NOV18 W63

Ground -Water Contamination 

and Legal Controls 

in Michigan

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1691
Ground -Water Contamination 

and Legal Controls 

in Michigan

By MORRIS DEUTSCH

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1691

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1963
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

The U.S. Geological Survey Library has cataloged this publication as follows:

Deutsch, Morris, 1925-

Ground-water contamination and legal controls in Michigan. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1963.

v, 79 p. maps, diagrs. 24 cm. (U.S. Geological Survey. Watersupply paper 1691) 

Bibliography: p. 72-75.

1. Water Pollution Michigan. 2. Water Laws and legislation 

Michigan. I. Title. (Series)

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, B.C., 20402
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract-.-.._____________________________________________________ 1

Introduction._____________________________________________________ 1

Previous investigations.._______________________________________ 3

Acknowledgments _____________________________________________ 4

Summary of ground-water occurrence in Michigan.____________________ 5

Ground-water contamination in Michigan ____________________________ 9

Contaminants introduced from the surface._______________________ 12

Injection into aquifers____________________________________ 13

Sanitary wastes at Elkton______________________________ 14

Fuel oil at Holt_________________________________.___ 15

Well reconditioning at Mount Morris.___________________ 15

Air-conditioning return or recharge wells _________________ 15

Dug wells_ ___________________________________________ 17

Contaminated surface waters____________________________ 18

Ponded storm water at Bad Axe___________________ 18

Flood water at Saugatuck-_________________________ 18

Backflooding at Minden City- ______________________ 19

Drain wells___________________-______________-____ 19

Disposal or storage in the zone of aeration.___________________ 21

Phenols---__-__-_______________-__________-_.___-_--- 23

Creosotes at Reed City___________________________ 23

Charcoal wastes at Mancelona______________________ 24

Refinery wastes at Alma__________________-_-__--- 24

Picric acid at Lansing._____________________________ 25

Electroplating wastes__________________________________ 25

Chrome-plating wastes at Douglas___________-_-_--_- 26

Chrome-plating wastes at Bronson___________________ 26

Gasoline at East Saugatuck..___________________________ 29

Oil-field brines in Isabella County--______-_-_____--_--_- 30

Untreated sanitary wastes______________________________ 30

Septic tank effluent_____________________________-__--_- 31

Detergents in Muskegon County.______-_-______---- 33

Sewage in the Manistique-Gulliver area___________--- 34

Hepatitis epidemic at Posen_ _______________________ 34

Spilling or spreading on the land surface____________________ 35

Pickle brines at Edmore______-_______-____-----________ 36

Milk wastes at Trenary________________________________ 36

Raw liquid fertilizer near Holland-____________--_-__---- 37

Land-surface dumping__ _________________,___---___---- 37

Salt used for snow removal__ ________________--__-___--- 37

Manistee County______________________________-__- 38

Kent County____________________________.______ 38

Chromium compounds contained in land fill at Grandville. _ 39

Percolation of leached nitrates into shallow aquifers.__-_-_- 39

in
IV CONTENTS

Ground-water contamination in Michigan Continued

Contaminants introduced from the surface Continued Page

Leaking sewers or pipelines_________________________________ 41

Sanitary sewer at Lansing industrial plant._______________ 41

Leaking municipal sewers at Sturgis_____________________ 41

Pipeline sealant at Ionia__________-_-___-__----_______ 42

Induced infiltration or leakage of contaminated surface waters _ _ 42

Discharged softening-plant effluent in Paris Township._____ 42

Discharged mine water at Ironwood-____________________ 44

Sewage contaminated creek at Norway.__________________ 44

Bacterial contamination in collector system at Grand Haven. 45

Stagnant floodwaters at Benton Harbor __________________ 45

Insecticides, herbicides, and windblown wastes ________________ 46

Chrome-laden dust in Wyoming Township._______________ 46

Contaminants induced from natural sources-....__________________ 4?

Vertical leakage through open holes____________-_____________ 49

Brines from oil wells and test holes at Lowell.____________ 49

Saline water in the Saginaw Lowlands _________________ 53

Saline water in the Grand Rapids area___________________ 54

High-chloride water at Lansing_________________-__-_-.__ 55

High-chloride water at Grand Ledge and Eaton Rapids.___ 56

Overpumping.____________________________________________ 56

Intrusion of high-chloride water_________-__-_--_____-___ 57

Royal Oak area___________________________________ 57

Flint area_-___________________--_---__-_-___-_-__ 58

Intrusion of high-sulfate water._________________________ 59

Pontiac __________________________________________ 59

Holland. _________________________________ 59

Manistique _______________________________________ 60

Dewatering operations___________________---_-__------_____ 60

Sulfide water at Flat Rock____________________________ 60

Channel deepening or dredging__________-_----__---___--____ 62

Legal safeguards against ground-water contamination in Michigan______ 64

Actions of the Michigan Supreme Court-_________________________ 64

Act creating the Water Resources Commission.__ ________________ 65

Conservation laws_______________________________---__-----__-- 66

Act 190 of the Public Acts of 1889-_-___-__-__-_-_________ 66

Act 107 of the Public Acts of 1905_________.-__-__-____-_ 66

Act 326 of the Public Acts of 1937____________.____-____--_ 66

Act 61 of the Public Acts of 1939.-__-____-_--_-_________ 67

Public health laws_________________________________________ 68

The Drain Code of 1956___________________.___----------___ 68

Waterworks and sewerage system law__________---_-_-_--____ 68

Regulatory powers of the State Health Commissioner-_________ 69

Federal interest-__________________-______---______---------_-_ 69

Summary and conclusions._________________________________________ 70

References cited_______________________-____-_____-_-_------------_ 72

Index_ ____________________--_-__-_----------_.__---------------_- 77
CONTENTS V

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page 

FIGURE 1. Geologic map of Michigan_____-_.-_____-._________---___ 6

2. Several types of rock interstices- -_-__-__--_-------__--.-_ 8

3. Hydrogeologic conditions of aquifiers- _____________________ 9

4. Reversal of interformational leakage by pumping___________ 10

5. Hydrologic cycle---_______--____--____----_-----_------ 11

6. Distribution of cases of ground-water contamination in

Michigan _ _________________________________________ 13

7. Spread of contaminants injected through wells _____________ 14

8. Movement of contaminants to a nearby pumping well- ______ 16

9. Floodwater entering well_ _______________________________ 19

10. Drainage of a pond into an aquifer. ---__--____----_----__ 20

11. Percolation of contaminants through the zone of aeration____ 22

12. Lines of flow from recharge mound- -_-_-----__--------_-_ 29

13. Movement of contaminants from a septic tank through limestone or dolomite-_______-__-_---___----_--.-----_---__ 33

14. Contamination by leaching of surface solids-__-____ ________ 35

15. Leaching of contaminated land fill by floodwater and precipitation. ______________________________________________ 40

16. Contaminated water induced to flow from a surface source

to a well- -__-________________-_--__-____---_-__-_-__ 43

17. Mode of entry of windblown wastes--____-___-___--_--_-_- 48 

1 8. Interformational leakage through open holes -_-__-_____-___ 50

19. Southeastern Michigan areas of mineralized shallow water--- 51

20. Southern Peninsula fresh- and saline-water interface relations. 52

21. Fresh-water aquifer contaminated by saline water from underlying rocks___-___-___-____-____-_--__-____-----_----_ 58

22. Migration of saline water caused by dewatering______ _______ 61

23. Migration of saline water caused by lowering of water levels

in a stream. __________________________________________ 63

GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL 

CONTROLS IN MICHIGAN

By MOKKIS DEUTSCH

ABSTRACT

The great importance of the fresh ground-water resources of Michigan is 

evident because 90 percent of the rural and about 70 percent of the total population of the State exclusive of the Detroit metropolitan area are supplied from 

underground sources. The water-supply and public-health problems that have 

been caused by some cases of .ground-water contamination in the State illustrate 

the necessity of protecting this vital resource.

Manmade and natural contaminants, including many types of chemical and 

organic matter, have entered many of the numerous aquifers of the State. 

Aquifers have been contaminated by waste-laden liquids percolating from the 

surface or from the zone of aeration and by direct injection to the aquifer 

itself. Industrial and domestic wastes, septic tanks, leaking sewers, flood waters 

or other poor quality surface waters, mine waters, solids stored or spread at the 

surface, and even airborne wastes all have been sources of ground-water contamination in Michigan. In addition, naturally occurring saline waters have 

been induced into other aquifers by overpumping or unrestricted flow from 

artesian wells, possibly by dewatering operations, and by the deepening of surface 

stream channels. Vertical migration of saline waters through open holes from 

formations underlying various important aquifers also has spoiled some of the 

fresh ground waters in the State. In spite of the contamination that has 

occurred, however, the total amount of ground water that has been spoiled 

is only a small part of the total resource. Neither is the contamination so 

widespread as that of the surface streams of Michigan.

Over^lljegalauthority to control most tvj^g^f jy^njj^ater^^ontajtmnation 

inJJiejState has been assigned by the Michigan Legislature to the Water Resources Commission, although the Dej3a^tm£jiL ctf_£lans,erY^iion and the Health 

peEarfment also exercise important water-pollution control functions. The 

Michigan Supreme Court, in an important case upholding the power of the 

Water Resources Commission to control pollution of ground water, in effect 

has introduced the doctrine of reasonable use into the law of the State. Excluding controls administered by the Department of Conservation on activities of the 

oil and gas industry, however, legal controls have not been used jo_jibatejiitcusionjof natural saline waters into fresh-water aquifers in response to pumping 

and other manmade changes fif the hydrologic .regimen.

INTRODUCTION

Michigan's fresh-water resources are enormous. Vast supplies of 

surface water are available in 4 of the 5 Great Lakes, more than
2 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

11,000 inland lakes, and many thousands of miles of rivers and streams. 

In addition, the State has an abundant resource of ground water. 

The ground-water resources are particularly valuable because they 

provide a readily available source of supply in a large part of the 

State. Excluding the Detroit Metropolitan area, about 90 percent of 

the rural and 70 percent of the total population of the State are 

supplied with water from underground sources (MacKichan, 1957).

Despite the abundance of the ground water in Michigan, many 

problems face those concerned with the development and management 

of this resource. One of the most serious of these problems and the 

one with which this paper deals is that of contamination. Numerous 

instances of ground-water contamination have been observed in many 

areas of the State. The overall extent of contamination probably is 

not unusual for a highly populated industrial State and is only a 

small part of the total resource. In some places, notably in the Saginaw Bay and Grand Rapids areas, irreparable damage has been caused 

by the encroachment of saline water into fresh-water aquifers.

Pollution of rivers and streams, especially in southern Michigan, 

has placed many communities and other water users in the ironic 

position of having available adequate quantities of surface water, but 

of a quality unfit for most uses. Similar pollution of ground water 

must be avoided. Ground-water resources can be developed at relatively low cost in many areas of the State. If this widespread source 

of supply should become contaminated the importation of water to 

water-rich areas would follow. Also, ground-water contamination 

is more serious than similar contamination of surface water for several 

reasons: (1) It is longer lasting because of the slow movement of 

ground water; (2) it may not be detected until after a considerable 

part of an aquifer is affected; and (3) reclamation of the aquifer is 

difficult and time consuming, if possible at all.

The purposes of this paper are: (1) To review the various ways in 

which the quality of water in aquifers in Michigan has been impaired; 

(2) to cite briefly cases of actual or suspected ground-water contamination and thus point out practices that may result in contamination; (3) to point out hydraulic principles involved in the migration 

of contaminants to fresh ground-water reservoirs; (4) to mention the 

decisions of the Michigan Supreme Court and acts of the Michigan 

Legislature pertinent to the subject of ground-water contamination 

and to examine the legal safeguards designed to abate further contamination. The discussion of the many cases cited herein may increase awareness of hazards to ground-water supplies and lead indirectly to the curtailment of ground-water contamination in the future. 

The drawings that show migration of contaminants through aquifers
INTRODUCTION 3

are schematic and illustrate principles; they are not based on actual 

field data.

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

Problems concerning the contamination of ground-water supplies 

throughout Michigan have been studied by a number of State, Federal, and local governmental units although no comprehensive tabulation of all types of contamination in the State had previously been 

prepared. Many cases of contamination of public water supplies 

referred to herein were investigated by State agencies and described 

in the "Michigan Water Works News," published by the Michigan 

Department of Health. Since 1949 the Michigan Water Kesources 

Commission has been active in controlling contamination of the surface and ground waters of the State. An informal report issued by 

the Commission, the "Quarterly Bulletin," is also a source of some 

of the material contained in this report.

The U.S. Public Health Service (Stiles and others, 1927) conducted 

an elaborate series of experiments at Fort Caswell, N.C., to study the 

movement, velocity, and duration of chemical and bacterial pollutants 

in the ground, especially as affected by ground-water movement and 

water-level fluctuations.

A significant advance in the understanding of principles involved 

in ground-water contamination was made by Fiedler (1936) who 

described the general geologic and hydrologic controls governing the 

migration of contaminants in various types of aquifers. Faust (1937) 

described methods of safeguarding various types of wells from contamination by properly locating, constructing, and equipping wells 

of each type. Ferris (1951) discussed the roles that aquifers might 

play as waste-disposal reservoirs and outlined the basic hydrologic 

problems. The problems involved in subsurface waste disposal are 

mainly the same as those involved in aquifer contamination.

Adams (1944) made a plea for the abatement of water pollution 

in Michigan and cited hazards, annoyances, damages, and economic 

losses caused by polluting the water resources of the State. Problems caused by ground-water pollution were summarized by Billings 

(1950), who cited the need for detailed geologic, hydrologic, and hydraulic data to analyze individual problems. He noted also that legal 

restrictions included in the State's oil and gas laws safeguard not 

only the public at large, but also the oil and gas industry.

An informative pamphlet covering various aspects of ground-water 

pollution was prepared for general public use by Slaughter and 

Campbell (1952).

The 1955 "Yearbook of Agriculture" entitled "Water" included 

several papers concerned with the protection of water resources:

681-387 O - 63 - 2
4 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

Parker (1955, p. 615-635) discussed the enroachment of saline waters 

into fresh-water aquifers of Michigan; Schwab (1955, p. 636-643) 

wrote on the growing national problems of water pollution; Fuhrman 

(1955, p. 644-649) discussed treatment of waste waters for cities 

and industries; Garver (1955a and b, p. 655-665) wrote on ways 

by which rural water supplies may be contaminated and of protective 

measures that may be taken and also on methods of safe disposal of 

sanitary wastes for rural homes.

Results of detailed quantitative work concerning the pollution of 

ground waters have been published by the California Water Pollution 

Control Board (1953; 1954a; 1954b). These reports also contain 

comprehensive bibliographies on pollution and contamination.

The American Water Works Association (1957) is concerned with 

various phases of underground waste disposal and control and organized a task group to study the problems involved and to report on 

its findings. The World Health Organization (1957) also has considered the general problem of ground-water pollution and the impact 

of pollution on the water economy of an area.

The present report contains no discussion of the possibility of future

contamination of the State's ground-water resources by radioactive

| substances. A separatejMRgrjpjgpared by the author (Deutsch, 1JL5&H

ij discusses the effects of disseminationjaf radioactive materials on waten

* resources jmd Ifsts'nmnerous pertinent^reFerencer^*" """"""

The relation of law to water resources has received considerable attention in recent years. The Legislative Research Center of the 

University of Michigan Law School (Pierce, 1958) published contributions prepared for the 10th Annual Summer Institute of the 

Law School. An especially valuable contribution for those interested 

in the legal aspects of the contamination of water supplies is discussed 

by Lauer and others (1958). Piper and Thomas (1958) described the 

inappropriateness of common law in defining rights to water because 

of the complexities of the hydrologic cycle and the difficulty of adapting statutory law to "the realities of applied hydrology."

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Sincere thanks are due Mr. N. F. Billings, Chief, and other personnel of the Hydrology Division, Michigan Water Resources Commission, and to Mr. T. L. VanderVelde, Chief of the Water Supply 

Section, Michigan Department of Health, who made available pertinent data contained in the files of their respective organizations. Mr. 

J. G. Rulison and personnel of the Water Resources Section of the 

Michigan Geological Survey provided the author with valuable information concerning geologic aspects of cases of aquifer contamina-
SUMMARY OF GROUND-WATER OCCURRENCE 5

tion. Mr. A. E. Slaughter, also of the Michigan Geological Survey, 

provided further pertinent data on contamination cases in the 

Northern Peninsula. Mr. E. M. Burt of Williams and Works, consulting engineers, Grand Rapids, contributed information and technical assistance in regard to instances of ground-water contamination 

in the Grand Rapids area. Appreciation is expressed also to Mr. J. G. 

Ferris of the U.S. Geological Survey who permitted use of pertinent 

unpublished file data and illustrative matter prepared by him

This report was prepared by the Geological Survey as part of a 

program of support for university research projects of direct interest 

to the Government. An earlier version was used by the author as a 

graduate school thesis. The graduate work was done at Michigan 

State University, East Lansing, under the guidance of Dr. C. R. 

Humphrys, Professor, Department of Resource Development.

SUMMARY OF GROUND-WATER OCCURRENCE 

IN MICHIGAN

Fresh ground water can be obtained in most of Michigan by wells 

drilled into one or more of the numerous aquifers of the State. The 

water-bearing rock formations of the State are commonly classified 

into two broad categories of aquifers bedrock and glacial drift. The 

bedrock or consolidated-rock aquifers include (1) the igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks of Precambrian age which form the 

bedrock surface in much of the western half of the Northern Peninsula 

and (2) the sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age, which overlie the 

Precambrian rocks elsewhere in the State (fig. 1).

The Precambrian rocks commonly are dense and their permeability 

is low. However, where the rock is fractured and connected with a 

source of recharge, water may circulate through these secondary openings and be intercepted by wells. Where mines penetrate such permeable zones, dewatering operations may be necessary.

