# Patent

## Title
Paper products and methods and systems for manufacturing such products

## Abstract

Methods of producing cellulosic or lignocellulosic materials for use in papermaking include treating a cellulosic or lignocellulosic dry feedstock having a first average molecular weight with ionizing radiation, and controlling the dose of ionizing radiation such that the average molecular weight of the feedstock is reduced to a predetermined level. A method of producing an irradiated paper product includes treating a paper product including a first carbohydrate-containing material having a first molecular weight with ionizing radiation, and controlling the dose of ionizing radiation so as to provide an irradiated paper product with a second carbohydrate-containing material having a second molecular weight higher than the first molecular weight. Pulp and paper products are produced.

## Background
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application is a divisional (and claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §121) of U.S. Ser. No. 12/417,707, filed Apr. 3, 2009, which claimed priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/049,391, filed Apr. 30, 2008. The complete disclosure of each of these applications is hereby incorporated by reference herein.


TECHNICAL FIELD
This invention relates to methods and systems for preparing paper products, and products produced by such methods and systems.
BACKGROUND
Paper, as that term is used herein, refers to the wide variety of cellulose-based sheet materials used for writing, printing, packaging, and other applications. Paper may be used, for example, but without limitation, in the following applications: as paper money, bank notes, stock and bond certificates, checks, and the like; in books, magazines, newspapers, and art; for packaging, e.g., paper board, corrugated cardboard, paper bags, envelopes, wrapping tissue, boxes; in household products such as toilet paper, tissues, paper towels and paper napkins; paper honeycomb, used as a core material in composite materials; building materials; construction paper; disposable clothing; and in various industrial uses including emery paper, sandpaper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper, paper chromatography, battery separators, and capacitor dielectrics.
Paper is generally produced by pulping a cellulosic material to form a pulp containing cellulosic fibers, amalgamating the cellulosic fibers to form a wet web, and drying the wet web. In the finished paper, the fibers are held together by mechanical interlocking and hydrogen bonding. Pulping may be accomplished in a number of ways, for example: using a chemical process (e.g., the Kraft process), a mechanical process (groundwood), or thermomechanical process (TMP). The amalgamating and drying steps are generally performed using a high speed paper machine.
The most common source of cellulosic fibers is wood pulp from trees. Pulp is also derived from recovered (“recycled”) paper. Vegetable fiber materials, such as cotton, hemp, linen, and rice, are also used. Other non-wood fiber sources include, but are not limited to, sugarcane, bagasse, straw, bamboo, kenaf, jute, flax, and cotton. A wide variety of synthetic fibers, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, as well as other ingredients such as inorganic fillers, may be incorporated into paper as a means for imparting desirable physical properties.
For many applications, it is desirable that paper have high strength and tear resistance, even in very thin sheets, for example, when the paper is used in packaging, in industrial applications, as money, and in other applications that require strength and durability. It is also generally desirable that paper exhibit good printability characteristics, with the particular characteristics depending to some extent on the printing process in which the paper will be used.
SUMMARY
The invention is based, in part, on the discovery that by irradiating fibrous materials at appropriate levels, the physical characteristics of the fibrous material can be favorably altered. For example, the molecular weight, level of crosslinking, grafting sites, and/or functional groups of at least the cellulosic portions of the materials can be altered. Moreover, physical properties such as the tensile strength and shear strength of the fibrous material can be favorably affected. Relatively high doses of ionizing radiation can be used to reduce the molecular weight of at least the cellulosic portions of the fibrous material, assisting with transformation of a fibrous material to a pulp that is suitable for use in papermaking. Relatively lower doses of ionizing radiation can be used to increase the molecular weight of a paper product, enhancing its tensile strength and other mechanical properties. Ionizing radiation can also be used to control the functionalization of the fibrous material, i.e., the functional groups that are present on or within the material.
In one aspect, the invention features methods of producing a cellulosic or lignocellulosic material for use in papermaking. Some methods include treating a cellulosic or lignocellulosic dry feedstock having a first average molecular weight with at least 2.5 MRad of ionizing radiation to reduce the average molecular weight of the feedstock to a predetermined level.
Some implementations include one or more of the following features. The predetermined level is selected so that the treated feedstock is suitable for use as, or in forming, a pulp in a papermaking process. The methods further include subjecting the treated feedstock to a pulping process. The methods further include subjecting the treated feedstock to a mechanical disintegrating process. The methods can further include applying acoustic energy to the treated feedstock.
In some embodiments, the feedstock can include wood chips, and the dose of ionizing radiation can be about 2.5 to about 10 MRad. Treating can include irradiating with gamma radiation and/or irradiating with electron beam radiation. In certain embodiments, the electrons in the electron beam can have an energy of at least 0.25 MeV.
In another aspect, the invention features methods of making an irradiated paper product. Some methods include treating a paper product including a first carbohydrate-containing material having a first molecular weight with ionizing radiation to provide an irradiated paper product including a second carbohydrate-containing material having a second molecular weight higher than the first molecular weight.
