance,habitat

ice may be loud enough to displacedenning and pupping alterations,and changes in availabilityof food sources.

ringed seals to a degree sufficientto reduce reproductive Noise and other disturbances by dredging,causeway

success (U.S. Minerals Management Service,1984). construction,and support trafficould displace marine

Underwater noise from boats and from aircraftflyingat mammals up to approximately2 miles from the activitysite

altitudesof less than 2,000 feethas been recorded (Fraker during operations (U.S. Minerals Management Service,

and Richardson, 1980; Greene, 1982; Ford, 1977; Fraker 1983). Dredging could also temporarilydisruptor remove

and others,1981). Such noise may disturbor alarm marine prey species for severalmiles downstream from dredging

mammals, causing them to flee. sites,as could graveldepositionnear the port construction

sites. Short-term,site-specificincreasesin turbidityin the

Frakerand others (1978)reporteda startleresponse coastalarea would not adverselyaffectseals,whales, or

by beluga whales and flightfrom barges and boats traveling their habitats. Sediments associated with causeway

through a whale concentrationarea. Flightor avoidance constructionwould be less than, but additionalto, that

could displace whales from important habitatareas. naturallyoccurringduring springbreakup or storms (Lowry

However, monitoringof beluga behavior and distributionfor and Frost,1981).

10 years did not show any long-term or permanent

displacement of whales from Mackenzie Delta development Mitigation

areas (Fraker,1982).

No mitigationbeyond that alreadyoutlinedfor other

Vessel operations(boats,barges, icebreakers)would species is recommended.

increasewith development of marine facilitiesat either

Camden Bay or Pokok. Associated noise and disturbance Conclusion

would be the activitymost likelyto affectbowhead whales

in the area. Preliminaryfieldexperiments on bowhead The continued presence of dolphins,porpoises,and

whales showed statisticallysignificantdifferencesin seals in coastalmarine habitatshaving high levelsof

behavior as a resultof nearby boat activity,including industrialactivityand continuous marine trafficstrongly

decreased time spent at the surface,decreased number of suggests that at leastsome marine mammals are able to

blows per surfacing,increased spreading out of grouped adjust to manmade noise and disturbance(U.S.Minerals

animals,and significantchanges in directionof movement Management Service,1984). Knowledge of marine mammal

(Frakerand others,1981). Bowheads in summer feeding behavior associated with industrialdisturbanceelsewhere

areas have been observed to move away from boats when suggests that any behavioralchanges in animals using the

approached to within0.6 mile,and sometimes to within1.9 Arcticcoast would be minor as a resultof petroleum

miles (Frakerand others,1982). There was no evidence development.

thatbowheads abandoned any area where they have been

disturbedby a boat;theirflightresponses seemed to be BIRDS

brief. Whether frequent or continuous boat operations

would ultimatelycause bowheads to vacate an area or Factors that may directlyaffectbirds using the 1002

would lower theirreproductivefitnessis unknown (Fraker area include shorelinealteration;facilitysiting;gravelmining;

and others,1982). Conclusive evidence of effectsof boat dredge and filloperations;contaminantsfrom reservepits,

trafficon bowhead migrationpatternsor behavior during drillmuds, and fluids;pipelineand road construction;and

migrationdoes not exist.East of Barrow, traditionalspring associated developments. The responses of birdsto

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 131
human disturbancessuch as road traffic,aircraftflights,and were taken by predators,mostly arcticfoxes. Disturbance

other development-relatedactivitiesare highlyvariableand that causes adultsto temporarilyabandon theirnest or

depend on factors such as species;physiologicalor young can also increasepredation.

reproductivestate;season; distancefrom disturbance;and

type,intensity,and durationof disturbance.

Oiland other contaminantspillscould killwaterfowl,

Adverse effectsof furtherexplorationon birdsare particularlyin lagoons where waterfowlcongregate in large

likelyto be minor. Habitatmodificationand disturbancewill numbers. The effecton 1002 area populationscould be

have theirgreatesteffectduring oil-fielddevelopment and major ifa spilloccurred in lagoons duringpeak molting,

production. Of primary concern would be permanent staging,or migrationperiods. Effectscould also extend to

habitat loss from facilitysitings,roads, and pipelines. other bird populations which migrate along the Arctic

Approximately 5,650 acres of tundra habitatwould be Refuge coast.

destroyedand at leastan additional7,000 acres would be

modified due to dust and gravelspray, differentratesof The alterationof habitatand food chains by oilor

snowmelt, and changes in water draina(.1e. Effectsof other contaminant spillsmay affectbirdsthrough direct

habitatmodificationand disturbanceare discussed in terms ingestion or contact. These effectsare apt to be more

of the fivebird categoriesused in Chapter II: swans, subtle and prolonged. Because most breeding and many

geese, and ducks: seabirds and shorebirds;raptors; nonbreeding birds depend on invertebratefood sources

ptarmigan;and passerines. duringat leasta portionof theirstay on the North Slope,

pollution-induceddepression of invertebratepopulationsmay

SWANS, GEESE, AND DUCKS influencesurvivaland reproduction.

- Disturbance associated with exploration and Oil spillscan affectinvertebratesthrough direct

development, especiallyfrom air trafficnear nesting mortalityby smothering,contact toxicity,toxicityof soluble

waterfowl,could reduce productivityof waterfowland may compounds, and destructionof sensitiveeggs and larvae.

cause abandonment of important nesting,feeding,and Spillscan also have sublethaleffectssuch as destruction

staging areas. Studies in the Arcticindicatethat black of food sources, reduced toleranceto stress,interference

brant and common eider had lower nesting success in with behavioral and integrativemechanisms, and

disturbed areas (Gollop, Davis, and others, 1974). concentrationof carcinogensor other toxic compounds in

Schweinsburg (1972) reported that snow geese were the food chain (Percy and Mullin,1975). A closer

particularlysensitiveto aircraftdisturbance duning pre- examination of sublethal effectsupon physiological

migratorystaging. Conversely,studies by Ward and Sharp functioningshows that over an extended period such

(1973) and Gollop,Goldsberry,and Davis (1974)indicate effectsmay cause death of an organism. Mortalitymay

the unlikelihoodof long-termdisplacement or abandonment resultfrom a combination of behavioraland physiological

by o1clsquaw of importantmoltingand feedingareas as a disfunction,reduced feeding and stress,increased

resultof occasional aircraftdisturbance. Recent work near predation,and long-termincreasesin metabolicrate(Percy

Prudhoe Bay has shown increased habitatuse by northern and Mullin,1975).

pintailsin impoundments near roads (Troy and others,

1983;Troy, 1984). In theirstudy of major oilspills,Teal and Howarth

(1984) concluded that the effecton aquaticinvertebrates

A small increasein directwaterfowlmortalitywould ranged from massive killsand total eradicationof

be possible. Road killsof hens and flightlessbroods could microbenthos communities to eliminationof only the

occur, as well as some aircraft-birdcollisions.Several sensitivespecies. Effects on phytoplankton populations

investigators(Sopuck and others, 1979@ Blokpoel and included changes in species dominance, depression of

Hatch, 1976; Cornwell and Hackbaum, 1971; Anderson, biomass, or increased biomass brought about by the

1978) have reported mortalitieswhen waterfowl strike reduction of zooplankton grazers. In some cases,

manmade objects,particularlypowerlines. Some poaching invertebratepopulationswere stilldepressed 6 to 7 years

could also occur. afterthe spill.In other spills,recoveryoccurred withina

year. Recovery of aquaticsystems in Arcticwaters would

Nest predationappears to be a significantsource of

be much slower(Percyand Mullin,1975).

naturalmortalityforwaterbirdson the North Slope. Should

An experimentalspillof Prudhoe Bay crude oilon a

raven,gull,or arcticfox populationsincreaseas a resultof tundra pond by Barsdale and others (1980) eliminated

poor housekeeping practicesat facilitysites(uncontrolled severalinvertebratespecies from the pond for at least6

garbage dumps or feeding),predationon waterfowlnests

years. These included fresh-wateraquatic invertebrates

and young could increase. Wright and Fancy (1980),

utilizedby breedingtundra birds. studyingthe effectsof an exploratorydrillingoperationat

Point Thomson, Alaska,found that a largeproportionof

waterfowlnests were lostto predatorsat both the drillsite The effecton North Slope bird populationsfrom

and the controlarea. At least50 percentof loon clutches changes in water qualityof tundra ponds as a resultof

failedpriorto hatchingand fiveof eightwaterfowlclutches reservepitdischarges has not been studied. But, along

132 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
with deteriorationsin water quality,the qualityand quantity Disturbance by vehicle traffic,drilling,human

of aquaticorganisms used as food by waterfowlmay be presence,or other causes could extend up to 3 milesfrom

considered as also decreasing, thereby reducing habitat the source. Gollop and Davis (1974)reportedthat the

values (R.L.West and E. Snyder-Conn, unpublished data). noise from a gas-compressor-simulatordisturbedstaging

snow geese 3 miles away from the source at Komakuk

Sources of directwaterfowl mortalitywould include: Beach, Yukon Territory.Some birds eventuallyreturnedto

shooting;strikeswith towers, transmissionlines,antennas, within1.5 miles of the noise. Wiseley (1974) reported

and other structures(particularlyduringthe frequentfoggy similarnoise disturbance which displaced snow geese

weather):predation;and environmentalcontaminants. The within0.5 mile. Hampton and Joyce (1985)reportedthat

annual loss would be highlyvariable,depending on the snow geese were disturbedby general activityassociated

number of waterfowlusing the area and weather. with oildevelopment at Prudhoe Bay. Wiseley (1974)did

reportlimitedhabituationto disturbanceover time.

Tundra swans concentratein the 1002 area in the

Canning-Tamayariak delta,Hulahula-Okpilakdelta,Aichilik- Existingdata on the degree of displacement are

Egaksrak-Kongakut delta,and Jago River wetlands inconclusive.Table VI-7shows the amount of habitatthat

(Brackney and others,1985a). Up to 100 nests have been could be affectedby development resultingfrom fullleasing,

found,and 280 to 485 swans have used the ArcticRefuge assuming snow geese are displaced1.5 and 3 miles as

coastalplain;most of thisuse ison the 1002 area. observed by Gollopand Davis (1974). With an assumed 3-

mile displacement,habitatvalues could be reduced on as

Directloss of tundra swan habitatwould be relatively much as 45 percentof the preferredstagingarea on the

limited(pl.3N. An area of low-densityswan use could be 1002 area and 27 percent of the totalpreferredstagingarea

affectedby development in Block C. Marine facilitiesat in the ArcticRefuge. A 1.5-miledisplacementwould result

Camden Bay or Pokok would also adverselyaffectswan in reduced habitatvalues on nearly 31 percent of the

habitat.Transportationcorridorswould have littleeffecton preferredstagingarea withinthe 1002 area and up to 18

tundra swan nestingand stagingareas, because they are percent of the totalpreferredstagingarea withinthe Arctic

positioned away from coastalareas where most nesting Refuge.

occurs. Repeated disturbanceby airor surfacetraffic,or

by other activitiesassociated with development, might - An average of 105,000 snow geese stage on the

cause nest abandonment where nests and those activities 1002 area (22 percent of the Western Arcticpopulation),

occur inthe same area. Nevertheless,swan nests and use buildingenergy reserves priorto theirsouthward migration.

areas have been observed less than 2 miles from the As many as 326,000 snow geese have staged on the 1002

villageof Kaktovik(Brackney and others,1985). area and adjacent Wilderness coastal plain. Patterson

(1974)reportedan increaseof 7.2 ounces of fatand 1.7

Snow geese would directlylose more than 2,900 ounces of muscle (wet weight)injuvenilesnow geese while

acres of theirhistoricallyused staginghabitatin Blocks B, they were on the 1002 area. Brackney and others (1987)

C, and D (pl.3PJ as a resultof facilities placement and found an average dailygain of 0.7 ounce of fat(dryweight)

infrastructure.Nearly 2,000 acres of this is considered for adult snow geese and 0.35 ounce/day for juveniles.

preferredstaginghabitatused by approximately75 percent Reduced time spent feeding and lost habitatin which to

of the snow geese that use the 1002 area in any given feed would resultfrom petroleum development,adversely

year. Because thishabitatrepresentsless than 1 percent affectingaccumulation of the energy reservesessentialfor

of the totalpreferredstaging habitatavailablein the 1002 migration.Davis and Wiseley (1974)estimatedthat staging

area, this directloss of habitatwould resultin minor juvenilesnow geese unable to adjustto aircraftdisturbance

effects. accumulated 20.4 percent less energy reserves as a result

of lostfeeding time. Energy reductionsof thismagnitude

Disturbance which would resultin indirecthabitat

could reduce the survivalof migratinggeese. -

loss could have a greatereffecton snow geese. They are

Mitigation

highly sensitiveto aircraftdisturbance. Investigationsin

northeastAlaska and northwest Canada reportedthatsnow Measures outlinedfor other species also apply to

geese flush in response to fixed-wingaircraftand waterfowl:carefulfacilities sitingand controlson surface

helicopters passing by at 100-10,000 feet AGL and activities,airtransportation,and hunting.Reserve pitfluid

distancesof 0.5 to 9 milesaway (Salterand Davis,1974; discharges and other contaminantsshould be adequately

Davis and Wiseley, 1974; Barry and Spencer, 1976; controlled. Powerlines should be designed to minimize

Spindler,1984). Spindler(1984) found that fixed-wing losses from bird strikesby burying,attachingto pipelines,

aircraftflyingat low altitudesproduced less disturbance or otherwise eliminatingthe need for poles. Increased

than at higher altitudes.He attributedthisto reduced huntingby workers inthe area willoccur but willbe kept to

lateraldispersionof sound. Davis and Wiseley (1974) a minimum levelby the assumed prohibitionof firearms

reported limitedhabituationto aircraftdisturbance;flushing discharge around development areas. The judicious

distance decreased afterseveralpasses by a helicopter. placement of transportationcorridorssouth of coastal

Flightdistanceof the geese decreased afterseveralpasses nesting areas would be particularlyimportantfor tundra

of a fixed-wingaircraft. swans.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 133
Conclusion due to disturbance,and directmortality.Disturbance will

cause subsequent loss of feeding areas and feedingtime,

A declinein waterfowl use could occur. Indirect as well as energy drain,and would be the singlelargest

mortalitywould resultfrom the cumulativeloss of nesting negative force causing losses in habitatvalue. This is

and feeding habitat,persistentdisturbanceby development based upon historicaluse of the 1002 area by some of the

activities, and spillsor contaminantsfrom reservepitsand Western Arcticsnow goose populationand the assumed

other facilities.Directmortalityfrom road kills,aircraft,bird 1.5 mile displacement of these geese from 31 percent of

collisionswith structures,and poaching is expected to be theirpreferredstaging habitat. Maximum displacement (3-

minor. With effectiveimplementationof mitigationand use mile influence)could be as much as 45 percent. An

of knowledge gained during previous oildevelopment on average 5-10 percent change in distributioncould occur.

the North Slope,the overalleffectis expected to be minor Because annual use of the 1002 area is highlyvariable,

on ducks, tundra swans, and geese other than snow actualeffectscould vary widelyfrom year to year.

gees e. Operational needs, weather, and safety of

personnel and equipment may limitthe effectivenessof

aircraftaltitudeand corridorrestrictionsa well as some SEABIRDS AND SHOREBIRDS

time and area closures.

Development would have widely varyingeffectson

A moderate reduction or change in distributionf seabirdand shorebirdspecies,depending on time of year,

snow geese using the 1002 area could occur through the location,and type and intensityof disturbance. Nesting

cumulativeeffectsof directhabitatloss,indirecthabitatloss seabirdsare likelyto be more susceptibleto development

Table VI-7.--Snow goose staginghabitatpotentiallyaffectedby development under fullleasingor limited

leasing,assuming 1.5-and 3-milespheres of influence.(Gollopand Davis,1974)

[Preferredstagingis defined hereinas the area used by approximately75 percent of the staging snow geese on the

refugein any givenyear. Peripheralstagingis definedhereinas the area used by stagingsnow geese,

excludingthe preferredstagingarea.]

Total

Preferred Peripheral staging

staging staging area

Staginghabitatwithinthe ArcticRefuge (acres)................................. 888,000 460,000 1,348,000

Staginghabitatwithin1002 area (acres).............................................. 529,000 307,000 837,000

Assuming a 1.5-milesphere of influence:

Staginghabitataffected(acres)

Fullleasing......................................... ............................................. 162,000 101,000 263,000

Limitedleasing................................... ............................................. 95,000 67,000 162,000

Percent of staginghabitatwithin1002 area

Fullleasing....................................................................................... 31 33 31

Limitedleasing................................... ............................................. 18 22 19

Percent of staginghabitatwithinArcticRefuge

Fullleasing....................................................................................... 18 22 20

Limitedleasing................................................................................. 11 15 12

Assuming a 3-milesphere of influence:

Staginghabitataffected(acres)

Fullleasing....................................................................................... 236,000 155,000 391,000

Limitedleasing................................................................................. 135,000 104,000 239,000

Percent of staginghabitatwithin1002 area

Fullleasing......................................... ............................................. 45 50 47

Limitedleasing................................................................................. 26 34 29

Percent of staginghabitatwithinArcticRefuge

Fullleasing......................................... ............................................. 27 34 29

Limitedleasing................................................................................. 15 23 18

134 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
than nonbreeders and can be expected to avoid nesting Mitigation

closeto areas having visualor noise disturbances.Nesting

attempts in disturbedareas may be less successful,as has Careful placement of facilities,restrictionof

been observed with Arcticterns (Gollop,Davis,and others, transportation,and controlof pollutantswould minimize

1974). adverse effectson seabirdsand shorebirds.

Coastal development sites in Block C and at the

Conclusion Pokok and Camden Bay sites,as well as development

inlandwhere gulls,terns,and jaegersoften nest,could

cause locallymoderate effectson some nestingseabird Overalleffectson seabird and shorebird populations

populations. Spilledor leached contaminants from reserve would be minor iffacilities and activitieswere minimizedin

pitsor othersources could enterthe food chain,reducing the riparianand coastalhabitatswhere nestingand staging

invertebratefoods or resultingin accumulation of toxic are most concentrated. Moderate effectscould occur in

substances. areas having high seabirdand shorebirduse where local

development is intensive.

- Populationincreasesin some seabirdspecies can be

expected. A certainamount of debris resultseven from the RAPTORS

best of operations. Black guillemotsare known to nest in

old oildrums and other debrisand may respond favorably The gentlyrollingterrainprovides limitedhabitatfor

in some instances ifmore nestingsitesare inadvertently cliff-nesting raptorspecies,primarilywhere rivershave cut

made available. Local glaucous gull numbers could steep banks or exposed rock cliffs.The 1002 area is

increaseconsiderablyaround sanitarylandfillsbecause of importantforaginghabitatforthe few cliff-nesting birdsof

the artificialfood source. Over time,other gullspecies

prey thatnest thereand forthose thatnest farthersouth in

could also be expected to use such areas. Possiblelong- the foothillsand mountains. Short-earedand snowy owls

term increases in gullpopulationscould be moderate to

nest in the open tundraand feed throughout the 1002 area

major as a resultof increasedfood. Because gullseat and, inyears when prey isabundant, owls are common.

eggs and young of other birds,a populationincreasecould

negativelyaffectother seabird species. Glaucous gull

Raptors,likemost birds,are sensitiveto disturbance

predationon Canada goose and Pacificbrant eggs in the duringtheirnestingperiod. Ifdisturbedrepeatedly,raptors

Lisburneoilfieldwas documented by Murphy and others typicallyabandon nests. During constructionof the Terror

(1986),who noted thatpredationupon goose eggs may be Lake hydroelectricprojecton Kodiak Islandin 1983, roughexacerbatedby "an unnaturallyhigh gullpopulationin the legged hawks were absent from areas where they had

Prudhoe Bay area." A nearby open clump is suspected as successfullynested in 1980 and 1982 (Zwiefelhofer,1985).

being the cause of the high gullpopulation.-

With completion of the dam and eliminationof a

Because of widespread and intensiveuse of the 1002 constructioncamp in that area,three of four hawk nests

area by shorebirds,there is a potentialfor a varietyof were again activein 1984. In contrast,gyrfalconsnested

adverse effectsfrom petroleum development activities.As successfullywithin1 mile of an airstripbuiltto support an

with seabirds,these effectsincludedisturbanceof nesting exploratorywell in the NPRA. The nest was occupied

birds, ingestionof contaminants,or reductionof food duringconstructionactivitiesand was locatedon the flight

resources because of contaminantspills.Shorebird nesting path used by approaching aircraft(P. E. Reynolds,

and stagingconcentrationsoccur primarilyalong the coast unpublished data).

and in riparianhabitats(pl.3C). Wet tundra and river

- Potentialconflictsin known high-densityraptor deltas are important to migratoryand staging birds.

Habitatshavinga good mix of wet and dry terrainare ideal nesting habitatused by rough-leggedhawks, gyrfalcons,

nestingsitesfor most shorebirdspecies. and peregrinefalcons (see section on Threatened and

Endangered Species) could resultfrom road, collecting-line,

- Recent work near Prudhoe Bay has shown reduced and drill-padsystems locatedin Blocks A and D (pi.3Q).

numbers of shorebirds and increased densitiesof However, the highestdensityraptornesting habitatoccurs

phalaropes near roads in the oilfield(Troyand others, south of the 1002 area and through carefulsitingof access

1983; Troy, 1984). Overalldiversityof shorebirds was and development facilities, conflictswould be minor or

reduced. Directhabitatloss by gravelplacement and negligible.Short-earedand snowy owls which nest on the

impoundments as wellas effectsfrom dust and noise could open tundra could experiencesome reductionof nesting

occur. Other potentialeffects,includingoccasional habitat.-

mortalitiesfrom traffic,collisionswith towers and

communications equipment, and contaminant spills,could Once nesting habitat needs are met, raptor

occur to a lesserdegree. The thaw-lakeplainsin the lower populations and distributionvary with prey availability.

Okpilak,Jago, and Niguanak Riversystems are high-use There would be limitedconflictbetween most raptornesting

areas that would be affectedby development of potentially habitatand potentialdevelopment. Adverse effectswould

economic prospects in Block C. Any development on KIC be directlyrelatedto the adverse effectson the prey base,

coastalhabitatswould increasepotentialnegativeeffectson such as rodents, ptarmigan,and waterfowl. These effects

coastalbirds.- are generallyexpected to be minor.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 135
In 1984, the most common cliff-nesting raptorusing PASSERINES

the 1002 area was the golden eagle (Amaral,1985; Mauer,

1985b). Golden eagle distributionappears to be positively Several passerine, or perching,bird species are

correlatedwith caribou calvingand postcalvingareas found throughoutthe 1002 area. Riparianwillowhabitatis

(Mauer, 1985b). The effectson the PCH anticipatedfrom used by many passerinesfor nestingand otheractivities

development could resultin a change in golden eagle (pl.3g. A bufferzone 3/4 mile out from the high-water

distributionbecause of decreased numbers of caribou. mark of streams would protectmost of the riparianwillow

This effectwould be minor because other prey species habitat. Coastal areas are also important,especiallyfor

exist.-

stagingpriorto migration.Rivercrossings,marinefacilities,

and development of economic prospects in Block C could

Direct mortalityof raptors resultingfrom collisions cause minor reductionsin habitatavailability or suitability,

withtowers, planes,or electricalwires would be minor. and nestingsuccess of passerines.

Mitigation Contaminant spillscould have major localeffectsof

directmortalityand contaminationof foods.

Measures designed to reduce adverse effectson

caribou during calvingand postcalvingcould lessen effects Lapland longspurs are the most common passerine

of reduced prey for golden eagles. Sitingand designing species in the 1002 area. They nest outsideriparianzones

powerlines and towers to minimize potentialstrikes,as and are often abundant in a varietyof tundra habitats.

discussed forwaterbirds,willreduce directmortalityto a Most proposed surface development inthe 1002 area could

minor effect. Restrictingactivitiesin known high-density be expected to affectsome longspur nesting,mainlyby

nestingareas near SadlerochitSprings and BittyBenchmark coveringvegetated habitatwith gravel. Only a minor effect

would furtherminimizeadverse effectsof oildevelopment. is anticipatedbecause of the abundance of the species

Specificmitigationmeasures are listedin the summary at and itsabilityto use many common habitattypes found in

the end of thischapter. the 1002 area.

Conclusion Minor to moderate positiveeffectsmay occur fortwo

other passerinespecies. Snow buntingsfrequentlynest in

- The subadult golden eagle population could be buildingsand could find increased nestingopportunities

expected to change distributionas a resultof adverse with the constructionof oilfacilities,Ravens, being

effectson the PCH, an importantprey species. A minor scavengers, might find increased food availability around

decline in nesting success of other raptorscould result landfillsand constructioncamps, as well as from carrion

from disturbance.-

along roadways.

PTARMIGAN Mitigation

Some ptarmigan habitatwould be covered by The 3/4-milebufferzone for caribouwould protect

structuresand gravelfill.Habitatlosses would be most most of the riparianwillow habitatimportantto many

noticeablewhere facilitieswere placed in high-use riparian passerine species.

willowareas. Some increasein mortalitycould be expected

from hunting and traffic.Disturbance of nesting or Conclusion

brooding ptarmigan could occur ifpeople or vehiclescame

too close to nestingbirds,scaringoff hens or scattering Restricting development in riparianareas and

the young flocks. Predators take advantage of such controllingcontaminants would help minimize negative

disturbanceto prey upon eggs and young. Jaegers have effectsof habitatloss and mortalityso thatthe overall

been observed to hover over people hikingacross the effectwould range from a minor adverse effectfor most

tundra,waitingforthem to flushpossibleprey (R.L. West, passerinesto a minor positiveeffecton snow buntingand

unpublished data). ravens.

Mitigation

To minimizehabitatlosses and disturbancein areas FISH

particularlyimportantto ptarmigan, permanent facilities

should not be locatedwithina 3/4-milebufferzone around FRESH-WATER FISH

identifiedriparianareas,as alreadyrecommended forother

species. Arctic char are the most-sought-aftersport and

subsistence fishspecies in the 1002 area;arcticgrayling

Conclusion rank second. Graylingare found in more riversystems

than char but are in largeconcentrationsat only a few

The effecton rock and willowptarmiganwould be locations.They are not as tolerantof salinityas char and

negligible. spend most of theirlivesin fresh water. Other fresh-water

136 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
fish (whitefish,burbot,salmon, smelt,and laketrout)are Development of potentialprospects and associated

not discussed in detailbecause they are not common nor transportationcorridorsin Blocks A and B could create

taken regularlyin the 1002 area by sport or subsistence localminor adverse effectson fish populationsin the

fishing. Canning and Tamayariak Rivers. Arcticchar, grayling,and

other fish use these riversforspawning, rearing,feeding,

Aspects of oil development that could negatively and overwintering.Development in Block A would require

affectfishare directmortalityor reduced invertebratefood both water and gravel. Ifthese materialswere taken from

resources resultingfrom oilor other contaminantspills, the TarnayariakRiver,moderate adverse effectson grayling

failureof sewage and waste-water disposal systems, would result.

blasting,and problems from channelization,culverts,and

barriersto migration. Increased turbidityfrom construction The Canning River isthe only system in the area

and toxiceffectsof drillingmuds could have an adverse known to have other fresh-waterspecies, excluding

effect. Overharvest could resultfrom sportfishingby the ninespine sticklebackswhich are common in many coastal

largenumbers of people brought in to work in the 1002 streams and lakes. Sticklebacks,though having no

area. importanceas a sport or subsistencefish,are an important

food source forother fishand birds. Culvertsand other

- Itis likelythat the best largefresh-watersources crossingscould strand sticklebacksin areas that do not

during a development phase would be from large pits provideoverwinteringhabitat.

excavated in a riverfloodplain. Such pitswould produce

graveland then act as storagereservoirsfor water. The

1002 area also containsshallow riversthatdo not support COASTAL FISH

significantfishpopulations. Therefore,there should be no

need to disturbcriticalfish habitatin the constructionof - There are 62 species of fishthatuse coastalwaters

the pits. Water withdrawalin criticalareas and/or during offthe 1002 area (Craig,1984). Docks, causeways, and criticaltime periods,and gravelremoval from fish-bearing other facilitiesat the Camden Bay and Pokok port sites

stream systems would not be permitted.-

could become physicalbarriers,causing changes in water

- Fish could be swept intostorage reservoirsduring

chemistry and directmortalityat water-intakestructures.

high riverstages,being trapped as stream levelsreturned

Effectson coastalfish could be compounded ifoffshore

to normal or when water ispumped out. The isolationof and adjacent onshore development occurred,or coastal

fishin sloughs and shallowoff-streamponds does occur

development near Prudhoe Bay expanded, inasmuch as

naturally,however. The reservoirsmay ultimatelyaid fish

many anadromous species exhibit major east-west

populationsby providingadditionaloverwinteringhabitatin

nearshore movements. Oil spillsin coastalareas could

a regionwhere such habitatis extremelyscarce.-

resultin major populationreductions depending on the

location,time,amount, and type of materialspilled.-

Individualpopulationsor year classes of anadromous

arcticchar could be adverselyaffectedover a wide range

Mitigation of fresh-waterand brackish-waterhabitatsin which they

migrate. Major migrationcorridorsare the Canning and

Impacts on fish can be minimized by properly AichilikRivers,which form the western and eastern

locatingand designing road and pipelinecrossingsand boundaries,respectively,of the 1002 area,and the Hulahula

constructingthose facilities when fishare not concentrated River,roughly midway between them. Fhe Canning River

in the area. Further mitigationshould include carefully probably has the largestchar run; the Hulahula Riveris locatingand constructingdocks, causeways, and other likelythe greatestcontributorto the subsistencecatch of

water-based structures. Allfeasiblemethods to maintain

char.

water qualityand quantityinfish-bearingriversand streams

Development near any of these three riverscould

should be used. Gravel removal and other stream

adversely affectarcticchar. The pipelineand haul road

alterationsinimportantfishhabitatsshould be restricted.

would probably cross the Hulahula Riverto accommodate

development in the easternpart of the 1002 area. More Appropriate containment procedures and spill

than one crossingwould increasethe potentialforadverse contingency plans for oiland other contaminantswillalso

effects. reduce potentialeffectsby minimizingdirectmortalityor

reductionsin invertebrateor aquatic plantfood resources.

Grayling make extensive migrationsto and from Mitigationmeasures designed to adequately protectarctic

spawning, rearing,feeding,and overwinteringsites. Major char and arctic graylingwillprotectother fresh-water

arcticgraylingpopulations are found in the Canning, species. Proper culvertingof road systems willreduce the

Tamayariak, Sadlerochit,Hulahula, Okpilak, and Aichilik potentialto trap sticklebacksand otherfish in areas that

Rivers(pl.1D. Because individualriverstocks occur, the do not provide overwinteringhabitat. Season and creel

1002 area populationis vulnerableto impacts over a wide limitsmay be adjusted to protectsportfishfrom overharvest

area. ifpopulationsbecome stressed.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 137
Conclusion (shorebirdsand waterfowl)are displacedor reduced in

number as a resultof development. Some peregrine

Effectsof oildevelopment on arcticchar should be mortalitymight resultfrom collisionswith towers,planes,or

minor. Arcticgraylingmay be moderatelyaffectedlocallyin electricalwires.

upper reaches of the Tamayariak River,but would otherwise

experienceonly minor impacts. Effectson otherfresh-water Petrochemical or other toxic materialscould be

fishpopulationswould also be localand minor. accumulated if peregrinesingest prey contaminatedas a

resultof spillsor leaksfrom reservepits.

- The cumulative effectsof development of the

KIC/ASRC lands or offshoreareas could resultin moderate Mitigation

effectson coastalfishthrough lostor reduced habitat

values, inhibitedmovements, and direclmortality.This Mitigationwould include controllingaircraft,noise,

could have a transboundary effectif impacts affect surface activities, and other disturbanceswithin1-2 milesof

populationsthat range intoCanadian waters. Development active nest sitesApril 15-August 31. Construction of

would have minor effectson coastalfishpopulationsnear permanent facilitiesor other long-termhabitatalterations

port sites. Elsewhere,the effectson coastalfishwillbe (materielsites,roads, and airstrips)within1 mileof historic

negligible.Ifa major oilspilloccurs alongthe coast or in nest siteswould requirespecialauthorizationby the FWS.

fresh-waterfish habitats,the effecton fishcould become

major. This major effectcould adverselyaffectspeciesthat Approved handling procedures for chemicals and

range into Canadian coastalareas,but such a probability toxicantswillpermit few or no adverse effectsfrom

would be low. - contaminants. As discussed for other bird species,

transmission lineswould be designed to minimize the

THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES potentialfor collisions.

BOWHEAD AND GRAY WHALES Conclusion

See previous discussionunder Seals and Whales. Mitigationwillreduce effectson peregrinefalconsto

minor as concluded in the July28, 1982, biologicalopinion

ARCTIC PEREGRINE FALCON appended to the Environmental Impact Statement and

regulationsfor the explorationprogram in the 1002 area

- Arcticperegrinesare absent from the 1002 area from (FEIS,1983). Protectiverestrictions(a 2-milearea closure)

mid-September untilApril.Oiland gas activitiesduringthe for the historicnest sitesat SadlerochitSprings and Bitty

summer when peregrines are present could have some Benchmark on the Jago River(pl.3PJ, and any occupied

minor adverse effects.- eyrieslocatedthrough futuresurveys,should resultin only

minor adverse effectsfrom disturbanceand displacement.

- Habitatsuitablefor cliff-nesting birdsof prey is not Prey reductionsare generallyexpected to be no more than

abundant on the 1002 area. No directloss or alterationof minor. Consequently, no reduction in the peregrine

historicperegrineeyriesis anticipated.Formal consultation populationwould be expected. Explorationbetween June 1

with the FWS under Section 7 of the Endangered Species (ifa nest remainsinactive)or August 31 (ifa nest becomes

Act may be required once a development proposal is active)and April15 each year could be allowed with

prepared.- negligibleffectson peregrines.

Humans, airtraffic,and constructionnear peregrine

eyriesmay disturbnestingbirds. Type, distance,frequency, Effects on Human Environment

and intensityof disturbanceaffecthow peregrinesreact.

Frightenedadults flushedfrom an eyriecan injureor kill POPULATION

young. Peregrinesmay temporarilydesert an eyrieaftera

disturbance,resultingin overcooling,overheating,or excess Oildevelopment in the 1002 area would increasethe

moisture loss from eggs; chilling,heat prostration,or local populationdue to an influxof transientworkers and

malnutritionof the young; or predationon both eggs and support service personnel. Additionally,North Slope

young (Alaska PeregrineFalcon Recovery Team; Roseneau Borough job opportunitieswould probably be created

and others, 1980). Disturbance may also resultin through tax benefitsto the CapitalImprovement Program as

premature fledging,causing injuryor death of nestlings has occurred from Prudhoe Bay development. Many jobs

(Roseneau and others, 1980). The firstsitesto be would be generated as a directresultof oilexploration,

deserted in areas studied in Alaska were those eyries production, and transportation.Each exploratoryand

closestto human activity(Haugh and Halperin,1976). confirmationdrillingoperationcould require50-75 people

during constructionof the airfieldand drillpad, and 50-60

Peregrines could be adversely affected during people during drilling.Drillingduring production phases

migrationthrough the 1002 area from lateAugust to mid- would use slightlysmallerconstructionand drillingcrews

September. Their food supply could be reduced ifprey because much of the needed infrastructure(roads,airfields,

138 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
and so forth)would alreadybe in place. Employment levels influxof people, primarilyin Kaktovik,who have different

would be highestduringthe initialconstruction.As noted value systems. Possiblythe most negativeculturalimpact

on figure111-1(see also figureV-1),mapped prospects inthe would be a fee-lingamong villagersof losingcontrolover

1002 area may be grouped into three general"regions." theirlives.

During peak construction,an estimated 1,500 people would

be employed per region. Operation and maintenance for The greatesteffectswould be on Kaktovik,the village

each region would require200-500 people. An additional closestto potentialdevelopment and whose residentsmost

450-900 people would be employed for 2-3 years to use the 1002 area for subsistence activities(see

constructthe primaryroad network and pipelinein each Subsistence Use section). Some disturbances of

region. Rehabilitationcould requireas many as 1,500 subsistence harvest areas,as well as economic benefits,

people forseveralyears. could affectothervillagesin Alaska and Canada.

Although highlyunlikely,ifpeak constructionoccurred Mitigation

throughout the 1002 area at one time,as many as 6,000

jobs (drillingand constructionof oil-field and main trunk Socioculturalimpacts are very difficultto mitigate

pipelines)could be created. During the 30-yearfieldlife, completely,but some steps can be taken to minimizethem.

200-500 permanent jobs would be located withineach The oilindustryhas developed plans in other areas of the

prospectiveoilregion,or 600-1,500permanent jobs in the Nation,in conjunctionwith residentsof communities to be

1002 area. affected,to manage developmental impacts in the most

desirablemanner. An example would be providingchemical

The year-roundpopulationat Kaktovikwould probably dependency and mental illnesscounselingto individuals.In

not increasedramatically.Most oil-fieldworkers would have addition,villageand regionalentitiescould be providedwith

permanent residences elsewhere, as do workers at the professional guidance for actions to alleviatethese

Prudhoe Bay complex and at militaryDEW-Line facilities.A problems.

few small support industriesmight locateat Kaktovik,

resultingin increased employment opportunitiesand some Conclusion

small population increases.