Paleozoic rocks underlie all of the State except parts of the western 

section of the Northern Peninsula where the Precambrian rocks form 

the bedrock surface. The Paleozoic rocks consist of limestone, dolomite, shale, sandstone, and breccia. Some of these rocks are interbedded with layers of evaporites such as rock salt or gypsum. These 

rocks were deposited in the shallow seas which covered the Michigan 

basin during most of the Paleozoic Era. They were laid down in 

nearly horizontal layers, but their gradual subsidence and compaction 

which were contemporaneous and greatest in the center of the basin, 

produced a bowl-shaped structure (fig. 1). The youngest beds are 

exposed at the surface in the central part of the basin and the formations crop out in roughly concentric bands.
6 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

SCHEMATIC GEOLOGIC SECTION ALONG LINE A-A' 

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED

FIGURE 1. Geologic map and section of the bedrock systems of Michigan.

The chief sedimentary rock aquifers are composed primarily of 

sandstone, limestone, or dolomite. In a sandstone aquifer water moves 

through interstices between individual sand grains and also along 

fractures and bedding planes. Movement of water in limestone and 

dolomite aquifers is predominantly through permeable zones, which 

were developed by weathering and solution. Layers of shale are of
SUMMARY OF GROUND-WATER OCCURRENCE 7

low permeability and yield little water to wells. Shale beds, however, 

are significant in the hydrologic system because they impede vertical 

movement of ground water and hence act as confining beds in artesian 

systems and retard solution in underlying soluble deposits.

Most of the fresh water in the sedimentary rock aquifers is in the 

outcrop areas of the formations areas where the formation forms the 

land surface or is mantled only by glacial drift. Where the aquifers 

are buried beneath younger Paleozoic formations, they generally contain saline water. For example, the Marshall Formation of Mississippian age is the principal source of fresh ground water at Battle Creek, 

Calhoun County, in southwestern Michigan. In Calhoun County, the 

Marshall Formation forms the buried surface below the glacial deposits. In Ingham County, 40 miles to the northeast, however, where 

the Marshall Formation is overlain by younger Paleozoic strata, it 

yields saline water. Similarly, the Trenton and Black River Limestones of Middle Ordovician age are an important source of fresh 

water in Delta County in the Northern Peninsula, but in the Southern 

Peninsula, these formation are at great depth and locally produce 

gas, oil, and brine.

Fresh water is available, however, in some formations in areas 

where they are overlain by younger sedimentary rocks. In parts of 

Delta and Schoolcraft Counties, sandstone formations of Cambrian 

and Ordovician age yield fresh water 20 to 30 miles south of the outcrop area, although the salinity of the water tends to increase with 

depth and distance from the outcrop area.

A long period of erosion occurred after the deposition of the Paleozic rocks and before the deposition of glacial deposits. During this 

erosional interval much consolidated rock was removed and some of 

the major physiographic features of Michigan were formed, including 

large valleys, which are now part of the Great Lakes. The Pleistocene 

deposits, which consist of a heterogeneous mixture of unconsolidated 

rock debris known collectively as glacial drift, are the most important and accessible aquifers in many areas of the State. The drift 

material was deposited on the eroded bedrock surface of Precambrian 

and Paleozoic rocks by ice, meltwater streams, lakes, and wind action 

during the glacial epoch. The Pleistocene deposits are about a 

thousand feet in maximum thickness and mantle the bedrock over 

all but about 2 or 3 percent of the entire land area of the State.

The most permeable deposits, and hence those that form the best 

aquifers, are the stream-laid outwash deposits composed of moderately well sorted sand and gravel. On the other hand, ice-laid 

deposits of till are of low permeability and are not important as 

aquifers in most of the State. However, in the Lake Superior area 

and in the northern part of the Southern Peninsula where the de-
8 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL' CONTROLS

posits are composed largely of sand, till is locally an important 

aquifer. Also included within the glacial-drift mantle are large 

quantities of clay, silt, and fine sand deposited in the water of the 

numerous glacial lakes that existed during and after the Pleistocene 

Epoch. Most of these deposits are rather poor aquifers in Michigan 

except locally where they are composed chiefly of sand and will yield 

small to moderate amounts of water to wells. The extensive dunes 

in several areas of the State, especially along the Great Lakes shorelines, are not important as aquifers because they generally lie 

above the regional water table.

The principal hydrologic properties of aquifers their permeability 

and porosity are determined basically by the character of the interstices between grains or of the open spaces within the rocks forming

E

B

FIGURE 2. Diagram showing several types of rock Interstices and the relation of rock 

texture to porosity (after Meinzer, 1923). A, well-sorted sedimentary deposit having 

high porosity ; B, poorly sorted sedimentary deposit having low porosity ; C, well-sorted 

sedimentary deposit consisting of pebbles that are themselves porous, so that the deposit 

as a whole has a very high porosity ; D, well-sorted sedimentary deposit whose porosity 

has been diminished by the deposition of mineral matter in the interstices; E, rock 

rendered porous by solution ; F, rock rendered porous by fracturing.

the aquifers (fig. 2). Interstices in rocks can be grouped into two 

main classes the original or primary interstices, formed when the 

rocks came into existence; and the secondary interstices, joints, fissures, and solution passages, which were developed later.

Many areas of Michigan are underlain by two or more aquifers in 

which water levels differ considerably, and some natural seepage or 

leakage occurs between them. Figure 3 illustrates principles involved in natural leakage between aquifers. The water surface in 

well 1 coincides with the top of the zone of saturation and hence 

aquifer A is termed water table or nonartesian. Aquifers B and C
GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION IN MICHIGAN

' a, '/:':' ' '' 

:-Scr

.' : ; /. \

een

1

5

2

:-Wa er tab e.

W r

r . v. - . '.'.'' ' ' '

:. ;VScre 

 ; ' ; .'.' '.'

* ' " *' iL ' "

'*.""* " **«"

in -'-.-. ;!*'.x

?

r\

1

i

I iMi

T-TTT^

* '.' ' ^

'.' ' ' '!

K'-'-'-V '. : '.

' ' ' V.-i ' '/ ' ' '/ -"Screen ^j

3

A

I A^ JM~

..' ..; Aquifer A..'.'./: :-'.- ;.--' . ' ' . . -vr.- '. ':' : : : .' ':

Confining bed A

"^ ' ' " . '? :-^:'.:-' '. ! : : ' ' .' .' 

 ':'.' :Aqu fer B::. : ; ; 

- confining bed B - :

 ':' ' . Aquifer C .' ' ' : ! 

 '.; ;. . . ;-. is c re enr^ri

.-.' '.o'"7?

LUlL^

. . \ ' ' * 

' ". J * 

* * * ~. ' ' 

t . ;

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* 2 *

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FIGURE 3. Diagrammatic section showing hydrogeologic conditions of water table and 

artesian aquifers (after Ferris and others, 1954). Line a-a' is the water table in 

aquifer A and well 1 is a water table well. Line 6 6' is the piezometric surface in 

aquifer B and well 2 is an artesian well. Line c-c' is the piezometric surface in aquifer 

C and wells 3 and 4 are artesian wells; well 4 is in an area of artesian flow. The 

arrows indicate the direction of cross-bed leakage.

and wells 2, 3, and 4 are artesian. The lower artesian pressure in 

aquifer B indicates that wrater may be moving into this formation 

from aquifers A or 67, either through distant breaks in the aquicludes or by vertical seepage through the aquicludes themselves.

The direction of natural interformational leakage may be reversed 

by pumping (fig. 4). Under natural conditions the water level (head) 

in aquifer A is higher than the piezometric surface of aquifer B and 

water leaks from A to B. When the water level in aquifer A is lowered 

to a level below the piezometric surface of aquifer B by pumping, 

water leaks from BtoA.

GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION IN MICHIGAN

Natural and manmade contaminants may come in contact with 

water at any point in the hydrologic cycle. Figure 5 is a schematic
10 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

NATURAL CONDITIONS

/ Staticic waterae table a 

_ / of aqujfer A

, °o Piezometric surface' 

« o of aquifer B o «

Aquifer A

 Screen,

" o Piezometric surface" J 

of aquifer B ° 0 °

- * " °

Aquifer'B ':::::::::::;::::::::x:x:::::::::::::: screen : : :

FIGURE 4. Diagrams showing reversal of interformational leakage by pumping.
GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION IN MICHIGAN 11

681-387 O - 63 - 3
12 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

section showing water-table and artesian aquifers as part of the hydrologic cycle. Contaminants may be introduced into aquifers in many 

ways. These are illustrated by the instances of contamination in 

Michigan described in this report.

Fresh water is arbitrarily defined as water containing less than 

1,000 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved minerals. This concentration represents the maximum that should be permitted in drinking 

water, according to the U.S. Public Health Service (1946) and the 

Michigan Department of Health (1948). The dissolved-solids content of water of preferred chemical quality should not exceed 500 

ppm. Natural ground water containing more than 1,000 ppm of dissolved solids, not limited to sodium chloride, is referred to herein as 

saline or mineralized.

For the purpose of this report, a fresh-water aquifer is termed contaminated if it has been impaired in quality^d^r^ctly__or^indirectly 

by man's activities to such a degree that the U.S. Public Health Service would not recommencl.it for drinking. \vajtejL_ The impairment may 

be caused by the addition of excessive concentrations of one or more 

minerals; by the introduction of biological substances that may cause 

deleterious physiological effects; or by physical agents that impart 

objectionable taste, odor, color, or increases in temperature.

Thejaxtent of contamination of the fresh ground water in Michigan 

has not been determined. Furthermore, it is unlikely that such a determination could be made. However, widespread contamination of 

important aquifers in the Saginaw Lowlands and in the Grand Rapids 

area is known to have occurred. In other areas, serious but much more 

localized contamination has occurred. Some occurrences of groundwater contamination in Michigan are shown in figure 6.

CONTAMINANTS INTRODUCED FROM THE SURFACE

A wide variety of deleterious substances have been introduced in 

numerous ways from the surface to many of the aquifers of the State. 

These substances include salt, hexavalent chromium, phenols, picric 

acid, gasoline, fuel oil, brines, domestic and farm sanitary wastes, 

polluted surface waters, nitrates, fertilizer^ and a variety of other 

industrial, municipal, and domestic wastes. Harmful substances may 

enter ground-water supplies by direct injection through wells; by 

percolation from dry wells, pits, underground storage tanks, and 

septic tanks; by percolation of liquids spilled at the surface or leached 

from soluble solids at the surface by precipitation; by leaking or 

broken sewers; and by infiltration of polluted surface water into the 

ground. Windblown wastes are suspected to have contaminated 

ground-water supplies in one locality.
CONTAMINANTS INTRODUCED FROM THE SURFACE 13

ISLE ROYALE

DOMINION OF CANADA

FIGURE 6. Generalized distribution of actual or suspected cases of ground-water contamination in Michigan described in this report.

INJECTION INTO AQUIFERS

The most direct method by which aquifers in Michigan have become contaminated has been by the discharge of waste water directly 

into wells that tap fresh-water aquifers. Waste water will flow into 

an aquifer if its head is above water table or piezometric surface 

(fig. 7). The water that enters the well will flow radially from the 

well into the aquifer. Ultimately, the direction of flow away from 

the well to a point of discharge is controlled by the natural hydraulic 

gradient in the aquifer or by gradients created by nearby pumping 

wells. For practical purposes, this means that nearly all wells, except 

those that are plugged or flowing, provide a possible avenue of entry 

of liquid contaminants from the surface to an aquifer.
14 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

Liquid contaminants

Aquiclude .

. WATER-TABLE AQUIFER

Liquid contaminants

 Original - 

 gradient 

W*?P^ 0l-' CC" ^^^^^V^^V-pi. O'o,o- O

0° '.' oV ° ;-o0 -.c

5. ARTESIAN AQUIFER

FIGURE 7. Diagrams showing spread of contaminants injected through wells into watertable and artesian aquifers.

In some places, the injection of wastes has been resorted to because 

of the ease and lack of expense involved. In others, the injection was 

accidental or the deleterious effects of the injection were unanticipated.

SANITARY WASTES AT ELKTON^

At Elkton, Huron County, during the summer of 1945, the municipal well, which taps the sandstone stnA Jimestonft at the^MMidjKyi 

Formation, 

_ ¥'_:_*r-,3^?_:'T--Js^gj||jp«, * </ 

yielded water contaminated with sanitary 

 /

and domestic

wastes. At the request of the Elkton Village Council, the State Health 

Department, assisted by the Michigan Geological Survey, made an 

investigation that showed that abandoned domestic wells were used
CONTAMINANTS INTRODUCED FROM THE SURFACE 15

to drain basements, laundry and kitchen wastes, and septic tanks. 

This practice was widespread in the area owing to poor surfacedrainage conditions. These abandoned wells tapped the Marshall 

Formation, and the aquifer, which was the village's main source of 

supply, was being polluted directly. Plugging of all so-called leak 

wells was impractical because of their large number between 50-75 

and because many of them could not be located. The village solved 

the problem of contamination by constructing a new well outside 

of town and remote from the contaminated part of the aquifer.

FUEL OIL AT HOLT *^

An occurrence of fresh-water contamination at Holt, Ingham 

County, illustrates how an accident can ruin a potable ground-water 

supply. In 1953, a home owner ordered a supply of fuel oil from a 

local distributor. The delivery man, who had not previously serviced 

the house, found an intake pipe and proceeded to pump the ordered 

quantity of fuel oil into the pipe. When an automatic shutoff device 

failed to operate and the pumping continued after the fuel tank should 

have been filled, the delivery man investigated. To the consternation 

of all concerned, the oil had been pumped into a well equipped with 

the same diameter and type of casing as the fuel oil intake pipe on the 

other side of the house. Needless to say, it became necessary for 

the home owner to obtain his water supply from other sources, as the 

aquifer in the immediate vimnity^was contaminated with fuel oil.

WELL RECONDITIONING AT MOUNT MORRIS ^

The city of Mount Morris, Genesee County, has two wells within 

35 feet of each other. In 1948, the west well was reconditioned by pulling the screen and installing a new gravelpack. During this operation, bacterial contamination of water pumped from the east well 

was noted. Apparently, bacterial contaminants entered the west 

well while it was being repaired. When the east well was pumped, a 

cone of depression resulted in a gradient from the east well to the 

west well, and water moving toward the pumping well carried with it 

the contaminants from the west well (fig. 8). The possibility of this 

and similar types of accidents was pointed out by Garver (1955a, p. 

656), who recommended that newly developed water-supply systems 

and those repaired or extended be disinfected by chlorination.

AIR-CONDITIONING RETURN OR RECHARGE WELLS

The widespread use of ground water as a coolant in air conditioning 

presents a potential hazard to the ground-water resources of the State 

because it is common practice to return the circulated cooling water to 

the ground. The water generally is returned to the ground to avoid
16 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

:--.«

0 . 0." o^o t 0 O " 0 

0 0 0° 0 0 a°O 0~'° 0 0 .

0 O 0 o0'ot,0 o
CONTAMINANTS INTRODUCED FROM THE SURFACE 17

the necessity of discharging it to public sewers, whose use is taxed; to 

conserve or replenish ground-water supplies; or to maintain high 

water levels or artesian pressures. A potential hazard to the aquifer 

is that in addition to the spent air-conditioning water, other polluted 

water may be recharged to the aquifer accidently, or in an attempt 

to reduce input into sewage systems.

The return of warmed waste air-conditioning water to an aquifer 

results in a rise in temperature of the water in the aquifer. Such rises 

in ground-water temperatures are undesirable because:

1. The warmed ground water is of less value for reuse in air-conditioning systems and in some industrial processes.

2. The palatability of the ground water may be impaired.

3. Warmed water generally has increased capacity to dissolve and to 

carry soluble rock or other mineral matter in solution.

4. Discharge of warm ground water may cause undesirable rises in

temperature of surface streams.

The recharge of aquifers through wells with fresh water other than 

that used in air-conditioning systems has been considered for some 

areas of the State, although at the present (1961) no such project is 

known to have been started. Such artificial recharge might be advantageous for several purposes such as underground storage of 

spring runoff, displacement of saline waters, and recovery of water 

levels in aquifers subjected to significant declines of head because 

of pumping.

Obviously, impairment of the aquifer would occur if water of poor 

quality were injected into a fresh-water aquifer for any purpose.

DUG WELLS

A dug well, which is a shallow excavation extending below the 

water table, presents a special contamination hazard to ground-water 

supplies. The principles by which contaminated water from a dug 

well may enter an aquifer are no different from any other type well. 

However, a dug well is especially susceptible to contamination because 

of its large diameter and the attendant difficulties in properly sealing 

it from surface contaminants such as polluted water, sewage, small 

animals and insects, decaying vegetation, and rubbish. Most of the 

dug wells in Michigan, of which there are many still in use, range 

in diameter from 3 to 30 feet. The Michigan Department of Health 

(Faust, 1937, p. 13) discourages the use of dug wells, primarily because 

of the contamination threat; however, the Department acknowledges 

that properly constructed dug wells are justified if fresh ground water 

in an area is available only in an aquifer of relatively low permeability. Dug wells may yield adequate supplies from such aquifers
18 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

because of their large entrance areas and storage capacities compared 

to those of drilled wells.