Some implementations include one or more of the following features. The dose of ionizing radiation can be at least 0.10 MRad, e.g., at least 0.25 MRad. The dose of ionizing radiation can be controlled to a level of about 0.25 to about 5 MRad. Treating can include irradiating with gamma radiation, and/or with electron beam radiation. Electrons in the electron beam can have an energy of at least 0.25 MeV, e.g., from about 0.25 MeV to about 7.5 MeV. The methods can further include quenching the treated paper product. For example, quenching can be performed in the presence of a gas selected to react with radicals present in the treated paper product.
In yet a further aspect, the invention features methods of making an irradiated paper product that include treating a carbohydrate-containing pulp material with ionizing radiation such that the average molecular weight of the carbohydrate-containing pulp material is increased.
Some implementations of these methods can include one or more of the following features. Treating can occur during formation of the paper product. Forming can include amalgamating the pulp material into a wet paper web. Treating can be performed on the wet paper web or prior to formation of the wet paper web. Forming can further include drying the wet paper web, and treating can occur after drying.
In a further aspect, the invention features a paper, the paper comprising an irradiated lignocellulosic material, wherein the irradiated lignocellulosic material includes at least about 2 percent by weight lignin, such as at least about 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 or at least about 10.0 percent by weight lignin.
In some cases, the irradiated lignocellulosic material includes crosslinks, and the crosslinks occur in at least the lignin portion of the irradiated lignocellulosic material.
The invention also features a method of making a paper, the method including combining a cellulosic or lignocellulosic material with lignin and forming a paper from the combination.
In some cases the cellulosic or lignocellulosic material has been irradiated, and/or the combination is irradiated and then formed into a paper, and/or the formed paper is irradiated.
The invention also features pulp and paper products formed by irradiating cellulosic and lignocellulosic materials, e.g., using the methods described herein.
In one aspect, the invention features pulp materials including a treated cellulosic or lignocellulosic fibrous material having an average molecular weight of less than 500,000 and containing functional groups not present in a naturally occurring cellulosic or lignocellulosic fibrous materials from which the treated material was obtained. For example, in some embodiments, the functional groups include enol groups and/or carboxylic acid groups or salts or esters thereof. The functional groups can also be selected from the group consisting of aldehyde groups, nitroso groups, nitrile groups, nitro groups, ketone groups, amino groups, alkyl amino groups, alkyl groups, chloroalkyl groups, chlorofluoroalkyl groups, and carboxylic acid groups. In some cases the naturally occurring cellulosic or lignocellulosic fibrous materials can include wood chips.
In another aspect, the invention features paper products that include a treated cellulosic or lignocellulosic fibrous material, the treated cellulosic or lignocellulosic fibrous material containing functional groups not present in a naturally occurring cellulosic or lignocellulosic fibrous material from which the treated material was obtained.
The cellulosic or lignocellulosic material can be selected from the group consisting of paper waste, wood, particle board, sawdust, silage, grasses, rice hulls, bagasse, cotton, jute, hemp, flax, bamboo, sisal, abaca, straw, corn cobs, corn stover, switchgrass, alfalfa, hay, rice hulls, coconut hair, cotton, seaweed, algae, and mixtures thereof.
The term “dry feedstock” as used herein refers to a feedstock (e.g., woodchips or other cellulosic or lignocellulosic fibrous material) having a moisture content of less than 25%.
The full disclosures of each of the following U.S. Patent Applications, which are being filed concurrently herewith, are hereby incorporated by reference herein: U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,720 issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,846,295 on Dec. 7, 2010, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,699 issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,931,784 on Apr. 26, 2011, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,840 issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,236,535 on Aug. 7, 2012, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,731, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,900, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,880 issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,212,087 on Jul. 3, 2012, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,723, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,786 issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,025,098 on Sep. 27, 2011, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,904 issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,867,359 on Jan. 11, 2011.
In any of the methods disclosed herein, radiation may be applied from a device that is in a vault.
Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All mentioned publications, patent applications, patents, and other references are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.
Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description, and from the claims.



DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS
FIG. 1A is a diagrammatic view of a pulping system. FIG. 1B is a diagrammatic view of the pretreatment subsystem of the pulping system shown in FIG. 1A.
FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic view of a paper making system.
FIG. 3 is a diagram that illustrates changing a molecular and/or a supramolecular structure of a fibrous material.
FIG. 4 is a perspective, cut-away view of a gamma irradiator housed in a concrete vault.
FIG. 5 is an enlarged perspective view of region, R, of FIG. 4.
FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a DC accelerator.
FIG. 7 is a schematic view of a system for sonicating a process stream of cellulosic material in a liquid medium.
FIG. 8 is a schematic view of a sonicator having two transducers coupled to a single horn.
FIG. 9 is a schematic cross-sectional side view of a hybrid electron beam/sonication device.
FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of a field ionization source.
FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram of an electrostatic ion separator.
FIG. 12 is a schematic diagram of a field ionization generator.
FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram of a thermionic emission source.
FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram of a microwave discharge ion source.
FIG. 15 is a schematic diagram of a recirculating accelerator.
FIG. 16 is a schematic diagram of a static accelerator.
FIG. 17 is a schematic diagram of a dynamic linear accelerator.
FIG. 18 is a schematic diagram of a van de Graaff accelerator.