This alternativecould have a major affecton the

Conclusion socioculturalsystem in Kaktovik,and possiblyother villages.

Activitiesrelatedto oildevelopment could significantlyalter

Although a major increase in transientpopulation the traditionalNative culture. On the other hand

would occur on the 1002 area,only a minor increasein the development could be viewed as a net economic benefitto

permanent populationat Kaktovikwould occur. Elsewhere the villages.

on the North Slope, and in Fairbanks,Anchorage, or southcentralAlaska,the increasewould be negligibleto minor. EXISTING LAND USE

SUBSISTENCE USE

- SOCIOCULTURAL SYSTEM -

- Most effectson subsistenceare directlyrelatedto

This fullleasingalternativehas the greatestpotential changes in the availabilityof subsistence resources.

to affectthe socioculturalsystems of the area. The number Reductions in fishand wildlifepopulations,displacement of

of new residentswould increasethe most and adverse fish and wildlifefrom areas of traditionalharvest,and

effectson the subsistence harvestof resources would be reduced access to those resources willadverselyaffect

the most substantial. Development near subsistence subsistence uses. Kaktovikwould be the villagemost

harvest areas may disturbpeople accustomed to both directlyaffected. More distant communities whose

geographic and culturalisolation.Increased airtrafficand residentsrelyon migratorypopulationsof fishand wildlife

human activityare viewed as an aggravationand diminish could be indirectlyaffectedby oiland gas activitieson the

the estheticintegrityof the harvestingexperience. 1002 area. These includeArcticVillage,Alaska, and Old

Crow, Yukon Territory,whose residentsdepend heavilyon

The economic stimulus from oiland gas activities use of PCH caribou,as well as severalother communities

would increasethe importance of cash inthe existingmixed inAlaska and the Northwest Territoriesas discussed inthis

economy. This would acceleratethe rate of cultural section.

change. The favorableaspects of thisimpact would be

more money availablefor the villagersto buy items such as Effectsof oildevelopment on fish,wildlife,and their

guns, snow machines, boats, and fuel. In addition,certain habitatswere previouslydescribed. The severityof those

nativeorganizationsand publicendeavors, such as health effects is summarized at the end of this chapter.

and education, could benefiteconomically. The negative Resources of greatestconcern relativeto theirimportance

impacts could be unfavorablechanges in the villagessuch in localsubsistence use and likelyseverityof adverse

as:a diminishingof traditionalnativeculture;an increasein effectsfrom fullleasingare the PCH and CAH. Waterfowl,

alcoholism,drug abuse and mental illness;and a possible fish,whales, and polarbears are also of some concern.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 139
Oildevelopment would reduce access to subsistence The cumulativeeffectsof development offshoreor on

harvestareas. The transportationinfrastructurecould affect adjacentKIC/ASRC Lands would present additionalconflicts

the availabilityof subsistenceresources or the abilityof with subsistence users. Those coastalareas have been

local people to reach traditionalharvest areas. The intensivelyused for caribou hunting since 1923, and harvest

presence of severalthousand oil-relatedworkers could concentrationshave been locatedthere in recentyears (pi.

resultin competitionfor localresources,particularlyifany 2!)J. Based on the 1981-83 harvestsof caribouduringJuly

workers become residentsof Kaktovikand thus spend only,the availability of and easy access to the PCH during

more free time in or near the 1002 area. Subsistence postcalvingmay be an importantfactorin determining

huntingwould be restrictedby safetyrequirementsor for annual harvestlevels(Pedersen and Coffing,1984). The

pipelinesecurity. Loss of traditionalharvestsiteswould July 1981 caribou harvest was three because postcalving

occur near oil-developmentfacilitiesor where facilities caribouwere not found close to Kaktovik. But, in 1982,

disturbor displacefishand wildliferesources. postcalvingcaribouwere numerous along the coast east of

the SadlerochitRiver and even came onto BarterIslandin

- Caribou is the stapleland mammal in the Kaktovik largenumbers; the July harvestthen was 82. With postsubsistencediet. They are hunted nearlyyear-round,with calvingcaribou in moderate numbers along the coast east

most Kaktovikhouseholds participatingin the harvest(table of the Hulahula in 1983, the July harvestwas 29. -

11-4). Overall,83 percent of Kaktovik's1983-84 caribou

harvestwas withinthe 1002 area (Coffingand Pedersen, Another potentialimpact to subsistence is the

1985). Consequently, caribou are of primary concern avoidance of industrializedareas by villagehunters. At

because of the potentialadverse effectson the PCH and present,partof the North Slope subsistence huntingrange

CAH anticipatedunder fullleasing. Ifmajor changes in is withinthe rapidlyindustrializing centralportionof the

caribou distributionor populationoccurred,itwould result North Slope. Caribou hunting activitythere by Kaktovik

in a major restrictionof subsistenceuse forthe villageof residentshas declinedin recent years. Pedersen and

Kaktovikbecause of the reduced availability of thisspecies Coffing (1984) suggested that confusion over special

at preferredharvestlocations,as well as throughoutthe harvest regulationsassociated with the industrializedarea,

1002 area.-

lack of caribou in the area,disruptionof access routes,or

other reasons may have deterredKaktovikcaribou hunters.

Such avoidance could occur on parts of the 1002 area that

- Residents of ArcticVillage,Alaska,and Old Crow, were developed. Given the nearness and greateruse of

Fort McPherson, and Aklavik,Canada, could experience the 1002 area by Kaktovikresidents,such avoidance would

some reduced subsistenceharvestas a resultof potential severely limitthe area and resources availablefor

effectson PCH cariboudistributionsor possiblepopulation subsistence harvest.

declines. The Canadian communities of Inuvik,Tuktoyaktuk,

and ArcticRed River,whose residentsoccasionallyharvest - Waterfowl are also harvested by residentsof

PCH animals,may in some years experiencesome reduced Kaktovik. Effectson major waterfowl species used for

harvest.- subsistenceare expected to be minor. Moderate effectson

snow geese, a species present during fallstaging,are

- Decreased opportunitiesto harvestthe CAH would predicted. Due to the difficulty of access to snow geese

primarilyaffectKaktovik,the villageclosestto the CAH use areas at thattime,and because whaling activitiesoccur

segment which will be adversely affected by oil then,snow geese are currentlynot a major component of

development. However, residentsof Nuiqsut also relyon the subsistence diet. Subsistence harvestof snow geese

the CAH fora portionof theirharvestand could experience by communities of the Northwest Territories,however, is

some negativeeffects.- substantial.(See Chapter 11.)-

- Development of any potentiallyeconomic prospects

- Effectsof oildevelopment on the Western Arctic

found in the Canning River deltawithin Block A would snow goose populationare expected to be moderate, given

conflictwith a winter and summer harvest area used the fact that 22 percentof that populationstages on the

intensivelyby Kaktovik residents. Because caribou are 1002 area. Canadian residents of the Mackenzie Delta

likelyto reduce theiruse of traditionalcalvinggrounds or communities of Aklavik,Inuvik,Tuktoyaktuk,Panlatok,and

theirmovements may be inhibitedby development in Blocks Sachs Harbor could experience some negativeeffectson

C and D, loss of traditionalharvestsitesis of significant theirharvestof snow geese, but the magnitude of such

concern. Any inhibitionto free travelduring postcalving effectswould be speculative.-

when caribou move back and forthto insect-relief areas

along the coast and foragewithinthe 1002 area could be

particularlydetrimental,because most subsistence harvest Fishing was pursued by all Kaktovik households

occurs along the coast during July and August. Marine surveyed in 1984 (table11-4).Adverse effectson fishcould

facilitiesat Camden Bay and Pokok, as well as reduce the catch,although those effectswould be minor.

development of any oilprospects which extend to the Locallymoderate effectson graylingin the Tamayariak River

coast in Block C, would have the greatestprobabilityof could resultwith development in Block A, which is not an

directconflictwith subsistenceusers.- important subsistence harvest area. The moderately

140 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
negativeeffecton coastalfishlikelyifoilis developed on (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). These sitesmay or may

KIC/ASRC lands or offshore areas would be the most not contain tangibleremains, and in many cases their

noticeableeffecton subsistenceuse of those species. If boundaries cannot be easilydelimited. Knowledge of an

any oilspillsoccur, effectson fishtaken for subsistence area and how to hunt itare skillsgainedand passed down

could be major. Even in small quantities,spilled through years of experience. These skillscannot be

hydrocarbons can taintfish, making them inedible quicklyacquired ifsubsistenceusers are forced to hunt in

(Crutchfield,1979). new areas. Displacement of subsistence users from

traditionaluse areas is expected to resultin a reduced

The overalllow levelof adverse effectsexpected on harvest.

fishsuggests minor adverse effectson subsistenceuses.

However, potentialfor disturbanceof traditionalfishingsites A policythat prohibitsthe dischargeof allfirearms

exists and access may be modified. The main haul and hunting and trappingwithin5 miles of developments

road/pipelinewould have to be crossed to reach both Fish could resultin major adverse effectsby limitingKaktovik

hole 1 and Fish hole 2 on the HulahulaRiver(pl.IPJ, residentsfrom resources and areas traditionallyharvestedin

which isthe most importantwinterfishingriverforKaktovik over halfof the 1002 area. Measures to prohibitoff-road

residents(Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). Fish hole 1 is vehicleuse do not extend to localresidentsengaging in

near potentiallyprospective areas and the airstrip traditionaluses, but subsistence users would not be

associated with development in Blocks C and D. The allowed to use access corridorsor aircraftfacilities.

access road and pipelineto those areas could cross the Consequently, subsistenceuse willbe neitherfacilitatednor

Hulahula Rivernear Fish hole 1. Adverse effectswould be restrictedby these measures.

compounded by increasedcompetitionfor fishby oil-field

workers. - Other resultsof development on Kaktoviksubsistence

use are more difficultto quantify. Development near

The taking of bowhead whales has been subsistence harvestareas may cause people as well as

characterizedas one of Kaktovik'smost importantannual animals to avoid these areas. Noise from airplanesand

activities(Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982),particularlyfrom helicoptersflyingover and landingin the area could reduce

a culturalstandpoint. Subsistence harvest of bowhead hunting success. Frequent disturbancesalso cause game

whales in Kaktovikand Nuiqsut should not be affectedby to become more wary and more difficultfor huntersto

coastaldevelopment, in lightof the expected minor adverse approach. -

effectson whales (inthe absence of oilspills).Noticeable

effectson villagesin Alaska and Canada thattake beluga In some instances,the impact may be lessened by

whales are not expected because only minor,localeffects the availabilityof alternativeresources or harvestareas.

on that species are anticipated. Because of the size of the area and number of species

which could be affected by fulldevelopment,alternative

- Although generallyonly one or two are taken,polar subsistenceresources and areas for Kaktovikresidentsmay

bears are used by most Kaktovikhouseholds because of not exist.

community sharingof resources. Although the effectsof oil

development on nondenning segments of the polar bear Development could substantiallyincrease employment

population are not well known, development may exclude and cash flow in Kaktovik, Therefore,alternativesto

female polar bears from denning in preferredonshore subsistence may become availableand/or localresidents'

habitatsin the easternand coastalportionsof the 1002 abilitiesto purchase equipment for subsistenceharvestmay

area, Consequently there is some potentialfora decrease increase. Such effectswould be unevenly distributedwithin

in the availability of polar bears for subsistenceharvestin the community.

Kaktovik as well as other coastalcommunities along the

North Slope of Alaska and Western Canada whose Mitigation

residents are known to harvest polar bears from the

BeaufortSea stock.- - Measures previously recommended for fishand

wildlifeand theirhabitatswillalso mitigateadverse effects

Specificsubsistencehuntingareas vary with season. to subsistenceharvestby Alaskan and Canadian villagesby

For example, although inlandhunting by Kaktovikresidents minimizingthe directloss and displacement of subsistence

occurs much less during summer than during winter, species.-

subsistenceharvest on the coast greatlyincreasesduring

the summer. Therefore summer operationsalong the coast Effectson Kaktoviksubsistenceuses can furtherbe

could temporarilydisruptsubsistence hunting.Development minimizedby facilitysitingand design. Seasonal closures

of permanent portfacilities and associated access corridors to prevent wildlifedisturbances and other mitigation

would be a permanent disruption. measures willalso minimize adverse effectsto subsistence.

Development may physicallyimpact TraditionalLand Changes in policy regarding access and harvests

Use Inventorysitesof the 1002 area,many of which have near development siteswould greatlymitigateadverse

values as subsistence use sites for Kaktovik villagers effectson Kaktoviksubsistenceuses. IfKaktovikresidents

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 141
were permitted to use the development infrastructure, Ifthe Congress enacts legislationto authorizethe

includingroads and airports,to increaseaccessibilityo Department of the Interiorto lease a portionof the 1002

subsistenceresources,the effectwould be positiveon their area,then the Secretaryof the Interiormust, priorto actual

abilityto harvest subsistence resources. Excluding lease sales,determine the effectson subsistence of such

development from traditionalharvest areas and not an actionin compliance with section810 of ANILCA. -

restrictinglocalresidents'abilitiesto harvestresources from

those areas would minimizeadverse effectson continued LAND STATUS AND MILITARY AND

subsistence use. INDUSTRIAL USE

Restrictions to subsistence use resultingfrom Land use on and off Arctic Refuge lands would

reductionsin species availabilityor altered distributions change, although no change in existingmilitaryactivities

could be offsetifaccess to other areas and resources would be expected. Fullleasing,however, would eventually

were allowed. introduceindustrialdevelopment to an area now devoted to

Native subsistence, Federal fishand wildlifemanagement

Conclusion activities,and wilderness-orientedrecreationaluses. The

The cumulativeeffectof reduced availability of caribou

scope of likelyindustrialdevelopment has been described

and other subsistenceresources through displacementof

in Chapters IV and V.

animals,reductionsin populations,lessened access to or NATIVE ALLOTMENTS

closure of traditionalharvest areas, and potential

psychological effectsof development on subsistence Accordingto the fulldevelopmentscenario(fig.V-1),

practicesare considered in determiningthe impact of four NativeAllotmentparcelsoccur in areas of petroleum

development on subsistence. potentialin Block C. Six Native parcelscomprising 240

Effectsof furtherexplorationon fishand wildlifeare

acres could be in the area that may be developed as a

expected to be no greaterthan minor, includingthose

port facilityat Camden Bay and two parcelstotaling120

associated with drillingexploratorywells;therefore,no

acres are inthe area at Pokok, also a potentialportsite.

significantrestrictionof subsistenceuses islikely. Because of the relativelysmall size, scattered

Because oil-developmentactivitiesthroughout the

location,and general lack of overlap with potential

1002 area could resultin major or moderate adverse effects

prospects,allotmentsgenerallywould not conflictwith their

on fishand wildliferesources importantto subsistence,as

development.

well as on access to those resources,restrictionsto Subsurface ownership under an allotmentis reserved

subsistence huntingwould be expected to occur. Most to the government. The allotmentowner is subjectto the

importantwould be the possiblechanges in distributionor rightof the government or itslessee to enterand use the

riskof declinesin populationfor the PCH and CAH, and lands forthe development of the reserved minerals,subject

resultingeffectson communities in Alaska and Canada to the duty to pay for damages to surfaceimprovements

which depend on harvest of these caribou. Effectson and a bond to guarantee such payments.

other subsistence use species,disruptionof traditional

subsistenceuse sites,and likelypsychologicaleffectson

people accustomed to isolationwillresultin a major

adverse effecton subsistence lifestylesand a significant

restrictionon subsistenceforthe residentsof Kaktovik.

STATE AND LOCAL POLITICAL

- Competition for resources and the potentialfor AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

restrictivehunting regulationsmay add to the severityof

impacts on these villagers.The residentsof ArcticVillage, Full leasing of the 1002 area would produce State

Alaska, and those in the Canadian villagesmentioned and localeconomic benefits.Effectson nationaleconomics

should experience only minor restrictionsin theiruse of are discussed in Chapter VIL Income from the State's

cariboufrom the PCH, even ifa change in distributionor share of revenues derivedfrom Federaloilleases on the

decline in numbers occurred. ArcticVillageand the coastal plainand from corporatetaxes leviedon the oil

Canadian villageshave traditionally reliedon caribou as a

industrycould produce major economic benefitsto the

staple in theirdiets,even during years when the PCH State of Alaska. The State would also receiveadditional

population was substantiallylower (forexample, in 1972 revenues through corporatetaxes from any oildevelopment

when the herd numbered 101,000) and in years when on Native-ownedareas adjacentto the 1002 area. Some

caribou were eithernear the villagesin reduced numbers or minor secondary economic effects could result from

not present at all. UnlikeKaktovik,none of these areas employment and population increases in Anchorage,

would be subjected to the presence of oiland gas Fairbanks,and south-centralAlaska. These effectswould

infrastructure,the increasein transienthuman population, be similarto those described in the Beaufortoffshoresale

and the other restrictionsand disturbancesdiscussed evaluations (U.S. Minerals Management Service,1984),

above. -

which estimateda 3-percentincrease.

142 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
As is common at Prudhoe Bay, almost allthe Conclusion

permanent jobs would be expected to be filledby

commuters who would be present at worksites Restrictinguses of the transportationinfrastructureto

approximatelyhalfthe time each year Oob sharingon a 24- those directlyassociated with oildevelopment,as required

hour basis)but who would not resideon the North Slope. to minimize effectson fish and wildlifespecies,willlimit

The number of jobs filledby permanent residentsof the increased transportation opportunitieswhich would

North Slope,most of whom are Inupiat,would be expected otherwiseresultfrom fullleasing. Additionalborough and

to be small,based upon experienceat the Endicottand localrevenues willlikelyresultin overallmajor increasesin

Prudhoe Bay oildevelopments. According to the U.S. availablepublicservices.

MineralsManagement Service(1984),a survey of workers at

Prudhoe Bay showed thatof 6,306 workers, only178 (fewer ARCHEOLOGY

than 3 percent)claimed eitherno permanent residencyor a

North Slope residency. According to informationprovided More than 100 archeological sites have been

by ARCO, most of theirPrudhoe Bay employees residein identifiedon the 1002 area. Thirty-fourof these sitesare

the greaterAnchorage area.-

recognizablestructuressuch as cabins,caches, or graves,

allbut two of them on the coastline.The other sites,

There willbe an overallbeneficialeconomic effecton mainlytentrings,are situatedalong the primaryrivers2 to

the North Slope Borough through substantialincreasesin 33 milesupstream from the coast.

tax collectionsand other revenue generated from

development and production on the 1002 area. The Conflictbetween known archeologicalsites and

Borough would increaseitstax base to the extentNative- projectedoil-fielddevelopment might occur at Camden Bay

owned lands were placed in commercial development and Pokok due to constructionof marine and waterflood

status. ASRC would obtain substantialrevenues through facilitiesat these locations(pl.1A). Four known sites

lease,exploration,and production of oilfrom itslands. occur at Camden Bay and threeat Pokok.

Local economic benefitsto Kaktovikwould resultfrom Mitigation

establishmentof some support industriesthere,purchase of

goods and servicesby oil-field workers who visitKaktovik, Because known archeologicalsitesare smalland

and income from those local residentswho obtain preciselylocated,they can be easilyavoided during

employment in the oilfields. constructionand operation of nearby facilities.Before

explorationor development work, contractorswould be

Conclusion requiredto conduct archeologicalsurveys in allareas that

may be affected.Most, ifnot all,sitesdiscoveredinthis

Major positiveState and localeconomic effectswould process could be protected by avoidance. The

be expected from subsequent revenue from leases and preponderance of known sitesand most likelythe majority

taxes, increased local populationand employment base, of undiscovered sitesoccur along the coast and major

and otheraspects of oildevelopment. rivers,in areas that willbe avoided for other reasons.

Nonetheless, contractors willbe requiredto exercise

cautionin theiroperations,and to cease activitywhen an

PUBLIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES

archeologicalsiteis encountered untilappropriateprotective

measures are adopted.

Transportationfacilitiesassociated with fullleasing Conclusion

could resultin increasedand betterconnections between

Kaktovikand Prudhoe Bay, as wellas with TAPS and the Impacts on archeologicalresources of the 1002 area

rest of Alaska. The existingDalton Highway, adjacentto

TAPS and connecting Prudhoe Bay with Fairbanksand

should be negligible.A minor positivebenefitmay occur

other highways in Alaska,has sufficientcapabilityto handle

through the discovery, evaluation,and protectionof

increased trafficduring exploration,construction,operation,

additionalarcheologicalsites during oilexplorationand

and rehabilitationwith only negligibleffect.Similarly,the development.

capacity to handle increased movement of goods and

suppliesthrough Valdez,Whittier,Anchorage, and Fairbanks RECREATION, WILDERNESS, AND ESTHETICS

would only negligiblyaffectthe existingtransportation

infrastructure.

Most recreationistscurrentlyvisitthe 1002 area fora

wilderness experience and would likelyperceive the

The long-term capitalimprovement program of the existenceof oilfacilities in the area as lesseningthe quality

North Slope Borough would be beneficiallyaffectedinsofar of that experience. Fewer than 150 recreationistsof all

as oil-fieldfacilitiesin the 1002 area increased the types (exclusiveof localresidentsfrom Kaktovik)currently

Borough's tax base. This positiveeffecton the Borough's visitthe 1002 area annually. Several hundred visitorsfly

economy would increase itsabilityto provide improved over the area to sightseeor enrouteto other destinations

publicservices. on the refuge.

CONSEQUENCES--FULL LEASING 143
Effects on recreationwould resultfrom activities plainof the ArcticRefuge would be eliminated,except for

affectingestheticsand access. The visualaspect of the the area of the refuge east of the 1002 boundary between

1002 area as a broad tracklesswildernesswould be the AichilikRiver and the Canadian border which is

destroyedby the additionof oilfacilities. Those individuals designated wilderness.

desiringto flyover,photograph, or otherwisepartake of a

pristineArcticwildernessexperiencemay considerthis a

Summary of Unavoidable Impacts, major adverse effect.Similarly,those floatingdown rivers

Alternative A

such as the Canning, Hulahula, and Aichilikmay be

estheticallydisturbedby the sightof bridges,pipelines,or

Translocationof gravelfrom naturalsitesto oilactivityareas otherfacilitycrossings. For recreationistsother than those

resultingin localchanges in topography. seeking a wilderness experience,increasedease of entry

would be considered an improvement. The additionof

Use of limitednaturalfresh-watersources for industrial roads,pipelines,airfields,and other infrastructurewithinthe

uses.

1002 area willundoubtedly improve access. Of course,use

of thataccess willgenerallybe restrictedso as to minimize

Some thermokarsting,erosion,and meltingof permafrost. negative effectsof development on fish and wildlife

resources. Access also may be limitedfor safetyand

Compaction, destructionand delayed growth of vegetation securityreasons. Notwithstandingthatlimitation, experience

in areas of furthergeophysicalexploration(green and

on the Dalton Highway has shown that unauthorizedpublic brown trails).

use isdifficultto curtail.

Oil development and the associated infrastructure Directloss of approximately5,650 acres of coastalplain

may displacesome hunted and trapped species,adversely habitatto road and pad constructionand gravelborrow

affectingrecreationalhunting and trappingopportunities. sites.

Because much of thatdisplacementwould be from the area

Modificationof about 7,000 additionalacres of coastalplain in which discharge of firearmswould be prohibitedand

habitatdue to secondary effectsof gravelspray,dust

access would be restricted,the net effecton hunterswould

deposition,and alteredsnowmelt and erosion patterns. be negligible.

Because of the negative stimulus conditioningon

Increased noise and other disturbancefactors.

some species, such as caribou,the qualityof wildlife

An unknown number (possiblyhundreds) of minor spills observation,a popular recreationalactivityon the refuge,

(dieselfuel,oil,antifreeze,etc.)resultingfrom vehicleand would be reduced.

equipment operation,causing some destructionof

Noise and presence of oil-developmentfacilities vegetation,contamination of waters, and mortalityof

would not only eliminatethe wildernesscharacterin the

smallfood organisms.

1002 area, but there could also be some visualand sound

- Reduced use by caribouof up to 37 percent (303,000 intrusionsin the designatedWilderness by activitiesand

acres)of concentratedcalvingareas.-

developments in the adjacent1002 area. The existenceof

oilfacilities and activitieswould eliminatethe opportunityfor

Possiblereduced use through avoidance of approximately furtherscientificstudy of an undisturbedecosystem.

72,000 acres of insect-relief habitatfor caribou.

Mitigation Direct loss of approximately2,700 acres of muskoxen

With carefulplanning and coordinationfor other

habitatdue to placement of facilities and pipelines.

reasons,each rivershould generallyhave only one crossing Disturbance and possible avoidance by muskoxen of 71

facilitythroughout its length. Negative effects on percent of theirhigh-use,year-round habitats,resulting

recreationistsin the adjacentwildernesscould be mitigated in a change in distribution,population decline,or

somewhat if,wherever possible,no facilitieswere placed limitationon expansion of the 1002 area population.

within5 milesof designatedwilderness.Loss of the area's

wilderness character cannot be mitigatedwhere oil Directloss of approximately140 acres of moose habitat.

explorationand development occur.

Moderate declinein the wolf populationdue to cumulative

increase in mortalityand decrease in production or

Conclusion survivalresultingfrom reduced prey availability.

The expected displacementand reductionof wildlife Displacement and increased harvestof wolverines.

populationsand naturalprocesses would cause a major

reductionin the value of the area as a pristine,natural Directloss of 3,500 acres of brown bear high- and

scientificlaboratory. The wildernessvalue of the coastal moderate-use habitats,

144 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Probable loss of approximatelyone brown bear per year discussions willbe summarized. Ifthere is a change in

from accidentsor from being shot in defense of lifeor levelor type of effectanticipatedbetween fulldevelopment

property. and limiteddevelopment, itwillbe emphasized at the end

of the appropriatediscussion.

Direct and indirectsmall mammal loss due to habitat

destruction,road kills,etc. Effects on Physical Geography

and Processes

- Probable loss of the eastern part of the 1002 area as

denning habitatforpolarbears, ifa marine/portfacilityis Effectson the physicalenvironmentresultingfrom a

locatedthere.- limitedleasingprogram would be similarto those resulting

from fullleasing,but to a lesserdegree, Most importantis

Directloss of 2,000 acres of snow goose preferredstaging the factthatby not developingeconomic prospects in allor

habitat. part of Block D, water and gravelrequirementscould be

reduced by up to one-third.Some of thisreductionwould

Decreased habitatvalues on 162,000 to 236,000 acres of occur outside Block D ifwater and gravelsources that

snow goose preferredstaginghabitat. would support development in that area were located

elsewhere. Additionally,expected increasesin noise levels

Directmortalityof an unquantifiablenumber of birdsdue to would not occur in the portionof the 1002 area which is

collisionswith towers, antennas, wires, and other notleased.

structures.

- As noted in the discussionon the fullleasingoption,

- Minor declineor change in distributionf golden eagles currentEPA and Alaska regulationsare sufficientto ensure

as a resultof decreased caribouprey.- thatthere willbe no significantdeteriorationof airquality.-

Moderate loss of arcticgraylinghabitatin Block A due to

stream alterations. Effects on Biological Environment

Accelerated rate of change in traditionalNative culture

VEGETATION, WETLANDS, AND

and probablysome culturaldisorientation. -

TERRAIN TYPES

Loss of subsistencehunting opportunitiesthroughout The explorationassociatedwith limitedleasingwould

approximately one-halfthe 1002 area and possible requireadditionalseismic surveys and explorationwells. As

reduction in subsistence opportunitiesto communities described for fullleasing,these activitieswould resultin

outsidethe 1002 area thatare dependent on harvestof visibletrails,toxic materialspills,soilcompaction, and

migratoryfishand wildlifepopulationsthat spend partof delayed plant growth under ice roads, airstdps,and drill

theirtime on the 1002 area.-

pads. With the restrictionon surfaceoccupancy of the

Unquantifiableloss of wilderness values throughout the

southeasternportionof the 1002 area, approximatelyonefifthless area than under fullleasingwould be subjectto

entire1002 area. these effects.

Approximately3,800 acres,compared to 5,000 acres

ALTERNATIVE B--LIMITED LEASING under AlternativeA, would be covered with gravelforroads,

drillpads, airstripsand other facilities.This decrease in

gravelneeds would resultin 400-650 acres of gravelsites,a

- Under limitedleasingthe area designated as the reductionof 100 acres from AlternativeA.

repeatedly used concentrated calvingarea for the PCH

would not be leased. This would includeallor partof Secondary habitatmodificationsresultingfrom gravel

Block D. The analysisforthis alternativeis based on the spray, dust,and changes in snow accumulationpatterns

same methods and assumptions used forAlternativeA and would affectnearly5,200 acres,1,800acres less than under

described in the introductionto thischapter. As depicted fullleasing. The possibilityof habitatdestructionor

in figureV-2, the development scenario has no surface degradationfrom toxicmaterialsand sea-waterspillswould

occupancy in the southeasternpartof the 1002 area (that be eliminatedin the repeatedly used concentratedPCH

is,no access road extendingsouth from the main east-west calving habitat,and reduced in snow goose staging

road nor other support infrastructure, drillpads, exploration, habitats.

or productionfacilities). -

The candidate plantThlaspiarcticumis not known to

Both the effectsand mitigationmeasures described occur in the area deletedfrom leasingunder thisalternative.

by species under the fullleasingalternativeapply withinthe Consequently,effectswould be the same as forfullleasing:

scope of development likelyfor leasinga portionof the potentialloss of plantsand habitatfrom gravelplacement,

1002 area. In this discussion these referencesand dust deposition,or other development activities.

CONSEQUENCES--LIMITED LEASING 145
Mitigation No attempt has been made to assess the levelof

effects on the proposed Jago River Ecological

As for AlternativeA, consolidationof facilities, Reserve/Research NaturalArea because specificareas for

environmentallysensitiveengineering,and controlof toxic inclusionin thisreservehave not been identified.

materialsas described under fullleasingcould help reduce

the area and magnitude of effectsto vegetationand COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT

wetlands.

Limited leasing would affectcoastal and marine

Conclusion environments at nearly the same levelas fullleasing.

Although support requirementsmay decrease because of

The expected totalmodificationof existingvegetation reduced inlanddevelopment and use of coastalareas,two

and wetlands, both primary and secondary, because of port sites are stillrecommended to support the limited

gravel placement and associated secondary modifications development program, just as they were for fullleasing,

for drillpads, roads, and other oildevelopment facilities, because of development in Block C. Spillsof oilor other

would be nearly9,600 acres (over 0.6 percent of the 1002 hazardous materialsalong the coast could severelyaffect

area)or 3,000 acres less than the area to be modifiedby coastaland marine habitatsand fishand wildlife,

fulldevelopment. The effectwould remain minor.

Mitigation

Environmentallysensitiveconstructionof docks and

causeways as wellas proper management of fueland other

hazardous substances willminimizemost adverse effects.

- SPECIAL TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC

ENVIRONMENTS -

Conclusion

The prohibitionon activitiesin the SadlerochitSpring

Because coastalactivitieswould only be slightlyless

area would prevent most negative effects.With no

in magnitude but not area,a minor effectwould resultfrom

development in the southeasternportionof the 1002 area,

limitedleasing. Again, the cumulativeeffectsof future

oildevelopment and personnel would be located much

developments or an oilspillcould be major.

farther from the Sadlerochit Spring Special Area.

Consequently,the likelihoodof increased visitoruse would

be greatlyreduced, preventingdisturbance,any noticeable TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS

increasein fishingpressure,or competitionwith localNative

subsistenceuse in that area. Impacts to the two other - CARIBOU -

potentialNational Natural Landmarks (Kongakut RiverBeaufortLagoon and Angun Plains)and the proposed Jago With limitedleasing,directmodificationof caribou

River Ecological Reserve/Research Natural Area are habitatwould be 4,400 acres.Secondary habitatchanges

expected to be the same as in AlternativeA. due to dust and gravelspray would be 5,200acres. This

could resultin totalhabitatmodificationof approximately

Mitigation 9,600 acres. Reduction in habitat modificationand

decreased human activitieswould be withinareas used by

Limitingsurface occupancy in the zone from the the PCH. Effectson the CAH, which occupies the western

coastlineinland3 mileswould effectivelymitigateimpacts in portionof the 1002 area,would be the same as forfull

the Kongakut River-BeaufortLagoon area. Gravel extraction development.

should be limitedin the Angun Plains. Any proposal for

gravel extractionwithin this potentialNationalNatural Much of the PCH's repeatedlyused concentrated

Landmark should be evaluatedfor possibleadverse impacts calvingareas, as determined from historicalinformation,

to the geologicfeatureswhich make thisarea unique. The would not be leased (pl.2N. The finaldeterminationof the

need for Research NaturalAreas on the North Slope excluded area would be based on the area thatrepresented

should be reviewedand specificlocations(ifany)withinthe repeated use in approximatelyhalfof the years for which

Jago River drainage that meet these needs should be data were available,

identified.

In additionto reductionsof directhabitatloss,the

Conclusion absence of human disturbancewould signficantlyreduce

behavioralavoidance of and obstaclesto freemovements

Under currentprotectivemanagement stipulationsand among insect-relief,oraging,and predator-avoidance

proposed mitigation,effectswould be negligibleto the habitats,particularlyb maternalcows and calves. The 3-

SadlerochitSpring Special Area, proposed Kongakut River- km sphere of influence(Dau and Cameron, 1986) used to

Beaufort Lagoon National Natural Landmark, and the assess effectsas described in AlternativeA would mean

proposed Angun PlainsNationalNaturalLandmark. reduced habitatuse on up to approximately214,000 acres

146 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
(26 percent)of the PCH's concentratedcalvingarea within declineis not possible,but no appreciabledeclinewould

the 1002 area (tableVI-4).This would affect69,000 acres be expected.

less than the area of reduced use projectedunder full

development. Some 96,000 of those acres (12 percent) Obstacles to accessing insect-relief habitatswould

would be withinthe 0- to 1-km zone and 72,000 acres (9 not be significantlydifferentin this alternative.As

percent)would be withinthe 1- to 2-krnzone. discussed in AlternativeA, failureto obtain insect-relief

could lead to poor physical condition,increased

Not leasingthe southeasternportionof the 1002 area susceptibilityo predationifinsect-relief areas south of the

would eliminateobstaclesto free movement of caribouin 1002 area are sought out as an alternative, and reduced

Block D. This would allow caribou freeaccess to the overwintersurvival.This could disproportionallyaffectcows

calvingareas of greatestsustaineduse (Elisonand others, with calves,which could be expected to reduce recruitment.

1986),as well as to some areas used for foraging.and

predator avoidance. Access to coastalinsect-relief areas MUSKOXEN

could still be inhibited as the east-west

transportation/pipelinecorridorwould not be changed, Limited leasing would reduce the effectsof oil

althoughtrafficlevelsmay be somewhat reduced. The 3- development on the small subpopulationof muskoxen in

km sphere of influencesuggested for assessing effects the Niguanak-Okerokovik-AngunRiverarea (pl.2g. Effects

relativeto caribou use of insect-relief habitatswould mean upon muskoxen elsewhere on the 1002 area would remain

reduced use of up to 68,000 acres of insect-relief habitat. the same as those for fulldevelopment. Direct habitat

Over 80 percent of coastalinsect-reliefhabitatscould modificationwould be approximately2,400 acres (0.3

remain unavailableunder limitedleasingifcaribou do not percent of muskox habitats). Assuming muskoxen are

cross the main pipeline/roadsystem. displaced 2 miles away from alldevelopment facilities

(Russell,1977; Reynolds and LaPlant,1985),then habitat

Effectsof disturbancefrom aircraftand otheractivities value losses would occur on 254,000 acres of muskox

would be similarto but somewhat lessintensethan those habitat(tableVI-6). This loss in habitatvalues represents

describedfor AlternativeA. approximatelyone-thirdof the muskoxen range, Habitats

used for high seasonal or year-round use, includingcalving,

Mitigation would be disproportionatelyaffected;muskoxen could be

displacedfrom approximately52 percent of those habitats--

All measures recommended for AlternativeA (for a 1 percent decrease from the loss expected under full

example, pipelinedesign, limitinguse of the infrastructureto development. Mortalityfrom hunting,collisionswith

development, environmentallysensitivesitingof allfacilities, vehicles,and other accidents would be littlechanged

time and area closures,access restrictions) would apply in because development would occur throughout most of the

avoiding,minimizing,or otherwise mitigatingpotential same muskoxen habitats.

adverse effectsto caribou.

Mitigation

Conclusion

Because essentiallythe same muskoxen habitats

Only negligibleffectson the PCH and minor effects would be affected by limiteddevelopment, mitigation

on the CAH would be expected from furtherexploration recommendations would be identicalto those for full

withwelldrillingand seismicactivitiesconfinedto the winter development.

season.