CONTAMINATED SURFACE WATERS

Several aquifers in different parts of the State have been contaminated because improperly constructed wells permitted surface water 

of objectionable quality to recharge through the well. Flood water 

carrying chemical or bacteriological matter is especially hazardous 

because it may rise to levels above the tops of well casings and enter 

the aquifer. s

PONDED STOBM WATEB AT BAD AXE

In the spring of 1921, several serious outbreaks of intestinal influenza at Bad Axe, Huron County, were reported to the State Health 

Department. Investigation showed that the outbreaks coincided 

rather closely with rains that flooded an area around the city's pumping station. Although one of the production wells was submerged 

during the flooding (Hirn, 1923) the source of contamination was 

difficult to explain because the city wells flowed when they were not 

pumped and the well that produced the contaminated water was 

adequately sealed against contamination. The production well, however, was only 430 feet from an open abandoned well that was submerged. It is probable that pumping of the production well lowered 

the head in the abandoned well below the level of ponded water.

The fine dense nature of the water-bearing Marshall Formation did 

not prevent contamination for a distance of 430 feet. Hirn reported 

that the production wells had recently been developed by detonating 

a heavy charge of dynamite in each well, and he surmised that the 

sandstone had been fissured extensively to provide a ready hydraulic 

connection between the abandoned well and the production well. Elsewhere in the State, water in fine dense sandstone, such as the Marshall 

Formation in Huron County, moves through secondary openings similar to those shown by figure 2F. Although dynamiting may have 

increased the secondary permeability, it is possible that contamination 

of the production well would have occurred regardless, so long as 

contaminated surface water was permitted to enter the aquifer through 

an unused well. /

FLOOD WATER AT SAUGATUCK "^

In 1951, analyses showed that water from 2 of the 3 municipal wells 

at Saugatuck, Allegan County, contained bacterial pollutants. The 

wells were of the gravel-pack type, about 50 or 60 feet deep, and drew 

water from sands extending to that depth below the surface. The 

Michigan Department of Health concluded that water from the 

flooded Kalamazoo River had entered the well through the gravel
CONTAMINANTS INTRODUCED FROM THE SURFACE 19

River in flood

Gravel pack 

too close to 

surface

~~unr"i_~"z_rii_~^r~un^~!ir^ZAq uici ude 

FIGURE 9. Diagram showing floodwater entering a well through an improperly sealed

gravel pack.

envelope around the Avell casing (fig. 9). This suggest? that to seal a 

well effectively from surface Avater of objectionable quality, gravel 

packs should not extend to the surface or to the top of an aquifer 

subject to contamination.

BACKFLOODING AT MINDEN CITY

The need for preventing flood Avater or backflow of a distribution 

system from entering a well and contaminating an aquifer is illustrated by an incident that occurred at Minden City, Sanilac County. 

In 1956 the pump on the city's only well failed when the pit in which 

the pump was located became flooded. Water from two sources flowed 

into the well surface floochvater and backflow from the water mains. 

The backflow into the Avell occurred because there was no plumbing 

fixture to prevent the return of water already in the system. In this 

failure the health hazard was minimized because the State Health 

Department operated an emergency chlorinator on the system until 

all the contaminated Avater had been pumped from the aquifer.

DRAIN WELLS

Contamination may occur also from the use of wells for drainage 

purposes. Horton (1905) described a subsurface drainage operation in Parma Township, Jackson County. An attempt was made 

to drain a surface pond by drilling a well within the pond (fig. 10). 

Complete drainage was not accomplished until the well was deepened 

into a permeable zone. Although this operation did not result in 

contamination of the aquifer at least none was reported an easy 

avenue of access for contaminants into the aquifer was provided.

681-387 O - S3 - 4
20 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

I J5 o. 0 Oa ° 0 0 O o 0 t i

'Jo n n o O s> . n 

I'l
DISPOSAL OR STORAGE IN THE ZONE OF AERATION 21

Surface waters are readily susceptible to bacterial contamination and, 

where injected into an aquifer, may contaminate the ground water 

in the vicinity of the injection well. Where drain wells are used, 

they should not recharge aquifers that are current or potential sources 

of potable water supply unless the recharge water is first chlorinated 

and filtered.

DISPOSAL OK STOKAGE IN THE ZONE OF AERATION

Waste water discharged into a so-called dry well, surface pond or 

settling basin, pit, trench, or septic tank may ultimately enter a freshwater aquifer following percolation through the zone of aeration. 

The zone of aeration consists of the unsaturated materials above the 

water table in which pore spaces and interstices between rock particles contain air as well as percolating water.

A dry well, which is finished above the water table in the zone 

of aeration, is used commonly to dispose of water from roofs or 

footing drains in areas not served by storm sewers. Almost all the 

suspended solid material in the runoff is filtered out within a few 

inches from the dry well, but the water containing dissolved solids 

percolates through the permeable materials above the aquifer. In 

general the movement is downward, although some water is dispersed 

laterally by capillarity or deflected by materials of low permeability. 

Eventually the water enters the upper part of the underlying aquifer 

(fig. 11). The liquid waste tends to form a mound on the water 

surface and move radially from the mound. The distance, direction, 

and velocity of underflow of the waste is affected by the gradient 

and the velocity of ground water in the aquifer.

Disposal of sewage effluent from a septic tank is accomplished in 

the same manner, except that a septic tank is designed to discharge 

to a tile drain field, which provides, in comparison, a large infiltration area.

Percolation of the liquid wastes to the aquifer from surface ponds, 

pits, or trenches also occurs in the same manner; however, the water 

is exposed to the atmosphere and is subject to evaporation. The 

pond or settling basin ordinarily permits more water to enter an 

aquifer than a dry well because it has a much larger infiltration area.

Storage of chemicals, chemical wastes, or petroleum products in 

steel or concrete tanks also presents a potential hazard because corrosion of the metal or cracking of the concrete may ultimately permit 

seepage of contaminants into an aquifer. Contamination by seepage 

has occurred on several occasions in Michigan.
22 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

s^A^^^x^ffi^^i^ii^Kgsgas
DISPOSAL OR STORAGE IN THE ZONE OF AERATION 23 

PHENOLS

Phenols are among the most noxious substances that have contaminated aquifers in various areas of the State. Phenol (carbolic acid) 

is a hydrocarbon contained in some industrial wastes. Studies made 

by the Pennsylvania State Board of Health indicate that when the 

concentration of phenols in the Ohio Eiver exceeds 0.02 ppm, groundwater supplies recharged by infiltration are contaminated (Noecker 

and others, 1954, p. 46). One or two days after the phenols appear in 

the river water, the water from nearby wells has the characteristic 

phenolic medicinal taste and odor. According to Elder and others 

(1948, p. 285), chlorination of water containing phenol results in 

chlorophenolic substances detectable to the taste in concentrations 

of 0.001 ppm (1 part per billion) of water.

The U.S. Public Health Service (1946, p. 383) stated that phenols 

in excess of 1 ppm preferably should not occur in natural or treated 

waters. There is some disagreement, however, on what the maximum 

permissible concentration of phenols in drinking water should be, although it is apparent that only a small concentration is sufficient to 

impart a detectable taste. Once phenol enters an aquifer, the disagreeable taste and odor that it imparts may persist for long periods of 

time in spite of attempts to flush or to dewater the aquifer.

^

CREOSOTES AT EEED CITY

A somewhat ironic instance of contamination occurred at Reed 

City, Osceola County. In 1950, the Water Resources Commission 

issued an Order of Determination directing the city to complete construction of adequate sewage disposal facilities. The order was issued because of the high content of bacteriological wastes in the 

Hersey Rive.r caused by discharging of sanitary wastes without 

adequate treatment.

Dewatering operations necessary for construction required continual pumping of ground water from the treatment plant site into the 

Hersey River. Concurrently, many fish died in a 1^-mile reach below 

Reed City, and minnows and trout farther downstream were notedly 

distressed. Laboratory analysis showed that the ground water 

pumped from the excavation contained 36 ppm of phenols decidedly 

above the toxic limit of various species of fish. The site selected for 

the sewage treatment plant was above a pit formerly used by an 

industrial firm for the disposal of creosote, tars, oil, and other hydrocarbons. The field inspector of the Water Resources Commission 

observed that "no worse spot could have been selected" for the sewagetreatment plant. To prevent further contamination of the Hersey 

River, it was necessary to locate the sewage treatment plant at a new 

site.
24 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL ^CONTROLS

Another example of aquifer contamination from a pit occurred at 

Mancelona, Antrim County. An investigation by the Water Resources Commission revealed that phenol contamination of the ground 

water resulted from the disposal of industrial wastes several years 

earlier. The distance that waste liquids may migrate through an 

aquifer is indicated by the fact that a schoolhouse well about 3 miles 

west of a disposal pit near Mancelona showed traces of phenol. The 

Water Resources Commission estimated that the glacial-drift aquifer 

was contaminated in an area 3 miles long and half a mile wide and to a 

depth of about 200 feet.

REFINERY WASTES AT ALMA ^

At Alma, Gratiot County, during the latter part of 1945, the city 

began to receive complaints from consumers about the foul taste of 

the water supplied by city well 5. A preliminary investigation 

showed the presence of gasoline in the ground beneath the basement 

of a lodge. The gasoline was reported to have originated from a 

storage tank that supplied fuel for lighting purposes prior to the 

availability of electric powder. Connection between this point of contamination and the city's well, however, was never proved. In 1949, 

water from city well 4 developed a similar taste, and this well was 

removed temporarily from service because of consumer complaints. 

Further investigation also revealed a concentration of phenols in the 

vicinity of a waste-detention pit at a local refinery. Municipal wells 

at Alma derive water from deposits of buried outwash. The waste 

pit, however, discharged liquids to a surficial aquifer consisting of 

about 30 feet of sand and gravel. The two aquifers are separated by 

an aquiclude composed of material ranging from clay to fine clayey 

sand.

An aquifer test conducted in the area by the Michigan Geological 

Survey showed hydraulic connection between the two aquifers in the 

vicinity of the contaminated area. Both the surficial sand and the 

buried outwash aquifers were contaminated for a distance of about 

3,000 feet from the point of seepage and well 5 had to be abandoned. 

This created a serious situation at Alma because the city for many 

years had experienced considerable difficulty in obtaining a supply of 

ground water adequate for its requirements.

This case is especially significant from a hydraulic standpoint 

because it demonstrates the possibility of contaminating an artesian 

aquifer through a so-called confining bed (aquiclude). In many 

artesian systems in Michigan, and particularly in the glacial drift 

deposits, the aquicludes permit considerable leakage in either vertical
DISPOSAL OR STORAGE IN THE ZONE OF AERATION 25

direction. (See fig. 3.) Beds of clay or silt do not necessarily form 

a watertight protective layer.

PICRIC ACID AT LANSING ^"^

During World War II, picric acid (trinitrophenol) was discharged 

into a pit at a chemical plant at Lansing, Ingham County. The acid 

infiltrated to the Saginaw Formation, the chief aquifer in the area. 

The contamination extended laterally about the length of a city block 

and infiltrated through about 70 feet of glacial drift before entering 

the Saginaw Formation. The quality of water from 2 municipal wells 

was impaired by the acid to such an extent that 1 well was removed 

from service for a year. After discovery of the contamination, the 

well was pumped to waste intermittently for about a year before the 

picric acid concentration was reduced sufficiently to permit return of 

the well to service. However, as late as 1959, a city official reported 

that after municipal wells in the area were shut off and water levels 

were allowed to rise into the contaminated zone, the water still contained traces of picric acid and had to be pumped to waste until the 

levels declined below the contaminated zone.

ELECTROPLATING WASTES

Electroplating, and especially chrome plating, is a minor but locally 

important industry in Michigan. The electroplating process for 

chrome results in a problem of disposing of the plating wastes, which 

include hexavalent chromium, cyanide, caustic soda, and rinse waters. 

Disposal of electroplating wastes to surface streams in the past has 

created serious hazards to the public health. The U.S. Public Health 

Service (1946, p. 382) stated "hexavalent chromium in excess of 0.05 

ppm (1 part in 20 million) shall constitute grounds for rejection of the 

(public water) supply." The chromate imparts a yellow tinge to the 

water in which it is dissolved. The toxicology laboratory of the Michigan Department of Health reported that chromium in the amount of 

1 ppm may have a detrimental effect on the human nervous system and 

kidney tissues and that chronic illnesses may result. The presence of 

cyanide in any amount whatsoever will render a water supply unfit 

for human consumption.

As an alternative to disposal of electroplating wastes in surface 

streams, some concerns have attempted to dispose of these waters to 

infiltration pits. This practice has some merit in that the hazard from 

cyanide is reported to be largely eliminated. The Water Resources 

Commission observed that although they

have encountered a number of ground-water pollution problems involving electroplating wastes, no instance has occurred * * * where cyanide could be traced 

in wells any distance from the point of disposal. This is accounted for by the 

various reactions to which cyanide is subjected by subsurface formation.
26 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

Disposal of the waste to the ground, however, has not solved the 

chromium contamination problem because chromium is not completely 

removed from the water by the materials comprising the aquifer. 

Once the chromium is introduced, the aquifer is rendered unfit as a 

potable water source for a prolonged, but unknown, period of time. 

It is not known whether natural flushing action or dewatering by 

pumping can effectively remove the chromium already in the aquifer.

CHROME-PLATING WASTES AT DOUGLAS

In 1947 the State Department of Health was notified that water 

from the west wells tapping the glacial drift at the village of Douglas, 

Allegan County, had turned yellow, and a sample was furnished for 

chemical analysis. The wells were removed from service pending the 

laboratory report. Analysis revealed a chromate content of 10.8 ppm, 

or more than 200 times the concentration for hexavalent chromium that 

the U.S. Public Health Service (1946) recommends as the maximum 

safe limit in public-supply systems.

The source of contamination was an infiltration pit and a surrounding overflow area into which chrome-plating wastes had been discharged for about 3 years. The area was about 1,000 feet south of the 

west wells and 2,500 feet southwest of the east well at Douglas. Discharge of the plating wastes had resulted in contamination of the 

glacial-drift aquifer for at least 1,000 feet in one direction from the 

pit and to a depth of at least 37 feet. Assuming that the contamination 

was detected soon after it reached the well, the waste would have 

migrated at a rate of about 1 foot per day along the gradient created 

by pumping of the west wells.

The supply from the east well also was endangered although the 

1947 analyses of water from that well showed no chromate content. 

As a safeguard, periodic repeat chromate analyses of water from the 

east well were ordered for an indefinite period. The wells of a local 

dairy were contaminated also, and, at the request of the Health Department, the Village Council was asked to condemn all private wells 

in the village because there was no practical way to test the water 

quality in each one. ,

CHROME-PLATING WASTES AT BRONSON **

Since 1939, electroplating industries at Bronson, Branch County, 

have experienced difficulty in disposing of electroplating wastes (L. A. 

Darling Co. v. Water Resources Commission, 286 Mich. 520). Originally, the wastes were discharged into the city's sewer system, which 

emptied into a county drain and a creek. Contamination of these 

watercourses resulted in the death of fish and cattle below Bronson. 

Death was due to ingestion of cyanide, and the city issued an ordinance 

to prohibit discharge of toxic wastes to the city's sewer systems. The
DISPOSAL OR STORAGE IN THE ZONE OF AERATION 27

plating wastes of the principal company involved subsequently were 

separated and discharged into two ponds. By 1942, however, renewed 

chromium contamination of surface water was indicated by a faint 

yellow color in the flow from the sewer system. The contamination 

was probably due to surface and subsurface leakage of plating wastes 

from the ponds, or possibly to reuse of the storm system for waste 

disposal.

In 1949, ground-water contamination at Bronson was indicated 

when the owner of a domestic well observed a greenish tinge in his 

well water. The well was 75 feet from the sewer carrying plating 

wastes to the disposal ponds. In December of 1949, the Water Eesources Commission collected samples of water from one of the ponds, 

the domestic well, and a well at the county highway garage between 

the pond and the domestic well. The domestic well was 13 feet deep, 

and the water level in this well was 8 feet, 6 inches below the land 

surface. The well at the garage was 33 feet deep and the water level 

was 8 feet, 2 inches below the land surface. Both wells tapped the 

same shallow glacial-drift aquifer.

Results of the analyses made by the Michigan Department of 

Health, in parts per million, were as follows:

Highway Domestic

Pond garage well

Cyanide________________________________ 15.6 0 Trace

Chromium______________________________ 6.0 0 2.0

Nickel_________________________________ 49.0 0 Trace

Copper__________________________ ________ 12. 0 0 0

pH______________________________________ 6. 6 7. 5 7.5

Apparently, the upper part of the aquifer, tapped by the domestic 

well, was contaminated at the time, but the lower part, tapped by the 

highway garage well, was not. A check on the sewer lines revealed 

that they were in good condition and were not contributing contamination to the aquifer. Evidently, the plating wastes were moving direct^ 

ly from the disposal ponds. By December 29, 1949, the chromium! 

content of water in the domestic well had risen to 3.5 ppm. \ 

Several interesting hydrologic observations can be made, from the j 

chromium contamination at Bronson. <""" 

1. The chemical analyses reveal that the 33-foot well at the county 

garage was not contaminated at the time the sample was collected, although the well is between the contaminated shallow 

domestic well and the disposal pond. This shows that the chromium contamination was not uniformly distributed throughout 

the aquifer. The contaminant may have been confined to the 

upper part of the ground-water body and only slightly dispersed 

in traveling through the aquifer. Movement to the deeper well 

could have been impeded in part by lenses of low permeability 

within the aquifer.

681-387 0-63-5
28 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

2. The natural gradient of the water table in the shallow-drift 

aquifer was reported to be northwestward, but the contaminated 

well was southwest of the disposal pond. This indicates that a 

ground-water mound was built up creating a gradient that caused 

some of the wastes to move in a different direction than the natural gradient. Underground movement of contaminated water 

would tend to be radial from beneath the pond (fig. 12). The 

degree of buildup of the mound, and hence, the distance the water 

moves opposite to the natural gradient, is controlled by the slope 

of the natural gradient, the physical character of the aquifer, and 

the quantity of contaminated water introduced. Pumping of 

wells also would result in local gradients opposite to the natural 

gradient. Thus, areas upgradient under natural conditions from 

sources of contamination are not necessarily protected from 

pollution.