FIG. 19 is a schematic diagram of a folded tandem accelerator.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION
As discussed above, the invention is based, in part, on the discovery that by irradiating fibrous materials, i.e., cellulosic and lignocellulosic materials, at appropriate levels, the molecular structure of at least a cellulosic portion of the fibrous material can be changed. For example, the change in molecular structure can include a change in any one or more of an average molecular weight, average crystallinity, surface area, polymerization, porosity, branching, grafting, and domain size of the cellulosic portion. These changes in molecular structure can in turn result in favorable alterations of the physical characteristics exhibited by the fibrous materials. Moreover, the functional groups of the fibrous material can be favorably altered.
For example, the following properties can be increased by 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 75, or even 100% relative to the same properties prior to irradiation:
TAPPI T494 om-06 Tensile Properties of Paper and Paperboard (Using Constant Rate of Elongation Apparatus), including tensile strength and breaking length;
TAPPI Method T 414 om-04 Internal tearing resistance of paper (Elmendorf-type Method);
TAPPI Method T 403 om-02 Bursting strength of paper; and
TAPPI Method T 451 cm-84 Flexural properties of paper (Clark Stiffness).
Various cellulosic and lignocellulosic materials, their uses, and applications have been described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,307,108, 7,074,918, 6,448,307, 6,258,876, 6,207,729, 5,973,035 and 5,952,105; and in various patent applications, including “FIBROUS MATERIALS AND COMPOSITES,” PCT/US2006/010648, filed on Mar. 23, 2006, and “FIBROUS MATERIALS AND COMPOSITES,” U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2007/0045456. The aforementioned documents are all incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. The cellulosic or lignocellulosic material can include, for example, paper waste, wood, particle board, sawdust, silage, grasses, rice hulls, bagasse, cotton, jute, hemp, flax, bamboo, sisal, abaca, straw, corn cobs, corn stover, switchgrass, alfalfa, hay, rice hulls, coconut hair, cotton, seaweed, algae, and mixtures thereof.
Relatively high doses of ionizing radiation can be used to reduce the molecular weight of the fibrous material, assisting with transformation of fibrous material to pulp that is suitable for use in papermaking. Thus, irradiation can be used to pre-treat a feedstock and thus facilitate a chemical, mechanical, or thermo-mechanical pulping process, or in some cases can be used to replace at least a portion of a conventional pulping process. Relatively high doses can also be applied to selected areas of a paper product or a precursor (e.g., a wet paper web) to form predetermined regions in which the paper is weakened, e.g., to create tear zones.
Relatively lower doses of ionizing radiation can be applied, at one or more stages of a papermaking process and/or to a finished paper product, to increase the molecular weight and the level of crosslinking of a paper product.
Ionizing radiation can also be used to control the functionalization of the fibrous material, i.e., the functional groups that are present on or within the material, which can increase solubility and/or dispersibility during pulping, and can favorably affect the surface properties of a paper product, e.g., the receptivity of the surface to coatings, inks and dyes.
Each of these processes will be discussed in detail below.
The irradiating steps discussed above can be combined in many ways. Some examples of processes including irradiation include the following:
(a) Irradiating only with a high dose of ionizing radiation, to reduce molecular weight and facilitate pulping. Irradiation can be performed prior to or during pulping.
(b) Irradiating only with a low dose of ionizing radiation, to increase molecular weight, and pulping conventionally. Irradiation can be performed at any stage of the papermaking process, or on the finished paper.
(c) Irradiating with a high dose of ionizing radiation, to break down molecular weight and facilitate pulping, followed by irradiation with a low dose of radiation, to increase molecular weight.
(d) Irradiating under conditions that favorably alter the functional groups present in the material. This can be accomplished during one of the steps discussed above, or as a separate step, as will be discussed in detail below.
(e) Irradiating selected areas of paper or a paper precursor with a relatively high dose of radiation to form predetermined weakened areas. This step can be performed alone, or in combination with any of the steps discussed in (a)-(d) above.
(f) Irradiating multiple times to achieve a given final dose, e.g., delivering a dose of 1 MRad repeated 10 times, to provide a final dose of 10 MRad. This may prevent overheating of the irradiated material, particularly if the material is cooled between doses.
Irradiating to Reduce Molecular Weight
Ionizing radiation can be applied to a cellulosic or lignocellulosic fibrous material that is suitable for use in making paper (e.g., wood chips) prior to or during pulping, at a dose that is sufficient to convert the starting material to pulp. In other words, irradiation with a dose of ionizing radiation that is selected to convert or to aid in converting the starting material to pulp can be used in place of conventional pulping processes such as chemical, mechanical, and thermomechanical pulping.
In this case, the dose is selected so that the molecular weight of the starting material is reduced to an extent similar to the extent by which molecular weight is reduced by conventional pulping. For example, in the case of converting wood chips to pulp, the dose would generally be selected to reduce the molecular weight from the starting molecular weight (1 million or greater) to about 20,000 to 500,000. The optimal dose will depend on the feedstock used, but will generally be in the range of 10 MRad to 1000 MRad, e.g., 25 MRad to 500 MRad, for conventional paper feedstocks such as wood-based materials.