Conclusion

The same amount of disturbance,barriersto free

movement, and other adverse effectsof oildevelopment - Effects of limiteddevelopment could be major.

could affectthe CAH as under AlternativeA, because the Although a major populationdeclineis unlikely,the muskox

levelof activitywould be the same in the portionof the herd is not likelyto continue increasingin numbers or

1002 area they use. Effectson CAH caribouby petroleum expanding itsrange at the currentrate. Muskoxen and

development would remain minor under the limited theirhabitatswould be adverselyaffectedto essentiallythe

development probable inAlternativeB. same degree by eitherfullor limiteddevelopment.-

Effectson the PCH could be moderate as a resultof MOOSE

oil-relatedactivitiesoccurringin allbut theirrepeatedlyused

concentratedcalvingarea (Block D). Disruptionof calving Effectsof limitedleasingupon the moose population

activityand foragingcould stilloccur withinother partsof would be substantiallyreduced, because most moose

the 1002 area used by the PCH. As with AlternativeA, habitataffectedunder fullleasingis in Block D, which

some change in distributionand populationcould be would not be leased. Directhabitatloss would be reduced

expected to occur: it can be assumed to be lessthan to 10 acres from 140, The reduced numbers and proximity

changes resultingfrom disturbance in highlypreferred of the workforce to moose would lessen the potentialfor

calving habitat. Nonetheless, predictinga population directmortality,the primaryadverse effect,

CONSEQUENCES--LIMITED LEASING 147
Mitigation Conclusion

No mitigationis necessary beyond those measures Effectson arcticfox would be minor.

recommended under fullleasing.

WOLVERINES

Conclusion

Limiteddevelopment would resultin localized,longUnder limitedleasing,the overalleffecton the moose term displacement of a few wolverinesin allbut the

populationwould be reduced from minor to negligible,with southeasternpart of the 1002 area. Reduction of wolverine

eliminationof nearlyallhabitatloss and vehiclemovement displacementand of adverse effectson prey species and

in moose habitats. theirpredatorswould resultin somewhat lesssevere effects

on wolverinesunder the limitedas compared with the full

DALL SHEEP

leasingalternative.Increased human activitiescould leadto

increased harvest.

Few effectson Dall sheep are anticipatedunder Mitigation

limitedleasing. Aircraftharassment and hunting pressurein

areas adjacentto the 1002 area might be slightlyreduced if Minimizing adverse effectson prey species and

fewer personnel are in the area,particularlyin those areas controllingaccess and harvestwillhelp minimizethe effect

closestto Dailsheep habitats.

on wolverines.

Mitigation Conclusion

As for fullleasing,more restrictivehunting regulations Although the area affectedis reduced from full

could be required. leasing,the cumulativeeffectsof displacement or avoidance,

Conclusion

reduced food resources,and increasedharvestwould still

result in localized,long-term changes in wolverine

Effectson Dailsheep would be negligible.

distribution,affectinga few individuals.Because wolverines

are sensitiveto disturbanceand human predation,the

effectson them could be moderate.

WOLVES

BROWN BEARS

Directhabitatloss would be negligible.Protectionof Development of potentiallyeconomic prospects within

a portionof the PCH concentrated calvingarea would help Blocks A, B, and most of C would affectareas used

ensure the availabilityof an important prey species for seasonallyby brown bears at moderate to high density(pl.

wolves. Intrusionof development into some wolf habitat

1 D). Direct habitatloss would be approximately2,600

and directmortalitywould be reduced from that expected

from fulldevelopment.

acres. Oil-fielddevelopment would take place in 11 percent

of brown bear high-and moderate-use areas (compared to

Mitigation

17 percent under fulldevelopment). The limitedleasing

alternativewould reduce adverse effectsby protectinga

Measures for adequate garbage control and

portionof the concentratedcalvingarea of the PCH, an

enforcementof hunting regulationswould be requiredas for

important prey species for brown bears. Encounters

fulldevelopment.

between humans and bears may also be somewhat

reduced, but some directmortalityof nuisance bears would

Conclusion

be expected to occur throughoutthe remainderof the 1002

area.

The effecton the wolfpopulationwould be minor. Mitigation

ARCTIC FOXES

Controls on handling garbage, on harvest,and

aircraftoverflights;fencing;monitoring;and one-halfmile

Direct mortality,habitatloss, and artificial feeding

bufferzones of no activityaround dens (describedunder

would occur in allbut the undeveloped areas in Block D.

AlternativeA) would mitigateadverse effects.

Mitigation

Conclusion

No additionalmitigationbeyond that recommended

for other specieswould be needed to reduce or eliminate The overallpopulation reduction or change in

effectson fox. distributionof brown bears as a resultof directmortality,

148 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
harassment, loss of feeding habitat,and disturbancein Pokok area were not developed, the adverse effectsof

denning areas would be reduced from moderate to minor, disturbance,noise,lostfood resources,and alteredhabitats

because theiruse of the Block D area concentratedcalving would be furtherreduced.

area as an importantfeeding sitewould not be disrupted.

Conclusion

ARCTIC GROUND SQUIRRELS AND OTHER RODENTS

Effectson sealand whales would be minor.

Localized habitatalterationsand road killswould

resultfrom this alternative.Potentialpositiveeffectsof

protectivecover in and under structuresand debriscould BIRDS

similarlyresult.

SWANS, GEESE, AND DUCKS

Mitigation

Directand indirecthabitatloss would be reduced

No additionalmitigationisrecommended. somewhat as a resultof limitingthe development area.

However, with the exception of snow geese, the area

Conclusion eliminatedfrom leasingis not heavilyused by waterfowl.

Effectson these species would be minor due to local For snow geese, the directloss of use areas would

habitatlosses and road kills. be 1,970 acres. A loss of 1,200acres of preferredhabitat

is expected,nearly800 acres less than expected from full

MARINE MAMMALS development. The primaryadverse effect,indirecthabitat

loss due to displacement,would also be substantially

POLAR BEARS reduced.

Areas deleted under limitedleasinghave generallynot Potentialdisplacementwould be reduced to between

been used by denning polar bears. The reduced overall 95,000 and 135,000 acres, or as much as 26 percent (as

activity(lessvehicle,sealift,and air-supportraffic)would compared with 45 percent under fulldevelopment) of

not appreciablyreduce potentialdisturbanceof polarbears, preferred snow goose staging habitats,resultingin

because the more highlyused areas around the coast and moderate effectson populationdistributionand numbers

in Block C would be open to potentialdevelopment. (tableVI-7).

Mitigation Mitigation

No additionalmitigationmeasures are recommended Mitigationof impacts on swans, geese, and ducks

beyond those forAlternativeA. Development of a marine would be the same as forAlternativeA.

facilityat Pokok and itssubsequent use would resultin the

loss of repeatedlyused denning habitat. Conclusion

Conclusion For waterfowl species other than snow geese, the

cumulative effectsof disturbance,habitatalteration,direct

The overalleffectof limitedleasingwould be mortality,and contaminants would be minor. Disturbance

moderate, mainly arisingfrom the adverse effectsassociated could cause a moderate reductionin populationor change

with proposed marine facilities. particularlythose at Pokok. in distributionfor as much as 26 percent of the snow

geese using the 1002 area (5 percentof the Western Arctic

SEALS AND WHALES snow goose population).

Activity,noise, alteredhabitats,and changes in SEABIRDS AND SHOREBIRDS

availabilityof food sources from dredging and causeway

constructionand operation,ships and barges, and aircraft Under limiteddevelopment, activitiesin coastalareas

could adverselyaffectseals and whales. The effectsmay would be littlereduced from those under fulldevelopment.

be somewhat less than forfullleasingbecause the reduced Consequently,effectson seabirdsand shorebirdswould be

number of oilfacilitiescould reduce the levelof coastal littlechanged. The potentialfor contaminant spillsin

logisticalactivities. developed areas would remain. Although the areas which

would be deletedfrom leasingare not sitesof high seabird

and shorebirddensity,severalspecies,such as jaegersand

Mitigation plovers,nest and feed there. These birds would be

unaffectedby construction,traffic,noise,gravelplacement,

Recommended measures for fulldevelopment would and other disturbances associated with development in

also apply to limiteddevelopment. Ifmarine facilities in the other partsof the 1002 area.

CONSEQUENCES--LIMITED LEASING 149
Mitigation Mitigation

Recommended measures would be the same as for Measures would be as recommended under full

AlternativeA. leasing.

Conclusion Conclusion

Overallpopulationchanges and habitatlosswould be Effectson passerineswould be minor.

minor. Moderate effectsmay resultfrom development in

areas of high use by seabirds and shorebirds. Bird FISH

mortalityand reduced food resources could occur in the

event of spillsof oilor other contaminants, Effectson fishunder limitedleasingwould be similar

to those under fullleasing,although access corridorsalong

the Hulahula Riverto development in the southeasternpart

RAPTORS of the 1002 area would no longer be required.

Consequently, effectson arcticchar and arcticgrayling

- Development could conflictwith raptornestinghabitat using the Hulahula River system would be eliminated,with

in Block A but would not with nestinghabitatsin the the exceptionof some fishingpressure and one crossing

southeasternportionof the 1002 area. The reductionin by the main east-west pipeline-roadcorridor. Reduced

golden eagle prey expected from adverse effectson the graveland water needs, fewer stream crossings,elimination

PCH concentrated calvingarea caused by development of some potentialforoilspills,and reduced human access

would not occur with reductionor eliminationof activitiesin and fishingpressure would reduce effectson arcticgrayling

Block D. - inthe Okpilak Riverdrainage.

Mitigation Mitigation

Mitigationmeasures designed for fulldevelopment The same measures as those recommended for

would apply,includingactivityrestrictionsnear nest sites. AlternativeA would be appropriateforthisalternative.

- Conclusion- Conclusion

Because of a relativelyprotected prey base, changes Effectson fishshould be minor. An oilspillin a

in populationand distributionof golden eagles would be waterway or along the coast could have a major effecton

decreased, although they would remain minor. Effectson fishpopulations.

other raptorswould also be minor,and the potentialfor

conflictswith nestinghabitatwould be somewhat reduced. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

BOWHEAD AND GRAY WHALES

PTARMIGAN

See discussion under Seals and Whales.

Not leasingthe southern partof the 1002 area would

reduce potentialosses of some ptarmigan habitat. ARCTIC PEREGRINE FALCON

Mitigation

Disturbanceand reductionsor displacementof prey

would adverselyaffectperegrinefalcons. The potentialfor

Recommendations under fullleasingwould apply. conflictsbetween development and historicperegrinenest

siteswould be eliminated,because there would be no

Conclusion

development, and probably no water withdrawal,near either

known nest sitesor much of the cliff-nesting habitat.

The effectof limitedoildevelopment on ptarmigan

Mitigation

would be negligible.

Measures would be the same as those

PASSERINES recommended for AlternativeA.

Adverse effects(habitatloss and disturbance, Conclusion

contaminants,and possiblydecreased nesting opportunities

or food availabilityfor some species)would occur for Effectsof development, disturbance,and reduced

passerinebirdspecies except those using habitatsin Block prey throughout the 1002 area except in Block D would

D. Those effectsare described in AlternativeA. have negligibleimpacts on peregrines.

150 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Effectson Human Environment With much of the PCH's repeatedlyused

concentratedcalvingareaprotectedfrom leasing,impactsto

POPULATION subsistenceharvestof PCH caribouby residentsof

Kaktovik,ArcticVillage,and Old Crow, as wellas other

Development would requireapproximatelyone-third Alaskaand Western Canada communitieswhose residents

fewerworkersand supportpersonnelunder limitedleasing use thisherd,would be reduced,ifnot largelyeliminated.

than under fullleasing.Employment opportunitiesduring

constructionand restorationphases would total Mitigation

approximately4,000 jobs. Permanent employment during

productionwould rangefrom 400 to 1,000jobsduringthe As for fullleasing,mitigationapplicableto species

30-yearlifetimeofthe oilfields. used for subsistencewould also lesseneffectson

subsistenceharvest.However,policiesdesignedto reduce

The year-roundpopulationat Kaktovikwould increase disturbanceand otheradverseeffectson fishand wildlife

somewhat, but less than forfullleasing.Most workers speciesby restricting access and harvestin some areas

would stillbe expectedto maintainpermanentresidences would adverselyaffectsubsistenceuse, mainlyforresidents

elsewhere,similarto workersat Prudhoe Bay. forKaktovik.

Conclusion Conclusion

The expectedpopulationincreasewould be minor in UnlikeAlternativeA, limitedleasingunder Alternative

Kaktovikand negligibleto minor in otherAlaska B shouldsignificantly reduceimpactsto subsistenceuses

communities. outsidethe 1002 area--suchas in the communities of Arctic

Villageand Old Crow, and otherAlaska and Western

Canada communities dependent on both migratoryPCH

caribouand waterfowl.

- SOCIOCULTURAL SYSTEM -

However, petroleumdevelopmentin the 1002 area,

exceptinthe repeatedlyused concentratedcalvingareaof

The socioculturalchanges discussedinAlternativeA the PCH, would stillhave adverse effectson the

would existunder thisalternative, althoughpossiblyto a subsistenceactivitiesof the residentsof Kaktovik.For

lesserextent. Subsistenceharvestwould not be as them,a significant restriction of subsistencehuntingwould

adverselyaffected;one-thirdfewerworkerswillbe in the be expectedto result.-

area and the economic stimulusto the areawillbe

somewhat less. Allthe impactsmentionedinAlternativeA Ifthe Congress enactslegislation to authorizethe

are likelyinthisalternative, butto a lesserdegree.- Departmentof the Interiorto leasea portionof the 1002

area,then the Secretaryof the Interiormust,priorto actual

leasesales,determinethe effectson subsistenceof such

Mitigation an actionincompliancewithsection810 ofANILCA.

Allthe mitigationmeasures mentionedinAlternativeA LAND STATUS AND MILITARY AND INDUSTRIAL USE

shouldbe consideredforthisalternative.

Land ownership would not change under this

Conclusion alternative,nor would any change in existingmilitary

activities be expected. Industrial developmentwould occur

Major socioculturalchanges could be anticipated, as inan area currentlydevoted to Nativesubsistence,fishand

describedinAlternativeA. wildlifemanagement, and recreational uses.

NATIVE ALLOTMENTS

EXISTING LAND USE

None of the 1002 area parcelsforwhich Native

allotmentapplicationshave been made are in the area

- SUBSISTENCE USE -

deletedfrom leasing;therefore,theareasaffectedwould be

thesame as forAlternativeA.

Under AlternativeB, villagersfrom Kaktovikcould

continueto pursue subsistencehuntingof caribouin the

southeasternpartof the 1002 area. Competitionwithoil- STATE AND LOCAL POLITICAL

fieldworkersforharvestoffishand wildlifersourceswould AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

stilloccur, Intrusionof developmentactivities intotraditional

harvestareas couldoccur inallbut the southeasternpart Economic benefitsat the Federal,State,and local

ofthe 1002 area. levelswould stilloccur as describedunder Alternative A

CONSEQUENCES--LIMITED LEASING 151
and in Chapter VII. These benefitscould be one-thirdless Summary of Unavoidable Impacts,

than those for fullleasingand development because the Alternative B

development of revenue-producing oil resources may

possiblybe thatmuch less. Translocationof gravelfrom naturalsitesto oilactivity

areas,resultingin localchanges intopography.

Conclusion

Use of limitednaturalfresh-watersources for industrial

Although the overallbenefitsmight be smallerthan purposes.

those expected to resultfrom fullleasingand development,

limitedleasingwould be a major positivebenefitto State Some thermokarsting,erosion,and meltingof permafrost.

and localpoliticaland economic systems.

Compaction and destruction or delayed growth of

PUBLIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES vegetationin areas of furthergeophysical exploration

(greenand brown trails).

The tax base and employment opportunitieswould be

approximatelyone-thirdlessthan forAlternativeA. Loss of nearly 4,400 acres of habitatto road and pad

constructionand gravelborrow sites.

Conclusion

Modificationof about 5,200 additionalacres of habitatdue

The overalleffectof increasedpublicservicesand to secondary effectssuch as gravel spray, dust

facilities would be a major benefit. deposition,and alteredsnowmelt and erosion patterns.

ARCHEOLOGY Increased noise and other disturbancesdisplacingwildlife

throughout allbut the southeasternpart of the 1002

Potentialconflictbetween known archeologicalsites area.

and projected oil-fielddevelopment might occur in four

instancesat Camden Bay and threeat Pokok as a resultof An unknown number of small spills(dieselfuel,oil,

constructionof marine facilities.Development would take antifreeze,and so forth)resultingfrom vehicleand

place at nearlythe same levelin coastaland riverareas equipment operation and causing destructionof

where undiscovered archeologicalsitesare most likelyto vegetation,contaminationof waters, or mortalityof small

occur. food organisms.

Mitigation - Reduced use of cariboufrom 26 percent (214,000acres)

of the concentrated calving areas, causing some

Surveys in areas to be developed and avoidance of distributionchange forthe PCH. -

known or discoveredarcheologicalsiteswillminimizethe

potentialfor sitedestruction. Reduced use or avoidance of approximately68,000 acres of

insect-relief habitatfor caribou.

Conclusion

Directloss of approximately2,400 acres of muskox habitat.

Effectswould be negligible.

Increaseddisturbanceand possibleavoidance by muskoxen

of 70 percent of calvingand other high-use,year-round

RECREATION, WILDERNESS, AND ESTHETICS habitats,resultingin a change in distribution,population

decline,or no furtherexpansion of the 1002 area

The wildernesscharacterwould be destroyed except muskox population.

in the southeasternpart of the 1002 area and immediately

adjacentwilderness areas.

Directloss of approximately10 acres of moose habitat.

Mitigation Minor decline in the wolf population mainly due to

increased mortality.

Limitingnumbers of riverand stream crossingsand

not sitingdevelopment facilities within5 milesof designated Displacement and increased harvestof wolverines.

wildernessareas would reduce adverse visualeffectswithin

the 1002 area and in adjacentdesignated wildernessareas. Directhabitatloss of 2,600 acres of brown bear high-and

moderate-use areas.

Conclusion

Possible loss of approximatelyone brown bear per year

A major loss of the wildernesscharacterwould from accidentsor from being shot in defense of lifeor

occur. property.

152 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Direct and indirectsmall mammal loss due to habitat Effects on Biological Environment

destruction,road kills,and so on.

VEGETATION, WETLANDS, AND

Probable loss of the easternportionof the 1002 area as TERRAIN TYPES

denning habitatfor polarbears.

Effects would be similarto those describedfor

Directloss of 1,200 acres of snow goose preferredstaging explorationunder AlternativeA. The generallytemporary

habitat. nature of explorationactivitiesand the possiblelocationof

testwells (ChapterV) would resultin a negligibleeffecton

Reduced use of 95,000-135,000acres of snow goose the vegetation,wetlands,and terraintypes of the 1002 area.

preferredstaging habitat.

- SPECIAL TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC

Directmortalityof an unquantifiablenumber of birdsdue to ENVIRONMENTS -

collisionswith towers, antennas, wires, and other

structures. Given current management regulations,no impacts

would occur within the SadlerochitSpring SpecialArea.

Moderate loss of arcticgraylinghabitatin Block A owing to Impacts on the other two proposed NationalNatural

stream alterationsand directmortality. Landmarks would be negligible.Effectson the proposed

Jago River EcologicalReserve/Research NaturalArea are

- Accelerated rate of change in traditionalNativeculture not assessed inasmuch as specificareas for inclusionin

and probably some culturaldisorientation.- thisreservehave not been identified.

- Loss of subsistence hunting opportunitiesin 40-50 COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT

percent of the 1002 area and possiblereductionin

subsistenceopportunitiesto those communities outside Effects would be negligiblebecause exploration

the 1002 area that are dependent on harvest of activitiescausing debrisand disturbancewould be minimal

migratoryfishand wildlifepopulationsthat spend partof and of a temporary nature. No greaterthan local,small

theirtime on the 1002 area.- contaminant spillsare likely.

Unquantifiableloss of wildernessvalues in approximately FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

80 percent of the 1002 area.

Further exploration,includingthe constructionand

drillingof single-season or winter only multi-season

exploratorywells,would resultin only minor or negligible

ALTERNATIVE C--FURTHER EXPLORATION effectson the fishand wildliferesources,as assessed in

AlternativeA. Fish and wildlifespecies which would be

The firstactivitiesassociated with furtherexploration most affectedby explorationactivitiesare generallyabsent

would be additionalseismic work and surface geology from the 1002 area duringthe winterwhen these operations

studies. The effectsof these explorationactivitiesare fully would take place. Further explorationinvolvesshort-term,

described under AlternativeA. AlternativeC providesan localactivitieswhich would disturbor displaceonly wildlife

opportunity

.

to collectfurtherinformationregardingpossible in the immediate vicinity.Although surface geology work

impacts of oildevelopment, because explorationwells not would take place duringthe summer when fishand wildlife

previouslypermittedon the 1002 area would be allowed. use is greatest,such work is very short-term,extremely

This would assist in more accurately predicting localized,and resultsin almost no noticeableimpacts.

environmental impacts and planningmitigation,should

leasingbe considered at some futuredate. The only species on which minor rather than

negligibleeffectsmight occur are those few CAH caribou

Effects and mitigationpreviouslydescribed for that use the 1002 area during the winter,muskoxen, and

AlternativesA and B are referenced. Previouslydiscussed polar bears. Short-term,localizeddisplacementsof CAH

literatureon effectsof explorationactivitiesis also caribou and muskoxen could occur near exploration

applicable. activities.Polar bears could be disruptedfrom denning,as

was suspected to be the case for one bear duringthe

Effects on Physical Geography 1984-85seismicprogram on the 1002 area.

and Processes

Mitigationmeasures applicableto furtherexploration

The physicaleffectsto be expected from additional would be those in the regulationsand specialuse permits

surfacegeology and seismic explorationas wellas from the governing the previous explorationprograms in the 1002

drillingof severalstratigraphictestwells would be identical area and the stipulationsin the Chandler Lake Agreement

to those described in the seismic explorationand forthe exploratorywellon the KIC/ASRC lands. Additional

exploratorydrillingdiscussionsunder AlternativeA. measures applicable to explorationare detailedunder

CONSEQUENCES--FURTHER EXPLORATION 153
AlternativeA (time and area closures;aircraftaltitude ALTERNATIVE D--NO ACTION

restrictions; controlof access, harvest,and contaminants',

and activelymonitoringallexplorationactivitiesas wellas Under AlternativeD, the general physicaland

wildlifeactivities). environmentalconditionsan the 1002 areawould essentially

continueas they are at present. Fish,wildlife,and their

habitatswould respond to naturalforces.The FWS would

- Effectson Human Environment amend the comprehensive conservationplan (CCP) and,

depending on the stage of refugeplanning,the individual

A moderate effecton wildernesscould be expected management plansforthe entirerefugeto includethe 1002

from furtherexploration.Seismic trailsand wellpads are area,which would be treatedas an integralpartof the

visualremnants of explorationwhich may persistforseveral entireArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge.

years,reducingthe wildernessvalueofareas inwhich they

occur. Rehabilitation of wellpads would be slow,and the Refuge planninghas not been completed,so itis

effectson the wildernessvaluesof the area inand around impossibleto predictexactlywhat willbe containedinthe

pads would be moderate. Adequate snow coverto protect CCP and resultantmanagement plans. The 1002 area has

the surface,environmentallysensitiveroutingof trails,and not yet been includedas a partof thisplanningprocess,

other mitigationstipulationsdescribedforAlternativeA and pending a management decisionby the Congress. To fulfill

used in the previous1002 area and KIC/ASRC exploration the purposes forwhich the ArcticRefuge was established

programs would minimize effectson recreationand as outlinedinANILCA (sec.302(2)),the management goals,

subsistenceuse, and archeology. at leastuntilfurtherdefinedby the CCP, would be: to

maintainthe existingavailability and qualityof refuge

Reduction and displacementof fishand wildlife habitatswith naturalforcesgoverningfluctuationsin fish

populationsused forsubsistencewould be no more than and wildlifepopulationsand habitatchange;to providethe

minor;access to traditionalharvestareas would generally opportunityfor continued subsistence use of natural

not be inhibited;and potentialpsychologicaleffectswould resourcesby localresidents,in a manner consistentwith

be greatlyreduced as a resultof the local,temporary sound naturalresource management; and to provide

activitiesinvolvedinfurtherexploration.As describedunder recreationaland economic opportunitiescompatiblewiththe

AlternativeA, previous evaluationsof the effecton purposes forwhich the refugewas established.

subsistencefrom 1983-85 surfacegeology and seismic

explorationprograms have concluded that effectson Planningthatwould includethe 1002 area could

subsistenceuse would be minimaland therewould be no resultin an increasein commercialactivities, iffound

significantrestrictionof subsistenceuse (U.S.Fish and compatible,in the 1002 area as wellas the restof the

WildlifeService,1983a, b; 1984a, b; 1985). Other ArcticRefuge. Publicdebate on petroleumrelatedissues

socioculturalsystems ofthe areawould not be significantly as a resultof the ANILCA section1002 program willresult

affectedby thisalternative. in greaterawareness of the naturalresourcevaluesof the

ArcticRefuge. Thus, recreationaluse of the 1002 area

would probablyincrease.The FWS permitsactivities on

NationalWildlifeRefuges insofaras they are compatiblewith

the purposes forwhich each refugewas established(the

Summary of Unavoidable Impacts, NationalWildlifeRefuge AdministrationAct PublicLaw 89-

AlternativeC

669, 16 U.S.C.668 dd-ee and ANILCA section304(b)).

Infrastructure associatedwith offshoredevelopmentscould

Compaction and destructionor delayed growth of be permittedwithinthe 1002 area providedit(1)did not

vegetation in areas of furthergeophysicalexploration lead to development and productionfrom the 1002 area

(greenand brown trails).

and (2)was found compatiblewithrefugepurposes. Some

minor compatible surface geology studiescould be

Use of limitedfresh-waterresourcesforindustrialpurposes. possible.

An unknown number of small spills(dieselfuel,oil

Major long-termbenefitswould accrue to fishand

antifreeze,and so forth)resultingfrom vehicleand

wildlifeas wellas theirhabitatsfrom management of the

equipment operation and causing destructionof

1002 area under thisalternative.Activitiessuch as sport

vegetation,contaminationof waters,or mortalityof small huntingand fishingor otherrecreationaluses,or activities

food organisms,

conducted for scientificstudies,would resultin negligible

adverseeffectson allspeciesand resourcesdiscussedin

Short-term,localincreasesin noise and otherdisturbances previousalternatives.

causingshort4erm,localdisplacementof some wildlifein

areaswith explorationactivities. - In accordance with the terms of ANILCA Section

1003 and the Chandler Lake Agreement,developmentand

Short-term,localdisturbanceof subsistence users from productioncould not occur anywhere on the ArcticRefuge

Kaktovik.

or on those lands owned by KIC/ASRC which liewithinthe

154 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
refugeboundariesunless the Congress enacted legislation of livingand yet use 30-50 percentless energy than

specificallydesigned to open ASRC lands to these currentlybeing consumed. Existingconservationprograms

activities. Furtherexplorationcould not occur withinthe includeeducation,research and development,regulation,

1002 areawithoutactionfrom the Congress. Productionof and subsidies.

the estimatedrecoverable3.2billionbarrelsof oilwould not

occur.-

Residentialand commercialsectorsof the economy

- Socioeconomic and socioculturalchanges would be are often characterizedas inefficientenergy consumers.

expectedto continueinthe manner and pace inwhich they Inadequate insulation,inefficientheating and cooling

now occur. There would be no (orfew) new job systems,poorlydesigned appliances,and excessivelighting

opportunities,littleincreasedcash flow,and littlechange in areoftencited.Reductionsin consumptionbeyond those

subsistenceuse so long as no infrastructure associated induced by fuel-priceincreasescould be achievedby new

withoffshoredevelopmentwere builton the 1002 area.-

standards on products and buildingmethods and/or

subsidiesand incentives.Excessive consumption is also

evidentinindustry,where energy-inefficient work schedules,

poorlymaintainedequipment,equipment with extremelylow

heat-transferefficiencies, and unrecycledheat and waste

- Alternative-EnergySources in Lieu of

materialsare commonplace.

Development of the 1002 Area -

Transportationaccounts forapproximately25 percent

Ifthe Congress took no actionto open allor a part of nationwideenergy use. Automobilesaccount for the

of the 1002 areato oiland gas leasing,futuredomesticoil bulk of allpassenger movement in the Nation,and use

productionwould be reduced. This could necessitate more than twice as much energy per passengermile as

escalated imports of oiland gas, and/or require buses do. Short-termand midterm conservationmeasures--

development of alternate-energysources to replacethe consumer education,lower speed limits,lower faresand

energy resourcesexpected from the 1002 area. service improvements on publictransit,and rail-freight

transit--mayachieve considerableenergy savings.

The hydrocarbon potentialof the 1002 area could

contributesignificantly to the region'sand the Nation's Other policieswhich could encourage fuel

energy supply; ifthe 1002 area were unavailablefor conservationin transportationincludestandardsfor more

development,the followingactionsor energy sources might efficientautomobilesand incentivesto reduce milestraveled.

be used as substitutes: An importantdevelopment in fuel economy could be

modificationof the standard internal-combustionengine.

Energy conservation Although such an engine is in the advanced stagesof

Conventionaloiland gas supplies development, furtherstudy is necessary before an

Coal acceptableengine can be designed.

Nuclearpower

Oilshale

The environmentaleffectsof a vigorousenergy Tar sands conservationprogram willbe primarilybeneficial.The Hydroelectricpower

natureand magnitudeof these effectsdepend on whether Solar energy

thereis a net reductionin energy use or whetherthe Imports

reductionis accomplished through technologicalchange Geothermal energy

and substitutions.For the former,the net effectswillmean Other energy sources

fewer pollutantssuch as carbon dioxide,hydrocarbons, Combination of alternatives

nitrousoxides,sulfuroxides,and particulates.Even with

The followingdiscussionof these alternativesources

projectedincreasesin conservation,the Department of

isexcerptedand adapted from standardappendix matterin Energy (DOE) estimatesthat energy demand willremain

U.S. Minerals Management Service(MMS) ElSs on

stablethroughthiscentury. Thus, some means isneeded

proposed Outer ContinentalShelf(OCS) oiland gas lease to compensate forprojecteddecreases inproduction(DOE,

sales. For more detailedinformation,see "Energy 1987).

alternatives--Acomparative analysis" (Universityof

Oklahoma, 1975; prepared forBLM by the Scienceand Conventionaloiland gas supplies.Between 1955and

Public PolicyProgram, Universityof Oklahoma) and 1969,the UnitedStatesslightlyincreasedamounts of proven

'Energy security--Areportto the Presidentof the United oilreservesto about 30 billionbarrels.The Prudhoe Bay

States"(DOE, 1987). discoveryin1970raisedthe amount to 40 billionbarrels,but

reserveshave been decliningever since, Since 1970,new

Energy conservation. Vigorous energy conservation oildiscoverieshave replacedless than halfof production.

warrants serious consideration.Several studies have Current estimatesof U.S. oiland gas reservesare

suggested thatAmericans could enjoythe same standard presentedin ChapterVIIof thisreport/LEIS.

CONSEQUENCES-NO ACTION 155
Substitutingdirectlyforpossibleproductionfrom the Although U.S.coalresourcesare verylarge,thereis

1002 area would requirea combinationof other onshore some geographic dislocation,as with other extractable

and OCS productionand increasedforeignimports. mineral fuels. Most low-sulfurcoal is west of the

MississippiRiver or in Alaska,far from industrialareas.

Onshore oilproductioninthe lower-48Stateswould Also,much of the westerncoalisinand or semiaridareas

entailenvironmentalimpacts such as land subsidence,soil where scarcityof water could constraindevelopment. Ifan

sterilization, and disruptionof existingland-usepattems. alternativeto oilproductionfrom the 1002 area is greater

Equipment failure,human error,and blowouts also may relianceon coal,mining might increasein the Western

impair environmental quality. Moreover, poor well States.

construction,particularly in olderwells,and oilspillscan

polluteground and surfacewater.

Combustion of coal resultsin variousemissions,

Given the factthat onshore suppliesare dwindling, notablysulfurdioxideand particulates.Using coal instead

users ofhydrocarbons would have to continuetheirreliance of oilproduced from the 1002 area would increasethese

on the OCS and foreignimportsfor needed oiland gas.

pollutants. Technology to controlthese emissionsis

The decline in these supplies,even with energy availablebut isnot widelyapplied,because emission-control

conservation,could mean industrialshutdowns, increased devicesfor coal-burningplantsare expensiveto installand

unemployment, higherconsumer prices,and a lowered maintain. The sulfurcontent of eastern coal varies

standardof living. considerably,but approximately65 percentofthe developed

resourceshave a sulfurcontentexceedingI percent. Any

large-scaleshiftto coalwould requirerelaxationof emission

Coal. Coal isthe most abundant energyresourcein regulationsor improvementof technologiesto convertcoal

the UnitedStates;proven domestic reservesare estimated to gaseous or liquidfuels.

at 438 billionshorttons. This constitutesmore than onequarterof the known world supply,80 percentof proven

U.S.fuelreserves,and 130 times the energy consumed in The primaryeffectofsurfacecoalminingisdisruption

1980. Ultimatelyrecoverablereservesare estimatedat 3.9 of the land. This affectslocalfloraand fauna and water

trillion shorttons. Since 1974,domestic coalconsumption qualitybecause of erosionand mine runoff.Reclamationis

has increasedby almost 50 percent,or the energy difficult inthe Western States,where water forrevegetation

equivalentof almost2.3 millionbarrelsofoilper day (DOE, is scarce. Other problems are acid-mine-waterdrainage,

1987, p. 167). U.S. coal consumption is expectedto Teachings from spoil piles,processing waste, and

continueexpanding. disturbancescaused by access and transportation.Surface

mining conflictswith other uses such as agriculture,

Due to itsrelativepriceadvantageover otherfuels, recreation,water,and fishand wildlifehabitat.

competitivemarket structure,and largeresourcebase, coal

consumptionand productionare expected to increase;but Underground mining also affectsland and water

the rate of increaseis uncertainmainlybecause there is quality.Impactson the landresultfrom subsidence,waste

considerableuncertaintyabout the volume of U.S. coal disposal,access, and transportation.Subsidence can

exports(DOE, 1987,p. 168). Coal may once again become destroy structures,cause landslidesand earthquakes,and

the primary domestic-energysource. Synfuelsfrom coal disruptground-watercirculation.The amount of subsidence

alsowillbe important. and potentialsurfacedisruptioncan be controlledby mining

methods.

Although domestic coal reservescould easilyreplace

the energy expected to be realizedfrom developingthe Water qualityis diminishedby processingwaste and

1002 area,seriouslimitationsto coaldevelopmentexist.In drainageof acid-mine-waterintosurroundingareas. Waste

many uses, coal isan imperfectsubstituteforoilor natural pilescan be replacedinthe mine and entrancessealed,a

gas. In othercases,coalproductionand use are restricted practicewhich also minimizessubsidence. Other pollution

by government constraints;limitedavailability of low-sulfur problems,associatedwithroad and coal dust and the like,

deposits;inadequate mining,conversionand pollution- are minimaland easilycontrolled.

abatement technology;and the hazardous environmental

effectsassociated with coal extractionand coal-fired The major coal transportationsystems (rail,truck,

generationof electricity. barge, conveyor,and pipeline)allhave some adverse

environmentaleffects: airand noise pollution,safety

The Powerplantand IndustrialFuel Use Act of 1978 hazards,land-use conflicts,trash-disposalproblemsand

was designed to reduce petroleum and naturalgas estheticdamage. A coal slurrypipelinerequireslarge

consumption and to encourage greateruse of coal and suppliesof water thatmust adequatelybe disposed of at

alternativefuels.The Act prohibitsnew electricpowerplants the deliveryend. Water availabilitys a problem inmany

and largeindustrialboilers(and existingones after1990) areas of the UnitedStates,especiallyin the West where

from consuming oilor naturalgas as a primaryfuelsource energy resource requirementscompete with existing

unlessan exemption isgranted. commercialand privateusers.

156 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Coal conversion. Technologyto convertcoalinto NuclearPowe . The predominantnuclearsystem in

gaseous and liquidhydrocarbons exists,and several the UnitedStatesisthe nuclearfissionprocess thatuses

relativelylow-capacitycommercial plantsexistin various uranium-dioxide-fueled, light-water-moderatedand cooled

parts of the world. But few cost-effectiveadvanced nuclearpowerplants.

technologiesare beyond the pilot-plant stage. Numerous

problems must be solvedbeforecommercialdevelopmentof Nuclear-powerdevelopment has encountereddelays

syntheticfuels from coal can proceed. The cost inlicensing,siting,and environmentalconstraintsas wellas

effectivenesswilldepend on pricesof otherfuels,primarily manufacturingand technicalproblems. Futurecapacitywill

oiland naturalgas. be influencedby the availability of plantsites,licensing

considerations,environmentalfactors,nuclear-fuelcosts,

The Energy SecurityAct of 1980 createdthe U.S. rateof developmentof reactors,and capitalcosts.

SyntheticFuelCorporationto providefinancialassistanceto

the privatesectorfor commercialsyntheticfuelprojects. Domestic uranium resources are probablyplentiful.

Syntheticoiland gas could contributesubstantiallyto Ultimatelyrecoverablereservesare estimatedto exceed

energy suppliesby the year 2000. The most important 6,600 millionshorttons,and largeareas are unexplored.

contributionswould be high-BTU gas from coal,synthetic Twenty-one millionshort tons were consumed in 1960

crude oilfrom oilshale,and coalliquefaction.The success domestic nuclear-energyproduction. Nuclear energy may

of these sources willdepend on developingtechnology, provide up to 13 percent of totaldomestic energy

environmentaleffects,and the cost of conventionaloiland consumption in 2020. Nuclearenergy isnow second only

gas. to coal insupplyingelectricity. Withoutnuclearenergy,the

demand foroiland othersubstituteswould be tarhigher.