3. After more than a decade, there was concern that new wells proposed to be drilled to a deeper aquifer by the city might also be 

subject to chromium contamination. The lower aquifer is reported to be separated from the contaminated upper aquifer by a 

thick impervious clay stratum. The concern that deeper wells 

may be contaminated may be warranted, however. Aquifer tests 

made in numerous areas of the State by the Federal and State 

Geological Surveys seldom reveal artesian conditions perfect 

enough to completely shut off interaquifer movement of water. 

Ferris (1949, p. 222) noted that the permeability of a sample of 

clayey silt (a common aquiclude material) containing about 50 

percent clay and 45 percent silt was determined to be 0.2 gpd per 

sq ft as determined in the hydrologic laboratory of the U.S. Geological Survey. He calculated that if the head in the water table 

aquifer were 50 feet greater than the piezometric surface in the 

lower aquifer (as might be expected if the lower aquifer were 

heavily pumped) 5.6 million gallons per day per square mile 

(mgd per sq mi) would leak through the clayey silt aquiclude into 

the deep aquifer. This would supply each of 56,000 people with 

100 gallons of water per day.

Study of the well logs or even visual inspection of a clay layer is 

inadequate to determine the impermeability of clayey materials. Laboratory determination of permeability or extensive aquifer testing 

would be necessary to determine the hydraulic characteristics of the 

impervious clay stratum. Further, a determination of whether the 

confining layer is penetrated by wells with rusted or broken casings 

that would permit leakage of contaminants to the lower aquifer would 

have to be made. (See fig. 18.)
DISPOSAL OR STORAGE IN THE ZONE OF AERATION 29

PLAN VIEW

.2&8&&K&- ' / of percolotion

FIGURE 12. 'Diagrams showing lines of flow from a recharge mound on a sloping

water table.

GASOLINE AT EAST SATJGATTJCK "^^

The owner of a roadside grocery store near East Saugatuck, Allegan County, complained about a gas or oil taste and odor in water 

taken from his domestic well drilled to a depth of 25 feet in the
30 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

glacial drift. An investigation by the Michigan Geological Survey 

revealed that the grocer had formerly operated a gasoline service 

station in conjunction with his grocery store. Apparently, gasoline 

from the abandoned underground storage tank had seeped into the 

aquifer. Drilling of a deeper well tapping the aquifer below the 

contaminated zone was recommended as the most economically feasible 

method of obtaining a potable water supply free of gasoline 

contamination.

This example of ground-water contamination at East Saugatuck 

is not unique in Michigan, as a similar problem has plagued the city 

of Grand Marais, Alger County. The possibility of leakage from 

an abandoned fuel tank at Alma has been referred to previously. 

Because gasoline and other petroleum products are offensive in water 

supplies, even in minute amounts, and may be impossible to remove 

from an aquifer completely, extreme caution should be taken to 

prevent leakage of such materials into the ground.

OIL-FIELD BRINES IN ISABELLA COUNTY *^

Daoust (1953) reported that the first serious brine disposal problem 

in Michigan occurred following discovery of oil in 1930 in the Dundee 

Formation in Isabella County. Pumping of crude oil from the field 

also yielded a large volume of brine, which is a highly concentrated 

solution of salt. At the time of the discovery, satisfactory methods of 

brine disposal in Michigan were not in use. Ponds that were constructed to hold brine were filled and the brine escaped over the tops. 

Larger ponds were built and even lakes were used for storage of the 

brine, but all techniques of surface storage or discharge proved unsatisfactory. Gross contamination of ground-water supplies in the 

area resulted from disposal of the brines.

Daoust described the various damages that occurred and concluded 

that the only practical and satisfactory method of disposal was to return the brine to some underground formation. He reported that the 

oil operators, with assistance of the Department of Conservation, 

solved the problems of brine recharge to deep formations. Since 

the early 1940's ground-water contamination by oil-field brines in 

Michigan has been virtually eliminated.

UNTREATED SANITARY WASTES

The extent and duration of pollution of ground water that can be 

caused by disposal of bacterial and chemical sanitary wastes are indicated by the results of experiments conducted by the U.S. Public 

Health Service (Stiles and others, 1927, p. 6-7). The aquifer used for 

the test is a surficial sand along the Atlantic Ocean near Fort Caswell, 

N.C. Bacterial pollutants (Bacillus coli] were recovered from ground
DISPOSAL OR STORAGE IN THE ZONE OF AERATION 31

water as much as 232 feet and a chemical pollutant (uranin) as much 

as 450 feet from a trench into which both excreta and uranin were 

placed. Both types of pollution traveled in the direction of groundwater flow. High ground-water levels resulting from wet weather 

are conductive to extension of pollution. Dry weather, which causes 

lowered ground-water levels, inhibits the extension of pollution. 

Bacillus coli remained alive in ground water for at least 32 months, 

and uranin remained visible in the ground water for at least 31 months.

SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENT

Septic tanks, which are in widespread use in Michigan, constitute 

a considerable hazard to the ground-water resources. They are sources 

of potential bacterial and chemical contaminants despite the fact that 

they are designed to purify, to some extent, the raw sewage discharged 

into them. If septic tanks are to operate efficiently, they should be 

installed in unconsolidated materials of at least moderate permeability. Areas underlain by such materials are favorable for groundwater recharge and septic tank effluent is, therefore, a source of recharge. This, in effect, relegates aquifers to sewage disposal rather 

than water-supply media. In some areas of the State, especially in 

the southeastern part, shallow deposits of sand and gravel, in which 

septic tanks are installed, are also the chief sources of ground water. 

As septic tank effluent is by no means pure (Hepler and others, 1953), 

part of the aquifer to which it precolates may become contaminated.

The Michigan Department of Health (1956, p. 9-10) reported on 

a survey made from 1925 to 1932 to study the effect of well depth 

on the bacterial quality of water affected by discharge from septic 

tanks. The study clearly showed a direct relation between the depth 

of a well tapping the glacial drift and its ability to produce water 

free of bacterial contamination. Very shallow wells, those less than 

20 feet deep, are most likely to be contaminated. However, factors 

other than depth of the wells must be considered: (1) Declining levels 

in deeper wells would directly reduce the separation between the 

septic tank effluent and the well screens and thus increase the contamination hazard, (2) the thickness of the effluent layer tends to 

increase with time, (3) recharge from precipitation is to the top of the 

aquifer and must percolate through a contaminated zone before reaching the various well screens.

The effect of the septic effluents on the chemical quality of the 

water has grown into a major and serious problem in recent years 

because of the increasing use of synthetic detergents or syndets. Of 

the three types of synthetic detergents in use anionic, cationic, and 

nonionic, the most widely used are the anionic types (Sawyer and
32 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

Rykman, 1957) that may impair the ultimate use of ground waters 

they enter. The anionic synthetic detergents all contain an organic 

surface-active agent that has the important qualities of wetting, dispersing, and emulsifying soil. Alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) is 

the most widely used of the synthetic detergents. The basic reason 

for the wide popularity of syndets is the fact that they are virtually 

unaffected by the alkaline earths, to whose presence hardness of water 

is attributed (American Water Works Association, 1958). The 

American Water Works Association (1959) reported that synthetic 

detergent use was estimated to be 20 pounds per person during 1959, 

and by 1960, the average annual use was expected to be about 23 

pounds per person.

The presence of syndets in water causes unpleasant taste and 

frothing. Flynn and others (1958) reported that most persons 

detect the taste when the syndet concentration is 1.5 ppm or higher 

and that frothing appears at about 1.0 ppm. Their study of an area 

in Suffolk County, N.Y., where water is obtained from shallow glacialdrift deposits, revealed that syndets have appeared in wells as deep 

as 95 feet and as much as 500 feet from their source. It was found 

that detergents known to have been discharged several years before 

the study did not deteriorate or stabilize to less objectionable compounds. The study pointed out the possibility that syndets may 

be a vehicle to transport bacteria, viruses, and other pollutants greater 

distances than they might normally travel. Further, the authors 

stated that the phosphates present in most detergents might increase 

the number and survival time of bacteria in ground water as some 

bacteria can use phosphates as a food.

Butler and others (1954) studied movement of both bacterial and 

chemical pollutants and made a number of conclusions that are important in evaluating the potential hazard of aquifier contaminants 

from septic tank operations:

1. The movement of percolating water containing chemical and bacterial pollutants is vertical until the water table is reached.

2. Bacteria will travel only about 5 feet through fine moist or dry 

soils, but longer travel probably would take place in coarse 

materials.

3. Chemical pollutants travel farther and faster than bacterial pollutants in ground water, although coliform organisms have been 

reported to travel distances of 10-232 feet in ground water.

Their report also points out several serious gaps in our knowledge 

concerning potential contamination:

1. The movement of pollutants through the soil above the water 

table has been studied more extensively than movement of pollutants
DISPOSAL OR STORAGE IN THE ZONE OF AERATION 33

in ground water, although much remains to be investigated in both 

fields.

2. The ability of a polluted soil to contaminate a rising ground-water 

table is not known. (By the same token, its ability to contaminate 

water recharging from precipitation is not known.)

Hazards of bacteriological pollution from septic tanks are especially great in areas where permeable limestone formations are at or 

near the surface. In contrast to glacial drift deposits, where the septic 

tank effluent moves through the interstices between the rock particles, 

the water in limestone, dolomite, and other dense rocks moves largely 

through secondary openings along bedding planes, fractures, or 

solution cavities (fig. 13). Little or no filtering action occurs, and, 

hence, the bacterial pollutants along with deleterious chemicals from 

the septic tank may travel large distances underground laterally or 

vertically.

FIGURE 13. .Diagram showing movement of contaminants from a septic tank through 

secondary openings in limestone <or dolomite.

DETERGENTS IN MUSKEGON COUNTY

Chemical analysis of water samples made by the Michigan Department of Health has shown that shallow aquifers in various parts of 

the State have been affected by discharge of syndets from septic tanks 

serving suburban housing developments. A spot check of many of the 

analyses from Muskegon County, where water supplies commonly 

are obtained from shallow sand aquifers 20 to 30 feet in depth, showed
34 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

that a rather large percentage of the samples collected contained detergents. At one housing subdivision 5 to 10 years old, about half of 

the samples collected contained syndet concentrations of 1 to 2 ppm. 

In a newer development, syndets were present in water taken from 

wells serving houses built less than 2 years prior to the collection of 

the samples. The Health Department reported that in one well 

the concentration of syndets wras high enough to cause suds to billow 

from water appliances.

The contamination of ground waters in Muskegon County by syndets 

is cited herein only as an example of a growing problem in Michigan.

SEWAGE IN THE MANISTIQXJE-GXJLLIVEB AREA

In the Manistique-Gulliver area, Schoolcraft County, the glacial 

drift mantle is thin and discontinuous, and the Manistique and Burnt 

Bluff Formations of Middle Silurian age crop out at or near the 

surface over a large area. These formations are the most important 

aquifers in the area. Contamination by liquid wastes is a constant 

hazard, owing to free circulation of water through solution openings 

and fractures at the surface of the formation (Sinclair, 1959). Residents in the area rely on septic tanks for the disposal of domestic 

sanitary wastes. Because of the absence of an adequate soil or sediment layer to serve as a filtering medium at many sites, virtually raw 

sewage spills directly into the Burnt Bluff and Manistique Formations. Many wells have been reported to yield ground water of poor 

bacteriological quality.

HEPATITIS EPIDEMIC AT POSEN *

During the summer of 1959 a severe epidemic of infectious hepatitis 

(a severe liver ailment) at Posen, Presque Isle County, was investigated by personnel of the State Department of Health and State Geological Survey. A total of 89 cases were reported, although it is 

probable that many more cases were not reported (Vogt, 1961). Preliminary findings left little doubt that the hepatitis was caused by 

ingestion of polluted ground water. The source of the polluted water 

was the Traverse Formation of Middle and Upper Devonian age, 

which is quite permeable due to the presence of fractures and solution 

cavities. At Posen, this formation is at or near the land surface. The 

investigation showed that many of the wells in the area were improperly constructed and permitted drainage from the surface or 

from shallow depth. Also, numerous septic tanks were installed close 

to domestic wells in the area in one place only 6 feet away. In addi-
SPILLING OR SPREADING ON THE LAND SURFACE 35

tion, kitchen sinks, sump holes, and ditches drained directly into the 

formation.

A half a century ago, Matson (1911), describing a similar problem 

concerning underground streams flowing through openings in limestone, wrote as follows:

The practice of putting rubbish, barnyard filth, etc., into (limestone) sinks should 

be abandoned. Still more reprehensible is the custom of running sewage into 

sinks, thus converting the underground channels into natural sewers * * *

SPILLING OR SPREADING ON THE LAND SURFACE |

Ground-water supplies in Michigan have been contaminated in a 

variety of ways as a result of the presence of deleterious solid or liquid 

matter at the land surface. Liquid wastes disposed of, spilled, or 

stored on the land surface may adversely affect the quality of ground 

water by subsequent percolation to an aquifer. Any type of solid material that contains soluble contaminants and through which water 

may percolate to an underlying aquifer presents a potential hazard 

(fig. 14). Land fill, salts stored or spread for melting snow, dumps 

of various types, sanitary wastes, fertilizer, and farm animal excrement all are potential sources of contamination.

'////// ', '''///> v/^^/;^^ /// V./CoitVA/////// ////// VPrer n tat on,

/, , onamn

il^^^lSSfe^?^^ ^^;4-;i::;^to^-:;^; ^^^-^;:ff M-;:-^;-^:^v^^;^;^i:):v^^:-^:;v;

 Aquiclude 

FIGURE 14. Diagram showing contamination of an aquifer by leaching of surface solids.

The following examples of ground-water contamination resulting 

directly from migration of harmful substances from the land surface 

illustrate that public education is needed to protect ground water,
36 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

especially in shallow aquifers, because the public apparently is not 

aware of the hazards to ground water involved in certain practices.

PICKLE BRINES AT EDMORE S

In 1949 a municipal well tapping the glacial drift at Edmore, 

Montcalm County, began to produce water with a distinctly salty 

taste. Laboratory analyses by the Michigan Department of Health 

showed that the water contained 1,900 ppm of chloride. In 1943, the 

chloride content of water from this well was 34 ppm. Investigation 

by the Water Resources Commission revealed that brine spilled on 

the ground several hundred feet from this well by a pickle-brining 

plant was the obvious source of this contamination. The practice of 

spilling brines on the ground was halted by order of the Michigan 

Water Resources Commission. The contaminated well was plugged 

and abandoned. By 1957, the water from a municipal well V/2 blocks 

away contained only 60 ppm of chloride.

MILK WASTES AT TRENARY *

According to a 1950 investigation of pollution of ground water at 

Trenary in Alger County made by the Michigan Department of Health 

and the Michigan Geological Survey, whey and milk wastes from a 

local cheese plant polluted at least 15 private wells in the vicinity of 

the plant. The polluted wells, all of which tapped shallow fractured 

and creviced limestone and dolomite of the Trenton and Black River 

Formations, ranged in depth from 35 to 75 feet. The mode of entry 

of the milk wastes into the aquifer is not described but it probably was 

either spilled on the ground or discharged to a clogged or defective 

sewer after a State Health Department order to cease discharging the 

wastes to a nearby creek. The Health Department noted that many 

of the wells also were contaminated by colif orm organisms that usually 

originate from sanitary wastes.

The contamination problem at Trenary illustrates the fact that in 

certain shallow aquifers through which ground water may circulate 

freely, and especially in very permeable limestone, it may be extremely 

difficult or virtually impossible to dispose of sanitary or other wastes 

without contaminating the ground water tapped by nearby wells 

(fig. 13). Towns or cities located in areas supplied with ground water 

from such aquifers may find it impossible to provide adequate isolation 

distances of wells from sources of contamination such as polluted 

surface waters, sewers, cesspools, septic tanks, and noxious substances 

at the surface.
SPILLING OR SPREADING ON THE LAND SURFACE 37

RAW LIQUID FERTILIZER NEAR HOLLAND ^

At a fertilizer plant near Holland, Ottawa County, raw liquid used 

for the manufacture of fertilizer is transported by railroad tank cars 

and stored in tanks mounted on platforms at the site. It was reported 

to the Michigan Geological Survey that the liquid in one tank was 

found to be unusable and so was spilled on the ground by a plant 

employee who opened a petcock at the bottom of the tank. Water 

supply at the plant came from a well tapping 20 or 30 feet of glacial 

lake sand. The water in the well eventually developed a brown color 

and a distinct ammonia odor as the spilled waste ultimately migrated 

to the well. The problem was compounded because the sand aquifer 

is the only source of fresh ground water in the area. The situation 

was aggravated further because the aquifer could not be dewatered 

inasmuch as the nearest stream usable for surface disposal was several 

miles distant.

LAND-SURFACE DUMPING

Of considerable hazard to water supplies in various areas of the 

State is the practice of dumping garbage and noxious wastes in 

abandoned sand or gravel pits or on land-surface dumps. According to the Michigan Water Resources Commission, "waste oils, paints, 

paint thinners, chemicals, and other odium" have been discarded in 

areas where such wastes have easy access to aquifers.

Calvert (1932) described serious contamination of wells at Indianapolis, Ind., by garbage "liquors" from a disposal site 500 feet away. 

This example is significant because the possibility of contamination 

was studied prior to the dumping of the garbage, but it was wrongly 

predicted that the infiltration of garbage "liquors" would be negligible. The potential hazards of such practices were indicated by 

Lang (1933), who reported that leachings from an old garbage dump 

reached wells 1,476 feet away, causing considerable increases in the 

hardness and the dissolved-solids content of the water. Lang and 

Brims (1941) noted one area \vhere picric acid waste traveled underground for 3 miles in 4 to 6 years. They cited another example where 

garbage dumped in a sand pit continued to pollute wells 2,000 feet 

away 15 years after dumping had ceased. This practice is common 

in Michigan where low-lying swampy land is reclaimed by using 

"sanitary land fill" until the land surface is raised to the desired level 

and then by covering the refuse with soil and sand.