Advantageously, in some implementations it is not necessary to remove lignin from the pulp, as is conventionally done during the pulping process. This is the case, for example, if the paper is irradiated with a low, molecular weight increasing, dose of ionizing radiation during or after the paper making process, as will be discussed below. In this case, the residual lignin may actually be useful, as the lignin acts as a filler, effectively reducing the amount of cellulosic material needed, and may be cross-linked by the low dose radiation.
In other implementations, instead of replacing conventional pulping with irradiation, ionizing radiation can be applied prior to or during a conventional pulping process, to facilitate or enhance the pulping process. For example, wood chips can be irradiated with a relatively high dose of ionizing radiation prior to the start of the pulping process. If desired, after irradiation, the wood chips can be subjected to a mechanical process prior to chemical pulping, such as further chipping, shearing, or pulverizing. Irradiating and, optionally, mechanically pulping of the irradiated feedstock, can initiate breakdown of the feedstock, in some cases allowing chemical pulping to be performed under less harsh conditions, e.g., using fewer chemicals, less energy, and/or less water.
Ionizing radiation can also be used in a paper recycling process, to re-pulp waste paper for use as starting material in recycled paper production. In this case, the dose of ionizing radiation delivered is selected to be sufficient to break down the hydrogen and mechanical bonding in the paper without deleteriously affecting the cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic fibers in the paper. The dose of ionizing radiation can, for example, be about 20% to 30% less than the dose used when the starting material is wood chips.
FIG. 1A shows a system 100 for converting cellulosic or lignocellulosic starting material, wood logs in the example shown, into pulp suitable for use in papermaking. System 100 includes a feed preparation subsystem 110, a pretreatment subsystem 114, a primary process subsystem 118, and a post-processing subsystem 122. Feed preparation subsystem 110 receives the starting material in its raw form (e.g., logs), and physically prepares the starting material for the downstream processes (e.g., reduces the size of the material and begins to homogenize the material). In the example shown, this is accomplished by debarking and chipping the logs. Starting materials with significant cellulosic and lignocellulosic components can have a high average molecular weight and crystallinity that can make pulping difficult.
Pretreatment subsystem 114 receives feedstock (e.g., wood chips) from the feed preparation subsystem 110 and prepares the feedstock for use in primary production processes by, for example, reducing the average molecular weight and crystallinity, and changing the kind and degree of functionalization of the feedstock. This is accomplished, in the example shown, by irradiation with a relatively high dose of ionizing radiation, followed by an inline sonication (acoustic) process. Sonication will be discussed in detail below. A conveyor belt carries the feedstock from the feed preparation subsystem 110 to the pretreatment subsystem 114.
As shown in FIG. 1B, in the pretreatment subsystem 114, the feedstock is irradiated, e.g., using electron beam emitters 492, mixed with water to form a slurry, and subjected to the application of ultrasonic energy. As discussed above, irradiation of the feedstock changes the molecular structure (e.g., reduces the average molecular weight and the crystallinity) of the feedstock. Mixing the irradiated feedstock into a slurry and applying ultrasonic energy to the slurry further changes the molecular structure of the feedstock. Application of radiation and sonication in sequence can have synergistic effects in that the combination of techniques appears to achieve greater changes to the molecular structure (e.g., reduction of the average molecular weight and the crystallinity) than either technique can efficiently achieve on its own. Without wishing to be bound by theory, in addition to reducing the polymerization of the feedstock by breaking intramolecular bonds between segments of cellulosic and lignocellulosic components of the feedstock, the irradiation can make the overall physical structure of the feedstock more brittle. After the brittle feedstock is mixed into a slurry, the application of ultrasonic energy further changes the molecular structure (e.g., reduces the average molecular weight and the crystallinity) and also can reduce the particle size of the feedstock.
The conveyor belt 491 carrying the feedstock into the pretreatment subsystem distributes the feedstock into multiple feed streams (e.g., fifty feed streams), each leading to separate electron beam emitters 492. Preferably, the feedstock is irradiated while it is dry. For example, the feedstock may have a moisture content of less than 25%, preferably less than 20%, less than 15% or less than 10%. Each feed stream is carried on a separate conveyor belt to an associated electron beam emitter. Each irradiation feed conveyor belt can be approximately one meter wide. Before reaching the electron beam emitter, a localized vibration can be induced in each conveyor belt to evenly distribute the dry feedstock over the cross-sectional width of the conveyor belt.
Electron beam emitter 492 (e.g., electron beam irradiation devices commercially available from Titan Corporation, San Diego, Calif.) is, in one example, configured to apply a 100 kilo-Gray dose of electrons at a power of 300 kW. The electron beam emitters are scanning beam devices with a sweep width of 1 meter to correspond to the width of the conveyor belt. In some embodiments, electron beam emitters with large, fixed beam widths are used. A number of factors, including belt/beam width, desired dose, feedstock density, and power applied, govern the number of electron beam emitters required for the plant to process 2,000 tons per day of dry feedstock.
In some embodiments, sonication is omitted from the pretreatment system. In some embodiments, further mechanical processing, e.g., further chipping, replaces or is used in addition to sonication.