Coal gasification. Gaseous fuels with low, Reducing oildemand has lessenedupward pricepressures

intermediate,or highenergy contentcan be produced. The and limitedOPEC's influenceon the globaloilmarket. Ifoil

environmentaleffectsof coal gasificationare those of alonehad to replaceexistingnuclearcapacity,most of the

miningplusthose from production.Gasificationprocesses world'sexcess oilproductioncapacitywould vanish(DOE,

have lower primaryefficiencythan directcoal combustion; 1987,p. 183).

more coal has to be gasifiedto reach an equivalentBTU

output. Effectson water from processingcan be minimized Although nuclearplantsdo not emit particulatesor

by recyclingand evaporation. The largeinputsof water gaseous pollutants,the potentialfor seriousenvironmental

requiredforsome of the technologiescreatepotentialfor problems exists. Some airborneand liquidradioactive

conflictsin water-shortareas. For example, one process materialsare releasedduringnormal operation;the amounts

(Koppers-Totzekgasifier)requires463,000 gallonsper day are very small,and potentialexposure is lessthan the

to process 10,570tons of coal. average levelof naturalradiationexposure. The probability

of harmfulradioactivity releasedfrom accidentsisverylow.

Airpollutioncould includeemissionsof sulfurdioxide,

particulates,nitrousoxides,hydrocarbons and carbon Nuclear plants use essentiallythe same cooling

monoxides. Land effectsresultfrom solid-wastedisposal process as fossil-fuel plantsand thus share the problem of

plus land use for the plant,coal storage,and cooling heat dissipationfrom coolingwater. Light-waterreactors

sands, and so forth.Solidwastes includeash, sulfur,and requirelargeramounts of coolingwater and discharge

minute quantitiesof some radioactiveisotopes. greateramounts of waste heat to the water than

comparably sized fossil-fuelplants. Effectsare often

Coal liquefaction.Liquefiedcoal is expected to mitigatedby usingponds or coolingtowers.

replaceconventionalcrude oilas the major source of liquid

Low-levelradioactivewastes from operationof a fueland provide 10 percentof totaldomesticenergy

nuclear plant must be collected,placed in protective consumptionby 2020. As withcoalgasification, production

of liquidfuelsfrom coal requireseitheradditionof hydrogen containers,and shipped to a federallylicensedstoragesite

or removal of carbon from the compounds in the coal. for burial. High-levelwastes created withinthe fuel

Catalyticconversionis in commercialoperation;other elements remain untilthe fuelelements are processed.

processes are under development. The available Currently,spentfuelis storedat NRC-licensedfacilities.

technologieshave a recoveryrateof 0.5 barrelto 3 barrels

Uranium mining affectsland,water,and airquality. of oilper ton ofcoalprocessed.

Mining operationsforuranium and coalare similar,but the

Again,the effectsof liquefactionwillbe those natureand distribution of uranium depositsmean 'lesser'

resultingfrom mining and from processingplants. Waste effects,although radioactivetailingscause unusual

effluentsfrom liquefactionplantscould containphenols, problems fordisposal,the environment,and human heafth.

solids,oil,ammonia, phosphates, and so forth. Air

pollutioncould resultfrom particulates, nitrousoxides,sulfur Oil shale. Oil shale is a fine-grained,sedimentary

oxides,and othergases. Solidwastes would be mostly rock which,when heated,releasesa heavy oilthatcan be

ash. Ifliquefactionplantswere sitednear mine openings, upgraded to syntheticcrude oil. The technologyexists,

residuecould be buriedinthe mines withlittleeffect. and the resourcebase for shaleisvery large,perhaps as

CONSEQUENCES--NO ACTION 157
much as 360 billionbarrels. Large areas of the United of aquifers,surface spills,surface-earthmovements, noise

States are known to containoil-shaledeposits,but those in pollution,and emission of gases.

the Green RiverFormation in Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah

have the greatestcommercial potential.

Hydroelectricpower. Many of the major hydroelectric

sites operatingtoday were developed in the early 1950's.

Oil-shaledevelopment poses serious environmental Then, hydroelectricplantssuppliedas much as 30 percent

problems. With surface or conventionalunderground of the electricityproduced in the United States. From 1970

mining,the extracted("spent")shale occupies a larger to 1980, hydroelectric-powerproductionfluctuatedbetween

volume than the originalin-placematerial.Disposing of the 220 billionand 300 billionkilowatt-hours,about 4 percentof

huge quantitiesof spent shale isvery difficult.Revegetation totalU.S. energy production. Hydroelectricpower will

in an area of oil-shaledevelopment isdifficult and may take representa decliningpercentage of totalU.S. energy mix for

more than 10 years. In-placeprocessing avoids many these reasons: high capitalcosts, land-use conflicts,

environmentalhazards.

environmentaleffects,competitivewater use, and floodcontrolconstraints. Sites with the greatestproduction

Air pollutantsfrom mining come from dust and capacityand lowest development costs have alreadybeen

vehiculartraffic.These willbe predominantlyparticulates, exploited.

followedby nitrousoxidesand carbon dioxide,with minimal

amounts of hydrocarbons, sulfuroxides,and aldehydes. Construction of a hydroelectricdam representsan

Air pollutantsfrom processing vary with the technology irreversiblecommitment of the land resource beneath the

used. dam and lake. Flooding eliminateswildlifehabitatand

preventsother uses such as agriculture,mining,and river

Mining oilshale requires littlewater, eitherfor recreation.

operationsor forreclaimingsolidwastes. Water pollutants

are considered to be negligibleunless salinewater is Hydroelectricprojects do not consume fuel or

encounteredand has to be disposed of. The processing generallycause airpollution.Water releasedfrom reservoirs

(retorting)operationsof oilshale consume largequantities during summer months may change ambient water

of water and generate largeamounts of waste water which temperatureand lower the oxygen content of the river

can be treatedand reused. Therefore,water pollution downstream, adversely affectingfish. Fluctuatingreservoir

presumably is not a problem outsidethe complex. The

releases during peak-load operation may also adversely

limitedavailability of inputwater could lead to resource-use

affectfisheriesand downstream recreation.

conflicts. Screens placed over turbineintakesreduce fishkill,

Solid waste comprises the greatestproblem in oil- but not killof small organisms. Fish may diefrom nitrogen

shale processing. The volume of waste is greaterthan the supersaturation,which resultswhen excess water escapes

volume of inputoilshale. Therefore,backfillingdoes not from the draining reservoir. High nitrogenlevelsin the

providesufficientdisposal space.

Columbia and Snake Riverspose a threatto the salmon

and steelhead resources of these rivers. Other adverse

Tar sands. Tar sands are depositsof porous rock effectsto water qualityinclude possible saline-water

or sediments thatcontainhydrocarbon oils(tar)too viscous intrusionintowaterways and decreased abilityof the waters

to be extractedby conventionalmethods. Canada has to accommodate waste discharges.

developed large-scaleproduction efforts,but U.S. ventures

have been minor. U.S.resources are concentratedinUtah; Solarenergy. Applicationof solarenergy must take

some potentiallycommercial quantitiesoccur in California, intoaccount severalfactors. Solar energy isa diffuse,lowKentucky,New Mexico, and Texas. Tar can be recovered intensitysource;only a smallportionof the potentialenergy

eitherfrom sands mined on the surfaceor underground, or is used. Itsintensityvariescontinuouslywith time of day,

by directunderground extractionof the oilwithout mining. weather, season, and geographic location. Among the

Recovery is followed by processing,upgrading to synthetic potentialapplicationsof solarenergy are thermalenergy for

crude,and refining.Ultimatelyrecoverablereservesmay be buildings,renewable clean fuelsources, and electricpower

100 billionbarrels,includingother heavy oils. generation. Solar-energy-collectionsystems are now

commercially availablenationwide. In some locations

Surface mining produces residuals,modifies

passivesolarsystems can supply up to 40 percentof the

topography, moves large amounts of overburden,creates

heating requirements for residences and small commercial

dust and vehicleemissions, and causes water pollution. buildings. Active solar systems are not yet able to

Reclamation can minimize some effects. Residuals are

compete broadlywith conventionalenergy systems.

similarto those of coal. The effectsof processing tar

sands are similarto those of oilshale: solidtailingsfrom

Effectsof solar energy are relativelyminimal,except

extraction,coolingwater and blowdown streams,thermal for wide-scale land-use commitments. Due to the low

discharges, and off-gases. Under controlledconditions, density of energy, large areas are necessary for the

these residualscan be minimized. Underground extraction collectors. The only other area of concern is thermal

without mining can resultinthermal additions,contamination pollutionfrom solar-electric-powergeneration,where heat

158 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
has to be collectedand transferredto a generator.Some handlingLNG is the possibilityof fireor explosionduring

localizedthermal pollutionmay result. Because solar transportation,transfer,or storage. Receiving and

collectorsoperate only intermittently, the energy must be regasificationfacilitiesrequire shorelinelocationsand

stored,or backup fossil-fuelplantsmust be built. channel dredging.

Oil imports' OPEC probablywillcontrolmost of the Geothermal Energ . Geothermal energy is primarily

world'soilproductionforthe remainderof the century,due heat energy from the interiorof the Earth. The major types

mainly to the short-term inelasticityof the supply of of geothermal systems are hot-water,vapor-dominated or

substitutes;itmay set pricesbased on factorsbesides geopressured reservoirs,and hot-dry-rocksystems.

price/costrelationships.Thus, the less dependent the U.S. Geothermal energy can be used for space heating,

is on OPEC, the less vulnerableitis to large,erraticprice industrialprocessing, and other nonelectric uses.

swings. Imports from the Middle East also bring problems Geothermal-electricgenerating plantsare smaller than

of stabilityof supply,balance of payments, and currency- conventionalplantsand requirea greateramount of steam

exchange rates. to generatean equal amount of energy. Geothermal energy

currentlyaccounts for less than 1 percent of totalUnited

The United Stateswillprobably remain dependent on States energy production.

imported energy throughout this century. As the 1970's

showed, politicalsituationsin the Middle East could leadto The greatestpotentialfor geothermal energy in the

major disruptionsin supply or huge priceincreases. Under United States is found in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific

the threatof renewed embargo, American productivityand regions;some potentialexistsin the Gulf Coastal Plainof

policycould become subservientto foreigninfluence,having Texas and Louisiana. The Geysers fieldin California,the

both economic and securityimplications.On a more subtle most extensivelydeveloped source of geothermal energy in

level,politicalalignmentsand policiesof the United States the United States,has been producing power since 1969.

could become tiedto those of foreignoilpowers. Explorationis underway in the ImperialValley,Mono Lake,

and Modoc County, California.

The primary environmental hazard of increasedoil

imports is the possibilityof oilspills.Worldwide, an Various gases are associated with geothermal

insignificant amount of the totalvolume of transportedoilis systems. These gases includeammonia, boricacid,carbon

spilledin tankeraccidents. But a singleincidentsuch as dioxide,carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide.They may

the breakup of the Torrey Canyon in 1967 or the Amoco pose healthand pollutionproblems; but adverse air-quality

Cadiz in 1978 can have disastrousresults.Spillratesare effectsare generallylessthan those associatedwith fossillhigherforforeigntankers than for U.S. tankers. Petroleum fuelplants. Associated salinewaters must be disposed of

imports tend to be refinedproduct,which is more toxic and isolatedfrom ground water. Land-qualityproblems

than crude. stem from disturbance due to constructionof related

facilitiesand possible ground subsidence which, in turn,

Natural-gas imports Imports of naturalgas via can cause structuralfailuresand loss of ground-water

pipelinehave come mainly from Canada, smallamounts storage capacity.

come from Mexico. In 1980, importsfrom Canada were

881 billioncubic feet,about 4.4 percent of the totalnatural Other energy sources' The high cost and rapidly

gas used inthe United States,and about 33 percent of shrinking reserves of traditionalenergy fuels have

Canada's natural-gasproduction. The natural-gasimport encouraged researchinto new and differentsources, such

situationis uncertainowing to the disparitybetween prices as tidalpower, wind power, and ocean thermal-gradients.

for naturalgas and alternativefuelsin thiscountry,the Some of these sources have been known fordecades, but

priceof crude oilin world markets,and overregulationof high costs and technicalproblems have preventedtheir

domestic naturalgas production,transport,and use. widespread use. By 2020 these sources may account for

13 percent of total domestic energy consumption.

The environmental effectsof gas imports derive Environmentaleffectsare difficultto assess, because much

mainlyfrom the possibleincreaseduse of land forpipeline research and development must precede operational-scale

construction.A furthereffectisthe riskof explosionsand systems fortestingand evaluation.

fires.

Combination of alternatives.A combinationof energy

Liquefied-natural-gas(LNG) import . Large-scale sources could be used to attainan energy equivalent

shippingof LNG is relativelynew. Several LNG projects comparable to the estimatedcrude oilproductionfrom the

are now under considerationon the Pacific,Atlantic,and 1002 area. Assuming favorabletechnology and economics,

Gulf Coasts. The costs of liquefyingand transporting the most likelydomesticallyavailableenergy afternativesfor

naturalgas, otherthan overlandby pipe,are high. oilare probably: coal,oilshale,tarsands, and biomass to

produce syntheticliquids;nuclear energy and coal to

The environmentaleffectsof the LNG importsarise compete for the utilitymarket;and renewables to supply

mainly from tankers; terminal,transfer,and regasification partof totalenergy requirements. The mix willdepend on

facilities; and land transportation.The major hazard of multiplefactors: identificationof resources;research and

CONSEQUENCES-NO ACTION 159
development; technology advances; rateof economic The 1002 area offersthe greatestpotentialto add to

growth;economic climate;changes inlifestyle and priorities; our Nation'soiland gas production.Intimeof crisisthere

capitalinvestmentdecisions;energy prices;world oilprices; may be no opportunityto plan and conduct orderly,

environmentalpriorities; government policies;and availability environmentallysound explorationand development of the

of imports. 1002 area. Pressurefor rapid development would be

extreme.

ALTERNATIVE E-WILDERNESS

Conclusion.The energysystem of the UnitedStates

DESIGNATION

isverycomplex,and itsenergy mix isdifficult to projectin Ifthe Congress were to designatethe 1002 area as

the long term. Coal and nuclearenergy are the only Wilderness,an extensivecontinuum of undisturbedarctic

technicallyproven,large-scalesources of futureelectricity environment in the United States would be preserved,

supply today thatare viablealternativesto oiland natural extendingfrom the crestof the Brooks Range to the Arctic

gas (DOE, 1987, p. 187). No singlechoice among Ocean. Under the WildernessAct (P.L.88-577),the FWS

alternativeenergy sources stands out, nor does would manage thisarea to maintainwildernessresources

developmentof one source that precludesdevelopmentof and values,preserve the wildernesscharacterof the

others. Understanding the extentto which alternate biologicaland physicalfeatures,and provideopportunities

sourcesthey may replaceor complement productionfrom for research,subsistence,and recreation. Loss or

the 1002 area requiresreferenceto the totalnational-energy alterationof fish and wildlifehabitatswould occur in

picture.Relevantfactorsare: response to naturalforces (populationcycles,weather,

(1) Historicalrelationshipsindicatethat energy

predators,disease,etc.).None of the explorationand oil

requirementswillgrow in proportionto the gross

development, production,or transportationactivities

nationalproduct.

described in AlternativesA, B, and C could occur.

Government research concerning the Alaska Mineral

(2) Energy requirementscan be constrainedto some

Resource Assessment Program (ANILCA section1010)

degree through the pricemechanisms in a free

could continue. In accordance with the terms of the

marketor by more directconstraints.One important

WildernessAct and ANILCA, futurepetroleumdevelopment

type of directconstraintoperatingto reduce energy

would be prohibitedanywhere on the ArcticRefuge,as well

requirementsis through the substitutionof capital

as withinthe KIC/ASRC lands. Productionof the estimated

investmentin lieuof energy(insulationto save fuel).

recoverable3.2 billionbarrelsof oilwould be forgone.

Other potentialsforlower energy use have more far- Previoussurfacegeologyactivitieshad no apparent

reachingeffectsand may be long range in their adverse effectson fish,wildlife,and wildernessvalues.

implementation--rationing,alteredtransportation Such activitieswould be permittedas a priorexistinguse

modes, and major changes in livingconditionsand for scientificpurposes ifthe 1002 area were designatedas

lifestyles.Even severeconstraintson energy use can wilderness.By using similarprotectivestipulations, effects

be expected to onlyslow,not halt,the growthin on fish,wildlife,and wildernessvalueswould be negligible.

energy requirements. The opportunityfor economic change relatedto petroleum

(3) Energy sources are not completelyinterchangeable.

revenues,jobs,and otherstimulidescribedin Alternatives

For example,solidfuelscannot be used directlyin

A, B, and C would be lost.

internalcombustion engines. - Hunting,fishing,and trappingwould be allowed.

Traditionalmodes of access used forsubsistencewillbe

(4) The principalcompetitiveinterfacebetween fuelsisin permitted. Itwillbe necessaryto determinewhat these

electricpowerplants. The fullrange of flexibility in modes of transportationare by communitiesusingthe 1002

energy use is limitedby environmentalconsiderations. area forsubsistence. Presentsocioculturalchanges would

not be affectedby thisalternative.-

(5) Regulationof oiland gas pricesloweredthe price

below the productlevelthatrefiners(and consumers) Except for exploration,furtherpetroleumdevelopment

paid for domestic oil,and preventeddomestically on lands owned by KIC and ASRC would be precluded

produced oilfrom competingwith importedoil.This under the provisionsof section1003 of ANILCA and the

Nation'sinabilityto adjustto worldenergy priceshas Chandler Lake Land Exchange Agreement between the

led to underproduction of domestic oil, UnitedStatesof America and ASRC, unlessthe Congress

overconsumption of imports,and disincentivesto made specialprovisionsinitswildernessdesignationforthe

alternativeenergy. 1002 area.

(6) Much of the researchand developmentis directed The environmentaleffectsof obtainingenergy from

toward energy conversion--moreefficientnuclear substitutesources,ratherthan from the ArcticRefuge,

reactors,coal gasificationad liquefaction, liquefied would be the same as those discussedunder Alternative

naturalgas (LNG),and shaleretorting,among others. D.

160 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
- CUMULATIVE EFFECTS - Some developmenthas occurred in neighboringareas.

The CEQ regulationsforimplementingthe National Most notableare the oilproductionfacilities at Prudhoe

EnvironmentalPolicyAct (NEPA) requirethatconsideration Bay,locatedwithin50 milesof the northwestboundaryof

be givenin an environmentalimpactstatement(EIS)to the the 1002 area. Anott@eroperation,the Endicott

cumulativeeffects"on the environmentwhich resultfrom DevelopmentProject,iscurrentunderconstruction2.5miles

the incrementalimpactsof the (proposed]actionwhen offs

.

horebetween Prudhoe Bay and the ArcticRefuge.This

added to otherpast,present,and reasonablyforeseeable project,which isexpectedto yieldabout 100,000barrelsof

futureactionsregardlessof what agency (Federalor non- oilper day beginningin 1988,involvesthe constructionof

Federal)or personundertakessuch otheractions"(40CFR extensivefacilitiesincludinga causeway,TAPS pump

1508.7). station,and base camp for600 people. Other oil

explorationactivities have occurredon the NorthSlopeand

Severalelementsshouldbe presentbeforea potential withinthe NPRA furtherto the west;however,hydrocarbon

actionisconsideredinan assessmentof cumulativeffects: resourcesin these areas have not proved commercially

(1)the proposedactionincludesapplications) fora license, recoverable.

permit,or otherregulatoryapproval;(2)the proposedaction

has been determinedto be a projectwhich may Oilexplorationand othertypes of developmenthave

significantly affectthe environment;(3)the proposedaction taken placein nearbyareas of Canada. Duringthe late

is sufficientlydefinedin terms of constructionand 1970's,the DempsterHighway was builthroughthe Yukon

operationscharacteristics from which potentialeffectscan Territoryto Inuvik.Severalexploratorywellswere drilled

be determinedin the absence of NEPA review;(4)the withinthe Canadianpartof the coastalplain,and extensive

geographicarea of influenceof the proposedactionis explorationactivityhas occurredwithinthe Canadian

contiguousto or overlapsthe regionthatisthe subjectof BeaufortSea and Mackenzie Deltaregion. The Gulf

environmentalassessmentinthisproposal;and (5)thereis Canada Corporationrecentlyproposedto startseasonaloil

a substantialcommitment to executethe proposed action. productionin the BeaufortSea by 1988 (Oiland Gas

Journal,Feb.2, 1987,p.20). Thisdevelopmentisexpected

ProjectsdescribedintableVI-8rangefrom thosethat to deliver20,000-40,000barrelsof oilper day, witha

alreadyexistto thosethatcouldoccurat some pointinthe minimum work scheduleof 120 days peryear. Ice-breaking

more distantfuture.Only existingprojectsconformto the bargeswould carrythisinitialproductionalongthe Alaska

criterialistedabove. The cumulativeeffectsof those coastto a tankertransshipmentpoint. Eventually,the

projectshave been consideredthroughoutthisassessment. company may propose an expanded year-roundproduction

The Chukchi Sea regionincludesonshorelandswest of schedule,which would involveconstructionof a new

the ColvilleRiverand offshoreareasbetween the Beaufort MackenzieValleypipelineto Alberta.

Sea OCS (OuterContinentalShelf)PlanningArea and the

Bering Strait.Althoughdevelopmentin thisregionis Furtherleasingof oiland gas resourceswithinthe

somewhat removed fromthe 1002 area,itmay affectsome U.S.Outer ContinentalShelfadjacentto the ArcticRefuge

of the resourcesanalyzedin thisLEIS. The mid-Beaufort isunder consideration(tableVI-8).The Departmentof the

Sea regionincludesthe onshore areasbetween the Colville Interiorhas proposed additionalareaswithinthe Beaufort

and Canning Rivers,allStatesubmerged landsbetween and Chukchi Seas be made availablefor oiland gas

Barrowand the Canning River,and the BeaufortSea OCS development(Sale97, U.S.MineralsManagement Service,

PlanningArea. The easternBeaufortSea regionisdefined 1986;Sale 109, U.S.MineralsManagement Service,1987).

as thearea eastofthe Canning River. Development of these areas couldpotentially involvethe

constructionof extensiveoffshoreand coastalsupport

One considerationin determiningwhetherto open facilities.

the 1002 areaforoiland gas leasingisthe potentialfor

regionaladverse effectsrelatedto cumulativeincremental In additionto Federalleasingactivity, the Stateof

lossesand disturbanceof arctichabitat.As describedin Alaskahas had inthe past,and expectsto have inthe

Chapter 11,the 1002 area,which comprises1.55 million future,substantialleasingin northernAlaska(tableVI-8).

acres,is partof the largerArcticCoastalPlainProvince. Since1964 the Statehas leased3.6 millionacreson the

Some of the wildlifepopulationswithinthe refuge,including North Slope,in the Prudhoe Bay, Kuparuk,MilnePoint,

caribou,muskoxen, marinemammals, and migratorybirds, Endicott,and Lisburneareas. The Statehas alsoleased

have rangesthatextendbeyond the 1002 area. This areasadjacentto the ArcticRefugeinthe PointThomson

sectionsummarizes the potentialcumulativeeffectsof and Flaxman Islandareas.

development withinthe coastalplainregionfrom a

programmaticaspect. Detailedanalyses of potential The State has proposed leasingan additional34.9

cumulativeeffectsgenerallyare carded out as partof millionacresin its5-yearoiland gas leasingprogram

environmentalassessmentsforspecificleasesales. between 1987and 1991. Sale50,proposedforJune 1987,

would lease123,000acresin Camden Bay adjacentto the

Human activities withinthe 1(02 area have been ArcticRefuge. Sale55 would lease300,000acresin 1988

restrictedto subsistenceuses by localnativecommunities, northofthe ArcticRefugeand to thewest of Camden Bay.

and limitedmilitaryoperationsand naturalresourcesurveys. Sale64 would lease772,000acres of the Statelands

CONSEQUENCES--WILDERNESS AND CUMULATIVE EFFECTS 161
- Table VI-8.--Majorprojectsconsideredincumulative-effects assessment,-

[Adaptedfrom U.S.MineralsManagement Service(1987).]

Projectname Generallocation Developmental Currentstatus

timeframe

ChukchiSea region

NorthSlopeBorough NorthSlope Borough...... 1983-1985+ Includesprojectsatvillages,Prudhoe

CapitalImprove- Bay and Kuparuk.

ments Program.

NationalPetroleum NorthwestAlaska,west 1944-1991 No commercialreserveshave been

Reserve-Alaska. of ColvilleRiver. discovered.In1985,drillingbegan

on areasleasedunder theDOI

program. Annual leasesalesare

scheduled.

ArcticSlope Regional Primarilynorthwestern 1973 and Low-levelexplorationongoing;no discoveries.

Corporation. Alaska,southand west thereafter. Drillingup tothree wellsinArcticRefuge.

of NPRA.

FutureStateof 35 km southof Barrow 1987 and StateLease Safes45,53,58 and 60 were

AlaskaLeasing. to Cape Beaufortand in thereafter. includedon the1986 leaseschedule.The

KotzebueSound. Statedropped theseareasfromthe 1987 5-

year leaseschedulependingmore favorable

leasingconditions.

FutureOCS Leasing

a. ChukchiSea ................. OffshoreChukchiSea..... 1990 and InformationforSale 109 alsowould applyto

thereafter. futureSale126 proposed for1991.

b. Hope Basin................... KotzebueSound and 1991 and OCS Sale133 isa frontier-exploration sale

ChukchiSea. thereafter. proposed for1992.

Mid-BeaufortSea region

Trans-AlaskaPipeline.........Prudhoe Bay to Valdez... 1973-1977 The 800-milepipelineand relatedfacilities

occupy 42.4km2. Currentflow

rateis1.7millionbbIs/day.

Prudhoe Bay Unit Prudhoe Bay onshore. 1965-2006 Peak productionongoing until1987;declining

oilproduction. thereafter.

Lisburnefield....................... Prudhoe Bay Unit............ 1968-2017 Developmentof onshore portionisunderway.

Kuparuk Riverfield............. Approx.40 km west of 1970-2002 Phase Iproductionbegan December 1981.

Prudhoe Bay, onshore. Full-field waterfloodingbegan in1986.

West Sak ............................. WithinKuparuk River 1970-2015+ Pilotprojectcompleted. Development

Unit. willnotoccur untiloilpricesimproveand

become more stable.

Endicott................................ 19.3km eastof Prudhoe 1977-2000+ Roads and islandsareconstructed.Pipeline

Bay offshore. shouldbe completedby 1987.

162 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Projectname Generallocation Developmental Currentstatus

timeframe

Mid-BeaufortSea region--Continued

Milne Point........................... North of KuparulkRiver 1970-2000+ Productionbegan in1985 and was suspended

Unit. in1986. Milne pipelinetiesintothe Kuparuk

pipeline.

Discoveredresources Mid-BeaufortSea ............. ..................... Untilgas infrastructure is available,gas

(oilfieldsand fieldsuch as PointThomson and Gubik will

gas fields). not be developed. Others such as Gwydyr Bay,

Ugnu Sands, and Simpson Lagoon need either

technologicaladvances or increasesinoilprices

beforethey can be developed.

Seal Island........................... BeaufortSea ..................... 1981-2014 Additionalwellsplanned.

PreviousStateSales ..........Uplands and offshorein 1983-2014 Seal Islandand Endicottare primarily

Mid-BeaufortSea region. on State-leasedland.

PreviousFederal Barrow to Canada within 1981-2014 Explorationdrillingunderway.

OffshoreLease 200-m isobath.

Sales.

FutureOCS Leasing OffshoreBeaufortSea ..... 1990 and InformationforSale97 appliestofuture

BeaufortSea. thereafter. BeaufortSea sales.

FutureStateof OffshoreBeaufortSea; 1986 and StateLease Sales 51, 52,54,57, 64 and 65

Alaska Leasing. onshore eastof Prudhoe thereafter. are both onshore and offshore.LittleinforBay Unit. mationisavailable.Sales57 and 61 were

dropped from the 5-yearleaseschedule in

November 1986.

EasternBeaufortSea region

Canadian Beaufort OffshoreMackenzie Bay, 1973-2000+ Major discoveriesubjectto delineation.

Sea (ESSO, Dome, Canada. EIS on development and productioncompleted,

Gulfacreage). but no development announced yet.

FutureStateof Submerged lands between 1987 and StateLease Sales 50 and 55.

Alaska Leasing. the Canning Riverand thereafter.

Demarcation Point.

between the Sagavanirklokand Canning Rivers,justto the the sum of likelyimpactsineach of these areas. On the

west of the ArcticRefuge. otherhand, the probabilitythattherewillbe a reductionin

activityin areas on the North Slope which currently

The activitiesdescribedabove could eventuallylead produce,or are about to produce oil,ismuch higher.This

to a wide range of environmentaleffects,The construction would leadto partialcancellationofsome ofthe impacts.

of transportation,drilling,processing,and residential

facilities, use oflargevolumes of water,and management of

waste materialsinvolvelocalizedalterationof land coverand Habitatloss and modificationassociatedwith past

attendantlosses in plantproductionand animalhabitat. and potentialdevelopment withinthe regioncouldaffecta

Some directlosses of residentanimals,particularly among number of wildlifepopulationsof nationalinterest.Of

less mobile species,are likely.Habitatmodificationand particularinterestare potentialcumulativeeffectson the

loss or reductionof valuein conjunctionwith noiseand Porcupinecaribouherd and the CentralArcticherd,both of

other disturbancesare linkedto changes in localhabitat which range beyond the boundariesof the 1002 area.

use patternsby some migratoryspecies. Some regionaldevelopment activities,includingthose at

Prudhoe Bay, have occurredwithinareas historically used

The cumulativeimpacts ofpossibleactivitiesinallthe for caribou calving. As discussedearlierin thischapter,

offshoreareas and the 1002 areacannot be assumed to be post-developmentstudiesindicatean absence of calving

CONSEQUENCES--CUMULATIVE EFFECTS 163
near the coast at Prudhoe Bay during 1976-85,possibly

irretrievable loss,because rehabilitationcould take as much

due to avoidance of the area by caribou.Despite apparent

as 100 years in the harsh arcticenvironment. An additional

changes in distribution,the populationsof both caribou

500 to 750 acres of the coastal plain may also be

herds have been increasing. At some point,however, permanently alteredas a resultof gravelmining.

incrementalloss and modificationof suitablecalvinghabitat

could be expected to resultin population declines. - Longer oilproductiontimes would also increasethe

Similarly,at some time, cumulativehabitatloss withinthe

potentialforoilspillsand othertoxic/contaminantaccidents,

regionpotentiallycould resultin changes in distributionor

the resultsof which are detailedin AlternativesA and B.

populationreductionsof other species includingmuskoxen,

wolves, wolverines,polar bears, snow geese, and arctic

Approximately 20 acres of shallow subtidalmarine

grayling.

bottom could be permanently alteredby constructionof

docks and causeways at each part site, A causeway

The potentialfor and extent of specificadverse could also have permanent effects on nearshore

cumulativeeffectswould have to be determined by future

temperatureand salinityregimes and circulation,which in

studies. The FWS has carriedout an extensiveprogram of

turn could alterspecies composition of planktonicand

baseline investigationson the biologicalresources of the

benthicorganisms in the area affectedor influencedby the

1002 area. In the event of oilexplorationand development, causeway. Whether these populationswould returnto prefollowupareawide studiesby the FWS and targetedstudies

projectlevelsand composition followingeitherdeliberate

relatedto specificoil operationscould be useful in

removal of the causeway or naturalerosion is problematical.

identifyingchanges inregionalfishand wildlifepopulations.

- Social and Historical Resources -

Irretrievableproducts of prehistoricculturesuch as

IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE

archeological sites might be lost from looting and

COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES

indiscriminateor accidentalactivityon known and unknown

sites. Training of personnel and stipulationsfor the

- Oil and Gas Resources

protectionof such resources would reduce the levelof

those losses.

The recoverableoilresource estimateused for the Traditionalsubsistencelifestyleswould be irreversibly

assessment in this chapter and for the scenarios in and irretrievablyost or alteredwith the introductionof

Chapter IV is the conditionalmean recoverablefigureof 3.2 widespread industrialactivityand greateropportunitiesfora

billionbarrelsof oil(BBO). The estimatesrange from a low cash-based economy.

of 0.6 BBO at the 95-percent chance to a high of more

than 9.2 BBO at the 5-percentchance. Itthe Congress The wilderness characterof the coastalplainwould

electsto permitoiland gas development and productionon be irretrievably lost.

the 1002 area of the ArcticRefuge and ifexplorationefforts

are successful,the amount of development would be COMPARISON OF SHORT-TERM USES

directlydependent upon the actualamount of economically AND LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY

recoverable reserves discovered. Those resources

discovered and economically producible would be Geologicaland geophysicalinvestigationscarriedout

irreversiblycommitted to development. in 1983-85,and other availableinformation,have revealed

geologic structureshaving the potentialfor containingoil

Biological Resources and gas resources. Ifthe Congress allows oiland gas

- Ifspecies such as caribou and muskox did not

productionfrom the 1002 area,explorationwillproceed and,

readilyhabituateto development facilities and activities, and

ifoiland gas resources are found in economic quantities,

ifsuitablealternativehabitatsare not available,the expected

productionwillresult.Though the structuresappear highly

impacts could be in terms of declinesin populationand

favorable,there is no assurance that they do containoil

overallherd vigor,and major changes in behavioralpatterns

and gas. Nevertheless, based on favorableexploration

due to disturbance and displacement. Many of these

resultsfrom the Prudhoe Bay oilfieldto the west and the

effects,though very long-term,would not be considered

Canadian BeaufortSea and Mackenzie Delta oilfieldsto

irreversibleonce the lifeof the producing fieldsinthe 1002

the east, the prospects are encouraging. Even with

negativeresults,mid- to short-termchanges caused by 10-

area was over.- 15 years of explorationcould occur beforethe area would

Placement of gravel pads for roadways, pipelines,

be abandoned.

airfields,processing facilities,housing, and other

infrastructureunder fullleasingwillcover slightlymore than

The short-term activitiesassociated with further

5,000 acres of naturalvegetation.Although there can be

explorationof the 1002 area willlead to generallyshort-term

some flexibility in sitingso thathighervalue habitatscan be displacement and disturbanceof fishand wildliferesources

avoided, the affectedvegetation may be considered an

and subsistenceusers as describedin this chapter. If

164 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
furtherexplorationindicatesthat the delineatedstructures The wildernesscharacterof the 1002 area would be

are barren,production and transportationsystems willnot lost,leavingthe designated ArcticRefuge wildernessarea

be needed--development effortscan be terminated,the east of the AlchilikRiverto the Canadian border,and the 3-

lands reclaimed,and the area allowedto returnas closely millionacre North Yukon NationalPark in Canada as the

as possibleto Rs currentcondition.In thiscase,few or no only remaining areas of preserved Arcticcoastal plain

residualor long-termeffectson wildlifepopulationsof the ecosystems in North America. -

area are expected. The wildernessattributesof the 1002

area willbe affectedfor a longertime,but are eventually - Industrialdevelopment willalso have a profound

expected to generallyrecover. effecton the Nativeculture.Although itmay providejobs

- Losses in fish and wildliferesources,subsistence

fora few members of the Kaktovikcommunity, itwillconflict

uses, and wildernessvalueson the 1002 area would be the

with or hasten changes in lifestylefrom one of subsistence

consequence of a long-term commitment to oiland gas

use dependent on the land to an industrialsocietywith a

development in the area. Ifeconomic prospectsexist,the cash-based economy. Increased educational and

area would be committed to petroleum operationsfora

employment opportunitiesand greaterhealthservicesmay

period of 30-90 years withan estimated3.2 billionbarrelsof be benefitsbut only at the expense of traditionalways of

oilbeing produced duringthat period. Itis expected that life,community bonds, and culturaldisorientation.-

gas productionfrom thisarea would be economic within With authorizationof oiland gas development,KIC

two to three decades. However, successfuloiland gas and ASRC willhave the opportunityto develop theiroiland

explorationwould lead to industrialdevelopment having an

gas resources adjacentto the 1002 area,furtherspeeding

infrastructure as depictedin Chapters IV and V. Also to be the modernizationof locallifestyles.The tradeoffsinvolved

expected are pressure to use this area as a base for

are a subjectiveassessment: lost opportunitiesto pursue

servicing explorationand development of the Outer traditionalculturalactivitiesand subsistencelifestylesfor

ContinentalShelfarea to the north,and pressure on the employment opportunitiesand economic gains which may

Congress to open areas designatedas wildernessin the be unevenly distributedthroughout the community.

ArcticRefuge to oiland gas exploration,depending on the Acceptabilityof these potentialchanges willonlybe partlya

locationof actual discoveries.Moreover, an oiland gas local decision, relativeto the extentto which the development infrastructurein the 1002 area would be an

development of an industrial-commercialbase in Kaktovikis impetus to development of State lands between the pursued.

Canning River and the TAPS to the west. If the

infrastructurealso served potentialoffshoreor other fields, Local people can eitherencourage or discourage

itwilladd to the long-termcommitment of thisarea to ancillarydevelopment servicingthe oiland gas industry.

industrialuse based on oiland gas development.-

During hearings for the previous 1002 area exploration

Commitment of the 1002 area to oiland gas

program, Kaktovikresidentsexpressed concerns thattheir

development would providethe opportunityto extractthe

opportunitiesto pursue a subsistence lifestylenot be

recoverablereservesto help meet projectednationalenergy

diminished,includingdesiresthatfishand wildliferesources

needs as fullydescribedin Chapter V11.

not be reduced or displaced,yet that they be allowedto

benefitfrom jobs or other economic opportunitiesavailable.