SALT USED FOR SNOW REMOVAL

The practice of spreading salt in the form of sodium or calcium 

chloride on roads to melt snow is widespread in the State. The melted 

snow, of course, represents nothing more than contaminated recharge 

water, and roadside wells in areas supplied by shallow aquifers re-
d8 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

ceiving such recharge are especially subject to chloride contamination. 

Stockpiles of salt or sand treated with salt are stored at many of 

the garages of County Eoad Commissions in the State. Most of 

these stockpiles are in the open, and the soluble salts are reached 

readily by rainfall or melting snow. Shallow aquifers in the vicinity, 

if they are recharged by precipitation, are hence susceptible to chloride contamination. Although the practice of maintaining uncovered stockpiles of salt and salt-treated sand is widespread, the extent of resulting ground-water contamination in Michigan is not 

known. At the time of the present report, the Delta County Road 

Commission is alleged to have caused contamination of shallow parts 

of the Black River Limestone at the village of Rock by this practice. 

Litigation in this matter is impending. Storage of salt stockpiles in 

sheds, or perhaps even covering the stockpile with a tarpaulin or 

plastic film, may abate the nuisance by preventing leaching of the 

salt by rain or melting snow and subsequent migration to the water 

table.

MANISTEE COUNTY

Pollution of several roadside domestic wells has been reported by 

the Manistee County Sanitarian. The chloride contamination of shallow aquifers resulting from the spreading of salt on the roads of 

Manistee County undoubtedly has occurred in other areas of the State 

where similar practices are followed.

A domestic well 30 feet deep and located about 300 feet from a 

Highway Department salt pile was reported by the owner to be producing salty water. Analysis of the water revealed that it contained 

4,400 ppm of chloride. Salt appeared also in drinking water along 

the highway near Parkdale as a result of its use on the roads for snow 

removal. Investigation here revealed that the dissolved salt flowed 

into leaky and cracked storm sewers and thence into the aquifer used 

by the wells located near the highway.

KENT COUNTY

An ironic incident in Kent County indicates that the practice of 

spreading salt for snow removal might prove detrimental to groundwater supplies for reasons other than potential chloride contamination. 

During the winter of 1955-56, the Wyoming Township Engineer received a call from a local resident inquiring why some of the snow 

along the roadside in the area was yellow. Investigation by the Township Engineer revealed that the Kent County Road Commission was 

using calcium chloride to melt ice and snow on the county roads. 

The salt, however, is reported to have been treated with a chromiumbase rust inhibitor in order to allay previous complaints by county 

residents concerning rapid corrosion of automobile bodies caused by
SPILLING OR SPREADING ON THE LAND SURFACE 39

application of the salt. This was the first application of the treated 

salt to the roads in the county, but, fortunately, the Township Engineer recognized the potential hazard to the water supplies of the 

area and so notified the County Road Commission. An order halting 

the use of chromium-treated salt was issued immediately.

CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN LAND FILL AT GRANDVILLE s-^""'

Ground-water was contaminated by chromium under unique conditions in the city of Grandville, Kent County. The city drilled a public-supply well into the glacial-drift deposits along the Grand Eiver. 

In order to protect the well from flooding during periods of high 

water, the casing wras extended several feet into the air, and the land 

surface around it was raised with sand and gravel. In time, chromium 

was detected in the water. This resulted in considerable consternation, because no source of chromium contamination was apparent 

in the vicinity. Investigation by the Grandville Superintendent of 

Water revealed that the sand and gravel used to raise the land surface 

at the well was taken from a former dumping ground for electroplating wastes. The river was in flood stage shortly before the contamination appeared. Water from the river obviously had leached the 

chromium from the fill and carried it into the aquifer (fig. 15).

PERCOLATION OF LEACHED NITRATES INTO SHALLOW AQUIFERS

In 1945 the Michigan Department of Health received several requests for nitrate determinations on well-water samples submitted by 

doctors who were trying to find the cause of methemoglobinemia or 

cyanosis in infants. The disease, commonly referred to as "blue 

babies" apparently is limited to children under 6 months of age. 

Methemoglobinemia occurs when nitrates in water are changed in the 

baby's intestinal tract to nitrites, which combine with the red blood 

cells to change the color of the blood and reduce its ability to carry 

oxygen to the body tissues (Comly, 1945).

The laboratory reports on water samples from nine wells in Saginaw, 

Bay, Gladwin, Wayne, Macomb, and Washtenaw Counties, where 

infants were afflicted with the disease, showed nitrate contents that 

ranged from 243 to 975 ppm. All these water sources were dug wells 

tapping shallow glacial-drift deposits, which are especially susceptible 

to contamination. The nitrates in the water were leached from decaying human and animal excreta. According to the Michigan Department of Health, none of the wells was properly constructed or 

located, and all should have been abandoned upon inspection.

Comly recommends that water used for the feeding of infants should 

have a nitrate content no higher than 10 ppm of nitrate expressed in 

terms of nitrogen (N) or 44 ppm when concentrations are reported
40 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS
LEAKING SEWERS OR PIPELINES 41

as nitrate (NO3 ). Hem (1959, p. 239) states that different ways of 

reporting nitrate concentrations have led to considerable confusion 

among water users concerning these limits.

I^EAKING SEWERS OB PIPELINES

Leaking or broken sewers and pipelines are common sources of 

ground-water contamination. If the earth material in which the 

sewer is laid is of low permeability, the leaking fluid will generally 

erode a path to the surface, but if the sewer is in permeable sand and 

gravel outwash, for example, the fluid may contaminate a considerable 

volume of material in the vicinity of the leak.

SANITARY SEWER AT LANSING INDUSTRIAL PLANT

Within a 2-week period in 1952, 6 employees of a small industrial 

plant in the Lansing area became ill. They had complained that the 

water from the semipublic water system serving the plant tasted and 

smelled like sewage. Analysis of the water by the Ingham County 

Sanitarian showed that the water was grossly contaminated with 

coliform bacteria. The Ingham County Health Department reported 

that a leaded joint in the soil pipe sewer, 1 foot below land surface on 

the northeast side of the building, had parted apparently from frostheaving. The pipe had a slight rise in grade toward the septic tank 

allowing the sewage to leak into the ground. Also the seal between 

the well cap and casing consisted only of common putty and permitted 

the sewage to enter the well, which was on the south side of the 

building.

The length of time it took the sewage to permeate the ground between the sewer break and the well is not accurately known, although 

the plant superintendent reported that temporary sewer troubles 

had occurred about 5 years earlier. This incident demonstrates that 

even if wells are located at considerable distances from sewers or other 

sources of contamination, the wells must be constructed in such a manner as to prevent entrance of water from or near the surface.

LEAKING MUNICIPAL SEWERS AT STURGIS

During World War II, the Michigan Department of Health recommended that the city of Sturgis, St. Joseph County, abandon its 

wells or install a chlorination system because of the proximity of 

sewers to wells. Because of wartime conditions, however, the city 

was unable to make the recommended changes. The apprehension of 

the Health Department proved to be well founded because in 1945 a 

series of samples taken from the wells and various points on the waterdistribution system were analyzed and all found to be bacteriologically unsafe. Attempts to clear up the contamination by chlorinating
42 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

the wells were unsuccessful, indicating that sewage effluent was being 

induced to flow from leaking sewers to the wells in response to 

pumping. j^-"""

PIPELINE SEALANT AT IONIA

At Ionia, Ionia County, part of the city's water formerly was taken 

from a shallow infiltration system in the glacial drift. The system 

consisted of dug wells used as collectors fed by a network of infiltration tiles. In January 1955, water from this system developed an 

objectionable taste, although water from wells tapping the glacial 

drift at depth had no such taste. The Superintendent of Water discovered that the taste originated in water from only one of the collectors and the objectionable taste disappeared when this well was 

valved off the system. Further examination showed that a leak 

existed in a 2-inch gas line only a few feet from the collector. The 

gas company had introduced a viscous material to the pipeline to seal 

small leaks. The break in the pipeline, however, was a major one and 

the pipeline sealer entered the .ground-water collector. Chlorination 

of the sealant produced an extremely obnoxious taste. Because of its 

susceptibility to contamination, the shallow infiltration system was 

ultimately abandoned by the city, which subsequently constructed a 

deep-well pumping station.

INDUCED INFILTRATION OB LEAKAGE OF CONTAMINATED 

SURFACE WATERS

Surface waters from streams, lakes, swamps, or drains are still 

another potential source of ground-water contamination. In addition, 

flood water or pools of stagnating water lying on the surface after 

floods, storms, or spring thaws also are potential sources of contamination. Recharge from these sources may occur naturally by 

percolation through permeable materials such as sand and gravel or 

by flow through fractured and creviced limestone and dolomite. However, the greatest hazards of aquifer contamination by objectionable 

surface water probably results from infiltration induced by nearby 

pumping (fig. 16). The threat of aquifer contamination by surface 

water spilling or backflooding into wells has been described above 

under the section entitled "Injection into aquifers."

DISCHARGED SOFTENING-PLANT EFFLUENT IN PARIS TOWNSHIP

In Kent County the Water Resources Commission investigated the 

salt contamination of an aquifer tapped for water supply by Wyoming 

Township. The contamination resulted because the spent brine 

from a zeolite softening plant operated for the water-supply system 

of Paris Township was discharged to a creek that flows by Wyoming 

Township's 32d Street well field. Pumping by Wyoming Township
LEAKING SEWERS OR PIPELINES 43
44 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

induced infiltration of the softening plant effluent from the 

through the aquifer into the public water-supply system.

DISCHARGED MINE WATER AT IRONWOOD

Before World War II, the city of Ironwood, Gogebic County, obtained a satisfactory supply of water from wells drilled in 1921 into 

the shallow gravel deposits along Siemen's Creek. The wells ranged 

in depth from 35 to 69 feet. The flow of the creek was sustained predominantly by water discharged from an iron mine. Because the 

gravel aquifer was thin, the creek was dammed and a channel was 

cut on the side of the wells opposite from the natural channel in 

order to allow maximum recharge of creek water to the wells by 

induced infiltration. In effect, the wells were located on an island.

Analyses of the water from these wells, made before World War II 

by the Michigan Department of Health, showed that hardness of 

water ranged from 120 to 162 ppm and chloride content from 13 to 

58 ppm. During the war, however, the mines were deepened considerably. The hardness and the salinity of mine-drainage water discharged to the creek increased and the quality of Ironwood's groundwater supply deteriorated. The U.S. Public Health Service (1954, 

p. 17) reported a hardness of about 900 ppm and a chloride content 

of 1,100 ppm for the ground-water supply. An earlier analysis made 

in 1948 by the Michigan Department of Health showed a total hardness of 1,475 ppm and a chloride content of 1,030 ppm. The poor 

quality of the ground water obviously resulted from induced infiltration of contaminated water from the creek into the aquifer.

The water consumers voiced strong protests about the water quality 

and the city relocated its well field. The mine-waste pollution also 

threatened the new supply, until the State Water Resources Commission had the mine drainage diverted to another watershed.

SEWAGE-CONTAMINATED CREEK AT NORWAY

In 1947 the Michigan Water Resources Commission made an investigation of White Creek, locally known as Sewer Creek, near 

Norway, Dickinson County, which was reported to have been grossly 

polluted with untreated sanitary wastes. A farmer living near the 

mouth of the creek at its confluence with the Menominee River reported that water in his well 100 feet from the creek had become 

contaminated, which indicated that the aquifer tapped by his well was 

recharged at least in part by water from the creek.

When the Commission ordered the city of Norway to build a sewage 

treatment plant because of the gross contamination of White Creek, 

the city was unable to finance such facilities. The Commission 

granted temporary financial relief by agreeing to allow the city to
LEAKING SEWERS OR PIPELINES 45

dilute the creek water with water from an abandoned mine. Water 

had been pumped from the mine for many years in order to keep 

ground-water levels below basements in low areas and to keep the 

mine in good condition in the event mining operations were resumed. 

When the mine-drainage water was introduced into White Creek most 

of the fish were killed. The Michigan Water Resources Commission 

concluded that the fish kill and a temporary reduction in abundance 

of bottom animals in Sewer Creek was due to an almost complete lack 

of dissolved oxygen in the mine water. The fish literally had drowned 

in the mine-water diluted creek.

BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION IN COLLECTOR SYSTEM AT GRAND HAVEN

A case of contamination of the water supply at Grand Haven illustrates the hazards involved by accidental mixing of raw surface 

waters with water that has been naturally filtered and purified underground. Grand Haven, Ottawa County, is supplied by three collector systems in Lake Michigan. The collector systems consist of vertical caissons sunk close to the shoreline and to about 30 feet below the 

lake bottom. From these a series of screened collector pipes radiate 

horizontally into the sand and gravel aquifer beneath the lake; water 

enters these pipes and flows into the collectors, from where it is 

pumped into the city's mains. Systems of this type are installed to 

eliminate the filtration plant, which is normally used when surface 

waters are used for public supplies. Under normal operating conditions, this natural filtration reduces the bacterial content of the water 

delivered to the collector to satisfactory levels. However, in September 1951, a leak in the system allowed raw lake water high in bacterial 

content to enter the collector.

STAGNANT FLOODWATERS AT BENTON HARBOR

The following newspaper article concerning dangers to water supply 

as the result of flooding in Berrien County was published in the 

"Benton Harbor News-Palladium" on June 9, 1950:

Residents in the Marquette Woods area of Lincoln Township were warned today 

to boil all water used for drinking to avoid possible contamination caused by 

stagnant water.

Dr. C. E. Baggerly, health officer for Lincoln Township announced that officials 

of the State Department of Health at Lansing surveyed the area on Wednesday 

and issued the warning.

The township health official stated that the condition probably would last 

through the summer months.

Low-lying areas in the Marquette Woods district have been under water since 

the heavy floods earlier this spring. The condition was aggravated last week 

when heavy rains fell throughout Berrien County.

The drainage system is reported broken down, allowing the water to stand in 

vast pools throughout the area and polluting springs and wells.
46 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

The article points out the necessity of maintaining proper drainage 

of an area, especially after a flood, if ground-water supplies are to be 

protected against entry of polluted flood water through unsealed wells 

or against induced infiltration caused by pumping. This is especially 

important because floodwater almost always is grossly contaminated.

INSECTICIDES, HERBICIDES, AND WINDBLOWN WASTES

Until recent years, scant attention had been given to the possibility 

that insecticides, herbicides, or wastes borne in the air might adversely 

affect the quality of ground water. No instances of contamination of 

ground water in Michigan by pesticides have come to the attention of 

the author, but the possibility of contamination due to widespread and 

growing use both of insecticide and herbicide sprays in the State 

certainly should merit consideration. The effects of air pollution on 

water resources should also be studied.

Nicholson (1959) weighed the question whether insecticides damage water resources and concluded that the answer has not yet been 

resolved. He reported that surprisingly little is known about loss 

of the vast amounts of stable chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides 

that have been applied to the soils in some of the southeastern States. 

He suspects that much of it is washed into the nearest watercourse 

from the soil surface, and he states, "Reason dictates that insecticides 

cannot be deposited on the uplands year after year without eventually 

getting into lakes and rivers." He makes no mention of the entrance 

of insecticides into ground-water reservoirs, but he reports that the 

U.S. Public Health Service at Cincinnati is seeking to determine the 

identity and concentration of insecticides present in surface and 

ground waters.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons are the most widely used of the various 

synthetic insecticides. They are absorbed and retained by the soil 

and hence tend to accumulate (Eno, 1959). Because the chlorinated 

hydrocarbons are resistant to decay, they could have adverse effects 

on the soils. Eno reports that for the most part, chlorinated hydrocarbons are only slightly soluble leading to the inference that they 

are not readily susceptible to leaching by rainwater and subsequent 

recharge to underlying aquifers.

Herbicides have great potential value in various phases of soil and 

water conservation. At the time of the present report, however, information concerning the effects or potential effects of herbicides on 

the ground-water resources of the State is not available.

CHROME-LADEN DUST IN WYOMING TOWNSHIP

Airborne chromium has been suspected as the source of groundwater contamination in only one known instance in Michigan. For
GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION IN MICHIGAN 47

several years, Wyoming Township, Kent County, had difficulty in 

obtaining water free from chromium in one of its well fields. An 

electroplating firm on adjacent property was the apparent source of 

the chromium contamination. Accordingly, an engineering firm was 

retained to study the problem and to report on the possibility of 

further contamination and of means of abatement.

The firm's report (Williams and Works, 1956) concluded that airborne chromium could have been introduced to the aquifer in several 

ways, including the following:

1. Chrome-laden dust was discharged through ventilators on the roof. 

Some of the dust settled to the ground, where it accumulated 

until rainfall washed it down to the water table, as depicted by 

figure 17. A general relation was shown between precipitation 

and chromium contamination in the township wells.

2. A dry well at the site, into which water from the roof of the plant 

drained, was another likely source of intermittent contamination. Some of the dust probably washed out of the air and onto 

the roof by precipitation, flowed down a rainspout into the dry 

well, from where it infiltrated to the aquifer and subsequently 

migrated to the well field in response to pumping.

In addition the Michigan Geological Survey reported that chromepowder residue was present in or on containers left in the yard. Some 

of this hazardous powder may have been spilled on the ground from 

where it readily could have been leached and carried into the underlying aquifer by subsequent rainfall.

CONTAMINANTS INDUCED FROM NATURAL SOURCES

Fresh ground water in Michigan has been contaminated not only 

by the introduction of various deleterious substances from the surface 

but also indirectly by encroachment of natural waters of poor quality. 