In some cases, the output of primary process subsystem 118 is directly useful as pulp, but in other cases, the output requires further processing, which is provided by post-processing subsystem 122. Post-processing subsystem 122 provides chemical pulping of the output of the primary process subsystem (e.g., pressure cooking and digestion, in the example shown). If the paper to be produced with the pulp is bleached, for example if the paper is bleached printing paper, a bleaching step is performed. This step can be omitted for pulp to be used for unbleached paper. In some embodiments, post-processing subsystem 122 utilizes other pulping processes, such as thermomechanical pulping, instead of chemical pulping. As shown, in some cases post-processing subsystem 122 can produce treated water to be recycled for use as process water in other subsystems, and/or can produce burnable waste that can be used as fuel for boilers producing steam and/or electricity.
Irradiating to Increase Molecular Weight
Relatively low doses of ionizing radiation can crosslink, graft, or otherwise increase the molecular weight of a carbohydrate-containing material, such as a cellulosic or lignocellulosic material (e.g., cellulose). In some embodiments, the starting number average molecular weight (prior to irradiation) of a paper product or a precursor to a paper product is from about 20,000 to about 500,000, e.g., from about 25,000 to about 100,000. The number average molecular weight after irradiation is greater than the starting number average molecular weight, for example by at least about 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%, 150%, 200%, 300%, or as much as 500%. For example, if the starting number average molecular weight is in the range of about 20,000 to about 100,000, the number average molecular weight after irradiation is, in some instances, from about 40,000 to about 200,000.
The new methods can be used to favorably alter properties of cellulose-based papers by applying radiation at one or more selected stages of the papermaking process. In some cases, irradiation will improve the strength and tear resistance of the paper, by increasing the strength of the cellulosic fibers of which the paper is made. In addition, treating the cellulosic material with radiation can sterilize the material, which may reduce the tendency of the paper to promote the growth of mold, mildew of the like. Irradiation is generally performed in a controlled and predetermined manner to provide optimal properties for a particular application, such as strength, by selecting the type or types of radiation employed and/or dose or doses of radiation applied.
A low dose of ionizing radiation can be applied to increase molecular weight, e.g., after pulping and before amalgamation of the pulped fibers into a web; to the wet fiber web; to the paper web during or after drying; or to the dried paper web, e.g., before, during, or after subsequent processing steps such as sizing, coating, and calendering. It is generally preferred that radiation be applied to the web when it has a relatively low moisture content. In the example shown in FIG. 2, irradiation can be performed during drying and finishing, e.g., between sizing, drying, pressing and calendaring operations, or during post-processing, e.g., to the finished paper in roll, slit roll or sheet form.
As noted above, in some embodiments radiation is applied at more than one point during the manufacturing process. For example, ionizing radiation can be used at a relatively high dose to form or to help form the pulp, and then later at a relatively lower dose to increase the molecular weight of the fibers in the paper. As will be discussed in further detail below, radiation can also be applied to the finished paper in a manner so as to favorably affect the functional groups present within and/or on the surface of the paper. High dose radiation can be applied to the finished paper at selected areas of the paper web to create locally weakened areas, e.g., to provide tear zones.
As a practical matter, using existing technology, it is generally most desirable to integrate the irradiation step into the papermaking process either after pulping and prior to introduction of the pulp to the papermaking machine, or after the web has exited the papermaking machine, typically after drying and sizing. However, as noted above, irradiation may be performed at any desired stage in the process.
If desired, various cross-linking additives can be added to the pulp to enhance cross-linking in response to irradiation. Such additives include materials that are cross-linkable themselves and materials that will assist with cross-linking. Cross-linking additives include, but are not limited to, lignin, starch, diacrylates, divinyl compounds, and polyethylene. In some implementations, such additives are included in concentrations of about 0.25% to about 2.5%, e.g., about 0.5% to about 1.0%.
Irradiating to Affect Material Functional Groups
After treatment with one or more ionizing radiations, such as photonic radiation (e.g., X-rays or gamma-rays), e-beam radiation or irradiation with particles heavier than electrons that are positively or negatively charged (e.g., protons or carbon ions), any of the carbohydrate-containing materials or mixtures described herein become ionized; that is, they include radicals at levels that are detectable, for example, with an electron spin resonance spectrometer. After ionization, any material that has been ionized can be quenched to reduce the level of radicals in the ionized material, e.g., such that the radicals are no longer detectable with the electron spin resonance spectrometer. For example, the radicals can be quenched by the application of sufficient pressure to the ionized material and/or by contacting the ionized material with a fluid, such as a gas or liquid, that reacts with (quenches) the radicals. Various gases, for example nitrogen or oxygen, or liquids, can be used to at least aid in the quenching of the radicals and to functionalize the ionized material with desired functional groups. Thus, irradiation followed by quenching can be used to provide pulp or paper with desired functional groups, including, for example, one or more of the following: aldehyde groups, enol groups, nitroso groups, nitrile groups, nitro groups, ketone groups, amino groups, alkyl amino groups, alkyl groups, chloroalkyl groups, chlorofluoroalkyl groups, and/or carboxylic acid groups. These groups increase the hydrophilicity of the region of the material where they are present. In some implementations, the paper web is irradiated and quenched, before or after processing steps such as coating and calendering, to affect the functionality within and/or at the surface of the paper and thereby affect the ink receptivity and other properties of the paper. In other implementations, the paper feedstock is irradiated with a relatively high dose of ionizing radiation, to facilitate pulping, and then later quenched to improve the stability of the ionized material in the pulp.