- Oil and gas development would resultin long-term Residents of ArcticVillageand other Native communities

changes inthe wildernessenvironment,wildlifehabitats,and utilizingcariboufrom the highlymigratoryPCH were critical

Native community activitiescurrentlyexisting,resulting of any impacts to theirsubsistenceresources which could

insteadin an area governed by industrialactivities.These be caused by exploration. Views of Kaktovikor other

changes could includedisplacementand reductionin the villagesregardingfulldevelopment are unknown. The ASRC

size of the Porcupine caribou herd ifintensiveactivities has publicly expressed its support for oiland gas

occur in itsrepeatedlyused concentratedcalvingarea,as development on both KIC/ASRC lands and the 1002 area.

well as throughout a largepart of Rs postcalving,insect- Congressional authorizationof development would include

relief,and foraginghabitats.The amount of herd reduction, authorizationto develop oiland gas resources on the

ifany, and its long-termsignificanceto herd viabilityis KIC/ASRC lands,which willadd to effectson subsistence

highly speculative. Relevant experience regarding the users and traditionallifestyles.

responses or adaptabilityof the PCH to such intensive

activitiesis lacking. However, geography apparentlylimits

the availability of suitablealternativecalvingor insect-relief - A decisionto pursue oiland gas development on the

habitats.The abilityof the herd to calve successfullyat 1002 area willresultin tradeoffs.As much as 9.2 billion

even greaterconcentrationsthan at present in calvingareas barrelsof oilwould become availableto contributeto the

which would remain unaffectedby oiland gas activitiesis Nation'senergy needs and offsetoilimports. On the other

unknown. Mitigationmeasures such as environmentally hand there could be a loss of a significantpartof the PCH

sensitivesitingof facilities, time and area closures,and calvinggrounds and other habitats,continued expansion of

harvestrestrictionscan minimizesome adverse effectson muskoxen herds, staging habitatsfor internationally

the PCH as wellas on otherfish,wildlife,and subsistence importantmigratorysnow geese, and numerous other fish

resources. and wildlifehabitats. Additionaltradeoffsinvolved in

CONSEQUENCES-SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM 165
SUMMARY OF EFFECTS FOR ALTERNATIVES A, B, C, D, AND E ON THE PHYSICAL,

BIOLOGICAL, AND HUMAN ENVIRONMENTS OF THE 1002 AREA

Alternative

A 131 C D2 E

Physicalenvironment

Water ..................................................................... Major Major Minor None None

Gravel .................................................................... Moderate Moderate Minor None

Air........................................................................... Minor Minor Minor None None

Permafrost............................................................. Moderate Moderate Neg. None

Ambient noise....................................................... Major Major Minor None None

Biologicalenvironment

Vegetation,wetlands,and terraintypes............Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Specialterrestrialnd aquatic environments.... Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.

Coastal/marineenvironment................................ Minor3 Minor3 Neg. Neg. Neg.

Caribou (PCH)...................................................... Major Moderate Neg. Neg. Neg.

(CAH)...................................................... Minor Minor Minor Neg. Neg.

Muskox .................................................................. Major Major Minor Neg. Neg.

Moose ................................................................... Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.

Dallsheep ............................................................. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.

Wolf........................................................................ Moderate Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Arcticfox............................................................... Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Wolverine............................................................... Moderate Moderate Neg. Neg. Neg.

Brown bear ........................................................... Moderate Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Polarbear ............................................................. Moderate Moderate Minor Neg. Neg.

Seals/whales ......................................................... Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Ground squirrel/otherrodents............................ Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Snow goose ......................................................... Moderate Moderate Neg. Neg. Neg.

Tundra swan ......................................................... Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Other geese/ducks ............................................... Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Seabirds/shorebirds..................... I....................... Minor4 Minor4 Neg. Neg. Neg.

Peregrinefalcon.................................................... Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.

Raptors.................................................................. Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Ptarmigan .............................................................. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.

Passerines............................................................. Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Fresh-waterfish5.................................................. Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg.

Coastal fish.......................................................... Minor6 Minor6 Neg. Neg. Neg.

Human environment

Human population................................................ Moderate Moderate Neg. Neg. Neg.

Sociocultural......................................................... Major Major Minor Neg. Neg.

Subsistence .......................................................... Major7 Major7 Minor Neg. Neg.

Native allotments.................................................. Major Major Minor Neg. Neg.

Land statusand military...................................... Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.

Industrial................................................................ Major Major Minor Neg. Neg.

State/localpoliticaland economic.................... Major Major Minor Neg. Neg.

Publicservices/facilities ..................................... Major Major Minor Neg. Neg.

Archeology ............................................................ Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.

Recreation,wilderness,and esthetics...............Major Major Moderate Neg. Neg.

166 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
FOOTNOTES FOR TABLE ON FACING PAGE developing coastal plainoiland gas resources include

reduced airand water qualityand industrialcommitment of

lEffectswillgenerallybe the same as for fullleasing graveland water resources.-

but over less area.

2Depending on finalCCP. - Development willalso significantlyrestrictthe

30il spillsand (or)cumulativedevelopments could continuationof subsistence hunting by residents of

cause major impacts. Kaktovik. ArcticVillageand other communities in Alaska

4Some localeffectscould be moderate. and Western Canada dependent on migratoryfishand

5includesArcticchar and grayling. wildlifepopulationsof the 1002 area could experiencesome

6Could be moderate with development of KIC/ASFIC declinein subsistenceopportunities.Finally,the wilderness

or offshoreareas. Other than minor effectsexpected in value of the fragileand limitedArctic coastal plain

vicinityof port sites,effectson coastal fish willbe ecosystem would be gone fora centuryor more. -

negligible.Effectscould be major with an oilspillinfish

habitats. - Conversely,a decisionto designatethe 1002 area as

7For residentsof Kaktovik. wilderness while maintainingthe long-termfish,wildlife,

subsistence,and wildernessvalues would be done at a

cost of a potential,but unconfirmed,estimatedmean value

of 3.2 billionbarrelsof oiland the economic and security

benefitsthe Nation could achieve from productionof that

oil.-

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED MITIGATION FOR THE 1002 AREA

Followingisa summary ofsafetyand environmentalmitigation measuresthatcouldbe recommendedforvariousphases

oiland gas exploration,development,production,and transportationactivitieson the 1002 area.

Mitigationmeasure Results

1. Limitoilexploration,except surface geology studies, Willlimitdisturbanceto periodswhen most fishand

to November 1-May 1 (exactdates to be determined wildlifespecies are absent.

by Refuge Manager). Cease explorationactivitiesand

remove or storeequipment at an approved siteby

May 15. Local exceptionsmay be made.

2. Consolidate,site,construct,and maintainfacilities Willavoid or minimizedisturbancein,or loss of,

and pipelinesto minimizeeffectson sensitivefish environmentallysensitiveareas and allow freepassage

and wildlifehabitatsand species. Locate and naturalmovement of fishand wildlife.

nonessentialfacilities outside concentratedcaribou

calvingareas.

3. Design allbridges and culvertsto handle at least50- Willpreventdamage and disturbanceof fishhabitats.

year floodevents.

4. Use ice or gravel-foam-timberpads, where feasible. Willreduce gravelrequirementsand acres of habitat

modified.

5. Prohibit:gravelremoval from activestream channels Willminimizedisturbanceto fishand degradationof fish

on major fish-bearingrivers;winterwater removal habitats.

from fish-bearingwaters,or springs and tributaries

feedingintofish-bearingwaters;spring,summer, or

fallwater removal from fish-bearingwaters to levels

thatwillnot easilypass fishor maintainquality

rearinghabitat.

6. Elevatepipelinesto allowfreepassage of caribou or Willallowmigrationand other movements of caribou and

place ramps or bury as feasible. largemammals.

7. Separate roads and pipelines400-800 feet,depending Willenhance crossingof linearstructuresby caribou and

on terrain,inareas used forcaribou crossing. other mammals.

CONSEQUENCES-SUMMARY 167
Mitigationmeasure Results

8. Construct docks and causeways so thatfish Willprovide forfishand marine mammal movement and

movements are not impeded and lagoon water lessen degradationof near-shoremarine habitat.

chemistryis basicallyunchanged.

9. Avoid constructionin coastalareas near river Willreduce disturbanceto polar bears,and prevent

systems with topographicreliefor bluffs;otherwise, destructionof potentialbear den and raptornest sites.

minimizeconstructionactivitiesalong the coast

through the denning period,approximatelymid-March.

Minimize activitiesalong the coast during late

October-earlyNovember when polarbears come

ashore to den.

10. Restrictsurface occupancy inthe zone from the Willpermitcaribou use of coastalinsect-relief habitatand

coastlineinland3 milesto marine facilities and reduce disturbanceof nestingwaterfowland other

infrastructureessentialto move inlandbeyond the species.

restrictedzone; drillpads and productionfacilities

could be allowedwithinthe zone 1.5to 3 milesfrom

the coast on a site-specific basis.

11. Prohibitsurfaceoccupancy in the SadlerochitSpring Willprevent degradationof a unique environmentand

SpecialArea (pi.1N. prevent loss of water essentialforfishoverwintering.

12. Minimizesurface occupancy in immediatevicinityof Willprevent destructionof Thlaspi arcticum.

areas identifiedas supportingThlaspiarcticum.

Includeinformationon identification and need for

avoidance of Thlaspiarcticum in allenvironmental

orientationbriefings.

13. Use bear-prooffencingaround certainfacilities; Willminimize bear/human confrontations,and reduce

develop solidwaste management plans;incinerate attractionof and increasesin scavenger populations.

putresciblewaste daily;prohibitwildlifefeeding;

instituteemployee education programs as appropriate.

14. Inventoryprojectareas forculturalresources,evaluate Willpreserveculturalresources (archeologicaland historic

resources,and implement mitigationto avoid or sites)to the maximum extentpossible.

minimize impact.

15. Prohibitoff-roadvehicleuse within5 milesof all Willminimizedisturbanceto wildlife,reduce destructionof

pipelines,pads, roads,and otherfacilities, except by vegetation,and permitmigrationof largemammals.

localresidentsengaged in traditionaluses or if

otherwise specificallypermitted.

16. Establishtime and area closuresor restrictionson Willprotectspecies from disturbanceduring critical

certainsurface activitysuch as exploration,vehicle periods.

movements, and otheractivitythatcan be reasonably

rescheduled,in areas of wildlifeconcentrationduring

muskox calving,April15-June 5; caribou calving,May

15-June 20; caribou insectharassment, June 20-Aug.

15; snow goose staging,Aug. 20-Sept.27; and fish

overwinteringand spawning.

17. Limituse of development infrastructure, roads, and Willreduce disturbanceand human/wildlifeinteraction.

airstripsto persons on officialbusiness.

18. Reinjectdrillingmuds, cuttings,and other wastes Willminimizeareas needed forreservepitsand reduce

where geologicallyfeasible.Remove hazardous potentialfor contaminant spills.

wastes offrefugeto an approved disposalsite.

168 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Mitigationmeasure Results

19. Close areaswithin3/4mileof high-watermark of Willprotectriparianhabitatand reduce streampollution

specifiedwater coursesto permanent facilities and and disturbanceinan importantand limitedhabitat.

limittransportationcrossings.Gravelremovalmay

occur on a site-specific basis.

20, Prohibituse ofexplosivesor othernoisyactivities Willprotectnestingperegrinefalconsand otherraptors

within2 milesof raptornestsitesApril15-August31 from disturbance.

(June1 ifnestisunoccupied),unlessspecifically

authorizedby the FWS.

21. Prohibitground levelactivity,permanent facilities, and Willprotectnestingperegrinefalconsand otherraptors

long-termhabitatalterations(materialsites,roads,and from disturbance.

airstrips) within1 mileof known peregrineor other

raptornestsitesApril15-August31 (June 1 ifnest is

unoccupied)unlessspecifically authorized.

22. Survey suitablehabitatannuallyto locatenesting Willavoidconflictsbetween development and nesting

peregrinesand otherraptors. raptors.

23. Establishno-activityzone ofat least1/2milearound Willpreventdisturbanceduringdenning.

any confirmedpolarbear den.

24. Close areawithin5 milesof developmentand Willincreasepublicsafetyand reduce directmortalityof

associatedinfrastructure to hunting,trapping,and caribou,muskoxen, bears,and waterfowl;lower

dischargeof firearms,exceptforsubsistenceuses disturbanceand increasethe likelihoodof habituationby

only,on a site-specific basis,where therewillbe speciesencounteringdevelopment;however,willresultin

major effectson those uses. negativeeffectsto subsistenceuses of some areas.

25. Develop and implementplansforcontrol,use,and Willreduce potentialforcontaminantspills.

disposalof fueland hazardous wastes.

26. Monitorpopulations,productivity,movements, and Willallowearlyidentification of problems and

generalhealthof key species. Research measures to implementationof correctivemeasures forcaribou,

furtherminimizeadverseeffectsof development. muskoxen, polarbears,snow geese,arcticchar,and

Implement correctiveactions. others.

27. Provide: environmentalorientationbriefingsfor Willincreaseenvironmentalawareness of workers;give

workers;program formonitoringdevelopment managers continuingbaselineinformationto analyze

activities; continuationoffishand wildlifepopulation effectsof development and improve protectivemeasures;

monitoring;follow-upprograms to evaluateeffects. helpto ensure effectivenessof mitigation.

28. Develop plans inconjunctionwitharea residentsand Willminimizeundesirablesocioculturaland socioeconomic

organizationsto properlymanage impactson impacts,such as chemicaldependency, boom-and-bust

communities. cycle,and culturaldisorientation.

29. Develop and implementan approved rehabilitation May providetotalor partialrestorationof habitatvaluesin

planas partof the appropriatepermitstages. affectedarea.

CONSEQUENCES--SUMMARY 169
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174 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
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Effectsof seismicsurveys on denning grizzlybears in pipelinecrossingsuccess of caribou,p. 40-46 inMartell

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Management, Bear BiologyAssociation,Grand Canyon, largegroups of caribouto a pipelinecorridoron the

AZ, February1983. ArcticcoastalplainofAlaska: Arctic,v.38, no. 1,p.53-

Richardson,W. J., editor,1982, Behaviordisturbance 57.

responses and breedingof bowhead whales (Balaen Sopuck, L.G., Tull,C. E.,Green, J. E.,and Salter,R. W.,

mysticetusinthe BeaufortSea, 1980-81: Unpublished 1979, Impacts of development on wildlife-Areviewfrom

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Robus, M. A., and Curatolo,J. A., 1983, Caribou Limited.Calgary,Alta,400 p.

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region,Kuparuk oilfield,Alaska,1983: Fairbanks,Alaska denning arcticfoxes at Aberdeen Lake, Northwest

BiologicalResearch,finalreportto ARCO Alaska,Inc,, Territories: Universityof Saskatchewan, Canadian

61 P. WildlifeService,Edmonton, Alberta.

Roseneau, D. G,, Bente,P. J.,and Springer,A. M., 1980, Spindler,M. A., 1984, Distribution,abundance, and

Numbers and statusof peregrinefalconson the middle productivityoffallstaginglessersnow geese on coastal

Yukon River,lowerYukon, inselectedareas ofthe Arctic habitatsof northeastAlaska and northwest Canada,

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Anchorage,54 p. reviewof ecologicaleffects:EnvironmentalManagement,

Roseneau, D. G., and Stern,P. M., 1974,Distributionf v.8, p. 27-44.

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BiologicalReport Series,v. 6, 101 p. annual reportof the Prudhoe Bay MonitoringProgram,

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Yellowknife,Northwest TerritoriesWildlifeService,85 p. Tundra bird monitoringprogram: U.S. Army Corps of

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Juneau, Alaska Department of Fish and Game Technical U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,1982, Initialreport,baseline

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explorationforoiland gas on the coastalplainof the automated mapping techniquesto study the historical

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U.S. Fish and WildlifeService,17 p. Research,63 p.

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U.S

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environmental impact statement, Proposed Outer largewaterfowl species by gas-compressor sound

Continental Shelf sand and gravel lease sale: simulation,Komakuk, Yukon Territory,August-September,

Anchorage, 140 p.

1973,p. 1-36inGunn and others(1974).

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fieldlease offering-Finalenvironmentalimpact statement: 349-368 inSchmidt,J. L.,and Gilbert,D. L.,editors,Big

Anchorage,MMS Alaska OCS Region,MMS 84-0009,2

game of North America: Harrisburg,PA, Stackpole

volumes. Books, 698 p.

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BeaufortSea lease Sale 97, draftenvironmentalimpact birdsand caribouto the 1980 drillingoperationat Point

statement:Anchorage, OCS EIS/EA,MMS 86-0042. Thomson #4 Well--final report: LGL EcologicalResearch

U.S. Minerals Management Service,1987, Proposed Associates,Inc.,forExxon USA, 62 p.

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statement: Anchorage, OCS EIS/EA, MMS 67-0009, Europe and the possibilitiesof conservationand

March 1987. reintroduction,p. 43-83,in KlInghammer,E.,editor,The

VanBallenberghe,V., and Mech, L. D., 1975, Weight, behavior and ecology of wolves: New York, Garland

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van Zyllde Jong, G. G., 1975,Distributionand abundance TerrorLake hydroelectricproject,1984 annual progress

of the wolverine(Guloguljoin Canada: Canadian Field- report:Kodiak,U.S.Fishand WildlifeService,7 p.

Naturalist,v. 89, p. 431-437.

176 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
CHAPTER VII

OIL AND GAS--NATIONAL NEED FOR DOMESTIC SOURCES

AND THE 1002 AREA'S POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION

INTRODUCTION - THE 1002 AREA'S POTENTIAL

CONTRIBUTION TO U.S. NEEDS Section1002(h)(5)of the Alaska National Interest

Lands Conservation Act of 1980 (ANILCA) requiresan - The unique geologic featuresunderlyingthe 1002

evaluationof the relationshipof hydrocarbon resources in

area create the potentialfor discoverieswhich would make

the 1002 area of the ArcticRefuge to the nationalneed for

a very substantialcontributionto domestic oilreserves.

additionaldomestic sources of oiland gas. This chapter Despite the area's remote locationand hostileenvironment,

describesthe nationalneed and the potentialcontribution itis the petroleum explorationtargetin the onshore U.S.

of oilfrom the 1002 area. Benefitswhich would accrue to having the greatestpotential.Data from outcroppingrocks

the Nation include gains in nationalincome, reduced withinthe area and from nearby wells,combined with vulnerabilityto disruptionsin the world market, and

seismic informationgathered from 1983 to 1985, indicate improvements in the balance of payments and national

geologic conditions which are exceptionallyfavorablefor security.The analysisfocuses only on oilbecause natural major discoveries.-

gas from the 1002 area may not become economic to

produce and transportto market within the 30-year There is a 30-percent chance that an exploratory timeframe considered.

drillingprogram on the 1002 area would findhydrocarbons.

The estimatesused in thischapter depend on many

There is a 63-percent chance that,ifhydrocarbons are

variables.Ifthe 1002 area were opened and leased in a

found, the amount would exceed the minimum economic

timelymanner, production would not be expected until fieldsizefor at leastone prospect,resultingin the marginal

about the year 2000. Therefore, the 1002 area's

probabilityof 19 percent. The 19-percentprobabilityforthe

contributionto U.S. energy needs has been determined by 1.5-million-acre 1002 area indicatesa very high potentialas

comparing its production potentialwith projectedenergy

discussed in Chapter Ill.

needs beginning about 15 years from now and extending30

- The billionsof barrelsof oilthat may existin the

years out to the year 2030 and possiblybeyond.

1002 area could make an important contributionto the

Itis difficultto anticipateeitherworld oilprices nationalneed for domestic sources of oil. Alaska North

beyond the year 2000 or the rateof realgrowth of the U.S.

Slope crude oil,especiallythat from Prudhoe Bay, now

economy--two importantdeterminantsof the futuredemand contributesalmost 20 percent of domestic production.

for energy. Nevertheless,potentialproductionfrom the However, productionfrom Prudhoe Bay has peaked and a

1002 area can be compared with variousforecastsof future declineis expected no laterthan 1988. The Kuparuk River

U.S. energy demand and supply. This chapter reliesmainly and other fieldsare stillbeing developed. They willbegin

on the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) long-term

to declinein the 1990's. Oil from the 1002 area could

reference case projectionscontained in its1985 National help moderate these declinesin supply and substantially

Energy PolicyPlan,but also considers laterDOE Energy

reduce the need forincreasedimports (Riva,1986, 1987).-

InformationAdministrationestimates(DOE, 1986a, b; 1987a,

b) and severalprivateforecasts(Chevron, 1986; Conoco, The oilresources and possibleproductioncapability

1986; Nehring, 1981). More recent forecastsdo not of the larger potentialoilfieldsin the 1002 area are

considerthe period afterthe year 2000. substantialby U.S. standards. Estimates of resources in

NATIONAL NEED--POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION 177
place range from 4.8 billionbarrelsof oil(BBO) to more Contribution to Domestic Oil

than 29.4 BBO. Recoverableresourceestimatesrangefrom Demand and Supply

0.6 BBO to 9.2 BBO. The potentialrecoverableresources

of some fieldsinthe 1002 area may sizablyexceed I 13130. The 1002 area'spotentialcontributionto the national

Only 13 domestic fieldshavingtotalreservesgreaterthan 1 need for domestic oilproductionis assessed in lightof

BBO have been discovered. Their originalreserves, supply and demand conditions.Oilconsumptionin the

remainingreserves,currentproductionrate,and year of UnitedStateshas exceeded domesticproductionformore

discoveryare displayedin tableVII-11. than 20 years. Using the dailyproductionestimatesforthe

1002 area, table VII-2compares the area's potential

Ifproductive,the 1002 area'sfieldscouldbe the contributionwiththe Department of Energy'sreferencecase

largestdomestic fieldsdiscoveredsincePrudhoe Bay and projectionsfor domestic oilsupply and demand POE,

Kuparuk Riverin1968 and 1969. Except forthese,no U.S. 1985) to illustratethe magnitude of the contribution1002

fieldwith reservesexceeding1 BBO has been discovered area oilproductioncould make in the face of increasing

since 1948. The size of the 1002 area'sstructuresand demand and steadilydecliningdomestic production.

theirpotentialfor oilaccumulationsare geologicallythe

Nation'sbest onshore targetsfor the discoveryof very The United States has stabilizeditsoilproduction

largeoilfields.Ifproductive,the largefieldswould jointhe capabilityand temporarilymoderated the declinein

listof 'giant"oilfieldswhich have contributedmore than domestic reserves since 1974. This is largelydue to

two-thirdsof totaldomesticoilproduction.The previously successfulexplorationand intensiveexploitationf known

discoveredgiants,exceptforthe two Alaskanfields,are fields,includingthe use of improved and enhanced oil

more than 75 percentdepleted(tableV11-11), and even the recovery(EOR) technology,and to the 1.5 millionbarrels

Prudhoe Bay fieldisalmosthalfdepleted. per day produced atAlaska'sPrudhoe Bay.

For purposes of assessingthe 1002 area'spossible

- UnitedStatescrude production(excludingnaturalgas contribution,the conditionalmean recoverableresource

estimateof 3.2 BBO has been used. The estimatefor liquids)peaked at 9.64 millionbarrelsof oilper day

limitedleasingis2.4BBO. These figuresdo not consider (MBO/D) in1970 and has remainedrelatively constantover

resources that may occur in undefined but potential the lastdecade, amounting to 8.7 MBO/D in 1986. In

stratigraphictraps(see Chapter 111). February1986,the Energy InformationAdministration(EIA)

of the Departmentof Energy (DOE, 1986b) predictedthat

Table VIII-11-U.S.oilfieldshavingultimaterecovery

domestic crude productionwould decrease by about 3

exceeding1 billionbarrelsof oil.

percentper year beginningin 1987, decliningto about 8.05

IVIBO/Din 1990 and to 6.53 IVIBO/Dby 1995. InFebruary

[BBO, billionbarrelsof oil;IVIBO/Y,millionbarrelsof oil

1987, however,the EIA'sbase case estimate(DOE, 1967a)

per year. From Oiland Gas Journal(1986)and Roadifer

was only 6.0 IVIBO/Dfor1995 and 5.4 MBO/D forthe year

(1986)]

2000. Both estimates representa substantialreduction

from previousDOE forecasts,includingthe referencecase

inthe NationalEnergy PolicyPlan(DOE, 1985).-

Field Year OriginalRemaining Current

discov-reservesreserves production - In June 1986,the Chevron Corporationpredictedthat

ered (BBO) (BBO) (MBO1Y) productionwould decrease to 8.8 MBO/D in 1986 and

steadilydeclineto 6.2 MBO/D by the year 2000 (Chevron,

Prudhoe Bay, AK .....1968 9.47 5.10 568

1986). In November 1986,J.P. Rive,ofthe SciencePolicy

East Texas................ 1930 6.00 1.11 48

Research Divisionofthe Libraryof Congress,predictedthat

Wilmington,CA ........ 1932 2.55 .36 41

productionwilldecreaseto 6.9 MBO/D in 2000 ifthe low

Midway-Sunset,CA. 1894 2.16 .45 54

drillingactivityof 1986 continues. Other recentestimates

suggest productionlevelsas low as 4.0MBO/D by the year

Kern River,CA ......... 1899 1.99 .92 51

2000. The lowerforecastsare largelythe resultof reduced

Yates,TX .................. 1926 1.95 .90 45

oiland gas prices,priceuncertainty,consequent reduced

Wasson, TX .............. 1936 1.68 .57 33

drillinglevelsand discoveryrates,higherannual production

Kuparuk River,AK ...1969 1.59 1.30 79

declinesin known fields,and decreased emphasis on

productionstimulationprojects(Spaulding,1986: Doscher

Elk Hills,CA ............. 1911 1.47 .70 47

and Kostura, 1986; Kuuskraa, 1986; Ray and others,

Panhandle,TX .......... 1921 1.46 .07 11

1986).-

Kelly-Snyder,TX ....... 1948 1.35 .15 19

HuntingtonBeach, Crude oilreservesdecreased more than 27 percent,

CA .......................... 1920 1.12 .07 8 about 11 BBO from 1970 to 1985 and declinedannually

Slaughter,TX ............ 1936 1.03 .06 24 during14 of these 15 years despiteextensiveexploration

-

and activefieldexploitationprograms.

178 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
TableV11-2.-The1002 area'spotentialcontributionto U.S. Riva (Riva,1984; Riva and others,1985; Gall,1986),

oildemand, production,and imports. predictsthat shrinkingAmerican oilreserveswillplunge by

1990 to theirlowest levelssince shortlyafterWorld War 11.

[Inthousands of barrelsper day. U.S. demand, production, On the basis of currentlow drillingrates,Riva (1986,1987)

and importdata from U.S. Department of Energy, 1985, predictsa declinefrom the 1985 reservefigureof 28.4 BBO

table3-10] to 25.1 BBO in 1990, to 23.0 BBO in 1995, and to 21.7

BBO in 2000. The most significantdeclinesin reserveswill

occur in the older,traditionaloil-producingareas of the

western United States,Texas, the Gulf Coast, and the

Year ............................................... 2000 2005 2010 Midcontinent. In the frontieregionsof Alaska and offshore

California,prospects are betterfor substantialreserve

additions.

U.S. OIL DEMANDI ................. 16,400 16,000 15,900

1002 AREA OIL PRODUCTION:

Fullleasing............................. 147 659 404

- The data previouslysummarized demonstrate thatthe

Percent of U.S. total trend of decliningdomestic oilproductionand reservesis

demand ............................. .9 4.0 2.5

accelerating.Explorationand development well drillinghave

decreased to less than halfof 1985 levelsand reservesare

Limited leasing....................... 105 473 300 not being adequately replaced. This situationhas very

Percent of U.S. total seriouslong-termconsequences. -

demand ............................ .6 2.9 1.8

U.S. OIL PRODUCTION2 ........ 9,000 8,400 7,600

Ifcurrentproductionand reservesin known fieldsare

assumed (the reserves/productionratio),theoreticallythe

1002 AREA OIL PRODUCTION:

Nation'soilreserveswould be exhausted in about 9 years.

Fullleasing............................. 147 659 404

But because oil-fieldproduction conventionallydeclines

Percent of U.S. total

about 10 percentper year compounded, in practiceitwill

production.......................16 7.9 5.3

take about 30 years to exhaust known reserves.

Limited leasing....................... 105 473 300

Percent of U.S. total Production capabilityand reserves can be increased

production.......................1.2 5.6 4.0 by (1)exploringfornew fields;(2)extendingor findingnew

reservoirsin known fields;(3) producingmore of the total

oil-in-placeby EOR methods, in-fill drilling,well stimulation,

U.S. OIL IMPORTS (net)......... 7,400 7,600 8,300 etc.;and (4) developingimproved productiontechnology.

Use of each technique depends on projectedpricesof oil

1002 AREA OIL PRODUCTION: and gas, economics, and relativecosts of the technique.

Fullleasing............................. 147 659 404

Percent of U.S. total

imports............................. 2.0 8.7 4.9 From 1977 through 1985, a period of high oilprices

and the greatestboom in domestic explorationhistory,an

Limitedleasing....................... 105 473 300 average of 930 millionbarrels of new reserves were

Percent of U.S. total discoveredeach year (MBO/Y). Revisionsand adjustments

imports............................. 1.4 6.2 3.6 added an average of 1483 MBO/Y. Consumption during

the same period averaged almost 3000 MBO/Y. Reserves

therefore decreased by an average of 565 MBO/Y.

Excludes refinerygains. Approximately 7 percent of the increase resultedfrom

21ncludesnaturalgas liquids,enhanced oilrecovery,and discoveryof new fields,31 percentfrom the discoveryof

shale oil.Figuresfor1002 area productionnot includedin extensionsand new zones in known fields,and 62 percent

DOE data. from EOR, other increasedrecoverymethods, and statistical

revisions. Oil is being consumed fasterthan itis being

discovered,and the Nation is reducingRs oilinventory.

The historicalquantitiesof petroleum discovered per

foot of exploratorydrillingdramaticallydemonstrate the

increasingdifficultyin findinglargeoiland gas fields(table

VII-3).The downward trend has not reversedsince 1979.

NATIONAL NEED--POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION 179
Table V11-3.-Historical recoverableU.S.oiland natural Not only might discoveryof supergiantfields

gas findingrates. significantly contributeto domesticreservesand production,

itcoulddo so at a relatively loweraveragecostper barrel

[MCF, thousand cubicfeet. becauseof economies of scale.The combinationof high

Modifiedfrom U.S.GeologicalSurvey] productionand low averagecostsmakes the totalnet

economic valuemuch higherforlargefields.Moreover,

Periodduring Incrementfeet Findingrateperfoot because averagecosts are lower,largerfieldscan be

which footage of exploratory ofexplorationd!2@ produced more economicallyand can contributeto the

was drilled drilling Oil Gas economy even when worldoilpricesarelower.

(billions) (barrels) (MCF)

Contributionto NationalObjectives

1859-1949 0.0-0.5 236 916 The potentialcontributionfrom 1002 areaproduction

1949-1958 0.5-1.0 51 347 goes wellbeyond thatof simplyprovidinga percentageof

1958-1967 1.0-1.5 21 252 U.S.domesticoilneeds thatmight otherwisehave to be

1967-1977 1.5-2.0 20 186 obtainedfromforeignsourcesof supply. Productionof oil

1977-1979 2.0-2.1 9 134 fromthe 1002 areacan helpachievethisNation'snational

economic and securityobjectivesas well.

FOSTERING ADEQUATE ENERGY SUPPLIES

AT REASONABLE COSTS

DOE's 1985 NationalEnergyPolicyPlan has as Rs

Fieldshaving recoverablereservesexceeding100 generalgoal fosteringadequate energysuppliesat

millionbarrelsof oil(MBO) are frequentlydescribedas reasonablecosts. Adequate supply requires"a flexible

nationalclass giants. Giant fieldshaving reserves energy system thatavoidsundue dependence on any

exceeding500 MBO aresupergiantsor worldclassgiants. singlesourceof supply,foreignor domestic,and thereby

Giantsand supergiantsare few in number,but contribute contributesto nationalsecurity[and]impliesfreedom of

the bulkof the world'soilproduction;fewer than 300 choiceaboutthe mixand measure ofenergyneeds to meet

supergiantoilfields(ou@tof 30,000oilfieldsworldwide) our industrial, commercial,and personalrequirements."The

containmore than 80 percentof the world'sknown oil NationalEnergy PolicyPlan alsorecognizesthatleasing

reserves.More than 40 supergiantshave been discovered Federallandsis importantinthe Nation'seffortto ensure

inthe UnitedStates,almostallpriorto 1939. Significantly, long-termenergysupplies.

onlyfivehave been discoveredsince1951: McArthurRiver

(1965),PrudhoeBay (1968),and KuparukRiver(1969),allin REDUCING DEPENDENCE ON IMPORTED OIL

Alaska;Jay in Florida(1970);and EastAnschutzRanch in

the OverthrustBeltin Wyoming (1981).Onlyone of these - Since 1970 thisNationhas depended heavilyon

was discoveredfrom 1977 to 1985.PointArguelloin the foreignpetroleumsupplies.The prospectisforcontinued

OuterContinentalShelf(OCS) offCaliforniamy be added U.S.dependence. Importsin1986 averaged6.1MBO/D, to

to thislistonce thereservesarefullydefined. supply37 percentof domesticoilneeds. During1986,net

oilimportsrose 23 percent;oildemand increased2.5

percentdespitea sluggisheconomy; oiland gas drilling

Discoverypatternsforgiantoilfieldsareonlyslightly activityfell50 percent;and directindustryemployment

more favorable.About two-thirdsof the 270 giantswere dropped more than26 percent.The latestforecastshow

found before1940,94 since,and the number of such thatU.S.dependence on foreignoilisexpectedto increase

discoveriesdecreasesineach successivedecade. significantly by and beyond the end of the century.The

NationalPetroleumCouncil(1987,table4) estimatedthatin

theyear2000 the UnitedStateswillimport52 percentofits

Almostallthe onshorebasinsinthe UnitedStates oildemand ifthe priceof oilincreasesto $36 per barrel

thathold the greatestpotentialforverylargediscoveries, and willimport68 percentof itsoildemand ifthe price

exceptforthe 1002 area,have alreadybeen explored. increasesto only$21 perbarrel.TableV11-2compares the

Althoughsome veryattractive offshoreareasareyetto be percentof the 1002 areacontributionwithU.S.oilimports,

explored,the 1002 areaisparticularly promisingbecause it based on the estimatesinthe DOE 1985 NationalEnergy

containsextensionsofotherproducingtrends,and wellson PolicyPlan.-

adjacentpropertiesshow highlyfavorableevidenceof

petroleumdeposits.These evidences,combined withthe The Nation'soilimportscome from two general

structuraltrapsmapped or inferredforthe area,indicate sources: members of the Organizationof Petroleum

thatthe 1002 area iscurrentlythe unexploredareain the ExportingCountries(OPEC), such as Saudi Arabia,

UnitedStateswiththe greatestpotentialto containgiant Venezuela,and Indonesia,and non-OPEC nations,such as

and supergiantfields(Riva,1987). Mexico,Canada, and the UnitedKingdom.

180 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Because of decreasing production in the United ACHIEVING A MORE FAVORABLE BALANCE

Statesand other non-OPEC nations,this Nation willlikely OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

become significantlymore dependent on imports from the

oil-richPersianGulf OPEC nationsno laterthan the mid- - The deficitin the U.S. internationaltrade balance has

1990's. Ifso, oilpriceswillincreaseas supply competition increased significantlyin the last decade. For 1985, oil

decreases and the Persian Gulf OPEC nations regain imports represented the single largestitem in U.S.

market leverageand controlof the internationaloilmarket. internationaltrade accounts. In 1986, the merchandise

trade deficittotaled $170 billion(U.S. Department of

As imports have increased,the United States has Commerce, 1987). In that same year,the gross cost of

again become vulnerableto the actions of oil-exporting importing crude oiland refinedpetroleum products

countries.The cost of importedoilto the economy is not amounted to $38 billion,or 22 percentofthe deficit.ifoil

only the price paid for the oilbut also the potential imports increase as currentlyprojected,achieving a

economic losses caused by a disruptionin supply,should favorable trade balance willbe even more difficult.This

one occur. Because domestic productionsubstitutesforoil problem becomes more severe as the priceof imported oil

imports,the Nation benefitsboth from the savingsthat increases. The deficitrade balance has meant that more

resultwhen the costs of producing additionaldomestic oil U.S. dollarsare spent on foreigngoods, leavingfewer

are less than the world price,and from a reductionin dollarsavailableto U.S. consumers and businesses for U.S.

vulnerability to disruptionsof supply. The contributionof goods and services.Productionfrom the 1002 area would

the 1002 area's oilresources should be gauged as a reduce not only the need for importedoilbut also the

displacementof potentiallycostlyand insecure imported oil amount of foreignexchange requiredto pay for imports,

by less costly,more secure production from domestic resultingin a more favorabletrade balance. Using the

fields.The costs of a pricechange or a supply disruption mean estimateof the anticipatedproduction,oilfrom the

willbe lessto the extentthat the economy reliesmore on 1002 area could resultin U.S. dollarsavings spent on

less expensive domestic supplies than on imported oil. imports of $1.8 billionin the year 2000, $8.3 billionin 2005,

U.S. oil reserveand production trends suggest a shift and $5.4 billionin 2010. -

toward greatervulnerability,possiblyexacerbatedby the

declinesof explorationand production in 1985-86. Thus,

the 1002 area'soilmay be able to significantly reduce the

economy's vulnerabilityo world oilmarket changes.