Well drilling, pumping, dewatering, and construction activities have 

resulted in local changes of the ground-water regimen in ways that 

have caused migration of water of inferior chemical quality into various fresh-water aquifers. The contaminants induced to flow into 

fresh ground-water sources include brine and other water high in 

chlorides, sulfates, sulfides, or other naturally occurring fluids, including oil and gas. The source, chemistry, significance, and range in 

concentrations of the various mineral constituents present in natural 

water are described in detail by Hem (1959) and are mentioned only 

briefly here.
48 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS
CONTAMINANTS INDUCED FROM NATURAL SOURCES 49 

VERTICAL LEAKAGE THROUGH OPEN HOLES

Extensive contamination of fresh-water aquifers in Michigan has 

been caused by vertical leakage of highly mineralized water into freshwater aquifers through unplugged wells or test borings. Most of the 

test holes were put down in exploration for coal, oil, gas, brine, salt, 

or other economic mineral products. If the wells were not cased, as 

is common when drilling is through bedrock formations, water in any 

of the formations would flow up the well in response to the artesian 

pressure under which it is confined. The well is an avenue of nearly 

infinite vertical permeability through which the undesirable water 

may move. Protection from natural upward migration of mineral 

water afforded by confining beds of low permeability, such as shale or 

unf ractured beds of limestone, dolomite, or siltstone, is lost. Pumping 

from fresh-water aquifers may lower the piezometric surfaces in the 

higher formations to levels below the piezometric surfaces of the various mineral-water-bearing formations. The saline water may then 

leak into permeable zones in formations containing fresh water under 

lower head or artesian pressures (fig. 18).

Saline waters commonly are found at relatively shallow depth in 

lowlands along the lower reaches of major rivers and along the Great 

Lakes and connecting waterways. The natural fresh-water head in 

some of these areas, especially in the Saginaw and Lake Erie Lowlands (fig. 19), is not great enough to prevent saline water from occupying shallow aquifers or from discharging into surface streams. 

The water table in the shallow fresh-water aquifers in these areas 

commonly is below the piezometric surface of the deeper saline-water 

aquifers. A reduction in the head of fresh water above the freshand saline-water interface, as a result of overpumping, also causes 

the interface to move upward as is indicated in figure 20.

BRINES FROM OIL WELLS AND TEST HOLES AT LOWELL

Chloride contamination of the fresh-water supply at the village 

of Lowell, Kent County, is an example of the adverse effects of brine 

flowing upward through wells and entering an overlying aquifer. 

For many years Lowell was supplied with water obtained from gravel 

deposits along the Flat River approximately half a mile north of the 

village limits; first, from a dug well 20 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter, and then from a tubular well 24 inches in diameter and 72 feet 

deep.

In 1933 the Michigan Department of Health determined the chloride content of a water sample from the tubular well and recorded only 

a trace of chloride. In the period 1935-37, several oil wells and test 

holes were drilled about half a mile upstream from the water-supply
50 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

Abandoned open hole

Fresh water well

. _ _ HT_Z~I_I~Z_I -| t _ -J~ 

 __ __ ~ ' J^ ' _ '_ Aquiclude - 

A. WATER TABLE ABOVE PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE

Fresh water well

-n

Corroded casing 

 fl

Casing lifted Abandoned open hole

;i ^^^ __i: j rtquiciuue .

n ~ -;!? ~ I

u t: 

it

B. PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE ABOVE WATER TABLE

FIGURE 18. Diagrams showing interformational leakage by vertical movement 

of water through open holes.
CONTAMINANTS INDUCED FROM NATURAL SOURCES 51

JROSCOMMONPOGEMAW

WASHTENAW-MVAY'NE

50 MILES

FIGURE 19. Map of southeastern Michigan showing areas of heavily mineralized 

shallow water. (After Lane, 1899.)
LAND SURFACE

Lake 

Michigan

Original flow lines

(fresh-water recharge under

natural conditions)

' : ' Original mte ace 

under notura con tions

. . ' .-. . ' :' New flow lines .' '.' ' .' ' ' > 

.'(intrusion of saline water into 

.former fresh-water zone in 

^response to pumpage and by 

. leakage through open holes)

FIGURE 20. Hypothetical section across the Southern Peninsula of Michigan show

ing a single homogeneous aquifer with unifo
CONTAMINANTS INDUCED FROM NATURAL SOURCES 53

wells. In 1939 after complaints about the taste of the water, the 

village had the chloride content of water from the tubular well determined again. By that time, the chloride content of water from the 

deep well had increased to 775 ppm, which far exceeds the 250 ppm 

limit recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service (1946). In 

1945, the chloride content of the tubular well reached 925 ppm. In 

1941, the chloride content in the shallow dug well reached 225 ppm, 

which indicated that the chloride concentration was greatest in the 

basal part of the aquifer and also that the chloride contamination was 

spreading through the aquifer. As a result the village was advised 

by a consulting engineering firm to develop a new source of supply.

The high chloride water taken from the hitherto fresh-water aquifer 

probably was derived from brine in the Traverse or the Detroit Eiver 

Groups of Devonian age at great depth and from shallower sandstone 

of the Marshall Formation of Mississippian age. Eecords of the oil 

wells and tests reveal that water was found in these formations, which 

is significant in that oil and gas drillers commonly report water only 

when it is present in appreciable quantities or causes difficulty in 

drilling.

The offending wells were plugged, but the effectiveness of plugging 

operations is not known. If the plugging operations were fully effective, then the source of chlorides to the aquifers should have been 

shut off. If so, natural recharge to the fresh-water aquifers ultimately 

should flush out the chlorides, and pumping should accelerate the 

natural flushing action.

SALINE WATER IN THE SAGINAW LOWLANDS ^__

Widespread impairment of fresh-water aquifers resulting from leakage of natural contaminants has occurred in large areas of the Saginaw Lowland. Bowman (1906, p. 94) attributed the deterioration in 

quality of water from the Saginaw Formation at Saginaw to infiltration of brine from abandoned salt wells. The city of Saginaw was 

forced to plug an unspecified number of these salt wells. In 1902, 

the city abandoned its wells tapping the sandstone aquifer in favor of 

wells tapping glacial sands and gravels.

Smith (1944, p. 59) vividly described the deleterious effects on overlying fresh-water aquifers of numerous wells and test holes drilled into 

formations containing oil, gas, brine, coal, and other minerals.

Man, not satisfied with his attack on our surface-water resources, has attacked 

from below. He has drilled hundreds of thousands of wells for water, coal, oil, 

gas, and other minerals. Many of these wells encountered salt or mineral waters, 

or, as oil and gas wells, ultimately went to salt water. Thousands of these wells 

were left unplugged or inefficiently plugged, with the result that the salt or 

mineral waters migrated upward and into beds containing fresh waters. This 

has been going on for more than a century, but more especially during the period 

of most rapid development of the coal and oil and gas industries. In many areas
54 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

once fresh water-bearing beds have been in part or wholly destroyed. * * * The 

upward seepage of salty or mineralized waters has so narrowed the zone of fresh 

waters of the soils and rocks, that the available supply is already inadequate 

for metropolitan needs. These areas are faced with the necessity of building 

great aqueducts to large sources of supply many miles distant * * *

A further study of the history of brine contamination in the Saginaw Valley was made by Smith and Frye (1945, p. 8) who wrote in 

part as follows:

In the 1860's drilling began in search of stronger brine-bearing beds at greater 

depths. After discovering such brines many wells were drilled, chiefly along 

the Saginaw River, to supply brine to the lumber mills and other industrial 

plants for making salt.

With the settlement of Saginaw and Bay Counties, many wells were drilled 

for domestic water supplies. It was found that the fresh waters were largely 

confined to the first 80 to 100 feet and below those depths brackish or very salty 

water was found. In places the depth to salt water was less than 50 feet, in 

others as much as 200 feet.

With the passing of the lumber industry along the Saginaw River some 280 

salt wells gradually were abandoned. The State Salt Commissioners plugged 

as many as could be found. Many, however, had been abandoned years before 

saw mill operations ceased and even their locations were lost.

Over the years the brine corroded and ate through many of the casings allowing the salt water to rise into the fresh water beds and also the fresh water to 

go down into the underlying salt water beds making the brines much weaker. 

As a result valuable fresh waters were destroyed and likewise strong brines 

were made so weak as to be useless for chemical purposes.

In the 1890's hundreds of test holes were put down in the Saginaw Valley to 

locate mineable areas of coal. In the areas where the coal was of mineable 

thickness the test holes were plugged but in areas where little or no coal was 

found many of them were not plugged. These holes usually were deep enough 

to penetrate the brackish and salt water beds. The unplugged holes allowed 

the salty waters to rise and spread into the formations carrying fresh water.

Many wells for fresh water on farms penetrated brackish or salt water beds. 

Those too salty for use were abandoned. Undoubtedly, over the years, the 

casings were eaten through and the salty waters invaded some of the fresh 

water beds above, which locally were too thin to furnish an adequate supply 

but were channels through which salt water could migrate into the thicker and 

more productive areas of fresh water. In numerous instances wells yielding 

brackish but usable waters gradually became so salty they were abandoned.

Smith and Frye, however, did not attribute all the damage or destruction of fresh waters to manmade operations and state that natural 

migration of brine to fresh-water beds also has occurred.

SALINE WATER IN THE GRAND RAPIDS AREA

In the Grand Rapids area, Kent County, sandstone of the Marshall 

Formation is the only bedrock aquifer that yields large quantities of 

water. The water pumped by most wells tapping this aquifer may 

be classified as saline because the dissolved-solids content generally 

is well in excess of 1,000 ppm. Historical evidence (Winchell, 1861, 

p. 91) indicates that the present dissolved-solids content of the water
CONTAMINANTS INDUCED FROM NATURAL SOURCES 55

in the aquifer is far greater than it had been in the past. Winchell 

stated that the water in the Napoleon Sandstone Member (upper) of 

the Marshall Formation was fresh although the term "fresh" is merely 

relative and the exact quality of the water at the time of his study is 

not known.

The increase in mineralization that has occurred since the time of 

WinchelFs study has been attributed to the many old brine wells that 

were not properly sealed. Nellist (1906, p. 272) stated that some 

flowing wells in the area penetrated to the Marshall Formation and 

obtained water "sufficiently fresh to be suitable for drinking." He 

reported that these wells penetrate the salt- and gypsum-bearing beds 

of the lower Grand River Formation, which previously had been 

explored for brine. By the time of the 1906 study, however, most of 

those wells had been abandoned and Nellist concluded that brine had 

flowed "from these old salt wells down into the Marshall sandstone."

Stramel and others (1954, p. 27) concurred with Nellist's observation but reasoned that failure to plug the old salt holes was but one 

cause of the increased mineralization of water in the Marshall Formation. They surmised that increased pumping in the area since the 

turn of the century contributed to the increased dissolved-solids content of the water by causing mineralized water present downdip in the 

formation to migrate to the area. In addition, they stated that pumping probably increased the leakage from the old wells. ^

HIGH-CHLORIDE WATER AT LANSING

In 1956 the Lansing Board of Water and Light drilled a new well 

in the central part of the city into the Saginaw Formation, the source 

of the city's water supply. When the well was first drilled the chloride 

content of its water was less than 100 ppm. However, after the well 

was put into production the chloride content increased rapidly and 

after 2 months of pumping it was about 900 ppm. This concentration 

of chloride is unusual for water from the Saginaw Formation in the 

Lansing area.

Investigation by the Board of Water and Light suggested that a 

probable source of the chloride was highly mineralized water flowing 

upward through a well tapping one or more underlying saline-water 

aquifers. A well had been drilled nearby in 1867 to a depth of 1,400 

feet and had flowed initially 1,600 gallons per hour of water containing 4,575 ppm of sodium chloride (Lane, 1899, p. 58, no. 242). The 

brine was unsuitable for commercial salt production but was later used 

as a source of mineral waters at a spa and hotel built at the site. The 

hotel was destroyed by fire in 1879 and the well had been buried and 

subsequently built over. The well was relocated beneath a garage and
56 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

in January 1957 it was reopened and sealed with cement grout from 

a depth of 557 feet to the surface.

The city supply well was then pumped for several months in 1957, 

the water being discharged to the Grand River, and then was retired 

from use until May 1958. It was used for public supply from May 

to October 1958. When the well was first pumped in 1958, the chloride 

content was less than 100 ppm. The chloride content rose gradually 

to 441 ppm on October 1 when the well was again retired from use 

until the summer of 1959. During the 1959 period of pumping, the 

chloride content again increased but at a slower rate.

The efforts of the Board of Water and Light to seal the mineral 

well and reclaim the aquifer at the site of the municipal well apparently will be successful. Probably a large part of the aquifer was 

contaminated, however, and it will take considerable time to pump out 

the contaminated water and to restore the aquifer to its original 

quality.

This case history also reveals one of the benefits of a program of 

basic-data collection. Without the published State and Federal 

records (see Lane, 1899, p. 60) the problem of identifying the source 

of the chloride and the general location of the well would have been 

much more difficult and perhaps impossible.

HIGH-CHLORIDE WATER AT GRAND LEDGE AND EATON RAPIDS

Several years ago village officials at Grand Ledge, Eaton County, 

investigated the possibility of using saline water for belaying dust on 

unpaved roads. The source of the water considered for this use was a 

flowing salt-water well drilled for a health spa in the latter part of 

the 19th century. Further study, however, revealed that the chloride 

concentration was much too small to accomplish this purpose. The 

possibility that this well may be a potential source of contamination 

should be considered as the chloride concentration of the water, which 

probably is from the Michigan Formation, is great enough to contaminate parts of the overlying Saginaw Formation into which it is 

believed to be leaking. The village obtains its water supply from 

wells tapping the Saginaw Formation. In similar circumstances, 

wells discharging salt water, also from the Michigan Formation, into 

overlying fresh-water aquifers at Eaton Rapids, Eaton County, have 

created difficult problems of obtaining fresh-water supplies.

OVEBPUMPING

Overpumping also has adversely affected the quality of water from 

several fresh-water aquifers of the State. There is, of course, no sharp 

line of demarcation as to what rate of withdrawal constitutes overpumping, although rates of pumping may be considered excessive if
OVERPUMPING 57

they result in a continuing decline in water levels, seriously reduce 

the yields of wells tapping the aquifer within its cone of drawdown, 

or adversely affect the quality of the water. Adverse effects on quality 

are common in areas where fresh-water aquifers are directly underlain 

by aquifers containing saline water or where the fresh-water aquifer 

contains saline wTater downdip, or at depth. Pumping from freshwater aquifers connected hydraulically to the saline-water aquifer 

tends to cause migration of the saline water toward the well. As the 

fresh-water head is reduced by pumping (water levels lowered) saline 

waters will rise and migrate toward the pumping wells. Unrestricted 

or excessive flow from artesian wells results in similar effects.

Numerous geochemical data show that overpumping has resulted 

in deterioration in quality of water pumped from equifers in various 

parts of the State, and, furthermore, that pumping from the freshwater aquifers that have been penetrated by uncased test holes tapping 

saline-water aquifers will aggravate the quality problem.

INTRUSION OF HIGH-CHLORIDE WATER 

ROYAL OAK AEEA

The chloride content of water from a well at Koyal Oak, Oakland 

County, was 365 ppm in 1926. In 1930, when the city decreased pumping from this well and purchased additional supplies from Detroit, 

the chloride content fell to 140 ppm. By 1936, however, as a result 

of increased draft from the aquifer, chloride content had risen to 290 

ppm. Marked differences in chloride content due to pumping were 

also noted for other wells in the vicinity. Ferris and others (1954, 

p. 136-7) studied the effects of pumping on the sodium and chloride 

content of water from wells in southeastern Oakland County. They 

found that when the drawdown of water level in the buried outwash 

aquifer tapped by the wells is appreciable, the resultant gradient developed between the aquifer and the underlying bedrock induced the 

upward migration of the water contained in the bedrock (fig. 21).

It was thought probable that there are places in the Royal Oak area 

where there are good hydraulic connections between saline-water 

bedrock aquifers and fresh-water drift aquifers. It was surmised also 

that induced migration of mineralized water is accentuated by leakage 

from wells drilled to the salt-water formations.

Chlorides are not the only potentially deleterious substances that 

might migrate from bedrock formations into the gacial drift aquifers 

in the Royal Oak area. One well produced appreciable quantities of 

gas, presumably from the Antrim Shale, until the gas was accidentally 

exploded and wrecked the pumphouse enclosing the well (Ferris and 

others, 1954, p. 137).
58 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

Pumping well

.Piping water o

'° ' level

0 ° °.0o 0 °0 o o.O o e o' oo o ' °

O-.o . .o

to "0 0«e, ' 0» ' ° ' - -

FIGURE 21. Diagram showing how a pumping well can cause a fresh-water aquifer to 

be contaminated by saline water from underlying rocks.

FLINT AKEA

In the Flint area, overdrafts from the Saginaw Formation commonly result in increasing chloride content. This indicates an upward migration of saline water, which effectively limits the amount 

of fresh water that can be withdrawn from the formation (Wiitala 

and others, 1962). A 300-percent increase in chloride content of the 

water in the Saginaw Formation forced Burton Township, south of 

Flint, to abandon the Saginaw Formation as. a source of supply, except for emergency purposes. The township now uses the glacialdrift aquifer overlying the Saginaw Formation as its main source 

of water supply.