FIG. 3 illustrates changing a molecular and/or a supramolecular structure of fibrous material, such as paper feedstock, paper precursor (e.g., a wet paper web), or paper, by pretreating the fibrous material with ionizing radiation, such as with electrons or ions of sufficient energy to ionize the material, to provide a first level of radicals. As shown in FIG. 3, if the ionized material remains in the atmosphere, it will be oxidized, e.g., to an extent that carboxylic acid groups are generated by reaction with the atmospheric oxygen. In some instances, with some materials, such oxidation is desired, because it can aid in further breakdown in molecular weight of the carbohydrate-containing material (for example, if irradiation is being used to facilitate pulping). However, since the radicals can “live” for some time after irradiation, e.g., longer than 1 day, 5 days, 30 days, 3 months, 6 months, or even longer than 1 year, material properties can continue to change over time, which in some instances can be undesirable.
Detecting radicals in irradiated samples by electron spin resonance spectroscopy and radical lifetimes in such samples is discussed in Bartolotta et al., Physics in Medicine and Biology, 46 (2001), 461-471 and in Bartolotta et al., Radiation Protection Dosimetry, Vol. 84, Nos. 1-4, pp. 293-296 (1999). As shown in FIG. 3, the ionized material can be quenched to functionalize and/or to stabilize the ionized material.
In some embodiments, quenching includes application of pressure to the ionized material, such as by mechanically deforming the material, e.g., directly mechanically compressing the material in one, two, or three dimensions, or applying pressure to fluid in which the material is immersed, e.g., isostatic pressing. In the case of paper that has been ionized, pressure may be applied, e.g., by passing the paper through a nip. In such instances, the deformation of the material itself brings radicals, which are often trapped in crystalline domains, into proximity close enough for the radicals to recombine, or react with another group. In some instances, pressure is applied together with application of heat, e.g. a quantity of heat sufficient to elevate the temperature of the material to above a melting point or softening point of a component of the ionized material, such as lignin, cellulose or hemicellulose. Heat can improve molecular mobility in the material, which can aid in quenching of radicals. When pressure is utilized to quench, the pressure can be greater than about 1000 psi, such as greater than about 1250 psi, 1450 psi, 3625 psi, 5075 psi, 7250 psi, 10000 psi, or even greater than 15000 psi.
In some embodiments, quenching includes contacting the ionized material with fluid, such as liquid or gas, e.g., a gas capable of reacting with the radicals, such as acetylene or a mixture of acetylene in nitrogen, ethylene, chlorinated ethylenes or chlorofluoroethylenes, propylene or mixtures of these gases. In other particular embodiments, quenching includes contacting the ionized material with liquid, e.g., a liquid soluble in, or at least capable of penetrating into, the ionized material and reacting with the radicals, such as a diene, such as 1,5-cyclooctadiene. In some specific embodiments, the quenching includes contacting the ionized material with an antioxidant, such as Vitamin E. If desired, the material can include an antioxidant dispersed therein, and quenching can come from contacting the antioxidant dispersed in the material with the radicals.
Other methods for quenching are possible. For example, any method for quenching radicals in polymeric materials described in Muratoglu et al., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2008/0067724 and Muratoglu et al., U.S. Pat. No. 7,166,650, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties, can be utilized for quenching any ionized material described herein. Furthermore, any quenching agent (described as a “sensitizing agent” in the above-noted Muratoglu disclosures) and/or any antioxidant described in either Muratoglu reference, can be utilized to quench any ionized material.
Functionalization can be enhanced by utilizing heavy charged ions, such as any of the heavier ions described herein. For example, if it is desired to enhance oxidation, charged oxygen ions can be utilized for the irradiation. If nitrogen functional groups are desired, nitrogen ions or any ion that includes nitrogen can be utilized. Likewise, if sulfur or phosphorus groups are desired, sulfur or phosphorus ions can be used in the irradiation.
In some embodiments, after quenching, any of the quenched ionized materials described herein can be further treated with one or more further doses of radiation, such as ionizing or non-ionizing radiation, sonication, pyrolysis, and oxidation for additional molecular and/or supramolecular structure change.
In some embodiments, the fibrous material is irradiated under a blanket of inert gas, e.g., helium or argon, prior to quenching.
The location of the functional groups can be controlled, e.g., by selecting a particular type and dose of ionizing particles. For example, gamma radiation tends to affect the functionality of molecules within paper, while electron beam radiation tends to preferentially affect the functionality of molecules at the surface.
In some cases, functionalization of the material can occur simultaneously with irradiation, rather than as a result of a separate quenching step. In this case, the type of functional groups and degree of oxidation can be affected in various ways, for example by controlling the gas blanketing the material to be irradiated, through which the irradiating beam passes. Suitable gases include nitrogen, oxygen, air, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and chlorine.
In some embodiments, functionalization results in formation of enol groups in the fibrous material. When the fibrous material is paper, this can enhance receptivity of the paper to inks, adhesives, coatings, and the like, and can provide grafting sites. Enol groups can help break down molecular weight, especially in the presence of added base or acid. Thus, the presence of such groups can assist with pulping. In the finished paper product, generally the pH is close enough to neutral that these groups will not cause a deleterious decrease in molecular weight.