PROVIDING ECONOMIC BENEFITS

TO THE NATION

ENHANCING NATIONAL SECURITY

- The importance of oilin the economy is widely

Continued dependence on imports for a substantial recognized. In 1986, 37 percent of the energy used in the

part of U.S. oilconsumption createsmany nationalsecurity United States came from oil,of which approximately10

concerns. The potentialfor a supply disruptionlimitsthe MBO/D was produced domestically(crude and petroleum

flexibility of U.S. foreign/nationalsecuritypolicy,including products)and 6.1 MBO/D was imported(DOE, 1987a).-

the abilityto respond to threats.The UnitedStates could

also potentiallybe drawn into dangerous politicaland Ifoilcan be produced from the 1002 area at a cost

militarysituationsinvolvingexportingnations. Dependence lower than itssale price,a net increasein nationalincome

on oilimportsentailsdependence on extended supply lines willresultand a net economic benefitwillbe realized.The

(tankerroutes),which are targetsfor attack;thisadds to net nationaleconomic benefit"(NNEB) is the expected net

the defense burden. Key weapons systems inthe Nation's value of oilproduction,or the differencebetween revenues

arsenal,and under development, use hydrocarbon fuel. from sale of oiland the costs of exploration,development,

Clearlythe most secure sources of supply forsuch fuelare production, and transportation. The NNEB includes

domestic sources. economic benefits expected to accrue as bonuses,

royalties,rentalfees,taxes,and after-taxbusiness profits.

Secure oilsupply linescan have a directbearingon The NNEB expected from the mean potentialproductionof

the achievement of nationaleconomic goalsthatdepend on 3.2 BBO from the 1002 area under fullleasingis79.4 billion

uninterrupted economic activity.Interruptionof these undiscounted 1984 dollars,and 14.6 billiondiscounted (10

supply lines,on the other hand, disruptsthe production percentreal)dollars,Assuming productionof 9.2 BBO and

and consumption of goods and reduces economic activity. an oilpriceof $40 per barrel(a more optimisticeconomic

This occurred,for example, in the aftermathof the OPEC assumption),the undiscounted NNEB would exceed $325

oilembargo in 1973 when a recession resulted. billion(1984 dollars).Potentialoilproductionunder limited

leasingwould contribute$54.0 billionundiscounted,and

DOE's recentlyissued report(1987c)entitled"Energy $9.4 billiondiscounted. (The discounted valuewas derived

security"underscores the economic and nationalsecurity by using a discountedcash flowsimulationmodel, inwhich

consquences of relyingon importsfora substantialpartof annual revenues and annual costs for projectedyears of

our oilneeds. productionare discountedto the present.)

NATIONAL NEED--POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION 181
PROVIDING FEDERAL, STATE, AND

LOCAL REVENUES

Production from leases in the 1002 area could

generaterevenues to the publicas lease bonus payments

and rentals,royalties,Federal corporate income taxes,

severance tax payments to the State of Alaska,and State

corporate income taxes. The revenues expected from

providingthisreturnto the publicare shown in tableVII-4

forthe fullleasingand limitedleasingalternatives.Federal

revenues consist of bonuses, royalties,lease rental

payments, and corporateincome taxes. State and local

revenues include property,severance, conservation,and

corporate income taxes. Transferpayments from the THE 1002 AREA'S OIL POTENTIAL

FederalGovernment are not included,and the figuresdo COMPARED TO U.S. PROVED

not includeFederalrevenue sharing. OIL RESERVES

- Table VII-5shows, for 1986 and 2000, (1) U.S.

proved crude oilreserves,for 1986 and projectedto the

Table VII-4.--Estimatedrevenues,inbillionsof dollars, year 2000, and (2) the 1002 area's estimatedrecoverable

under fullleasingand limitedleasing. resources,under fullleasingand limitedleasing. "Proved

reserves" are those that have been demonstrated with

[Bonuses, royalties,lease rentalpayments, and corporate reasonable certaintyto be recoverablefrom known sources,

income taxes are shown as Federal revenues. whereas the 1002 area's economically "recoverable

Portionsof some of the seismicallymapped structures resources" are,by definition,speculativeand less precise.

lieoutside the 1002 area. Ifthese non-Federal Notwithstandingthe differencesbetween the categories,the

subsurface areas are leased by others (forexample, U.S. totalsrepresenta benchmark againstwhich to display

the State of Alaska or NativeCorporations),portionsof the magnitude of the 1002 area'spotentialincremental

bonus, rent,and royaltyincome shown here as Federal additionto U.S. reserves,in terms of both quantityand

revenue would accrue to those organizations] percentage.-

Table VII-5.--The 1002 area'sconditional,economiFull Limited callyrecoverableoilresources compared with total

leasing leasing U.S. proved crude oilreserves.

(inbillionsof barrels.Year 1986 data from Department

FEDERAL REVENUES of Energy (1986a,p. 6);year 2000 data from

Undiscounted 1984 dollars....... $ 38.0 $ 25.9 Department of Energy (1987a,p. 7)]

Discounted dollars(10% real)... 8.0 5.1

STATE AND LOCAL REVENUES

Undiscounted 1984 dollars....... 16.1 11.0 Year

Discounted dollars(10% real)... 3.6 2.4 1986 2000

U.S. PROVED RESERVES ........................ 28.4 19.5

1002 AREA RECOVERABLE RESOURCES

CONTINUED USE OF THE TRANS-ALASKA Fullleasing(mean resource level)....... 3.2 3.2

PIPELINE SYSTEM Potentialaddition(percent)

to U.S. total..................................... 11.3 16.4

The Trans-AlaskaPipelineSystem (TAPS) is in place

and has been assumed to be availableto transportoilfrom Fullleasing(5% probabilitylevel)........ 9.2 9.2

the 1002 area. Such oilcould play an importantrole in Potentialaddition(percent)

helpingto offsetthe declinesin productionslatedforthe to U.S.total..................................... 32.4 47.2

Alaska North Slope, thereby reducing the per-barrel

transportation costs for oil from existingfields. Limitedleasing(mean resource

Transportationof the 1002 area'soilis,therefore,likelyto level)................................................. 2.4 2.4

prolong the usefullifeof TAPS and to permitadditional Potentialaddition(percent)

productionfrom North Slope fieldswhich would otherwise to U.S. total..................................... 8.5 12.3

be uneconomical.

182 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
ANTICIPATED MARKETS REFERENCES CITED

FOR THE 1002 AREA'S OIL

AlaskaDepartmentof Revenue,1985,Petroleumproduction

Assuming thatpotentialoilproductionfrom the 1002 revenueforecast,quarterlyreport:Alaska Departmentof

areais similarin qualityto currentNorthSlopeproduction, Revenue, PetroleumRevenue Division.

the marketsforthe 1002 area'soilcouldbe expectedto Chevron,1986,World energyoutlook,forecastthroughthe

followsimilarmarket patterns.Crude oilmarketsare year 2000: San Francisco,CA, Chevron Corporation

alreadyestablishedforproductionfromthe AlaskanNorth Economics Department,16 p.,June 1986.

Slope(ANS),and thesemarketscouldprobablybe used for Conoco, 1986, World energy outlookthrough 2000:

oilfrom the 1002 area. Oilproduced from Prudhoe Bay Wilmington,DE, Conoco Inc.,Coordinatingand Planning

and Kuparuk is transportedviaTAPS to Valdezand from Department,11 p.,September 1986.

Valdezby tankersto portson the West,Gulf,and East DOE--see U.S.Departmentof Energy.

coasts. The Trans-PanamaPipelineparalleling the Panama Doscher, T. M., and Kostura,J. A., 1986, Enhanced oil

Canal is used extensivelyto transportcrude oilfrom the recoveryand domestic oilreserves10 years later:

PacificOcean to the Atlantic.Crude oilis off-loadedon Societyof PetroleumEngineers/U.S.Departmentof

the Pacificsideand loaded onto tankerson the Atlantic Energy Paper 14881,p. 7-10.

side forshipmentto Gulfof Mexico,East Coast,Puerto Gall,Norman, 1986,We are livingoffour capital(interview

Rico,and VirginIslandsports. withJoseph P. Riva):Forbes magazine,v.138,no.6,p.

62-66(September22 issue).

Significantdiscoverieshave been made inCalifornia's Kuuskraa,V. A., 1986, The statusand potentialof

Outer ContinentalShelfareasintheSanta BarbaraChannel enhanced oilrecovery:Societyof Petroleum

and Santa Maria Basin,and elsewhere. This potential Engineers/U.S.Departmentof Energy Paper 14951,p.

productioncould effectivelyback-outa portionof future 367-374.

ANS productionthatwould otherwisebe marketedon the NationalPetroleumCouncil,1987,U.S.oil& gas outlook--A

West Coast. However,productionfrom known ANS fields reportof the NationalPetroleumCouncil:Washington,

is projectedto begindecliningin 1987 and fallto D.C.,NationalPetroleumCouncil,Committeeon U.S.Oil

approximately29 percentof 1984 productionby the year & Gas Outlook,James L. Ketelsen,chairman,179 p. +

2000 (AlaskaDepartmentof Revenue,1985). At the same appendices,February1987.

time,crude oilproductionfrom the 1002 area is not Nehring,Richard,1981,The discoveryof significant oiland

projectedto be on-lineuntilthe late1990'sor afterthe year gas fieldsinthe UnitedStates:The Rand Corporation,

2000. Therefore,the market opportunitiesforthe 1002 reportR-2654/1-USGS/DOE,2 volumes,preparedforthe

area'soilcould conceivablybe availableinroughlythe U.S.Departmentsof Energyand the Interior.

same proportionsas currentANS markets. Oiland Gas Journal,1986, OGJ report--U.S. fieldswith

reservesexceeding100 millionbb]:Oiland Gas Journal,

Because of the statutoryban on exportof U.S.oil, v.84,no.4,p. 104-105(January27 issue).

the West Coast marketiswellestablishedas the primary Ray, R. M., Kuuskraa,V. A.,and Godec, M. L.,1986,

area forANS crude;thisis logicalifviewedsolelyon the Potentialcrude oilproductionfrom enhanced oil

basisof transportation cost, Shipmentsto the West Coast recovery:Washington,D.C.,NationalPetroleumCouncil,

increasrHt a (!eakof klr")/Din1980. During1980- p.,September 16,1986.

84, art peicentof ANS crude oilwas marketed Riva,J. P., Jr.,1984, Domestic crude oilproduction

on the _,oast. Alaskancrude oilinexcessof West projectedto the year2000 on the basisof resource

Coast demand is transportedto the Panama Canalfor capability:Washington,D.C.,The Libraryof Congress

shipmentto othermarkets. CongressionalResearch ServiceReport84-129SPR.

Riva,J. P.,Jr.,1986,Domesticoilproductionprojectedto

year2000 on the basisof continued,low drilling activity:

Washington, D.C., The Libraryof Congress

CongressionalResearch ServiceReport66-177SPR, 15

p.,November 1986.

Riva,J. P.,Jr.,1987, Futuredomesticoilproduction

CONCLUSION projectedunder conditionsof continuedlow drilling

activity:Washington,D.C.,The Libraryof Congress

In summary, the 1002 area has a very significant CongressionalResearch Service,9 p.,February18,

potentialto contributeto the nationalneed foroil.Despite 1987.

the degreeofuncertainty,some chance existsthatthe1002 Riva,J. P.,Jr.,Schanz,J. J.,and Ellis,J. G., 1985,U.S.

area may containa fieldthe sizeof PrudhoeBay;and an conventionaloiland gas production--Prospects to the

even betterchance existsof one or more smallerfields,still year2000:Boulder,CO, WestviewPress.

supergiants,totalingmore than 3 billionbarrels.Only Roadifer,R. E.,1986,Size distributions of world'slargest

explorationcan providethe informationneeded to determine known oil,taraccumulations:Oiland Gas Journal,v.

the extentand distribution of the resourcesand, therefore, 84,no.8,p. 93-98,100 (February24 issue).

thepotentialbenefito theeconomy.

NATIONAL NEED--CONCLUSION 183
Spaulding,A. O., 1986, The looming energy crisis:Oiland U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information

Gas Journal,v. 84, no. 20,p. 89-90 (May 19 issue). Administration,1987a, Annual energy outlook,1986, with

U.S. Department of Commerce, 1987, Summary of the U.S. projections to 2000: U.S. Department of Energy

export and import merchandise trade: U.S. Department DOE/EIA-0383(86),70 p.,February 1987.

of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, FT900 supplement, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information

7 p.,January 30, 1987. Administration,1987b, Monthly energy review:U.S.

U.S. Department of Energy, 1985, Nationalenergy policy Department of Energy DOE/EIA-0035 (86/11),March

plan projectionsto 2010--Atechnicalreportin support of 1987.

the Nationalenergy policyplan:Washington, D.C., U.S. U.S. Department of Energy, 1987c, Energy security--Areport

Department of Energy Officeof Policy,Planning,and to the Presidentof the United States: Washington,

AnalysisDOE/PE-0029/3 (December). D.C., U.S. Department of Energy DOE/S-0057, 240 p. +

U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information appendix,March 1987.

Administration,1986a, U.S. crude oil,naturalgas, and

naturalgas liquidsreserves:October 1986.

U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information

Administration,1986b, Annual energy outlook 1985, with

projections to 1995: U.S. Department of Energy

DOE/EIA-0383(85),February 1986.

PRODUCTION FACILITY

184 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
CHAPTER Vill

SECRETARY'S RECOMMENDATION

INTRODUCTION outstandingpetroleumexplorationtargetintheonshore

UnitedStates. Data from nearby wellsinthe Prudhoe Bay

The ArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge in Northeastern area and in the Canadian BeaufortSea and Mackenzie

Alaska is a 19-million-acreunitof the NationalWildlife Delta,combined with promisingseismicdata gathered on

Refuge System. Section1002(h)of the Alaska National the 1002 area,indicatextensionsof producingtrendsand

InterestLands ConservationAct (ANILCA) of 1980 directed other geologicconditionsexceptionallyfavorablefor

the Secretaryofthe Interiorto: discoveryof one or more supergiantfields(largerthan 500

millionbarrels).

o conduct biologicaland geologicalstudiesof the 1.5-

million-acrecoastalplainportionof the ArcticRefuge The area could containpotentiallyrecoverableoil

(the"1002area"); resourcesof more than 9.2 billionbarrels,an amount nearly

equalto the Prudhoe Bay oilfield,which currentlyprovides

o reportthe resultsof those studiestothe Congress;and almost one-fifthof U.S. domestic production. Ifthis

estimateproves to be correct,developmentof the 1002

o recommend to the Congress whether the 1002 area arearesourceswould add significantlyo domestic reserves.

should be made availableforoiland gas explorationand

development. Productionfrom the 1002 area could begin at a time

when a declineinproductionis expected at Prudhoe Bay.

During Congressionaldeliberationsin 1977-80 about Alaska North Slope crude oilproduction,mostlyfrom

management of lands in Alaska,the Congress expressed Prudhoe Bay, currentlyaverages1.8 millionbarrelsper day.

particularinterestin the possibilityof significantoiland gas But,Prudhoe Bay productionisexpectedto peak thisyear

depositsinthe 1002 area and inthe effectof development and declineto 680,000barrelsper day in the year 2000,

of such resources on the area'sfish,wildlife,and and to 250,000barrelsper day in2010. Productionofthe

wildernessresources.The Congress set fortha deliberate 1002 area'spotentialresourcescould substantiallyoffset

process forthe Departmentof the Interiorto study,analyze thissignificantand certaindecline.

and reporton allof these resource@vand to providea

recommendation on futuremanagement )fthe 1002 area. The proximityof the 1002 area to Prudhoe Bay and

the Trans-AlaskaPipelineSystem also is an important

factor. Prudhoe Bay providesa fullydeveloped staging

area to support explorationand developmentactivitiesin

DISCUSSION the 1002 area. Technologiesemployed at Prudhoe Bay are

readilyapplicablefor the 1002 area. The Trans-Alaska

1002 Area Oil and Gas Resources PipelineSystem providesa ready means for bringing1002

area oilto U.S.markets. In addition,transportationof 1002

The 1002 area isthe Nation'sbest singleopportunity area oillikelywould prolongthe usefullifeof the pipeline

to increasesignificantly domestic oilproductionover the system and permitcontinuedproductionfrom North Slope

next 40 years. Itis ratedby geologistsas the most fieldswhich otherwisewould be uneconomical.

RECOMMENDATION--DISCUSSION 185
Based on the mean conditionalrecoverable oil Oilproductionfrom the 1002 area would reduce not

estimateof 3.2 billionbarrels,1002 area productionby the only the need for imported oil but also the amount of

year 2005 could provide4 percent of totalU.S. demand; foreignexchange required to pay for petroleum imports,

provide8 percent of U.S. production(about660,000 barrels thereby bringingabout a more favorablebalance of trade.

per day); and reduce importsby nearly9 percent(table In 1984, the gross cost of importingcrude oiland refined

below). This production could provide net national petroleum products was more than $59 billion,an amount

economic benefitsof $79.4 billion,includingFederal approximatelyequal to 50 percent of the U.S. trade deficit.

revenues of $38.0 billion. The cost of importsin 1986 was $28 billionas a resultof

lower oilprices. However, the Department of Energy has

Discovery of 9.2 billionbarrelsof oil could yield predictedthat by 1995, oilimports may cost the equivalent

production of more than 1.5 millionbarrelsper day. of $80 billion.

Estimates of net nationaleconomic benefitsbased on 9.2

billionbarrels of oilproduction, and other economic Production from the 1002 area also would reduce

assumptions, are as high as $325 billion. U.S. vulnerabilityto disruptionsin the world oilmarket and

contributeto our nationalsecurity,particularlyin lightof the

followingtrends highlightedin the March 1987 Department

of Energy reportto the Presidenton Energy Securi :

o U.S. oilreservesand production capacityare declining

The 1002 area's potential contribution to U.S.

and are expected to decline furtherover the next

oil demand, production, and imports. decade. The domestic production rate fellabout

800,000 barrelsper day (9-10percent drop) in 1986 and

[Inthousands of barrelsper day. U.S. demand, production, is expected to declinean additional400,000 barrelsper

and import data from U.S. Department of Energy, 1985, day (drop of 4-5 percentmore) in 1987. Clearly,should

table 3-10.]

pricescontinueto fall,productionwilldrop further.

o U.S. oil consumption, which has exceeded U.S.

production sincethe 1960's,is expected to increase.

Year ............................................... 2000 2005 2010

o U.S. oilimportsincreased almost 1 millionbarrelsper

day, to an average of 5.3 millionbarrelsper day for

U.S. OIL DEMAND1 ................. 16,400 16,000 15,900

1986. Between 1990 and 1995, importsare projectedto

increase to 50 percent of consumption, reaching 8

1002 AREA OIL PRODUCTION

millionto 10 millionbarrelsper day.

Fullleasing............................. 147 659 404

o Persian Gulf countries are expected to supply 30-45

Percent of U.S. total

demand ................. ........... .9 4.0 2.5

percent of the world'soilby 1995, at which time all

OPEC countriescombined are projectedto provide45-

60 percentof world oilsupplies.

U.S. OIL PRODUCTION2 ........ 9,000 8,400 7.600

o Reduced U.S. oilexplorationand productionwillincrease

1002 AREA OIL PRODUCTION

U.S. relianceon oilfrom the unstable Persian Gulf

Fullleasing............................. 147 659 404

region,

Percent of U.S. total America's growing relianceon imported oilfor the

production.......................1.6 7.9 5.3

rest of the century could have potentiallyserious

implicationsforour nationalsecurity.

U.S.OIL IMPORTS (net)......... 7,400 7,600 8,300

1002 AREA OIL PRODUCTION

Fullleasing............................. 147 659 404

Percent of U.S. total The economic and politicalconsequences of such

imports............................. 2.0 8.7 4.9 trends are adverse to U.S. interests.Because the 1002

area is the best domestic opportunityto help reverseor

reduce the declinein U.S. oilreservesand production,the

Excludes refinerygains. publicinterestdemands thatthe area be made availablefor

21ncludes natural gas liquids,enhanced oilrecovery, and oil and gas exploration and development, conducted in an

shale oil. Figures for 1002 area production not included in orderly and sensitive manner to avoid unnecessary adverse

DOE data. effects on the environment.

186 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Environmental Consequences of Development Substantialempiricalevidence has been gathered

over the years regardingthe interactionof the CentralArctic

The 1002 area providesa varietyof outstandingarctic herd with the Prudhoe Bay complex. Although that herd

habitatswhich support fishand wildlifespecies of national has had a considerableportionof itsrange, including

and internationalsignificance,including muskoxen calvingareas,occupied by oil-productionfacilities, the herd

(reintroduced),snow geese, and the Porcupine caribou has prospered and, in fact,tripledin size since oilactivities

herd--thesixthlargestcaribou herd in North America. began inthe area in1968.

More than 50 separate biologicalstudiesconducted

The factthat billionsof barrelsof oil have been in the 1002 area since 1980 have been documented in a

seriesof biologicalbaselinestudies. These data have been produced and transportedfrom Prudhoe Bay while the

synthesizedin the finalreportand legislativeenvironmental area'sfishand wildliferesources continueto thriveindicates

impact statement(finalreport/LEIS)and used to providethe thateffectiveenvironmentaltechniques and technologiesare

best assessment of the potential environmental availablefor use in the 1002 area,a shortdistanceto the

consequences of oildevelopment in the 1002 area.

east.

Potentialimpacts were assessed at three stages of Biologicalstudies have found that the Porcupine

oil activity: exploration,development drilling,and caribou herd calves in differentareas each year--throughout

production. The impact analyses predictedthatexploration the 1002 area, elsewhere in the ArcticRefuge, and in

and development drillingactivitieswould generateonly minor Canada--on an area totalingapproximately8.9 millionacres.

or negligibleeffectson allwildliferesources on the 1002 Moreover, the Porcupine caribou herd is present in the

area. Therefore,the focus of potentialimpacts is on 1002 area for calving,postcalving,and insect-relief activities

productionand assumes the discovery of 3.2 billionbarrels only 6 to 8 weeks annually,primarilyfrom mid-May to midof producible oil (mean conditionalrecoverableestimate). July.

The impact analyses concluded that in factmore than 9.2

billionbarrels could be produced with no significant

additionalenvironmentalimpacts than would resultfrom The Porcupine caribou herd has shown some

productionof 3.2 billionbarrels. preferencefor calvingon the ArcticRefuge coastalplain,

includingthe upper Jago Riverarea (84,000acres or 5.4

Productionof billionsof barrelsof oilis expected to percentof the 1002 area)where portionsof the herd have

directlyaffectonly 12,650 acres or 0.8 percentof the 1002 calved in approximatelyhalfof the last15 years. Thus, a

area. The consequences of thislevelof productionon potential"major" consequence would be the displacement

important species such as brown bears, snow geese, of those portionsof the herd seekingto calve inthe upper

wolves,and moose, as wellas the CentralArcticcaribou Jago Riverarea. This would be the case only ifthe area

herd,are expected to be negligible,minor,or moderate. were the siteof a major producing oilfield.Itis unlikely,

though possible,that such displacementwould resultin

The only potential"major"effectsare attendantto oil any appreciabledeclinein herd size.

productionand are limitedto the Porcupine caribouherd

and the reintroduced muskox herd. "Major biological

Itis importantto note thatthisissue of displacement effects,"for purposes of the analysis,were definedas:

.'widespread,long-term change in habitatavailabilityor

is a primary matter of concern regardingthe Porcupine

qualitywhich would likelymodify naturalabundance or

caribou herd. Although it is not known whether

distributionof species.Modificationwillpersistat leastas

development, includingroads and oilpipelines,could affect

long as modifying influencesexist." Therefore,"major" is the migratoryhabitsof the herd, italreadyencountersthe

not synonymous with adverse. Eitherof two conditions, Dempster Highway in Canada during itsannual migrations

change in species distributionor population dynamics,

and crosses the road with no measured adverse effects.

Similarly,other caribou herds in Alaska and Canada (i.e., would resultin a ratingof "major."

Nelchina,Fortymile,and CentralArctic)routinelycross

highway and road systems. Both the CentralArcticand

Nelchina herds also routinelycross the Trans-Alaska

Pipelinewith no adverse effects.This patternof successful

PORCUPINE AND CENTRAL ARCTIC CARIBOU HERDS

interactionwith roads and pipelinesduring migrationis

expected forthe Porcupine caribou herd.

Although comparing the effectsof Prudhoe Bay

development on the CentralArcticcaribou herd with the In addition,the Porcupine caribou herd should not

potentialeffectsof similaractivitiesin the 1002 area on the be affectedadverselyduringthe short-termperiod (6 to 10

Porcupine caribou herd must be done with caution, days) that they use 1002 area habitatsfor insectrelief

experiences at Prudhoe Bay provide a strong measure of following calving. The abilityof the herd to move to insectassurance that caribou can coexist successfully with oil reliefareas along the coast is unlikely to be significantly

development. affected by pipeline/road corridors crossing the 1002 area.

RECOMMENDATIOW-DISCUSSION 187
Furthermore,the long periodof timerequiredto bring o Compliance by each operator/lessee,or the Department

commercial fieldsintoproductionwould provideample ofthe Interior,as appropriatewithsuch laws as NEPA,

opportunityto develop any additionalmitigationmeasures the Clean AirAct,Clean Water Act,Endangered Species

as may be needed to address unexpected impacts. Act, NationalHistoricPreservationAct, and ANILCA.

The lease also would be governed by Departmental

Biologicalpredictionsnecessarilyare cautious.Inthe regulations.

1972 environmentalevaluationfor the Trans-AlaskaPipeline

System,the followingpossibleeffectson the CentralArctic o Compliance with NEPA for each operator/lessee

herd were predicted:"The combined barriereffectsof the development and productionplan.

highway and pipelinemight verywellreduce the number of

animalsusing the winterrange east of the highway." As

events have demonstrated, however, these concerns

subsequentlywere resolvedcompletelywithenvironmentally

sensitivetechniques and technologies. Biological SECRETARY'S RECOMMENDATION

predictionsin the finalreport/LEISforthe 1002 area

naturallyare cautiousas well. I recommend thatthe Congress directthe Secretary

ofthe Interior(Secretary)to conduct an orderlyoiland gas

MUSKOXEN leasingprogram forthe entire1.5-million-acre 1002 area at

such pace and insuch circumstancesas he determineswill

Muskoxen disappeared from the 1002 area at the avoidunnecessary adverse effectson the environment.

turnof the century.Those thatnow occupy the areaare

the resultof a successfulreintroductionprogram. The o The Secretaryshould be given authorityto establish

potentialeffectsof oiland gas activitieson the area's requirementsforoiland gas operationsthatallowthem

muskoxen also are unknown, althoughbiologistspredict to proceed in an economicallyreasonablemanner but

that"major"effectscould be: (1)substantialdisplacement avoid unnecessary adverse effectson the 1002 area's

from currentlyused habitatand (2)a slowingof the herd's wildlife,habitat,and environment.

growth rate,as distinguishedfroma diminutioninherd size.

o Competitiveleasingauthorityshould be grantedto the

Secretaryto delegateas he believesproper,and should

be similarto thatused to leasethe NationalPetroleum

Reserve in Alaska. The Secretaryshould also have

authorityto decide such issuesas unitization, drainage,

diligence,and leaseterms and management.

Environmental Safeguards o The Secretaryshould be grantedauthorityto suspend

and the Leasing Process or terminateany leasesinthe 1002 area at any time,in

the same manner prescribedby the Outer Continental

The potentialeffectspredictedabove have been ShelfLands Act as amended. Ifleasesare terminated

consideredfullythroughoutthe finalreport/LEISand inthe for reasons.beyondthe controlof the operators/lessees,

development of my recommendations. I also have operators/lesseesshould be compensated in a manner

recognizedthat site-specificmeasures can be taken to similarto thatprescribedby the Outer ContinentalShelf

avoid unnecessaryadverse effectson the environmentfrom Lands Act as amended.

oilproductioninthe 1002 area.

o The Secretaryshould have the authorityto require

The step-by-stepenvironmentalplanning,review,and lessees to restorethe leased tractto protect

evaluationprocedures includedina leasingprogram provide environmentalvalues to the extentreasonablypossible

the best opportunityforthe Departmentof the Interiorto and desirable.

make decisionsbased on the most accurateand advanced

informationavailableateach stepof the process, o The Secretaryshould be granted authority,which

supersedesANILCA TitleXI,to grantrights-of-waynd

The followingsteps might be includedin such a

easements across 1002 area lands for oil-and gasleasingprogram,althoughthe exactprocess would depend relatedactivities and facilities. This authoritymust allow

upon the leasingprogram establishedby the Congress: the Secretaryto requiresitingand modificationsof

proposed facilities to avoid unnecessaryduplicationof

o Compliance with the NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct roads and pipelines.

(NEPA) for each lease sale. Lease stipulationsand

mitigationmeasures are identifiedat thisstageand are o All geologicaland geophysicaldata acquiredwith

ineffectforthe entireterm ofthe specifiedlease. respect to the 1002 area should be shared,upon

request,with the Secretarywho should ensure its

o CompliancewithNEPA foreach explorationplan. confidentiality.

188 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
In lightof the extensiveenvironmentalanalysisdone I have consideredthe 1002 area'sunique opportunity

to prepare the finalreport/LEIS,I recommend that itbe to providepotentiallyenormous quantitiesof domestic oil,in

adopted statutorilyas the programmaticEIS for a leasing lightof America's increasingdependence on imports. Oil

program forthe 1002 area. productionfrom the 1002 area could begin at a time when

America's largestproducing field,Prudhoe Bay, willbe

diminishing.I also have consideredthe potential$79 billion

Because Section 1002(i)of ANILCA withdrew the to $325 billioncontributionto the Nation'seconomy from

1002 area from operationof the mineralleasinglaws, and development of the 1002 area'sestimatedoilresources,as

Section 1003 prohibited"leasingor other development well as the favorableeffectson our balance of trade and

leadingto the productionof oiland gas" in the area "until nationalsecurity.

authorizedby an Act of Congress," specificlegislationmust

be enacted to implement my recommendations, In addition,I evaluated the potentialeffectsof

developing these potentialhydrocarbon resources on the

In recommending that Congress enact legislationto wilderness,wildlife,and subsistencevalues of the coastal

open the 1002 area for oiland gas leasing,I also plain. Many commenters indicatedthe need and desireto

recommend that Congress enact legislationto open the conserve the significantenvironmentalvalues of the 1002

Kaktovik InupiatCorporation (KIC)/ArcticSlope Regional area. Public comment also overwhelmingly supported

Corporation(ASRC) lands withinthe ArcticRefuge to similar opening the area for oiland gas development. My

activities. recommendation reflectsmy firm belief,based on

demonstrated success at Prudhoe Bay and elsewhere,that

The ASRC's rightto develop and produce any oil oiland gas activitiescan be conducted inthe 1002 area in

and gas which may underliethe KIC/ASRC lands withinthe a manner consistentwith the need and desireto conserve

ArcticRefuge is, by virtueof the 1983 Chandler Lake the area'ssignificantenvironmentalvalues.

Exchange Agreement, expressly contingent upon

Congressional authorizationof oil and gas leasingor Our abilityto conduct oilexploration,development,

development and productionwithinthe 1002 area,or on the and production in a carefuland environmentallysound

KIC/ASRC lands specifically) manner is a factorleadingme to designateAlternativeA as

the environmentallypreferredalternative.This conclusionis

Selection Of Preferred Alternative based on the environmentalimpacts of substitutesources

(Alternative A) of energy. The Department of the Interior'sanalysisof

these impacts, described in Chapter VI of the final

I have selected AlternativeA, FullLeasing,as my report/LEIS,concludes that each of the availablesubstitute

preferredalternativefor management of the 1002 area,after possibilitiesinvolvesa largemeasure of environmentalharm.

evaluatingcarefullythe fivealternativesin Chapter V of the Also, in the event of a futureenergy crisis,therewould be

finalreport/LEIS,pursuant to the requirementsof the strong pressure to develop rapidly,promisingareas likethe

NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct. I believethatAlternative 1002 area,without regardfor environmentalfactors.

A best meets the Nation'sgoals and responsibilities.

Before selectingthis alternative,I considered the Alternative E--Wilderness Designation

informationpresented in the finalreport/LEIS,the draft

recommendation of the AssistantSecretaryfor Fish and Several commenters supported AlternativeE, which

Wildlifeand Parks, comments and Informationreceived calls for designationof the 1002 area as wilderness2

during the public-comment period,and consultationswith pursuant to the 1964 Wilderness Act and ANILCA. I am

the Government of Canada. persuaded that such designationis not necessary to

protectthe 1002 area environmentand is not in the best

interestof the Nation.

1KIC selected and receivedconveyance of surface

estatein these lands pursuant to the Alaska NativeClaims

SettlementAct (ANCSA) and ANILCA. In passing ANILCA,

Congress gave ASRC the option of acquiringsubsurface 2The Wilderness Act providesthat "thereshallbe no

estatein these lands if,in the future,itopened the 1002 commercial enterpriseand no permanent road withinany

area to commercial oiland gas development. By entering wildernessarea and, except as necessary to meet minimum

intothe Chandler Lake Agreement pursuantto ANILCA and requirementsforthe administrationof the area * * * there

ANCSA, the Department of the Interiorin effectallowed shallbe no temporary roads, no use of motor vehicles,

ASRC to accelerateexercisingthisoption in returnfor motorized equipment, or motorboats, no landingof aircraft,

conveying to the Federal government valuableASRC park no other form of mechanical transport,and no structureor

inholdingsthe Department would not have obtained installationwithin any such area" 16 U.S.C. 113(c).

otherwise. ASRC also agreed that development and Congress has recognized some specialuses allowablein

productionof oiland gas on the ArcticRefuge lands would Alaskan wildernessareas which are described in Chapter V

be contingentupon a subsequent act of the Congress. of the finalreport/LEIS.

RECOMMENDATION 189
A criterionused in determiningwhether certainlands The Department of the Interioris committedto

should be designatedwildernessis uniqueness. InAlaska, working with the villageof Kaktovik,the North Slope

thereare approximately55 millionacres of Federallandset Borough,and the Stateof Alaskato minimizethe effectsof

asideby statuteas wildernessand another80 millionacres oilactivitieson the subsistenceactivitiesof Kaktovik

managed as nationalparks,preserves,wildliferefuges,wild residents.

and scenicrivers,and conservationor recreationareas. In

addition,there are millionsof acres in Alaskawhich Subsistenceeffectson villagesoutsidethe 1002 area,

constitutenonstatutorywilderness. Moreover, the 1.5- includingthose in Canada, are expectedto be minimal.

million-acre1002 area (about 8 percentof the Arctic Because itismost probablethatoilactivities willnot create

Refuge) isborderedto the south and eastby more than 8 adverse populationchanges inthe Porcupinecaribouherd,

millionacres of designatedwilderness. (Forreference,8 othervillageswhich annuallyuse these caribouresources

millionacres isequalto the combined sizeofthe Statesof should not be affected.Migratorypatternsofthe herd also

Connecticutand Massachusetts;55 millionacres is equal are likelyto be unaffectedby oilactivities.Accordingly,the

to the combined acreage of the sixNew England States, herd is expectedto adhere to itstraditional patternswhich

Delaware,Maryland,and New Jersey.)To the east of the make itavailableannuallyto these villages.

1002 area is Canada's 3-million-acreNorthern Yukon

NationalPark. I recognizethe importanceof ensuringthe continued

customary and traditionaluse of thisinternationally shared

Given the existenceof extensivelandsset asidefor resource. I am committedto effortsthatwillconservethe

wildernessand otherpreservationpurposes inthisareaand Porcupine caribou herd for futuregenerationsof people

inAlaska,the 1002 area'svalueas statutorywildernessis who relyon thisresourcefornutritional, cultural,and other

not unique. essentialneeds. The Porcupinecaribouagreement we are

pursuingwithCanada willenhance international cooperation

and coordinationon management of the Porcupinecaribou

On the otherhand,the enormous oilpotentialofthe herd so that both countriescan effectivelysecure the

1002 area,believedto be America'slastonshore area with availability of thisresource.

such potential,providesa unique opportunityto contribute

to the Nation'senergy,economic, and nationalsecurity. Some proponents of AlternativeE have suggested

Because environmentallysensitivemanagement techniques thatthe 1-in-5probabilityof findingeconomicallyrecoverable

and technologiesare availableand can be employed to oilresources in the 1002 area does not outweigh the

protectthe importantfishand wildlifevaluesofthe coastal potentialenvironmentalrisks.

plain,we need not forgothe opportunityto developthe

1002 area'spotentialenergy resources. First,the chances offindingoilinthe 1002 area are

ratedby geologiststo be excellentcompared to other

The fishand wildlifespeciesthatmight be affected frontierregions. Second, biologicalassessments have

by oiland gas activities inthe 1002 area are veryimportant concluded that exploratorydrillingfollowingleasingwould

but are neitherthreatenednor endangered. In fact,they have minor or negligibleenvironmentaleffects.Finally,ffno

are relativelyabundant inAlaska and North America. As oilis discovered,effectson the 1002 area environment

noted earlier,the Porcupinecaribouherd isthe sixthlargest would be negligibleand the area would not likelybe an

caribouherd in NorthAmerica. The muskox reintroduction explorationtarget in the event of futureoil-supply

efforthas been so successfulthat some huntingis now disruptions.

permitted. Once again,the potentialeffectsof oil

productionon other wildlifevaluesare expected to be

moderate to negligible.Constant monitoringof oilactivities

islikelyto ensurethatthiscontinuesto be the case, Most AlternativeID--NoAction

effectsofany development would disappearwfthtime,once

activitiescease and reclamationrequirementsare fulfilled. For many ofthe reasons describedabove,Alternative

D, No Action,isalsonot the preferablechoice.