The steady increase in chloride content since 1946 of Burton Township well 2, tapping water from the Saginaw Formation, is shown 

by the following table:
OVERPUMPING 59

Chloride

Date collected (ppm) 

Nov. 5, 1946 ________________________________________ 135 

Feb. 11, 1953 ________________________________________ 190 

Aug. 18, 1953 _______________________________________ 230 

June 13, 1955 _______________________________________ 240 

Dec. 12, 1956 _______________________________________ 375

INTRUSION OF HIGH-SULFATE WATER 

PONTIAC ^

Ferris and others (1954, p. 112-114) noted that the sulfate content of ground water in an area of heavy pumping in the central part 

of Pontiac was steadily increasing. Ground-water contamination by 

sulfate-bearing wastes from the land surface was not found. The 

source of the ground- water supply is the glacial drift, which generally 

is not high in sulfate content, but the drift is underlain by the Coldwater Shale, which is a known source of high-sulfate water. Hence, 

it became apparent that induced migration of water from the Coldwater Shale was the source of the sulfate water from wells tapping 

the glacial drift. Analyses showed that the sulfate content of the 

water pumped from the glacial drift at Pontiac was greatest in the 

area of concentrated pumping. Subsequent changes in the pattern 

of pumping by the city of Pontiac have been effective in reducing 

the amount of water migrating from the Coldwater Shale, and the 

sulfate content has decreased.

HOLLAND

The city of Holland also experienced increasing sulfate concentrations in its water supply before the city abandoned its well system in 

favor of a Lake Michigan water supply (Deutsch and others, 1958). 

The city's chief source of ground-water supply, since 1921 had been 

its well station on Eighth Street. When pumping began at that station in 1922, the water was under sufficient artesian pressure to flow 

several feet above land surface, and the sulfate content of the water 

delivered by the station was 19 ppm. The sulfate content rose steadily 

as water levels declined and by 1943 reached 156 ppm. The increase 

in sulfate was due to migration of water from the underlying Coldwater Shale.

By 1957, water levels in the field were about 110 feet below land 

surface. Further increases in sulfate contents probably occurred 

although no further chemical analyses were made of the water from 

the well previously sampled.
60 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

MANISTIQUE

Some of the residents of the city of Manistique, Schoolcraft County, 

obtain water supplies from artesian wells finished in the Burnt Bluff 

Formation of Middle Silurian age. The hardness of water from this 

formation generally is greater than 200 ppm, owing to the presence 

of calcium and magnesium ions leached from limestone and dolomite 

strata. The water produced by some wells tapping the Burnt Bluff 

at Manistique has a high sulf ate content, which is not characteristic 

of water from that formation. The results of a study made by Sinclair (1959) show that water yielded by these wells is contaminated by 

upward leakage of calcium sulfate water from the Cataract Formation, which underlies the Burnt Bluff. The Cataract Formation also 

is composed predominantly of dolomite, but it contains numerous 

layers of gypsum and gypsiferous shale. Gypsum, which is relatively 

soluble, is a source of objectionable quantities of calcium and sulfate 

in ground water with which it comes in contact. Migration of calcium sulfate water from the Cataract Formation apparently has been 

caused by pumping or permitting unrestricted discharge from flowing 

wells tapping the basal part of the Burnt Bluff Formation. Sinclair 

pointed out that wells tapping shallower permeable zones in the 

Burnt Bluff do not yield water high in calcium sulfate and to prevent 

contamination of the Burnt Bluff Formation suggests avoidance of 

drilling into the Cataract Formation.

DEWATERING OPERATIONS

Pumping water from wells for water supply is not the only manner 

for which the above principle of induced migration is applicable. 

Where saline and fresh-water aquifers are connected hydraulically, 

dewatering operations, such as for quarries, roads, or excavations, also 

may tend to cause vertical migration of the saline water (fig. 22). 

Excavation of a hole in a confining layer may accelerate encroachment 

of saline water. The danger of contaminating fresh-water aquifers 

as a result of dewatering operations is especially great in parts of the 

Saginaw Lowlands and in southeastern Michigan where relatively 

shallow artesian aquifers commonly contain saline water.

STJLFIDE WATER AT FLAT ROCK

Several householders living along the Huron River near Flat Rock, 

Wayne County, complained that water in their wells turned black and 

developed an obnoxious odor as a result of blasting in a nearby limestone quarry. Although there is little geologic or hydrologic basis to 

support the contention that the blasting caused deterioration in water 

quality, the Michigan Geological Survey was called upon to make an 

investigation of the ground-water conditions in the area.
OVERPUMPING 61

22.- Diagram showing migration of saline water caused by dewatering in a freshwater aquifer overlying a saline-water aquifer.

The geologic section in this area as revealed in the quarry consists 

of: (1) the Sylvania Formation, at the base of the quarry; (2) an 

overlying 15-foot section of the Amherstburg Formation, which is 

being quarried, and (3) about 30 feet of glacial drift. The wells in 

the area are completed in the glacial drift or penetrate the dolomite 

and are completed in the sandstone.

The State Geological Survey reported that the quarry was dewatered by means of .a sump at one end of the quarry and that dewatering operations contributed to the lowering of water levels, at least in 

rock wells. They also reported that "it appears that the lowering of 

water levels caused by pumpage at the quarry has accelerated the 

normal encroachment of water with a high degree of mineralization." 

Unfortunately, data are not available concerning the altitude of the 

interface of the saline and fresh water or its rate of encroachment 

before the dewatering operations at the quarry. Analysis by a commercial laboratory of a water sample collected from one well in the 

area before dewatering operations at the quarry, reportedly showed 

that the water was very hard and high in sulf ate content. According 

to the State Geological Survey the analysis indicated "that the encroachment of highly mineralized water was already in progress, and 

had affected at least some of the wells in the area prior to the opening 

of the quarry."
62 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

The obnoxious odor of the water at the time of the investigation 

indicates that the wells were producing water containing hydrogen 

sulfide. The black color revealed that other sulfides, including iron 

sulfide that would result from chemical reaction of the hydrogen sulfide and iron, were present. The iron may have originated in the 

ground water or in the well casing and other parts of the plumbing 

system or from a combination of both sources. Historical data indicate that hydrogen sulfide in ground waters is not uncommon along 

the lower reaches of the Huron River. Records of "sulfur" water 

predate the quarrying operations. Fuller (1905, p. 17) reported that 

several wells in this general area produced "sulfur water" and that 

one well yielded "black sulfur water." He also concluded that in 

this general area the "Monroe beds" (Amherstburg) yielded "waters 

that are hard but are not characterized by much sulfur" and that 

the Sylvania Formation yielded water of good quality. Data obtained 

since 1905 indicate that the Sylvania now yields water containing 

excessive concentrations of sulfate.

Neither the occurrence and chemistry of sulf ates in the ground water 

in the area, nor the relation of the sulf ates to the sulfides, is completely known. Hem (1959, p. 223) reported that sulf ates could be 

reduced by hydrogen released by decomposition of organic matter by 

anerobic bacteria. As the ground water in the area contains a considerable amount of sulfate and organic materials are present in the 

form of peat and muck, as well as septic tank effluent and other sewage, 

it seems reasonable to assume that the hydrogen sulfide in the well 

waters of the area may be in part of local origin.

CHANNEL, DEEPENING OR DREDGING

The deepening or dredging of an effluent stream (a stream being 

fed by ground water) will cause a lowering of the head in the streamside aquifer. In areas where the streamside aquifer is hydraulically 

connected to an underlying saline-water aquifer, the lowering of head 

will induce upward flow of saline water (fig. 23) in much the same 

manner as caused by overpumping or dewatering. In such areas encroachment of saline water is a potential problem where flood control 

or other projects involving lowering of stream stage are contemplated. 

Some thin and shallow fresh-water aquifers in parts of southeastern 

Michigan (fig. 19) are especially susceptible to contamination from 

underlying saline-water aquifers. The possibility of detrimental 

effects on ground-water quality resulting from changes in hydrologic 

regimen for any project of this type should be studied. Such a study 

would require the collection of detailed geologic and hydrologic 

information.
FIGURE 23. Diagram showing migration of saline water caused by lowering of wa

aquifer hydraulically connected to an underlying salin
64 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

LEGAL SAFEGUARDS AGAINST GROUND-WATER 

CONTAMINATION IN MICHIGAN

Legislative authority to abate ground-water pollution had been 

granted to various agencies of the State as early as 1889. The U.S. 

Public Health Service (1954, p. 22) reported that

The water pollution control laws are adequate to abate existing pollution and 

to prevent or control new or increased sources of pollution. The water pollution 

control agencies have been given sufficient legal authority to carry on their 

programs and they have used this authority judiciously and effectively in carrying out their work.

The Michigan Water Resources Commission has been assigned the general overall authority relating to the control of pollution of any waters 

of the State. Various divisions of the Department of Conservation 

and the State Health Department also have been delegated related 

water-pollution control functions.

ACTIONS OF THE MICHIGAN SUPREME COURT

A few cases in the State dealing specifically with contamination or 

alleged contamination of ground-water supplies have appeared before 

the Michigan Supreme Court (Olds, 1952). The earliest of these 

was the case of Upjohn v. RicJiland Township (46 Mich. 542), decided 

in 1881. In this case, Upjohn sought to enjoin an addition to a nearby 

cemetery on the basis that it would contaminate his well. The court 

held that the plaintiff failed to sustain the burden of proof in saying 

as follows:

The movements of subsurface waters are commonly so obscure that rights in 

or respecting them cannot well be preserved. They do not often have a welldefined channel, and it is not easy in many cases to determine in what direction their movements tend. If corrupted at one point the effect may be confined 

within very narrow limits, while at another, though no surface indications 

would lead one to expect it, the taint might follow the water for miles.

In the 1894 case of Brady v. Detroit Steel and Spring Company 

(102 Mich. 277) the court accepted the doctrine of correlative rights 

in saying

It is well settled that the percolation of deleterious matter, from the premises 

of the party who suffers it, through the soil, upon the lands of the adjacent 

owner, to the injury of the latter, is an actionable nuisance.

In the 1938 case of Joldersma v. Muskegon Development Co. (286 

Mich. 520), the complainant alleged that his underground water had 

been contaminated by the defendant's act of allowing salt-water wastes 

from an oil well to seep into the soil on defendant's premises. However, again the plaintiff failed to sustain the burden of proof.

In the 1955 case of L. A. Darling Co. v. Water Resources Commission 

(341 Mich. 654), the Water Eesources Commission charged that the
SAFEGUARDS AGAINST GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION 65

defendant contaminated several private wells and threatened to pollute one of the public wells of the municipality of Bronson. The judgment of a lower court in favor of the Commission's order to the defendant to abate contamination was reversed by the Supreme Court, 

on appeal, but not because it was found that contamination had not 

occurred. The court held that the Commission denied the Darling Co. 

procedural due process by failure to conduct a formal hearing. The 

court did, however, confirm the power of the Water Resources Commission to control pollution of ground water, and, according to Lauer 

and others (1958), thus established the act as a reasonable use standard 

in Michigan, despite the fact that no Supreme Court cases resulted in 

an injunction against ground-water contamination or in recovery of 

damages.

ACT CHEATING THE WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION

In 1929 the Michigan Legislature passed Act No. 245 creating the 

Stream Control Commission, but this commission was given authority 

only to cont-rol pollution of surface waters. This act was amended in 

1949 by Public Act 117 and the commission's name was changed to 

Water Resources Commission, its powers expanded, its procedures 

streamlined, and its authority extended to the control of pollution of 

underground waters (Olds, 1952). The act delegates to the commission the responsibility "to protect and conserve the water resources 

of the state and great lakes * * *." Broad powers to attain these objectives are also conferred upon the commission by this act, along with 

the duty "to enforce any and all laws relating to the pollution of the 

waters of this state * * *."

Act 117 specifically states that

The Commission shall protect and conserve the water resources of the state and 

shall have control of the pollution of surface or underground waters of the 

state * * * which are or may be affected by waste disposal * * *

and further that the commission

shall have the authority to make regulations and orders restricting the polluting 

content of any waste material or polluting substances discharged or sought to be 

discharged into any * * * waters of the state. It shall have the authority to 

take all appropriate steps to prevent pollution which is deemed by the Commission to be unreasonable and against public interest * * *

The disposal of water or return of air-conditioning water into the 

ground through a recharge or return well is also subject to regulation 

by the Water Resources Commission, inasmuch as the act considers 

this a new use of the waters of the State, and hence approval must be 

granted by the commission before such a well is constructed.
66 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

Since its creation by legislative enactment in 1949, the Water Resources Commission, by use of its broad legal authority, has been effective in abating contamination of ground-water supplies in cases 

that have been brought to its attention. In addition the commission 

has denied applications for new uses of the water of the State when 

such use would result in further and undesirable contamination of any 

ground- or surface-water source.

CONSERVATION LAWS

Throughout the years the people of Michigan have been concerned 

with conservation of the waters of the State for various purposes. 

Accordingly, a number of laws have been passed which directly or indirectly provides for the conservation of water by protecting this resource from contamination. Since 1921 these laws and various amendments have been administered by the Department of Conservation, 

which was created in part "to provide for the protection and conservation of the natural resources of the state * * * ."

ACT 190 OP THE PUBLIC ACTS OF 1889

Johnson (1905, p. 42) outlined the features of an early law pertaining to underground waters passed in 1889 (but repealed in 1929) 

which prohibited parties owning flowing artesian wells to allow the 

well

to flow a larger stream than will flow through a pipe 1 inch in diameter, to the 

detriment or injury of any other well or wells, without the consent of the owner 

of such well or wells or injured.

This act probably was designed to protect nearby flowing wells from 

undue loss in head, which might cause the flow to cease.

ACT 107 OP THE PUBLIC ACTS OF 1905

Another conservation law dealing with ground water is Act 107 

of the Public Acts of 1905, which is similar to the 1889 act. Act 107 

provides for the restriction of unreasonable waste flows from artesian 

or flowing wells, which damage other wells supplied from the same 

head or reservoir. According to Wisler and others (1952, p. 35) the 

law is unworkable because of the "difficulty of defining what is reasonable in any case and of proving that any particular waste flow 

is responsible for the damage * * *" Their argument appears to have 

merit because the law has never been utilized.

ACT 326 OP THE PUBLIC ACTS OF 1937

The Department of Conservation is charged with important duties 

in preventing contamination of ground-water supplies incidental to 

administering Act 326 of the Public Acts of 1937, which regulates
SAFEGUARDS AGAINST GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION 67

the production and handling of natural dry gas in the State. The 

act appoints the Director of Conservation as Supervisor of Wells 

and requires specifically that he protect the various natural resources 

of the State against contamination resulting from natural gas production activities. Section 4 of the act states

It shall be the duty of the supervisor of wells * * * to inspect the locating, drilling, casing, deepening, sealing, and operating of gas wells or test holes, so far 

as the same may endanger * * * or do damage to the gas, the fresh, brine, and 

mineral waters, and other mineral resources * * *

A variety of duties to accomplish this purpose of the act is spelled 

out in detail. Section 8 requires

Every person who shall drill, sink, or cause to be sunk, such a well or test hole 

penetrating bedrock shall case and seal off each oil, gas, brine or water stratum 

or formation to effectually prevent migration of gas or fluids to other strata, 

and such casing or sealing off shall be effected and tested in such manner and 

by such methods and means as may be prescribed or approved by the supervisor of wells or his authorized representative.

Section 10 requires that dry or abandoned wells

be plugged in such a way as to confine the oil, gas, and water in the strata in 

which they are found and to prevent them from escaping into other strata; or 

to the surface.

Section 11 provides that in the event such a well is not plugged in 

30 days the owner must give satisfactory proof that no damage is 

being done to any water-bearing or other mineral-bearing formation 

penetrated.

Section 25 of the same act exempts most holes drilled for exploration of or extraction of water and all other minerals from the general 

regulation of the act, but does provide

That when any such well or hole penetrates salt or mineral water-bearing 

formations, the owner or operator shall upon completion or abandonment plug 

such well or test holes in such manner and by such means as the supervisor 

shall prescribe or approve that will prevent migration of such brine or mineral 

water into the oil, gas and fresh water-bearing formations or to the surface.

It is not clear how this section would apply in the case of a hole drilled 

through an oil- or gas-bearing formation in quest of other mineral 

resources.

ACT 61 OF THE PUBLIC ACTS OF 1939

This act, which is designed to prevent waste and to conserve the 

oil and gas resources of the State, is similar to Act 326 in its incidental 

powers to protect the fresh ground-water resources in areas of oil 

test or well drilling. Section 6 of the act empowers the Supervisor 

of Wells to require
68 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

plugging of wells drilled for oil and gas or for geologic information or as key 

wells in secondary recovery projects, * * * in such a manner and by such means 

so * * * as to prevent damage to or destruction of fresh water supplies.

Section 12 of the act contains a provision requiring each well to be 

drilled in the center of any drilling unit or tract, with various exceptions, including instances where water or other natural resources 

are threatened by drilling at that point.

PUBLIC HEALTH LAWS

The Michigan Department of Health, under its broad police 

powers to protect the public health, is also actively engaged in protecting the fresh-water supplies of the State from pollution, as an 

activity incidental to its duties to inspect and approve public water 

and sewerage systems, and in regulating the construction and operation of drains.

THE DRAIN CODE OF 1956

Section 423 of Act 40 of the Public Acts of 1956 also is designed to 

protect the waters of the State by providing that

It shall be unlawful * * * to discharge or permit to be discharged into any 

county drain or inter-county drain of the state any sewage or waste matter 

capable of producing in said drain or drains detrimental deposits, objectionable 

odor nuisance, injury to drainage conduits or structures, or such pollution of 

the waters of the state receiving the flow from said drains as to injure livestock, 

destroy flsh life, or be injurious to the public health.

This act authorizes the State Health Commissioner to cause such 

measures to be taken as he deems necessary to abate the nuisance or 

menace to the public health. The act is important in protecting the 

ground waters of the State from contamination, because a drain may 

be a source of recharge to an aquifer as, for example in the case of 

the disposal of zeolite-softening-plant effluent in Paris Township, 

Kent County, cited previously.