Particle Beam Exposure in Fluids
In some cases, the cellulosic or lignocellulosic materials can be exposed to a particle beam in the presence of one or more additional fluids (e.g., gases and/or liquids). Exposure of a material to a particle beam in the presence of one or more additional fluids can increase the efficiency of the treatment.
In some embodiments, the material is exposed to a particle beam in the presence of a fluid such as air. Particles accelerated in any one or more of the types of accelerators disclosed herein (or another type of accelerator) are coupled out of the accelerator via an output port (e.g., a thin membrane such as a metal foil), pass through a volume of space occupied by the fluid, and are then incident on the material. In addition to directly treating the material, some of the particles generate additional chemical species by interacting with fluid particles (e.g., ions and/or radicals generated from various constituents of air, such as ozone and oxides of nitrogen). These generated chemical species can also interact with the material, and can act as initiators for a variety of different chemical bond-breaking reactions in the material. For example, any oxidant produced can oxidize the material, which can result in molecular weight reduction.
In certain embodiments, additional fluids can be selectively introduced into the path of a particle beam before the beam is incident on the material. As discussed above, reactions between the particles of the beam and the particles of the introduced fluids can generate additional chemical species, which react with the material and can assist in functionalizing the material, and/or otherwise selectively altering certain properties of the material. The one or more additional fluids can be directed into the path of the beam from a supply tube, for example. The direction and flow rate of the fluid(s) that is/are introduced can be selected according to a desired exposure rate and/or direction to control the efficiency of the overall treatment, including effects that result from both particle-based treatment and effects that are due to the interaction of dynamically generated species from the introduced fluid with the material. In addition to air, exemplary fluids that can be introduced into the ion beam include oxygen, nitrogen, one or more noble gases, one or more halogens, and hydrogen.
Cooling Irradiated Materials
During treatment of the materials discussed above with ionizing radiation, especially at high dose rates, such as at rates greater then 0.15 Mrad per second, e.g., 0.25 Mrad/s, 0.35 Mrad/s, 0.5 Mrad/s, 0.75 Mrad/s or even greater than 1 Mrad/sec, the materials can retain significant quantities of heat so that the temperature of the material becomes elevated. While higher temperatures can, in some embodiments, be advantageous, e.g., when a faster reaction rate is desired, it is advantageous to control the heating to retain control over the chemical reactions initiated by the ionizing radiation, such as crosslinking, chain scission and/or grafting, e.g., to maintain process control.
For example, in one method, the material is irradiated at a first temperature with ionizing radiation, such as photons, electrons or ions (e.g., singularly or multiply charged cations or anions), for a sufficient time and/or a sufficient dose to elevate the material to a second temperature higher than the first temperature. The irradiated material is then cooled to a third temperature below the second temperature. If desired, the cooled material can be treated one or more times with radiation, e.g., with ionizing radiation. If desired, cooling can be applied to the material after and/or during each radiation treatment.
Cooling can in some cases include contacting the material with a fluid, such as a gas, at a temperature below the first or second temperature, such as gaseous nitrogen at or about 77 K. Even water, such as water at a temperature below nominal room temperature (e.g., 25 degrees Celsius) can be utilized in some implementations.
Types of Radiation
The radiation can be provided, e.g., by: 1) heavy charged particles, such as alpha particles; 2) electrons, produced, for example, in beta decay or electron beam accelerators; or 3) electromagnetic radiation, e.g., gamma rays, x-rays or ultraviolet rays. Different forms of radiation ionize the cellulosic or lignocellulosic material via particular interactions, as determined by the energy of the radiation.
Heavy charged particles primarily ionize matter via Coulomb scattering; furthermore, these interactions produce energetic electrons that can further ionize matter. Alpha particles are identical to the nucleus of a helium atom and are produced by alpha decay of various radioactive nuclei, such as isotopes of bismuth, polonium, astatine, radon, francium, radium, several actinides, such as actinium, thorium, uranium, neptunium, curium, californium, americium and plutonium.
Electrons interact via Coulomb scattering and bremsstrahlung radiation produced by changes in the velocity of electrons. Electrons can be produced by radioactive nuclei that undergo beta decay, such as isotopes of iodine, cesium, technetium and iridium. Alternatively, an electron gun can be used as an electron source via thermionic emission.
Electromagnetic radiation interacts via three processes: photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering and pair production. The dominating interaction is determined by the energy of incident radiation and the atomic number of the material. The summation of interactions contributing to the absorbed radiation in cellulosic material can be expressed by the mass absorption coefficient.
Electromagnetic radiation is subclassified as gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet rays, infrared rays, microwaves or radio waves, depending on its wavelength.
For example, gamma radiation can be employed to irradiate the materials. Referring to FIGS. 4 and 5 (an enlarged view of region R), a gamma irradiator 10 includes gamma radiation sources 408, e.g., 60Co pellets, a working table 14 for holding the materials to be irradiated and storage 16, e.g., made of a plurality iron plates, all of which are housed in a concrete containment chamber (vault) 20 that includes a maze entranceway 22 beyond a lead-lined door 26. Storage 16 defines a plurality of channels 30, e.g., sixteen or more channels, allowing the gamma radiation sources to pass through storage on their way proximate the working table.