With regardto subsistence,potentialeffectsof 1002

area oilproductionfallintotwo categories:effectson the Authorityto leasethe 1002 area is needed now in

villageof Kaktovikand effectson villagesfarremoved from order to determine whether economically recoverable

the 1002 area. Inthe case of Kaktovik,itispossiblethata reserves existand to produce those resources for

..major"restrictionof subsistenceactivitiescould occur. America'sfuture.Even ifexplorationresultedincommercial

These consequences would not likelyresultfrom reduced findstoday,itcould be as long as 10 to 15 years before

wildliferesourcesbut rathercould resultfrom the physical those resourceswould be broughtintoproduction.Ifwe

changes proximateto Kaktovikwhich could interferewith delay,our inactionwould serveto blindfoldAmericato its

traditionalactivities.Moreover, distributionpatternsof abilityto increasedomesticproduction.Italsowould send

wildliferesourceslikelyto be affectedby oilproduction a dangerous signalto the world oilmarketthatAmerica is

would necessitatesome alterationsintraditional subsistence not willingto helpitselfavoid increaseddependence on the

patterns. MiddleEast'ssubstantialconcentrationof world oilsupply.

190 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
AlternativeC--FurtherExploration Given the proven recordthatpotentialenvironmental

effectsof oilproductioncan be avoidedsubstantially, and

AlternativeC, which would providefor further given America'sneed for additionaldomestic energy

explorationbeforethe Congress enactsleasingauthority, resources,itisessentialthatthe Congress enactlegislation

was rejectedforseveralreasons. to authorizethe Secretaryofthe Interiorto conductan

orderlyoiland gas leasingprogram fortheentire1002 area.

Without authorizationfora leasingprogram,the

privatesector cannot be expectedto investfinancial

resourcesin exploringthe 1002 area. Incentivefor

additionalexplorationcan be providedonly by expected

returnsif'commerciallyproducibleoilis discovered.This

incentivexistsonly when leasescan be acquiredand

subsequentlydeveloped.

CONSULTATIONS WITH CANADA

Lackingproper economic incentives,AlternativeC

could necessitatea Federalexplorationprogram forthe In conductingbiologicalstudiesforthe 1002 area

1002 area. Such an approachhas seriousdisadvantages. relatedto the Porcupinecaribouherd,the U.S.Fishand

A federallyfunded explorationprogram would require WildlifeServiceworked closelywith biologistsfromthe

substantialoutlaysat a time of severeFederalbudget Stateof Alaska and the CanadianWildlifeService.The

constraint.Moreover,historyshows thatitisunlikelythat Canadian WildlifeServiceand itsYukon WildlifeBranch

the Federalgovernment could conduct an effectiveand conducted independentstudiesof the Porcupinecaribou

timelyexplorationprogram. Government agenciesare not herd during 1978-81 relativeto potentialoiland gas

gearedto make large,high-riskinvestmentdecisions.The developmentin Canada'sYukon and NorthwestTerritories.

Federalgovernmenthas been harshlycriticized foritslack Priorto assessingpotentialenvironmentalconsequencesof

of success in managing a federalexplorationprogramfor oiland gas developmentinthe 1002 area,the Fishand

the NationalPetroleumReserveinAlaska. WildlifeServiceconducted a CaribouImpactAnalysis

Workshop in which Canadianbiologistsparticipatedat our

invitation.

In additionto these technicalconsultations,

representativesof the Fish and WildlifeServiceand

CanadianWildlifeServiceforthe past severalyears have

been negotiatinga separatePorcupinecaribou herd

agreement. The finaldraftagreement,now beingreviewed

by the Departmentofthe Interior, callsforbothcountriesto

AlternativeB--Limited Leasing take appropriatesteps to ensureinternational cooperation

and coordinationof actionsthatmightaffecthe Porcupine

AlternativeB would limittheamount ofthe 1002 area caribouherd in orderto conservethe speciesand Its

availableforexplorationand developmentby excludingthe habitat.The agreementwould establishan advisoryboard

upperJago Riverarea. Thisalternative would lowerthe oil to make recommendationsand provideadviceto each

resourceestimateforthe 1002 area by 25 percentand governmentto assistin thismanagement effort.Such an

reducethe mean expectednet nationaleconomic benefits agreement willenhance the consultativemechanisms

by about 30 percent. between Canada and the UnitedStateson futureactivities

thatmay be conductedon eithersideofthe border.

The primarydifferencein environmentalconcerns

betweenAlternativesA and B is the unlikelybut potential When the draft1002(h)reportwas made availableto

riskto the Porcupinecaribouherd from oilproduction the Congress and publicforreviewin November 1986,the

activities inthe upper Jago Riverarea. Departmentofthe Interior's AssistantSecretaryforFishand

Wildlifeand Parksalsoinvitedthe Governmentof Canada

Such activities are likelyto displaceportionsof the to comment on the draft.To date,threeconsultation

Porcupinecaribouherd from thatarea,but itis probable sessionshave been held,two in Ottawa and one in

that such displacementwould take place without Washington,D.C. These sessionsprovidedboth countries

consequentialadverse populationeffects.The mere the opportunityto discussthe biologicalnd geological

presenceof such a riskmakes no compellingcase for data upon which thisfinalreport/LEISisbased and to

forgoingthe potentialforbillionsof barrelsof oiland the address the assessment of impactson the Porcupine

attendantnationaleconomic and energysecuritybenefits. caribouherd and otherwildliferesourcesby possible

In addition,as noted earlier,the long periodof time development activities.Consultationswillcontinueupon

requiredto bringoilintoproductionprovidesample requestby eithercountry,and the Departmentof the

opportunityto developany additionalmitigationmeasures Interiorlooksforwardto futureopportunitiesto discusswith

as may be necessaryto addressunexpectedimpacts. Canada resourceissuesofmutualconcern.

RECOMMENDATIOW-CONSULTATION WITH CANADA 191
CONCLUSION

The Secretary of the Interiorshould seek both to

protectthe Nation'swildliferesources and to enhance

America's abilityto meet itsenergy needs with domestic

energy resources on Federallands. For the ArcticNational

WildlifeRefuge coastalplain,these goals affectnot only the

Stateof Alaska but also all240 millionAmerican citizensto

whom the 1002 area belongs.

This Nation has proven that itneed not choose

between an improvingenvironment on the one hand, and

explorationand development of the energy resources

required for growth and survivalon the other. We can

have both. Itis my firmbeliefthat an orderlyoiland gas

leasingprogram for the entire1002 area can be conducted

inconcert with America's environmentalgoals.

MAI

GEESE

192 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
SUMMARY OF CONSULTATION AND

PUBLIC COMMENTS -

BACKGROUND StatisticsforResponses to Proposed

Recommendation inthe DraftLEIS.

Duringpreparation ofthepreliminary draftreportand

detailedLEIS for departmentalreview,TrusteesforAlaska State/Country Yes No Total and otherenvironmentalgroups took legalactionagainst

the Departmentand the Fishand WildlifeService(Trustees

forAlaska,eta[.,v.Donald P. Hodel etal, February25, Alabama 18 2 20

1986). Plaintiffs contendedthatthe Departmentfailedto Alaska 1,311 407 1,718

fullycomply with the provisionsof the National Arizona 90 28 118

Arkansas 21 1 22 Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and must providean California 564 839 1,403

opportunityforpublicparticipation in preparationof the Colorado 138 43 181

report/LEISin advance of itssubmittalto the Congress. Connecticut 98 46 144

Delaware 27 6 33 They took exceptionto the Department'splansto circulate DistrictofColumbia 16 5 21

the report/LEISfor publiccomment concurrentlywith Florida 258 124 382

submittalof the reportto the Congress,and to forward Georgia 42 33 75 comments and Departmentalresponsessubsequentlytothe Hawaii 4 4 8

Congress. By courtorder,the Departmentwas directedto Idaho 13 7 20

prepare both a draftand a finalreport/LEIS,and to permit Illinois 230 130 360

Indiana 86 140 226 publicreviewand comment on the draftLEIS. The court Iowa 27 21 48 furtherdirectedthatpublicmeetingson the draftbe heldin Kansas 134 7 141

Alaskaand elsewhere,and thatthe Department'sresponses Kentucky 35 4 39

Louisiana 181 21 202 to comments be published locally before or at the time the Maine 13 9 22 finalreport/LEISis submittedto the Congress. The Ninth

CircuitCourtofAppeals affirmedthedistrictourtorder. Maryland 53 50 103

Massachusetts 53 118 171

Michigan 62 105 167

On November 24, 1986, the draftreport/LEISwas Minnesota 55 57 112

made availableforpublicreviewand comment. Originally Mississippi 26 4 30

Missouri 94 46 140 scheduledto closeJanuary23,1987,the comment period Montana 84 33 117

was extendedto February6, 1987,althe requestofthe Nebraska 55 7 62

GovernorofAlaskaand others.Publicmeetingswere held Nevada 21 11 32

January 5, 1987, in Anchorage,Alaska;January6, in New Hampshire 10 14 24

Kaktovik,Alaska;and January9 inWashington,D.C. New Jersey 156 67 223

New Mexico 66 19 85

More than 200 individualsparticipated in the public New York 169 289 458

North Carolina 41 28 69 meetingsand submittedoralor writtenstatements,or both. North Dakota 42 1 43

Transcriptsof these threehearingsare availableforpublic Ohio 142 50 192

Oklahoma 609 17 626 reviewinthefollowinglocations: Oregon 34 44 78

Pennyslvania 547 128 675

Rhode Island 13 12 25

South Carolina 15 48 63 U.S.Fishand WildlifeService South Dakota 18 2 20 Divisionof Refuges Tennessee 35 19 54

Room 2343,Main InteriorBuilding Texas 1,192 64 1,256

18thand C Streets,NW. Utah 25 3 28

Vermont 4 34 38 Washington,D.C. 20240 Virginia 90 41 131

Washington 128 422 550

and West Virginia 208 7 215

Wisconsin 58 74 132

Wyoming 51 7 58

U.S.Fishand WildlifeService

AlaskaRegionalOffice- Planning Canada 1 5 6

1011 EastTudor Road Total 7,491 3,707 11,198

Anchorage,Alaska99503

COMMENTS AND RESPONSES--BACKGROUND 193
Copies of the draftreport/LEISwere sent to all Over 1,650 individualcomments were containedin the

Federal,State,and localagencies with jurisdictionby law or 117 letters. These substantive comments have been

special expertise,to the Government of Canada and the summarized by major topic or issue, and detailed

Yukon and Northwest Territories,to conservation responses are included below. The finalreport/LEIShas

organizations,oiland gas industry,selectedlibraries,the been modifiedas appropriatebased on comments received.

media, and others who requested copies. Distributionof Throughout the report,the symbol - indicates:(1)

the finalreportis described at the end of thissection. passages that have been significantlymodifiedfrom the

draftLEIS; or (2)new materialthat has been added.

RESULTS

During the comment period, 11,361 letterswere

received. The vast majorityof these letters(11,244)were

generallya statement eitherthatthe area should be opened RESPONSES TO COMMENTS

to furtheroiland gas activityor thatthe area should be

designated as wilderness. Of these letters,7,491 favored Environmental Issues

leasingand 3,707 favoredwildernessdesignation. Forty-six (Chapters 11and VI)

lettersexpressed no definiteopinion. Statisticalsummaries

by State and positionare presented in the table(preceding CARIBOU

page).

The anticipatedeffectson the Porcupine caribou herd

Many of the letterswere the resultsof variousmail-in (PCH) and, to a lesser extent,the CentralArcticHerd

campaigns inspired by industry and conservation (CAH), generated more public comment than any other

organizations. A varietyof these comment lettershave aspect of possibleoiland gas activityin the 1002 area.

been reproduced in the Appendix (volume 2). They are This topic has been extensivelyrevisedin both Chapters 11

representativesamples of the pro and con statements, and VI based on these comments. Additionalinformation

petitions,individuallythought-out responses, and mail-in has become availablesince the draft LEIS/reportwas

campaigns. All these comment lettersare availablefor prepared, and has been reflectedin the analysisin the

publicreviewinthe Washington Officeof the U.S. Fish and final.Although the comments were numerous, most were

WildlifeService,address providedabove. Writtencomments repetitiveof a few major concerns, which have been

provided at the three publichearingsare includedin that summarized and responded to below.

public record, unless they contained substantiveissues

concerning the content of the report(see discussion PCH CORE CALVING AREA

below). Includedinthe 11,244 letterswere responses from

821 organizations,industries,associations,etc.;and 10,423 On the basis of respondents'comments, itwas

privateindividuals. obvious that the draftreport'sdesignationof a "core"

calvingarea was being misinterpretedas a very specific

Substantive comments on the contentsof the report area absolutelyessentialto the viabilityof the PCH.

itselfwere receivedfrom the remaining117 respondents and

are publishedin theirentiretyin the Appendix. To facilitate The term "core" was used to identifyareas

analyses, the comments were broken down into the repeatedly used by large numbers of calvingcaribou

followingcategories: (densityof at least50 animals/squaremileas describedin

the draftLEIS/report).Areas were identifiedas core calving

Federal governments and agencies (9 letters) areas in the draft report where surveys indicated

Stateand localgovernments (10letters) concentrateduse in at least5 of the 14 years forwhich

Industry(16 letters) detailed observations have been made. Information

Organizations(42 letters) receivedsincethe draftreportwas prepared added another

Privateindividuals(40 letters) year of calvingdistributioninformationto thisdata base.

Ifwritten testimony filedat the public meetings Data leave littledoubt that there are important

contained substantivecomments, such testimony is also birthingareas in spiteof some broad variationsfrom year

addressed in thissection,and has been reproduced in the to year (fig.11-5and pi.2N. Based on furtherreviewand

Appendix. consultationswith Canada, itis questionableto conclude

that the repeatedlyused concentratedcalvinghabitaton

Each of the 117 letterswas analyzed and substantive the Jago Riveris "uniqueand irreplaceableon a national

issues or additional informationwere delineated,and basis or in the ecoregion" (Resource Category 1

considered both individuallyand collectively.Oral designation,FWS mitigationpolicy),or that displacement

testimoniespresented at the hearingsand documented in would be sufficientto threatenthe viabilityof the PCH.

the transcriptshave also been reviewed,and the concerns

Accordingly,designationsof a "core" calvingarea and

and issues raisedthere have been addressed in the report Resource Category 1 habitathave been deletedfrom the

and responses as appropriate. finalreport.

194 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
We believethat the documentation of PCH calving and Cameron report. Oil industryrepresentativesagreed

withinthe 1002 area and additionsto the discussionof the thatdisplacementof cariboufrom the Milne Point road had

importance of calvingin the caribou lifecycle adequately occurred even though the Dau and Cameron study was

address this issue without using strictlysubjective conducted during periodsof very low trafficactivity.On

measures for impact analysis. February 27, 1987, the ADF&G and oil industry

representativespresented the clarifieddata to FWS. The

PCH DISPLACEMENT VS. DECREASE IN POPULATION analysisin Chapter VI has been revisedto reflectthis

clarification.

Several commenters, includingthose from Canada,

were concerned with what seemed to be a 20 to 40

percent projectedpopulationdeclinefor the PCH.

The draftreportdid not predicta 20 to 40 percent

decrease in herd size. The percentage was relatedto MAPPING AREAS OF PCH CONCENTRATION

distributionchanges, but through an editingerrorin

punctuation,the relationshipwas obscured. However, this A few commenters suggested that the maps and

prompted the FWS to conduct furtheranalysis and calculationsconcerning areas of concentrationand densities

considerationof concentratedcalvingpatternswhich has of PCH on theircalvinggrounds did not reflectallavailable

suggested that quantifyinga percentage in change of information.

distribution(thatis,percent displaced)would be highly

speculative.Therefore,such informationhas been dropped Further informationon the caribou densitiesin

from the textand clarification provided. observed concentrationareas has been provided in the

report,includingthe assumptions used to calculate

densitiesof between 46 and 128 caribou/squaremile for

AREA OF DISPLACEMENT each concentrationarea in 1983 and in 1984. Limited

measurements made in 1972 near the Jago River showed

One of the more controversialaspects of the densitiesranging from 8.2 to 375 caribou/squaremile.

environmental analysis for caribou concerned the Because the differencebetween high densityconcentrated

assumption thatcaribouwould be displaced3 km out from and low-densityscatteredcalvingareas is readilyapparent,

eitherside of development, roads,and associatedfacilities. use of the term "concentrated"by previousobserverswas

The draftLEIS describedthisarea as 2 miles(3 km = 1.86 assumed to reflectdensitiesof similarmagnitude.

mi)in conformance with use of Englishunitsthroughoutthe

report. However, allcomputer analyses of areas which Since preparation of the draftreport,additional

would be affectedon the basis of thisdisplacementused 3 informationhas been made availableto the FWS concerning

km, as reportedin the literature(Dau and Cameron, 1986). the distributionof PCH calving. This has permitted

Because severalcommenters expressed confusion over the refinementin mapping and analyzingcalvingdistributionsin

use of 2 miles,the referencesand discussionin the final Alaska and Canada for 1972-81. Some of these

LEIS were changed to 3 km to be consistentwith the refinementshave been made possiblethrough the recent

literature. preparationof large-scalemaps of calvingdistributionfor

the years 1978-81 by the Yukon WildlifeBranch. The

The texthas been modifiedto correctthe implication Yukon WildlifeBranch maps were based on fieldnotes and

thattherewould be a complete loss of habitatvalueswithin maps prepared by the originalinvestigator,and are more

this 3-km area. There would be a reductionin habitat accurate than the small-scalemaps used by the FWS for

values in varyingdegrees throughout the area within3 km preparationof the draftreport.

of development,with significantdeclinesmost likely2 km

outward from the development facilities.This is based on For the years 1972-77,large-scalemaps prepared by

the Dau and Cameron study which showed such the originalinvestigatorswere destroyed in a fire,leaving

decreases in use from disturbancelevelsmuch lower than only small-scalemaps for use in preparingthe draftreport.

are likelyto occur under the fulland limitedleasing Working with the FWS, D. G. Roseneau, one of the field

scenarios. Furtherinformationon the Dau and Cameron investigatorsworking on the ArcticRefuge duringthe Arctic

(1986) study, which was the basis for the 3-km Gas studies,identifiedand correctedinaccuraciesin the

displacementzone, has been provided. maps in the draftreportfor calvingdistributionfor1972-77.

Earlierinaccuraciesresultedfrom the FWS interpretationand

Because of concerns over use of the Dau and transformationof small-scalemaps to a largerscale. The

Cameron data, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game refinementsare based upon Roseneau's fieldnotes and

(ADF&G) met with representativesof the oilindustry recollection.

February 13, 1987, to clarifydata collectionand analysis

procedures. Additionalstatistical testswere appliedto the The refinedconcentrationareas are depicted infigure

data; reanalyses confirmed displacement,and consistently 11-5and plate 2A of the finalLEIS and included in all

supported the resultsand conclusions of the originalDau quantificationsof calvingareas.

COMMENTS AND RESPONSES--ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 195
CARIBOU INSECT RELIEF

CARRYING CAPACITY

Numerous comments addressed the issue of insect A few commenters noted that carryingcapacitiesof

relief,the areas and conditionssought by caribouforrelief, the ArcticRefuge coastalplainare not presented in the

and the significanceof insectavoidance behaviorin relation BaselineStudy,as was requiredby Section1002(c)(b),or in

to the effectsof possible development. The reporthas the draft LEIS/report. Despite the extensivebaseline

been revisedto clarifyor expand the discussionof insect studies that have been conducted, currentknowledge is

reliefphenomenon. inadequateto address the concept of carryingcapacityon

the 1002 area forthe variousfishand wildlifespecies that

Insectreliefis generallymeant to includeavoidance seasonallyoccupy the coastalplain.This factis noted in

of both mosquitoes and oestridflies.On the 1002 area the finalBaselineReport and throughout Chapters 11and VI

oestridfliesare not believedto be the nuisance to the PCH of the report.

that they are to the CAH. The majorityofthe PCH have

generallyleftthe area by peak oestridflyemergence,

The use of primary productivity(annualgrowth of

although some fliesmay be present in early July. vegetation) by the various secondary consumers

Generally, PCH movements to insect-reliefhabitats appear

(herbivores) is not well documented for the Arctic. Similarty,

to be in response to mosquitoes.

the role of interspecific and intraspecificcompetition of

herbivores in altering the biotic carrying capacity of the

Evidence suggests that insects play a very strong

coastal plain of the Arctic Refuge has not been quantified.

role in influencing caribou behavior, activityand movements.

Also, nonhabitat factors (predation, disease, behavior,

The text in Chapter VI has been expanded to reflectthis

weather, etc.) that can modify the carrying capacity of the

fact.

area are not well understood. Carrying capacity of tertiary

consumers (predators and omnivores) is dependent upon

Some commenters suggested that use of coastal

the distribution and abundance of their prey species.

areas for insect reliefwas inconsistent. The FWS Therefore, carrying capacity of tertiaryconsumers can only

disagrees. During the last 15 years, coastal insect relief

be established after the carrying capacity of their prey has

was used on the average of every other year by extremely

been established. Until data are available to address these

large numbers of PCH caribou (Garner and Reynolds, 1982,

information gaps, valid estimates of carrying capacity of the

1983, 1984, and 1985).

1002 area are not possible.

These and other commenters pointed out that the

main oil pipeline should present no obstacle to PCH in

TRANSBOUNDARY CONSEQUENCES

their movements to coastal reliefhabitats, based on CAH

crossing success in the Prudhoe Bay area. Even large

The Government of the Yukon feltthat there was

groups (a few thousand) in the CAH that successfully

inadequate treatment of the transboundary consequences of

negotiate pipelines, roads, and other developments are those direct impacts on wildlifethat use the coastal plain

much smaller than postcalving aggregations of the PCH (up

and Canadian habitats or are important constituents of a

to 80,000). If these large groups of PCH caribou react

larger regional population. This point is well taken, and

negatively to disturbance as some observations suggest,

there could be large-scale exclusion of caribou from coastal

Chapters 11 and VI have been expanded to address the

areas.

effects on transboundary wildlifespecies: caribou, waterfowl,

and marine mammals.

POLAR BEARS

There were numerous comments that loss of the one

BASELINE REPORT

or two bears known to den on the 1002 area each year did

not indicate a moderate impact to the Beaufort Sea polar

A few organizations commented that the finalbaseline

bear population. This section in Chapter VI has been

report was unavailable at the time the draft report/LEIS was

clarified.Figures presented in the text are for known dens,

made public. This was true due to printingdifficulties;

based on radio-telemetrystudies of only a fraction of the

however, the finalbaseline was available by January 1987,

total denning bears within the Beaufort Sea population.

allowing sufficienttime for review. Despite itslength, that

Only 5 to 20 percent of the approximately 150 females

report provides updates and summaries of previous annual

which den each year are radio tagged. Thus, there are

baseline reports published and publicly available since April

probably numerous other bears denning on the 1002 area

1982. The reports were prepared by those who also

which could also be adversely affected by development.

contributed to the preparation of the 1002 report, so,

These numbers are even more important when considering

inevitably,the report reflectsinformation in allthe baseline

that 10 of the 12 land dens found during the 1981-86 radio studies. In fact, these baseline studies have provided the

telemetry studies were located on the Arctic Refuge. Seven

basis for the biological and socioeconomic portions of

of those dens were within the 1002 area.

Chapters 11and VI, as they were intended to do.

196 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
The finalreport/LEISalso has been updated to developingmitigationrecommendations. But the use

includethe 1985 baselineinformation.The 1985 baselineis of populationinformationis not foreclosed. Infact,

in press,and the entirebaselineserieswillbe availablefor concern for potentialpopulationlosses led to the

the Congress and the publicwhen the Congress begins formulationof the generalpolicyto seek to mitigate

consideration of the report and the Secretary's alllosses to fish,wildlife,theirhabitat,and uses

recommendation. thereof.The FWS believesthatmitigationof potential

population losses is a necessary aspect of this

policy.

REGULATORY PROCESSES

The FWS mitigationpolicymirrorsthe consideration

The EnvironmentalProtectionAgency concluded that of mitigationas requiredby the CEO regulations(40

the discussion of the regulatoryprocess and its CFR 1502.14, 1502.16, 1505.2(c)and 1508.20). It

relationshipsto the alternativesneeded to be expanded. sets out goals and planning guidance for the

The focus of theircomments was on: development of FWS mitigationrecommendations.

The policydoes not requireabsolutestrictadherence

0 The existingregulatoryprocess includingexamples of to a requiredstandard.

how existingregulationsare appliedon the North Slope for

oiland gas development. The discussion of mitigationin Chapter VI has been

revisedand expanded to clarifythe use of the FWS

0 The Section 404 program, inparticularthe success of mitigationpolicyin establishingmitigationgoals and

AbbreviatedPermit Process, designed to expediteoiland developing mitigationrecommendations.

gas development on the North Slope.

2. Concern was expressed that many mitigation

0 The potentialapplicabilityand use of the advanced measures imposed on industryat Prudhoe Bay were

Identification process for advanced planning. found to be unnecessary, ineffective,or, in some

cases, detrimentalto the environment. Blanket

Department of the Army Section 10/404 permitsare restrictionswere viewed as inefficientand less

the primary basis for currentFWS involvementin existing desirablethan mitigationmeasures based on case-byNorth Slope oiland gas developments. The FWS does not case evaluations.

believethat the effectivenessof thisprocess has been

impaired by development of the Abbreviated PermitProcess. Some mitigationmeasures originallyimposed on

Also, the FWS has supported the advanced identification frontieroiland gas development activitiesat Prudhoe

process, and considers itto be usefulformaking concerns Bay eitherhave been ineffectiveor have been found

known earlyin the decisionmakingprocess. to be unwarranted. Preventivetechniques are

continuallybeing improved with advances in state-ofthe-arttechnology and additionalbiologicaldata on

the effectsto fish and wildlifefrom various

MITIGATION development activitiesin the Alaskan Arctic.

Mitigationmeasures must be viewed in the lightof

Comments relevantto mitigation,ranging from past experienceand present technology. Flexibility

criticismthat ameliorativemeasures were too stringentto should also be maintained to rescind or add

complaints that they were totallyinadequate,revolved mitigativemeasures as determined necessary on the

generallyaround the followingissues: basis of day-to-dayexperience. This approach was

reflectedin the draftreport/LEISand is reaffirmedin

1. Some reviewers criticizedthe FWS mitigationpolicy the final.

and its habitat-based evaluation system. They

contended that animal populationsin the Arctichave 3. A number of comments expressed concern that,in

not been shown to be regulated by habitat evaluatingpotentialimpacts of oildevelopment in the

availability.They furthercontended that the most 1002 area,the report reliedtoo heavilyon mitigation

biologicallyeffectiveapproach to assessing and techniques used in the Prudhoe Bay area. The

mitigatingeffectsisto determinehow oildevelopment generaltheme of these comments was that serious

willadverselyaffectgiven populationsand then apply impacts have occurred at Prudhoe Bay, in spiteof

mitigativemeasures thatavoid or minimizeimpacts. mitigationmeasures, and that impacts of similar

activitiesmight be greaterinthe 1002 area.

Animal populationsare considered by many experts

to providean unreliablebasis forevaluatingfishand

wildlifeimpacts. Sampling errors,cyclicfluctuations Experience gained at Prudhoe Bay has been relied

of populations and the lack of time-seriesdata all on as a basis for evaluatingimpacts where

contributeto the problem. Therefore,FWS feelsthat appropriate. Parallelsrelativeto certaintypes of

determininghabitatvalue providesa betterbasis for activitiesare obvious; that is,many studiescontain

COMMENTS AND RESPONSES--ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 197
conclusiveevidence of impacts that willoccur under As statedin Chapter 1,more than 36 Federallaws,5

certainconditions or circumstances, regardlessof State of Alaska laws, and 111 separate regulations

location. On the other hand, there are dangers in currentlyapply to oiland gas activitiesin Alaska.

drawing analogies where conditions,potential The FWS believesthat these laws and regulations

scenarios, or habits of affected species are provide ample guarantee for protectionof the

significantlydifferent.The text in Chapter VI has resources of the 1002 area. Laws such as ANILCA

been modifiedto emphasize this pointand to more and the National Wildlife Refuge System

clearlyexplainthe rationalefor the use of FWS AdministrationAct give additionalcontrolsto FWS

mitigationpolicyas a means for determiningpotential which are lackingon nonrefuge lands.

loss of habitatvalues as a basis for impact

measurement and evaluation.

WATER AVAILABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT

Itis unrealisticto expect that allimpacts willbe

amelioratedor that there may not be unavoidable A varietyof comments were receivedregarding1002

impacts having significantadverse effects. For area water supplieslargeenough to support oiland gas

example, potentialimpact on wilderness values is explorationand development. The followinginformationis

perhaps the most significantadverse impact likelyto expanded on inthe finalreport.

occur, as well as the leastpossibleto effectively

mitigate. The limitedavailability of freshwater on the Arctic

coastalplainis not unique to the 1002 area, nor has it

Section 1002(h) of ANILCA does not require"no precluded development. Sources used and methods

significantadverse impact" as a standard forfurther developed to satisfywater requirementsin other areas in

oilexplorationand development,as was used in the the Arcticwould apply to activitiesin the 1002 area.

previous seismic explorationprogram on the 1002 Solutionsto providing/obtainingwater would be considered

area. Itdoes require"an evaluationof the adverse on a site-by-sitebasis. Sources and methods used to

effectsthatthe carryingout of furtherexplorationfor, obtain winter water supplies in earlierexploratory

and the development and productionof,oiland gas development and production activitiesin ArcticAlaska are

within such areas willhave on the resources." discussed in Chapter 11of the report.

Although there is a risk of significantpopulation

declines for PCH caribou and muskoxen, the

likelihoodof these "catastrophicconsequences" is AIR QUALITY

very low. Also, such consequences would not be

permanent, because most perturbationswould Many commenters criticizedthe lack of information

disappear with depletionand shutdown of oil and analysisof effectsregardingairqualityin the draft

activitiesand the restorationof the coastalplain report. Additionalinformationhas been made availableto

(primarilyremoval of infrastructure). the Department, and expanded discussions have been

includedin Chapters 11and VI. Severalissues were raised:

4. A number of respondents feltthatthe draftreportdid 1. one commenter indicatedthatthe draftLEIS should

not adequately acknowledge the mitigativeeffectsof includea discussionof the process forregulatingair

existingregulatoryprograms of Federal,State,and qualityin the 1002 area. Another commenter

local governments having jurisdictionover the 1002 expressed confidence in the currentprocess for

area. regulatingair qualityin Alaska and suggested that

changes were not needed in the regulatory

We believethat the importanceof these controlsis framework.

adequately recognized in the report,although some

additionalinformationhas been provided. We Itis difficult to predictthe impacts on airqualityin

generallybelieveit(1)unnecessary to belaborwell- the 1002 area without knowing the scope, timing,and

known regulatoryprocesses and (2)more important locationof oildevelopment. However, the existing

to focus on areas where additionalmitigationmay be regulatorystructureis designed to assess the

necessary to ensure that refuge resourcesare not potentialeffectsof oil development on air quality

subject to unnecessary adverse effects. once such criticalvariablesare known. Under this

structure,the State of Alaska Department of

EnvironmentalConservation must grant permits prior

5. Although a number of comments were criticalof the to any constructionon the 1002 area. For significant

draftLEIS/reportin not adequately acknowledging the activities,permits requirethat major sources of

mitigativeffectsof existingregulatoryprograms, an pollutionapply best availablecontroltechnology,that

almost equal number voiced concern that existing minor sources apply new source performance

regulations, standards, and stipulationsare standards,and thatAlaska's controlrequirementsbe

inadequate to ensure mitigation. writtenintoStateimplementationplans.

198 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
2. Several commenters suggested that the finalLEIS Chapter VI deals with this issue explicitly,Sulfate

includeresultsfrom modeling emissions estimatesfor depositionis expected to be relativelylow even under

the 1002 area. the 5-percent-probability case. Moreover, data from

the Prudhoe Bay vicinity,where the FWS has been

The Department does not believethat current measuring pH values of ponds and lakessince 1983,

informationpermitsreliablemodeling of the impact of show that these surface waters are neutralor

1002 area oildevelopment on airquality.Moreover, alkaline.

given that the currentregulatorystructureand the

mitigationmeasures that itrequires are adequate,

such modeling is unnecessary at thistime. Air- GRAVEL

qualitymodeling would be an importantcomponent of

subsequent deliberationsby the State on whether to Several commenters found the impliedshortage of

grantpermitsfor activitiesinthe 1002 area. gravel in the 1002 area to be somewhat overstatedin light

of the difficulties encountered with gravelin drillingseismic

shotholes during the 1983 explorationseason. Also

3. Several commenters expressed concern about the pointedout was the factthat shotholelogs and samples

potentialcontributionof oildevelopment on the 1002 from the entirearea were made availableto the Department.

area to a buildup of carbon dioxide (CO2) The drillers'logs are not adequate for a detailed

concentrationlevelsinthe Earth'satmosphere. geotechnicalanalysis,but they do indicatethe presence of

widespread, thick upland and channel graveldeposits.

Development in the 1002 area would not lead to a Even though the gravelmay not be optimallylocatedforall

significantincreasein the C02 concentrationin the possible developments in the 1002 area, generalizations

atmosphere, which could, in turn, via the about gravel shortages are inappropriate.The text has

..greenhouse effect,"raise the earth'stemperature. been revisedaccordingly.

This is true for several reasons. First,C02

concentrationis a globalphenomenon. The potential

resources on the 1002 area, though sizable,are ENERGY CONSERVATION

relativelyinsignificantin relationto worldwide fossil

fuel consumption. Second, ifthe 1002 area'soil Many comments noted the importance of

resources are not developed, itis likelythat other conservation in meeting nationalenergy goals. The

fossilfuelresources would be developed in their Department of Energy is responsiblefor the development of

place. Some fossilfuels,such as coal,can have nationalenergy policy,including means of achieving

greaterair-qualityimpacts than oil, Third,fossilfuel conservation.The Department of the Interior'srolein this

combustion is only one of the ways which energy policyis to comply withitslegalmandate to manage

contributesto C02 buildup.Fourth,C02 is onlyone the development of energy resources on Federal lands in

of several gases contributingto the "greenhouse an environmentallyacceptable manner. The focus of this

effect."Some investigatorsbelievethat,over the next report/LEISis to respond to the statutoryquestionsabout

50 years,these other gases may play an equally the potentialpetroleum and biologicalresources in the 1002

important role in C02 buildup. Finally,there is area,not to reviewthe fullscope of nationalenergy policy.

substantialuncertaintyabout the likelihoodof global Conservation and increased domestic productionare, of

warming. course, complementary components of a broader national

energy policy.

4. Some commenters expressed concern thatthe impact

of oil production on ambient ozone concentrations

could be significantand that itshould be dealtwith USE OF "WORST CASE" ANALYSIS

inthe finalreport.

Many commenters, especiallythose from industry,

Ozone isformed by a complex seriesof atmospheric criticizedthe FWS for using a "worst case" analysisin

reactions between volatileorganiccompounds and determiningenvironmentaleffects.

nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight.

Generally,ozone formation is not expected to be

significantin Alaska,and especiallyin the 1002 area, Leasing and development, from fieldexploration

because the intensityof sunlightand temperatures-- through oilproduction,transportation,rehabilitationad

two criticalfactorsin the formationof ozone--isquite abandonment, would be sequentialon the 1002 area. For

low. purposes of impact assessment, itwas assumed that

Blocks A, C, and D (forAlternativeA) were leasedand that

explorationwas successful. It was furtherassumed that

5. There was some concern that there could be each of these blocks, plus Block B which would be

significanteffectsfrom acid rainand that thisissue crossed by the main pipeline,would at some pointin time

was ignored in the draftLEIS. have some concurrentactivity,whether itbe winterseismic

COMMENTS AND RESPONSES--ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 199
work; explorationand developmentwelldrilling; construction CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

of airstrips,portdevelopments,pipelines;or rehabilitation.

Ifsome of the currentlyprospectiveareas that were A number of individualscommented thatthe potential

assessed containno economicallyrecoverableoil(ofwhich cumulativeeffectsof oiland gas leasingand other

there is an 81-percentchance),then predictedimpacts development activitieswithinthe Canadian and Alaskan

would be substantiallyless,probablylimitedto those Arcticregionshad not been fullyaddressed. In response

associatedonly with exploratorywell drillingand cleanup. to these concerns, a sectionon cumulativeeffectshas

This would be particularly true ifdelineatedprospectsin been added to Chapter VI. The discussionofthisissueis

Blocks C and D produced "dry holes." Not only would brief,because the programmaticLEIS/reportis intendedto

developmentof the fieldsnot occur,but the main pipeline focus on the 1002 area and the specificnaturalresource

could be shortenedby a significantamount, and the Pokok questionsraisedby the Congress. The issueof cumulative

port sitewould be unnecessary. Such speculation, effectswould be addressed in detailas partof the

however,precludesmeaningfulanalysis. comprehensive environmentalreviews that would be

requiredifthe Congress authorizesthe leasingof oil

Therefore, as required by the Council on resourceswithinthe 1002 area.