WATERWORKS AND SEWERAGE SYSTEM LAW

The Waterworks and Sewerage System Act (Act 219 of the Public 

Acts of 1949) is an important Michigan statute providing protection 

from pollution for the ground waters of the State. Under the act 

the State Health Commissioner supervises and controls waterworks 

(including wells) and sewerage systems. Section 4 of the act requires 

the commissioner to investigate waterworks systems and have bacteriological analyses made of water when there is reason to believe 

that any public-water supply is contaminated. Section 6 requires 

plans and specifications that
SAFEGUARDS AGAINST GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION 69

show all the sources through or from which water is or may be at any time 

pumped or otherwise permitted or caused to enter into such system, and such 

drain, water course, river or lake into which sewage is to be discharged.

This in effect provides the State with valuable geologic information, 

and indirectly with geochemical information inasmuch as water 

samples from potential public-supply sources are chemically analyzed, 

as it is also the duty of the commission to determine if any public 

water supply is impure and a menace to the public health.

The sewage-disposal information, of course, permits the commissioner to evaluate potential hazards to ground- or surface-water 

supplies and to stipulate changes that will cause reduction or removal 

of such hazards to render the sewage "not potentially prejudicial to the 

public health."

REGULATORY POWERS OF THE STATE HEALTH COMMISSIONER

By authority of Act 146 of the Public Acts of 1919 as amended, the 

State Health Commissioner has also published a series of regulations 

establishing minimum standards for the location and construction 

of water supplies (other than municipal)

serving schools, trailer coach parks, motels, resorts, hospitals, convalescent homes, 

milk and food handling establishments, places of assembly, and the like.

The regulations (Michigan Department of Health, 1957) prohibit 

drilling of such wells within 75 feet from sources of contamination. 

Sewers or sumps may not be located less than 10 feet from such 

wells, and if less than 75 feet must be watertight. Furthermore, these 

wells must be in areas not subject to flooding. The regulations also 

stipulate certain well construction techniques to protect the public 

health. Dug wells or wells less than 25 feet deep for public supply 

are no longer permitted in the State without written approval of the 

State Health Commissioner.

Regulations concerning water supplies for grade A milk plants 

and dairy farms, as required by Act 216 of the Public Acts of 1956, 

are similar to those outlined for public-water systems.

FEDERAL INTEREST

The first comprehensive Federal legislation in the pollution control 

field was the Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 (Pubic Law 845). 

This law added the principles of State-Federal cooperative program 

development and limited Federal enforcement authority and financial 

aid. The growing concern of the Federal Government in the national 

and international pollution problem resulted in the new Federal Water 

Pollution Control Act of 1956 (Public Law 660).
70 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

Because the Congress has stipulated that primary responsibility in 

pollution control rests with the States, both laws declare the policy 

of Congress "to recognize, preserve, and protect the primary responsibilities and rights of the States in controlling water pollution."

Included in the act, which was summarized by the U.S. Public 

Health Service (1957), are provisions for:

1. Continued Federal, State, and interstate cooperation in the preparation and development of comprehensive programs for controlling 

water pollution.

2. Increased technical assistance to States, a broad research program, the establishment of research fellowships, and the use of 

contract research and research grants.

3. Collection and dissemination of basic data on water quality and 

other information relating to the prevention and control of water 

pollution.

4. A cooperative program to control pollution from Federal installations.

The Federal Government, however, has no part in the direct enactment and enforcement of the water law of any State. Where interstate 

water sources and problems are involved, machinery is provided for 

facilitating settlement of disputes by negotiation and compact.

McGuinness (1951, p. 2) summarized the policy of the U.S. Geological Survey on water law as follows:

It is the belief of the Geological Survey that the required legal control can be 

achieved most effectively at the State level; further, that the restrictions on 

water use should be the minimum consistent with effective control, and that 

maximum reliance should be placed on voluntary cooperation of water users 

based on adequate public information on the hydrology of each area.

The Geological Survey has no part in the enactment and enforcement of water 

law. It acts as an impartial source of basic hydrologic data. However, it has 

an important advisory function, for it is in a position to comment on the hydrologic feasibility of proposed water laws and thus to contribute to their 

effectiveness.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Numerous aquifers in Michigan have been contaminated to various 

degrees by the introduction of a wide variety of substances both 

natural and manmade. In general, the destruction of the fresh 

ground-water resources of the State by contaminants introduced from 

the surface has not been nearly as widespread or detrimental to the 

public as was the pollution of the rivers and streams prior to enactment of abatement legislation. Contamination of ground water by 

sanitary and industrial wastes may be expected to decrease as a result 

of the statutes enabling the Michigan Department of Health and the
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 71

Water Eesources Commission to take effective control actions. Pollution incidental to oil and gas production in the State virtually has 

been eliminated since enactment of the laws directing the Department 

of Conservation to protect the water resources from hazards of contamination by supervising construction and operation of wells.

In areas where important sources of ground water have already 

been contaminated, especially by such noxious chemicals as chromates 

and phenols, many years may pass before the aquifers may become 

usable again. Where aquifers have been contaminated the water 

should be sampled and analyzed periodically to determine when the 

concentrations of contaminants are reduced to tolerable levels. 

Economically feasible techniques of speeding restoration of such 

aquifers to usable condition should be developed where possible. __-

One especially great hazard to the ground-water resources of the I 

State lies in the pattern of development of ground-water supplies v 

in the rapidly growing suburban areas around most of the larger 

municipalities. In many suburban developments septic tanks are 

used to dispose of sewage, even where individual domestic wells on the 

lot (some of which tap shallow aquifers) are used for water supplies. 

The fact that synthetic detergents are in widespread use makes it inevitable that many shallow aquifers that are recharged by septic tank 

effluent will ultimately be contaminated also by these chemicals. Preservation of shallow aquifers as a source of potable water in densely 

populated suburban areas will require construction of public sewage 

systems and treatment plants and eventual abandonment of septictank installations. Construction of public-supply wells beyond the 

area of contamination, of course, in no way protects ground water from 

contamination, but indeed may result in more widespread contamination before proper remedial action is taken. -'

Other remaining major hazards to the ground-water resources of 

the State are oyjarpumping and other changes in the ground-water 

regimen that induce waters high in sulfate, chloride, or other mineral 

constituents to flow into fresh-water aquifers. Induced encroachment 

of saline water is an especially difficult problem to deal with as a 

wealth of geochemical and hydrologic data is needed even to recognize 

it, and probably even more data would be needed to offer conclusive 

legal proof of contamination from natural sources. Subsurface encroachment of saline water occurs at shallow depth. Figure 19, which 

shows such areas in southeastern Michigan, was prepared in 1899 

(Lane, 1899, pi. IV). Further work should be done not only to cover 

the rest of the State but to bring Lane's map up to date, and also to 

delineate the actual depths of saline-water occurrence. Such work has 

been done only in a few areas of the State where detailed geologic and 

hydrologic studies and interpretations have been made.
72 GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND LEGAL CONTROLS

Requisites for protecting ground-water resources from further impairment are as follows: A general awareness of various ways an 

aquifer may become contaminated; a comprehensive set of statutory 

controls to cover all probable modes of introduction of contaminants; 

adequately staffed regulatory agencies to implement the control statutes; and a comprehensive program for collection, compilation, and 

interpretation of bacteriological, chemical, geological, hydrological, 

and hydraulic data.

The above requisites have been fulfilled in part in Michigan, although a considerable amount of public education will be required to 

promote an understanding of how aquifers might be safeguarded. If 

needed, specific statutory authority should be vested in an appropriate 

State agency to control migration of natural saline water into freshwater aquifers induced by pumping, dewatering, interformational 

leakage in wells, channel dredging, and other activities of man. Act 

117 may already be sufficiently broad in scope to be invoked to control 

activities resulting in migration of saline water by the above causes, 

but it has not yet been applied in such cases. To increase the effectiveness of present and possible future control statutes, the programs of 

collection and interpretation of appropriate data must be sufficiently 

comprehensive to define the geochemical regimen in problem areas. 

The data collection and interpretation program should be implemented, if possible, by basic research concerning methods of controlling contamination of various types and of restoring to use aquifers 

already contaminated.

As Billings (1950) succinctly and appropriately wrote, "The importance of water, especially ground water, is constantly growing. 

The public cannot afford to despoil it."

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REFERENCES CITED 73

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Winchell, Alexander, 1861, First biennial report of the Geological Survey of

Michigan Lower Peninsula: Lansing, 399 p. 

Wisler, C. O., Stramel, G. J., and Laird, L. B., 1952, Water resources of the

Detroit area, Michigan: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 183. 

World Health Organization, 1957, Pollution of ground water (excerpt) : Am.

Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 49, no. 4, p. 392.

INDEX

[Major references are In Italic]

Acknowledgments__.__-_-__.___._ 

Act 61 of the Public Acts of 1939. ..........

Act 107 of the Public Acts of 1905......_...

Act 190 of the Public Acts of 1889............

Act 326 of the Public Acts of 1937............

Act creating the Water Resources Commission. ..__--.-_________ 

Actions of the Michigan Supreme Court......

Air-conditioning return or recharge wells .....

Alkyl benzene sulfonate...___________ 

Amherstburg Formation-_______...

Antrim Shale_______________... 

Aquicludes.. _..._-__..._______ 

Aquifers, bedrock......___________

chief sedimentary rock .....____.

consolidated rock....____....____

fresh-water......__________...

glacial drift............................

Injection into____________..

percolation of leached nitrates....--......

principal hydrologic properties_........

Page

4

67

B 

BaeOluseoli.................................. 30,31

Backflooding at Minden City................ 19

Bacterial contaminants_....__ ____... 31

Bacterial contamination in collector system at

Grand Haven.- _.._____ 45 

Black River Formation_________.._ 36 

Black River Limestone......._______.. 7,38

Blue babies..-__________________ 39 

Brady v. Detroit Steel and Spring Company. 64 

Brines from oil wells and test holes at Lowell. 49 

Bronson, Branch County...._.._____ 26,27,65

Burnt Bluff Formation.._.__............ 34,60

Cataract Formation.______________ 60

Caustic soda...__.________... 25

Cesspools.__________._____.. 36

Channel deepening or dredging. -____- 6%

Charcoal wastes at Mancelona_ ______.. 24

Chemical contaminants.------ _..._. 31

Chloride contamination...__________. 49

Chloride content of water___..______. 57

Chloride water, intrusion___..__..__. 57

Chlorinated hydrocarbons--__________ 46

Chrome-laden dust in Wyoming Township._ 46

Chrome-plating wastes at Dougles._____ 26 

Chromium compounds contained in land fill

at Grandville --_....____. S9

Chromium contamination problem_...._ 26

Coldwater Shale.....______________ 59

Coliform bacteria.__._.__________. 41

Conservation laws___------_..._ _. 66

Contaminants induced from natural sources.. 47

Contaminants introduced from the surface.._ 

Contaminated ground water in Michigan 

Contaminated surface waters.._ .......

Creosotes at Reed City-_____ . .. 

Cyanide_._ __ 

Cyanosis in infants. . 

D

Darling, L. A., Co. v. Water Resources Commission_..... 

Delta County Road Commission. -......

Detergents.............. . 

Detroit River Group, Devonian age.__.....

Dewatering operations ..... ..

Discharged mine water at Ironwood .....

Discharged softening-plant effluent in Paris 

Township.. . ....

Disposal or storage in the zone of aeration....

Drain Code of 1956 ...__ .. . 

Drain wells_...-.. ---.- _............

Dry well--.-.. 

Dug wells. -.-- 

Dundee Formation .. 

Page

It 

9,64 

18 

US 

25 

39

E

Electroplating wastes. 

Excreta_____--.- .

Federal interest...... ....

Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1956 

Fertilizer_______-__ __ ------

Flint area..__ ... 

Flood water at Saugatuck.. _ ,.....

Fuel oil .. .. - ......... 

Fuel oil at Holt -. .- .

64

38

34

53

60

42 

SI 

68 

19 

21 

17 

30

G

Garbage, dumping... 37 

Gasoline. .__-___--.. . ------- 12

Glacial drift deposits..... 32,33,34,36,42,59,61

Grand River Formation.... _ 55

Ground-water, contamination in Michigan... 9,64

occurrence in Michigan, summary_ . 5

recharge.... . 31

resources... .. - 31

supplies.. 35

H

Hepatitis epidemic at Posen....... ... 34

Herbicides. ..._..... . --. ...... 46

Hexavalent chromium.... 12,25 

High-chloride water at Grand Ledge and

Eaton Rapids...--- . . 56 

High-chloride water at Lansing... 55

77
78 INDEX

Induced infiltration or leakage of contaminated surface waters .-_..._.. 

Infiltration system,_.__._._...__. 

Ingham County. ...___.______ 7, 

Insecticides, herbicides, and windblown 

wastes.-.. --------_----_-_____. ___

Interstices, in rocks ------___.........

primary..--.-----_.-___-__.........

secondary..-------.-.---____.........

Intestinal influenza at Bad Axe, Huron

County...____________-.

Introduction,_............._.............

Intrusion of high-chloride water---..-........

Intrusion of high-sulfate water................

.Toldersma v. Muskegon Development Co....

K 

Kalamazoo River_.-...-..----_...._.._....

Page

4»

42

15,25

18

Lake Erie Lowlands_---------------------- 49

Lake Michigan.....-.-----................... 45

Legal safeguards against ground-water contamination in Michigan.--------- 64

Lake Superior.-.----------.-...._____._.... 7

Land-surface dumping_-.--.....-........_. 37

Leaking municipal sewersat Sturgis..-------- 41

Leaking sewers or pipelines_......_.._...... 41

M

Manlstique Formation.-.-_..........._...... 34

Marquette Woods.....-.----__-.-..........._ 45

Marshall Formation..--.------ 7,14,15,18,53,54,55

Menominee River-----.-.. ........., _..... 44

Methemoglobinemia in infants-.------------- 39

Michigan Formation-_ --_-_-_---_._........ 56

Michigan Supreme Court-- 64

Milk wastes at Treuary__-_._-...-..... 36

Monroe beds--.....-.---..- _------------- 62

N

Napoleon Sandstone Member (upper)-.......

Nitrates-.--...------ --------..-..-.------_-.

Northern Peninsula_---_--_-_-____-..... -__ 5,7

O 

Ohio River.-----------------------

Oil, waste -------------------------

Oil-field brines in Isabella County. 

O verpumping __--__-__-______--.-_ 56

Paint thinners_ 

Paints . - - -- 

Paleozoic rocks.------------------------------ 5,7

Percolation of leached nitrates into shallow 

aquifers. _--.-........ _....-..._

Pesticide s ---.--------.-.-. ---.-.--------.-- 46

Page 

Phenols....--.........-.-..-.. ........... 12,23

Pickle brines at Edmore...------------ ...... 36

Picricacid. ~ . -.- 12,25,37

Pipeline sealant at Ionia......-.--------.-.... 4$

Plating wastes___..--- . . .. . 27 

Pollutants, bacterial ................ . 30,32,33

chemical_................ ...-..-.. 32

Polluted surface waters..._._.. -..... 12,36,42

Ponded storm water at Bad Axe ......... 18

Precambrian rocks._..-.-..-..__--------- 5,7

Previous Investigations - -_-_--.- ... 3 

Public Health laws....--------------------- 68

Raw liquid fertilizer near Holland - 37 

References cited.. . ... . .. 72 

Refinery wastes at Alma. ----- . 24 

Regulatory powers of the State Health Commissioner.. . ----- .- 69

S

Saginaw Formation...- - _. 25,53,55,56,58 

Saginaw Lowlands-...- 49

Saginaw River... .__ . _. 54

Saline water.....----------------------------- 49,62

Grand Rapidsarea. ......... .... 54

Saginaw Lowlands.-. .... ---------- 53

Salt contamination-.--------------- 12,38,42

Salt for snow removal.---------------- .-.. 37

Sanitary sewer at Lansing industrial plant__ 41

Sanitary wastes, domestic. . ._ . . 12

Elkton.-. _ --- - 14

farm. ............. ...... ... ... 12

untreated_......... ....... .. 30

Schoolcraft County....----------------- 7,34,60

Septic tank effluent.------------.----.--.. 31,71

Septic tanks.. ................ 15,21,31,33,34,36

Settling basin-....------------------------- 21

Sewage-contaminated creek at Norway.-..... 44

Sewage in Manistique-Qulliver area.. -. 34 

Sewer Creek__--------- _ - - 44,45

Sewers----.------------------------------ 36,#

Southern Peninsula.-.----.----. ---------- 7

Spilling or spreading onland surface .. 35 

Stagnant floodwaters at Benton Harbor...... 45

Stream Control Commission ..--.. ... 65 

Sulfate concentrations in water supply .... 59

Sulfate water, intrusion ... .... ... 59

Sulfide water at Flat Rock..-------------- 60

Summary and conclusions ----- .... 70

Supreme Court ...'...... --------------- 65

Surface waters, contaminated -------- 18

polluted- ---------------------- 12,36,42

Sylvania Formation-------------------------- 61,62

Syndets. 32,33,34

Synthetic detergent-..----------------------- 32,71

Till, ice-laid deposits ------------------------ 7

Traverse Formation. ----------------------- 34

Traverse River Group, Devonian age. 53

Trenton Limestone 7,36
INDEX 79

U

Page 

Untreated sanitary wastes_-------- _.__ 30

Upjohn v. Richland Township--------------- 64

Uranin.--. -.---------------------- ---.--- 31

Vertical leakage through open holesViruses.-- --.-_- - -- . 32

W

Wastes, noxious. -.. ---. ---------

Water Resources Commission---------- ---,

Waterworks jnd Sewerage System Law..._ 

Water-bearing rock formations.... 

Well reconditioning at Mount Morris.-- .

Page 

37

65,66

68

5

15

White Creek-.--------------------.-.-.--. 44,45

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1963 O - 681-387