EnvironmentalQuality(CEO) regulations(40 CFR 1502.22)

for purposes of impact assessment, oil-relatedactivities

reasonablyforeseeableat some pointin time in the 1002 OIL SPILLS

area were assessed.

The Alaska Oil and Gas Association,by telegram,

The lands under considerationare NationalWildlife expressed itsconcern about the 23,000oilspillsreferenced

Refuge System lands,landsthatby theirdesignationand in the draftreport. They contended that thisnumber of

through the legislativehistoryhave been deservingof spillsappeared to be erroneouslyattributedto the North

special resource protection. Therefore,the impact Slope alone,and asked thatthe informationin ChapterVI

assessment must clearlyprovidethe Secretaryof the be verified. The figurewas obtained through staff

Interiorthe informationecessaryfor hisdecisionas to the communications between the FWS and the Alaska

recommendation to the Congress. Through such an Department of EnvironmentalConservation,which advises

analysishe can understandand answer the question, now that the informationcannot be verifiedwithout

"What is the most that can reasonablybe expectedto extensiverecord reviews.Therefore,the referenceto 23,000

happen ifthe 1002 area is opened to furtheroiland gas spillshas been removed from the finalreport,and the

activity;what naturalresourcerisksand tradeoffsare discussionclarified.

involved?" Itdoes not presentanalysisand probable

conclusionsas to what istheworstthatcan happen. The

texthas been clarifiedaccordingly.

As furtherrequired by the CEO's regulatory

amendments (40 CFR 1502.22(b)(3)and (4)),ChapterVI

summarizes existingcrediblescientificevidence relevanto

evaluatingreasonably foreseeablesignificantadverse

impacts,based upon theoreticalapproaches or research

methods generallyaccepted in the scientificcommunity. Socioeconomic Issues

There is substantialuncertaintyabout the abilityof wildlife (Chapters 11and VI)

inthe 1002 areato adapt to oilactivityor to seek out other

appropriatehabitats.In the report,the FWS has taken SOCIOCULTURAL CONCERNS

specialcare to identifyareas of biologicaluncertainty.

Biologicalconclusionsthatcan not be drawn withcertainty Concerns thatthe socioculturalissues were ignored

have been noted as speculative. in the drafthave been addressed. A sectionon

"SocioculturalSystem" has been added to Chapters 11and

VI,and the "Socioeconomic"environmenthas been retitled

The reportalso recognizes,and infactplacessome the "Human" environment. The importance of cultural

assurance on, the abilityand willingnessofthe oilindustry values from activitiessuch as subsistence,accelerating

to work with Stateand Federalregulatoryand management changes to traditionalNativeactivities, and potentialbenefits

agencies in consolidatingfacilitiesand developingother of increasingsocialservicesare discussed in the new

mitigatingtechnology and techniques for environmentally sections.

acceptableAlaska North Slope operations.Even withthis

assurance itcannot be assumed thatoiland gas activities Canadian government entitiesand some villageswere

on the 1002 area willnot resultin populationdeclines, concerned thatthe potentialimpacts on Canadian Native

changes in distribution,or behavioralchanges in certain subsistence opportunitieshad not been adequately

wildlifespecies which use the 1002 area for critical considered. The discussionshave been expanded in

segments oftheirlifecycles. Chapters 11and VI.

200 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

1.I-I-11- - I..........
RECREATIONAL USE significantrestrictionto subsistenceuses and needs,public

hearingswould be conducted in the vicinityof the 1002

A few commenters wanted precise statistics area. Iffurtherdeterminationis made thatthe significant

concerningrecreationaluse of the area. Precisedata on restrictionis necessary, the statuterequiresthat the

the average number of recreationalvisitsto the 1002 area minimum amount of publiclandsmust be considered,and

are not available.Best estimatesfor recreationaluse are steps to minimizeadverse impactsto subsistencemust be

presentedin Chapter 11.As statedin the report,data on assured.

the number of unguided recreationalusers isnot available.

A comparisonwithotherareas ofthe Statewould have little

meaning, Special-use permits are issued only for

commercialactivitiesor "nonprogram' uses (50 CFR 27.97 Oil and Gas Resource Assessment Issues

and 29.3). They do not reflectthe number of recreational (Chapters IIIand VII)

users visitingthe coastal plain,because recreational

hunters,fishermen,backpackers,hikers,rafters,etc.,do not MARGINAL PROBABILITIES FOR COMMERCIAL

need permits.A summary of the number of permitsissued HYDROCARBON OCCURRENCE

per year would be a poor indexto the actualrecreational

use of the 1002 area. Several comments indicateda misunderstandingof

the term marginalprobability,as definedas an output of

the PRESTO model. The textof Chapter IIIhas been

WILDERNESS REVIEW revisedand expanded at severalpointsto clarifythe

definitiongenerally,and the derivationand significanceof

A few commenters were concerned about a perceived the marginalprobabilityreportedforthe 1002 area. The

lackof wildernessreviewas a partof thereport/LEIS. effectof the minimum economic fieldsizeon the marginal

probabilities ofoccurrence generatedby the PRESTO model

Section1002(h)does not requirea wildernessreview cannot be overemphasized,particularly forremote,high-cost

pursuantto the WildernessAct. The publicland orderthat frontierareas such as the 1002 area.

establishedthe ArcticNationalWildlifeRange recognized

the wildernessvaluesofthe range,includingthe 1002 area. As noted inthe revisedtext,the reported19 percent

The Congress recognized thisagain in 1980 when it or a "one infive"chance forthe 1002 areacan hardlybe

passed ANILCA, as wellas recognizingthe possibility that characterizedas a "highrisk'when viewedin the context

largequantitiesof oiland gas may existon the 1002 area. ofthe statistical success ratesfordiscoveriesof significant

Itexcludedthe coastalplainfrom the areawithinthe Arctic size,to say nothingof the fieldsizesexpectedinthe 1002

Refuge that itdid designateas wilderness,pending area. The statementthatthereisa 19-percentchance of

considerationof the 1002 area study and further findingrecoverableoilin the 1002 area needs to be

congressionalaction. Nonetheless, this report/LEIS interpretedin the contextof past experiencein oil

evaluatesa wildernessalternativeto comply with NEPA. explorationand resourceassessment. Generallyspeaking,

the chance of oil'sbeingpresentwillbe lower,the smaller

the unexplored area being considered. The 19-percent

COMPLIANCE WITH TITLE Vill chance for the 1.5-million-acre 1002 area thus indicatesa

very high potential when compared to the 27-percent

Section810 ofANILCA requires,priorto any Federal chance for the 37-million-acreNavarin Basin or the 22-

agency determinationto withdraw, reserve,lease,or percent chance for the 70-million-acreSt.George Basin

otherwisepermitthe use, occupancy, or dispositionof (table111-1).

public lands under any of the provisions of the law

authorizingsuch actions,thatthe head of the Federal The textin ChapterIIIhas been revisedto include

agency evaluatethe effectson subsistenceuses and referencesto probabilityof occurrencewhere appropriate,

needs. Although subsistence uses and needs were

identified, and the impactsassessed as part of the draft

LEIS/report,the Department of the Interiordid not conduct SMALL AND UNIDENTIFIED PROSPECTS

a formal810 evaluation.

Several commenters expressed concern that the

economicallyrecoverable resource estimatedoes not

This finalLEIS/reportrepresentsrecommendations for adequatelyaccount for potentialresourcesin unidentified

legislative action,ratherthan a determinationunder existing prospects,and inthe smalleridentifiedprospects.

provisionsof law. Formal proceduralrequirementspursuant

to Section810 are not requiredto be met at thispointin With respectto unidentifiedprospects (stratigraphic

time. If,however,the Congress decidesto open allor part trapsand structuresmallerthan the seismicgrid),the text

of the 1002 area to oil and gas leasing,formal 810 has been expanded to emphasize the conceptthatthe

Evaluationsand Findingswould be conducted. The statute recoverableestimaterepresentsan "identifiedminimum'

requiresthatifsuch an evaluationresultedin a findingof volume.

COMMENTS AND RESPONSES--ASSESSMENT ISSUES 201
The PRESTO model does include resources from parts of the area, paralleland locallycontinuous reflectors

small,apparentlysubeconomic, prospects on those Monte are associated with the mapped horizon, indicating

Carlo simulation passes where optimum values for substantialthicknesses of stratifiedrocks which have

volumetric parameters are sampled from the distributions. differentstructuralcharacteristicsfrom the overlying,

Naturally,thisoccurs less oftenfor smallerprospects,and intensely deformed Brookian rocks. Some limited

so theirrelativecontributionto the aggregate area resource reprocessingand detailedanalyses of seismic datafrom the

is lessthan forlargerprospects. Also,the "most favorable eastern part of the 1002 area indicatea similarityin

case" economic scenario(table111-3)providessome idea of characterto reflectorsknown to be associated with

the effectof lower costs and lower minimum fieldsizes. Ellesmerianrocks west of the Canning River.

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS Uncertaintyabout the existenceof the Ellesmerian

sequence was accounted for in riskfactorsappliedto

Some comments indicatea lack of understandingof pertinentplay and prospect attributes.Uncertaintyabout

the manner in which both the in-placeand recoverable quantitativeattributeswas accounted for in the ranges of

resource estimatesare presented. values used forvolumetricparameters,and reflectedin the

range of resource estimates.

Owing to the uncertaintyinherentin alloiland gas

resource estimates,currentand almost universalpracticeis

to use ranges of values for many of the inputvariables

TABLE 111-1(OCS PLANNING AREAS)

which affectthe volume of resources in a geologicplayor

prospect,and to reportthe resultsas a range of values Several comments suggested that marginal

withan associated probabilitydistribution. probabilitiesfor commercial hydrocarbon occurrences for

OCS planningareas and for the 1002 area be added to

Three "measures of centraltendency" are associated table 111-1. The table has been modified to show with probabilitydistributions.These are the mode, the conditionalresource estimatesfor unleased areas only,and

median, and the mean. For the purposes of characterizing the marginalprobabilitieshave been added. The source for

a resource distributioncurve,the mean is considered most OCS estimatesis Cooke (1985).

appropriate,because ittakes intoaccount the size,as well

as frequency of occurrence, of values in the range. The informationin table 111-1,as revised,may be

Technically,the "most likely"value,or mode, is the value subject to misinterpretationunless certainconsiderations

which occurs most frequentlyin the range,not the lowest are kept in mind:

value as suggested by one commenter. The median is

simplythe midpointinthe range. 1. For areas where a commercial discovery has

occurred, no matter how small, the marginal

probability for occurrence of commercial

GEOLOGIC RISK hydrocarbons isby definition100 percent.

The discussion of area, prospect,and zone risk 2. For OCS planning areas, some of the reported

factorsused for the Recoverable Resource analysishas marginal probabilitiesmay be based on the

been revisedand expanded, as has the discussion of probabilityof occurrence of commercial gas

marginalprobabilities.This willclarifythe crucialdifferences accumulations. For the 1002 area, only oilwas

between prospect and area riskfactors,and between input considered.

riskfactorsand output marginalprobabilities.

3. The relativelyhigh marginal probabilityfor the

BeaufortSea planningarea may be a consequence of

EXISTENCE OF THE ELLESMERIAN SEQUENCE

a "potentiallycommercial accumulation"at Seal Island

(Cooke, 1985, p. 33),which extends intothe planning

A number of comments focused on the questionof

area. Ifthe planningarea were subdivided,ftisvery

the presence or absence of Ellesmeriansequence rocks, unlikelythat the eastern BeaufortSea offshorefrom

particularlythe IvishakFormation,in the subsurface in the the 1002 area would have such a high probabilityfor

1002 area. Certainly,as has been pointedout by several commercial hydrocarbons.

commenters, the seismic data alone cannot conclusively

resolvethis question. Nevertheless,the data do provide 4. In making comparisons between the areas shown in

some basis for considering the possibilityin a more table 111-1,both the volume of resource and the

favorablelightthan in the 1980 resourceassessment. probabilityof occurrence should be considered (see

Cooke, 1985, p. 13).

As noted in the descriptionof structurein Chapter

111,the only horizon which can be mapped with any 5. Planningareas are differentsizes;the largerthe area,

semblance of continuityacross the entire1002 area is the the greaterthe likelihoodthat hydrocarbons willbe

top of the pre-Mississippianbasement complex. In many present.

202 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
FIGURE 111-2(PROSPECT SIZES) members of the GSI participantgroup, the Department

thoroughly reviewed itsdata confidentiality policyduring

A number of comments indicatesome confusion 1986, and the regulationsimplementing the exploration

about the intentand proper interpretationof the graphic program (50 CFR Part 37). The review ledthe Department

fieldsize comparisons shown infigure111-2. to reaffirmits previous decisionthat the governmentprocessed data (government seismic record sections)are

Figure 111-2is not intended to imply that undrilled not requiredto be withheldpursuant to 50 CFR 37.54(a).

prospects in the ArcticRefuge are directlycomparable to Data in the report are based entirelyon governmentproven fields.The purpose of figure111-2isto illustratethe acquired information,and raw data (seismictapes)acquired

range of possibleprospect resources interms of known by GSI.

quantitiesthata layman can relateto. The captionforthe

illustrationhas been revisedto reflectprobabilities

associated withthe 1002 prospect resources.

Some commenters apparentlyhave equated the solid OIL PRICES

black pattern (95-percentprobabilityrange)for the 1002

prospects with the same patternfor proven fields.The Many commenters questioned the assumptions

patternhas been changed to avoid thisconfusion. regardingoilprices used foreconomic analyseswhich are

the basis forthe minimum economic fieldsize estimatesin

The textdiscussion of prospects shown infigure111-2 Chapter 111.

has also been revisedto reflectprobabilitiesof occurrence.

Oil price assumptions used in the economically

recoverableresource analysiswere developed for the year

DATA CONFIDENTIALITY 2000 and beyond, when crude oilproductionfrom the 1002

area was forecastto begin. Therefore,these pricesare not

A few commenters were concerned by what they directlycomparable to currentcrude oilprices. The $33

perceivedto be a failureto releasefor publicreview and

per barrel(1984 dollars)oilpriceassumed in the most likely

comment the geologicinformationcriticalto the assessment

case analysisfor 1002 area crude oilwas set at an

process. The subsurfaceseismicinformationwas collected intermediatelevelfrom the range of futureoilprices

by a permittee--GeophysicalService Inc. (GSI)--and projected in numerous priceforecasts. These forecasts

submitted to the U.S. Government under 50 CFR Part 37. were conducted by the Department of Energy (DOE);

Itis protectedunder the these regulationswhich require private research firms, such as Data Resources

the Government to hold confidentialor proprietarythe Incorporated;and severaloilcompanies such as Chevron

geologicdata collectedby a permitteeon the 1002 area. Corporation,Texaco, Conoco, and Ashland Oil,and were

the latestavailableat the time the analysiswas completed.

Analysis in the report is based on government- Recent, unpublished DOE projectionsindicatean 8-percent

processed data resultingfrom processing industry'sraw reductionfrom DOE estimates availableat the time the

data (seismictapes). The Department willmake raw data analysiswas completed.

availableto the publicafterthe reportis formallysubmitted

to the Congress, pursuant to regulations(50 CFR Part A complete and thorough discussion of the sources

37.54). Industry-processed,analyzed,and interpreteddata of oilpriceforecastsand relatedassumptions is includedin

obtained as a resultof explorationactivitiesby the Young and Hauser (1986).

permitteeor a thirdpartywillnot be releasedto the public

until10 years afterthe submission of such data or

information,or until2 years afterany lease sale,whichever

period is longer,in accordance with the regulations.

OIL PRICE GROWTH RATE

The volume of geologic data and the proprietary

nature of the seismicdata precluded includingalldata in Several comments suggest that the rate of increase the Chapter IIIsummary of the geology of the 1002 area.

in oilprices used in the reportshould be the same as Scientistsof the GS and BLM reviewedallthe data to

used by the U.S.MineralsManagement Service(MMS).

presentthiscondensed reportforthe government and the

public. A more comprehensive technicalreport (USGS

In the recently published MMS 5-year Outer Bulletin1778) willfollowlaterthisyear. ContinentalShelf Oil and Gas Leasing Program for 1987,

the startingoilprices ranged from $9 to $34, in 1987

dollars.The year 2000 pricesranged from $10 to $45, in

Conversely,GSI's comments focused on what they 1987 dollars. The $33/barrelprice(1984 dollars)used in

perceived to be a breach of the regulationsconcerning this LEIS clearlyfallswithinthat range when the MMS

some of the data and levelof detailin Chapter IIIand the figuresare adjusted to 1984 dollars.The figuresused

accompanying plates. Because of continuedconcern from hereinare thus consistentwith the MMS figures.

COMMENTS AND RESPONSES--ASSESSMENT ISSUES 203
NATURAL GAS 2 billionbarrels(recoverable).For the western 1002 area

prospect,the minimum fieldsizewould be about 1.4 billion

Comments on the subjectof naturalgas resources in barrels. Minimum fieldsizes for actualprospects in the

the 1002 area fallintotwo categories 1002 area, using thisprice,were not estimated,but itis

likelythat the minimum forthe area would be close to that

1. Section 1002, NEPA, and CEO requirean assessment for the "typical'western prospect (1.4BBO). Allelse being

of the environmental effectsof explorationfor and equal,the effectof thiswould be to lower the marginal

development of naturalgas, as well as oil. probabilityfor commercial hydrocarbons from the 19-percent

'.mostlikely"case.

2. The potentialsignificanceand futurevalue of natural

gas depositsare not adequatelyaddressed. National Need Issue

With respect to the firstconcern, exploratorywells in

(Chapter VII)

the 1002 area could encounter dry gas, oil,oil with MARGINAL PROBABILITIES AND

associated gas, or water. The impacts of exploratory THE NATIONAL NEED

drillingwould be the same regardlessof what isfound.

The effectsof naturalgas development and production Many commenters suggested thatthe NationalNeed

would be somewhat less intensivethan foroil,due to wider analysisin Chapter VII is misleading,and that projected

well spacing and smallerproduction facilities, but would economic benefitsare overstated,because the analyses are

involvevirtuallythe same surfacearea. That is,for the based on conditionalrecoverableresource estimates.

purposes of impact analysis,the same prospects would be

considered. In the unlikelyeventthat only gas would be The economic and domestic supply benefits

produced from the 1002 area,impactsassociatedwitha

described in Chapter VII (and the environmental

trunk pipelinewould likewisebe less,inasmuch as "hot

consequences of development described in Chapter VI)are

oil"/permafrostengineeringproblems would not be a factor. conditionalon the discoveryof commercial quantitiesof oil

Itmight be possibleto bury a gas pipelineover most of its in the 1002 area.

length. Concurrent development and productionof oiland

gas from the same prospect and the area would have The purpose of estimatingeconomicallyrecoverable

roughlythe same impacts as foroilalone,as was pointed hydrocarbon resources was to provide a basis for

out in the draftreport. assessing possible environmental and socioeconomic

With respect to the second concern, the method

effects of development, and for projectingpotential

used for the estimation of economically recoverable

economic benefitsof developing. For the 1002 area,the

resources in the 1002 area requiresthe estimationof a

Congress specificallyrequiresan evaluationof how the

minimum economic fieldsize for each prospect,which in

potentialresources of the area relateto domestic oiland

turn,requiresdemonstrationof a positivenet presentvalue.

gas supply-and-demand projects. None of these types of

Given the currenteconomics of North Slope naturalgas,

analyses can be conducted using risked resource

and the immense proven gas reserve base elsewhere,

estimates.

natural gas from the 1002 area simply cannot be Otherlssues

demonstratedas havingany presenteconomic valueusing

standard discounted cash flow procedures. See Young CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION

and Hauser (1986)fora complete discussionof naturalgas

economics forthe 1002 area. The North Slope Borough and a few other

commenters expressed concern that there appeared to be

no specificmechanisms outlinedin the reportto ensure

public involvement in Federal decisionmaking concerning

ECONOMIC SCENARIOS development of the 1002 area.

Several commenters expressed the opinionthat a Chapters 1,IV, V, and VI recognize the existing

..pessimistic"or low-side recoverableresource assessment statutesthat requirecoordinationand considerationduring

should be includedbased on lower oilprices,as well as the various stages of development, ifthe 1002 area is

the "optimistic"or "most favorable"case. opened for oilleasing. Itwould be premature to outline

specificmeasures at thispoint in the process. The final

Sensitivityanalyses were conducted to determine LEIS/reportprovidesa broad, programmatic discussion of

effectsof variationsin several economic parameters, management options forthe Congress to consider.

including oil prices, on the economics of 'typical"

prospectsin the western and easternpartsof the 1002 This reportis not intendedto be, nor should itbe

area. The lowest oilpricemodeled was $22/barrel(year used as, a localplanningdocument by potentiallyaffected

2000 price,1984 dollars).The minimum economic fieldsize communities. The facilitylocationsand transportation

forthe eastern 1002 area prospect using thispriceis over scenarios described in this LEIS representvery broad

204 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
assumptions that were made as a basis for identifying Parks sent the Embassy of Canada a letterof invitationto

characteristicactivitiesand any resultingenvironmental consult on the draftreport. To date, three consultation

effects.These assumptions do not representa Department sessions have been held--two in Ottawa and one in

of the Interiorecommendation, preference,or endorsement Washington, D.C. The Government of Canada submitted

of any facility, site,or development plan. Local controlof writtencomments on the report. The consultationshave

events may be exercised through planning,zoning,land furtherprovided both countriesthe opportunityto discuss

ownership, and applicableState and local laws and the biologicaland geologicaldata upon which the

regulations. assessments are based, and to address the assessment of

potentialimpacts on the PCH and other internationally

-Ifthe area is eventuallymade availablefor further shared wildliferesources from possible development

explorationor leasing,site-specificNEPA compliance,and activities.Eithercountry may initiatefurtherconsultations.

compliance with sections of ANILCA and numerous other

Federal,State and local requirements,would ensure full

coordinationwith allentitiesthatwould be affected.

PUBLIC HEARINGS

The Department was criticizedfor the number of

CONSULTATION WITH CANADA

publichearings scheduled. As noted elsewherein this

section,public hearings were held in Anchorage and

The Canadian Government was concerned that Kaktovik,Alaska, and Washington, D.C. The hearings

consultations had not been adequate. The following satisfiedthe requirements of the NationalEnvironmental

informationleads the Department of the Interiorto conclude PolicyAct, and the court'sorder in TrusteesforAlaska,

al.,v. Donald P. Hodel that public hearingsbe held in differently:

Alaska and elsewhere. Furthermore,the reportwas widely

The Canadian WildlifeService(CWS) and ItsYukon distributedand receivedinternationalmedia coverage. Most

WildlifeBranch independently conducted studies of the of the media used Interior-preparedpress releasesand

Porcupine caribou herd (PCH) during 1978-81 relativeto

emphasis was placed on the factthat oraltestimonyand

potentialoiland gas developments in the Yukon Territory lettersof comment submitted through the mailwere given

and Northwest Territories.In conductingthe studiesfor

equal consideration.

preparationof the baselinereportsand the Report to

Because the concerns expressed at the three

Congress, the FWS worked closelywith biologistsfrom the

hearings were comprehensive and substantiallythe same as CWS, and the Stateof Alaska as well.

writtencomments received,additionalhearingswould have

Before assessing the effectsof oiland gas

provideda forum for people to express theiropinions,but

development, production,and transportationin the 1002

probablywould not have raisedany new matterswarranting

area, the FWS conducted a Caribou Impact Analysis furtherrevisionof the report. The Department believes,as

Workshop, as explainedin Chapter VI of both the draftand was itsintentwith an LEIS,thatthe proper forum forthis

finalLEIS/reports.Canadian biologistsparticipatedat FWS;

debate is the Congress. The Congress willmake the

invitation. The forum provided the opportunityfor FWS

actualdecision,afterthe Secretary'srole of analysisand

biologiststo compare research resultsand gain valuable

recommendation. There willbe ample opportunityforpublic

information on what impacts the Canadian's own

inputduringcongressionalconsiderationof thisreport.

transportationand explorationactivitiesmay have had in

and near the PCH's migrationroutes and concentrated

calvingand winteringareas.

SUBMERGED LANDS

In additionto the technicalconsultationsthat have

occurred independent of the 1002 process, representatives The State of Alaska criticizedthe reportfor not

of the FWS and CWS had been negotiatinga PCH addressing the ownership status of the beds of nonticlal

agreement forthe past severalyears. This agreement calls navigable waters. The State asserts ownership of the

for both countriesto take appropriatesteps to ensure submerged lands underlyingthe Aichilik,Jago, Okpilak,

internationalcooperationand coordinationof actionsthat Hulahula, Sadlerochit,Staines,and Canning Riverswithin

may affectthisinternationally shared resource,in order to the 1002 area. The FWS does not recognizethe Stateof

conserve the speciesand itshabitat.The agreement would Alaska's claim to these submerged lands. Although the

establishan advisoryboard to assistin management. Such State usually has ownership status for the beds of

an agreement willenhance consultationon futureactivities. navigablewaterways, the Federal Government claims lands

submerged under navigablewaters that were reservedto

Once the draft 1002(h) LEIS/reportwas made the Federal Government priorto statehood (January 3,

availableto the Congress and the publicfor review,the 1959). The ArcticRefuge lands were withdrawn formilitary

AssistantSecretaryof the Interiorfor Fish and Wildlifeand purposes priorto thisdate (PublicLand Order 82, 1943).

COMMENTS AND RESPONSES--NATIONAL NEED AND OTHER ISSUES 205
ARCTIC REFUGE LAND EXCHANGE DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSPORTATION SCENARIOS

Severalcommenters expressed concern about the (CHAPTER IV)

Department'sparticipationi negotiationswiththe Stateof

Alaska and with a number of AlaskaNativecorporations Much of the original(draft)descriptionof facilities,

regardingthe possibleexchange of limitedoiland gas

equipment,procedures,and practicesincludedin Chapter

interestson the 1002 area for Nativeand Stateowned IV was obtainedthrough consultationwith oilcompanies,

inholdingswithinother NationalWildlifeRefuges in Alaska.

from trade publications,or from explorationand

Of primaryconcernwas the lackof discussionof an

developmentplansand proposals. Most of the comments

exchange and itsassociatedenvironmentaland economic receivedon Chapter IV are likewisefrom oilcompanies or

impactsinthe draftreport.

trade associationsand concern recentadvancements in

technology or alternativetechnologicalapproaches not

The determinationas to whether the Department consideredin the draftLEIS. These comments have been

would propose such an exchange could not be made until accommodated by minor changes in the text. However,

afterthe Secretaryhad decided upon his recommendation

where there is some question as to the universal

to the Congress regardingfuturemanagement of the 1002

applicability of an improved or alternativetechnologycited

area. A discussionof the exchange was not includedin

from the Prudhoe Bay area, the technology is

the draftor finalreports.Explorationand development of acknowledged in the textas a possibility,but not

Stateor privateoiland gas interestswithinthe 1002 area

necessarilyendorsed as being applicableforthe 1002 area.

would be subject to the same regulationsand

environmentalcontrolsas Federallandsinthe area,and so

the draftand finalreportsdo ineffectdescribethe potential

impactsof such operationson ArcticRefugeresourcesand

subsistenceuse. DISTRIBUTION OF FINAL REPORT/LEIS

Although section910 of ANILCA exempts land The followinghave receivedcopiesofthisfinalArctic

exchanges with Alaska Nativesfrom compliancewith the NationalWildlifeRefuge, Alaska, CoastalPlainResource

NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct, the FWS ascertainment Assessment.

reportswhich would accompany any exchange proposal

thatmay be submittedto the Congress would specifically All Members of the United States Congress

address impactsof any land exchange on the 1002 lands,

as well as on the refugeinholdingsto be acquired,and Federal Government and Agencies

would discussthe economic effectsof exchanginglimited

1002 area oiland gas interests.The ascertainmentreports AdvisoryCouncilon HistoricPreservation

would also discuss otheroptionsconsideredand the AlaskaLand Use Council

rationaleforselectinga land exchange as the means of Department of Agriculture

acquiringAlaska refugeinholdings. CooperativeExtensionService

ForestService

The Department'seffortsrelatedto a possibleland SoilConservationService

exchange have been independent of those aimed at Department of Commerce

preparingand submittingthe 1002 report,and have InternationalTrade Commission

therefore,not compromised the objectivityof the reportor NationalMarine FisheriesService

the Secretary'srecommendation. An exchange agreement NationalOceanic and AtmosphericAdministration

willbe submittedto the Congress only ifthe Secretary U.S.Weather Service

determines the exchange to be in the publicinterest. Department of Defense

Furthermore,implementationof a land exchange willbe Alaska AirCommand

contingentupon Congress opening the 1002 areato oiland Departmentof MilitaryAffairs

gas exploration,development,and production,and upon NavalArcticResearch Laboratory

congressionalapprovalof any exchange agreement. U.S.Army, Corps of Engineers

U.S.Army, Cold Regions Research and Engineering

Although an exchange of thisnaturewould create Laboratory

privateinterestson the ArcticRefuge, itwould actually Department of Energy

resultin a net reductionof privateinholdingson Alaska Department of Healthand Human Services

refugesdue to the multiplereturnexpectedforeach acre Department of Housing and Urban Development

exchanged on the 1002 area. Also,onlysubsurfaceoiland Department ofthe Interior

gas interestsin the ArcticRefuge would be exchanged. Bureau of IndianAffairs

Surfaceownershipand controlwould remainvested inthe Bureau of Mines

Federal Government. Any exchange agreement would MineralsManagement Service

containsuch surfaceuse provisionsas are necessaryto NationalPark Service

ensure protectionof refugeresources and maintainthe Officeofthe Solicitor

integrityof the area. Department of State

206 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Department of Transportation Cityof Kaktovilk

FederalAviationAdministration FairbanksNorth Star Borough

U.S. Coast Guard Kenai Chamber of Commerce

U.S. Coast Guard Madne Safety Municipalityof Anchorage

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency NativeVillageof Eagle

FederalInformationCenter NativeVillageof FortYukon

GeneralAccounting Office NativeVillageof Venetie

Marine Mammal Commission North Slope Borough

Officeof Management and Budget Rampart VillageCouncil

Officeof Technology Assessment Stevens VillageCouncil

VenetieVillageCouncil

Government of Canada

Alaska Native Groups

Embassy of Canada, Washington, D.C.

Ministryof the Environment Alaska Federationof Natives

Ministryof Indianand NorthernAffairs AleutCorporation

Department of Energy,Mines & Resources, ArcticSlope RegionalCorporation

Canadian Oiland Gas Lands Administration: BeringStraitsNativeCorporation

Headquarters,Ottawa BristolBay NativeCorporation

Northwest Territories, Yellowknife CalistaCorporation

Canadian WildlifeService Chugach Natives,Incorporated

DirectorGeneral,Ottawa Cook InletRegion,Incorporated

Pacificand Yukon RegionalDirector,Delta,B. C. Doyon Limited

Secretaryof StateforExternalAffairs,Ottawa Koniag,Incorporated

Northwest Territories NANA RegionalCorporation

Department of Renewable Resources,Yellowknife Sealaska Corporation

Yukon Territory The 13th RegionalCorporation

Department of Renewable Resources,Whitehorse

PorcupineCaribou Management Board, Councilfor Organizations

Yukon Indians

Akhiok-KaguyakVillageCorporation

Alaska Centerforthe Environment

Alaska State Government and Agencies Alaska CoalitionforAmedcan Energy Secudty

Alaska ConservationSociety

Alaska StateLegislature Alaska Friendsofthe Earth

Officeofthe Governor (Clearinghouse) Alaska Oiland Gas Association

Alaska Oiland Gas ConservationCommission Alaska StateDistrictCouncil of Laborers

Alaska StateGeologicalSurvey Alaska Wildemess Council

Alaska StateHistoricPreservationOffice Alaska WildlifeAlliance

Attomey Generalforthe StateofAlaska American PetroleumInstitute

Department of Commerce and Economic Development American Wildemess Alliance

Department of Community and RegionalAffairs Anchorage Audubon Society

Department of EnvironmentalConservation Anchorage Chamber of Commerce

Department of Fish and Game ArcticAudubon Society

Department of Healthand SocialServices ArcticSlope RegionalCorporation

Department of NaturalResources ArcticCoastalZone Manager

Department of PolicyDevelopment and Planning Audubon Society,Alaska Region

Department of Transportationand PublicFacilities Canadian WildlifeFederation

Universityof Alaska,Geophysical Institute CentreforNorthernStudies

Defenders of Wildlife

Ducks Unlimited

Alaska Communities Dunes Calumet Audubon Society(Indiana)

EnvironmentalDefense Program

BeaverVillageCouncil FairbanksChamber of Commerce

BirchCreek VillageCouncil Fdends of the Earth

ChalkyitsikVillageCouncil Fund forAnimals

Cityof Anaktuvuk Pass Greenpeace

Cityof ArcticVillage IntemationalAssociationofFishand Wildlife

Cityof Barrow International PorcupineCaribou Commission (Alaska)

Cityof Fairbanks IntemationalNorth PacificFish Commission

COMMENTS AND RESPONSES--DISTRIBUTION OF FINAL REPORT 207
InterseaResearch Corporation N.L.Baroid Petroleum

IzaakWalton League NorthernTechnicalServices

Kachemak Bay ConservationSociety ocean Technology, Limited

Kenai ConservationSociety OilPatch ofAlaska,Incorporated

NationalAcademy of Sciences PettyRay Geophysical,Inc.

NationalAudubon Society PhillipsPetroleum

NationalPark and ConservationAssociation PlacidOilCompany

NationalRifleAssociation ShellOilCompany

NationalWildlifeFederation ShellWestern E&P Inc.

NationalWildlifeRefuge Association Sohio BP Alaska

NationalWildlifeRefuge Association,Anchorage Chapter Standard Alaska ProductionCo.

NaturalResources Defense Council Standard Oilof California

Nature Conservancy TAM Engineers

North PacificFisheries Tenneco

NorthernAlaska EnvironmentalCenter Tesoro Alaska PetroleumCorp.

PacificLegalFoundation TetraTech.,Incorporated

PacificSeabirdGroup Texaco,Incorporated

Resource Development CouncilforAlaska Union OilCompany

Renewable Resources, Inc. VarianceCorporation

Rocky Mountain Institute Western Geophysical Company

RuralAlaska Community ActionProgram, Inc. Woodward-Clyde Consultants

SierraClub

Southeast RegionalResource Center

SteeringCouncilforAlaska Lands News Media

The Real Alaska Coalition

TrusteesforAlaska Alaska Journalof Commerce

U.S. Chamber of Commerce Alaska Magazine

Wilderness Society--Alaska Alaska Radio Network

WildernessSociety(National) Alaska Report

WildlifeFederationof Alaska Alaska Review

WildlifeManagement Institute All-AlaskaWeekly

Anchorage DailyNews

Anchorage Times

Industry and Companies AssociatedPress

Cheechako News

Alaska BiologicalResearch ChristianScienceMonitor

AMOCO ProductionCompany Cook InletChronicles

ARCO Alaska DistrictMedia Resource Center

ArcticAdventurers FairbanksDailyNews Miner

BritishPetroleumAlaska Juneau SE Empire

BritishPetroleumAlaska Exploration New York Times

BritishPetroleumNorth America Nome Nugget

Chevron USA, Inc. NorthwestArcticSchool District

CitiesServiceCompany Oiland Gas Journal

CONOCO Outdoor WritersAssociation

Dames and Moore PeninsulaClarion

DrillingServices,Inc. Petroleum Engineer International

Esca Tech Corporation Tundra Times

Exxon Company, USA USA Today

Geodata Corporation Wall StreetJournal

Geodigit Washington Post

Geo. Co. of Northway,Inc.

GeophysicalCorporationof Alaska

GeophysicalServiceInc. Others

IMCO Services

InternationalAssociationof Geophysical Contractors Copies were alsosentto Stategovernments,groups,

Marathon OilCompany and individualswho made substantivecomments on the

Mobil OilCorporation draftLEIS and to otherswho had requestedto be placed

Nissho-lwaiAmerican Corporation on the mailinglist.These recipientsare too numerous to

listhere.

208 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
NOTES
As the Nation'sprincipalconservationagency.the Department ofthe

Interiorhas responsibilityformost ofour nationallyowned publiclands

and naturalresources.This includes,fosteringthe wisestuse of our land

and water resources.protectingour fishand wildlife,preservingthe

environmentaland culturalvaluesof our nationalparks and historical

places,and providingfor the enjoyment of lifethrough outdoor

recreation.The Department assessesour energy and mineral resources

and works toassurethat theirdevelopment isin thebestinterestsof all

our people.The Department alsohas a major responsibilityforAmerican

Indian reservationcommunities and for peoplewho livein island

territoriesunder U.S. administration.

S. DEPARTMENT

U.S. BUREAU Of LAND 0

&WI1 IM FE

SERVICE 4L

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

DIVISION OF REFUGE MANAGEMENT POSTAGE AND FEES PAID

MAIN INTERIOR BLDG., ROOM 2343 U.S.DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

18TH & C STREETS, N.W. INT 423 U&NIAIL

WASHINGTON, D.C.20240