In operation, the sample to be irradiated is placed on a working table. The irradiator is configured to deliver the desired dose rate and monitoring equipment is connected to an experimental block 31. The operator then leaves the containment chamber, passing through the maze entranceway and through the lead-lined door. The operator mans a control panel 32, instructing a computer 33 to lift the radiation sources 12 into working position using cylinder 36 attached to hydraulic pump 40.
Gamma radiation has the advantage of significant penetration depth into a variety of materials in the sample. Sources of gamma rays include radioactive nuclei, such as isotopes of cobalt, calcium, technicium, chromium, gallium, indium, iodine, iron, krypton, samarium, selenium, sodium, thalium and xenon.
Sources of x-rays include electron beam collision with metal targets, such as tungsten or molybdenum or alloys, or compact light sources, such as those produced commercially by Lyncean Technologies, Inc., of Palo Alto, Calif.
Sources for ultraviolet radiation include deuterium or cadmium lamps.
Sources for infrared radiation include sapphire, zinc or selenide window ceramic lamps.
Sources for microwaves include klystrons, Slevin type RF sources or atom beam sources that employ hydrogen, oxygen or nitrogen gases.
In some embodiments, a beam of electrons is used as the radiation source. A beam of electrons has the advantages of high dose rates (e.g., 1, 5, or even 10 MRad per second), high throughput, less containment and less confinement equipment. Electrons can also be more efficient at causing chain scission. In addition, electrons having energies of 4-10 MeV can have penetration depths of 5 to 30 mm or more, such as 40 mm.
Electron beams can be generated, e.g., by electrostatic generators, cascade generators, transformer generators, low energy accelerators with a scanning system, low energy accelerators with a linear cathode, linear accelerators, and pulsed accelerators. Electrons as an ionizing radiation source can be useful, e.g., for relatively thin materials, e.g., less than 0.5 inch, e.g., less than 0.4 inch, 0.3 inch, 0.2 inch, or less than 0.1 inch. In some embodiments, the energy of each electron of the electron beam is from about 0.25 MeV to about 7.5 MeV (million electron volts), e.g., from about 0.5 MeV to about 5.0 MeV, or from about 0.7 MeV to about 2.0 MeV. Electron beam irradiation devices may be procured commercially from Ion Beam Applications, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium or from Titan Corporation, San Diego, Calif. Typical electron energies can be 1, 2, 4.5, 7.5, or 10 MeV. Typical electron beam irradiation device power can be 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 250, or 500 kW. Typical doses may take values of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, or 200 kGy.
Tradeoffs in considering electron beam irradiation device power specifications include operating costs, capital costs, depreciation and device footprint. Tradeoffs in considering exposure dose levels of electron beam irradiation would be energy costs and environment, safety, and health (ESH) concerns. Generators are typically housed in a vault, e.g., of lead or concrete.
The electron beam irradiation device can produce either a fixed beam or a scanning beam. A scanning beam may be advantageous with large scan sweep length and high scan speeds, as this would effectively replace a large, fixed beam width. Further, available sweep widths of 0.5 m, 1 m, 2 m or more are available.
In embodiments in which the irradiating is performed with electromagnetic radiation, the electromagnetic radiation can have an energy per photon (in electron volts) of, e.g., greater than 102 eV, e.g., greater than 103, 104, 105, 106 or even greater than 107 eV. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic radiation has energy per photon of between 104 and 107, e.g., between 105 and 106 eV. The electromagnetic radiation can have a frequency of, e.g., greater than 1016 hz, greater than 1017 hz, 1018, 1019, 1020 or even greater than 1021 hz. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic radiation has a frequency of between 1018 and 1022 hz, e.g., between 1019 to 1021 hz.
One type of accelerator that can be used to accelerate ions produced using the sources discussed above is a Dynamitron® (available, for example, from Radiation Dynamics Inc., now a unit of IBA, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium). A schematic diagram of a Dynamitron® accelerator 1500 is shown in FIG. 6. Accelerator 1500 includes an injector 1510 (which includes an ion source) and an accelerating column 1520 that includes a plurality of annular electrodes 1530. Injector 1510 and column 1520 are housed within an enclosure 1540 that is evacuated by a vacuum pump 1600.
Injector 1510 produces a beam of ions 1580, and introduces beam 1580 into accelerating column 1520. The annular electrodes 1530 are maintained at different electric potentials, so that ions are accelerated as they pass through gaps between the electrodes (e.g., the ions are accelerated in the gaps, but not within the electrodes, where the electric potentials are uniform). As the ions travel from the top of column 1520 toward the bottom in FIG. 6, the average speed of the ions increases. The spacing between subsequent annular electrodes 1530 typically increases, therefore, to accommodate the higher average ion speed.
After the accelerated ions have traversed the length of column 1520, the accelerated ion beam 1590 is coupled out of enclosure 1540 through delivery tube 1555. The length of delivery tube 1555 is selected to permit adequate shielding (e.g., concrete shielding) to be positioned adjacent to column 1520, isolating the column. After passing through tube 1555, ion beam 1590 passes through scan magnet 1550. Scan magnet 1550, which is controlled by an external logic unit (not shown), can sweep accelerated ion beam 1590 in controlled fashion across a two-dimensional plane oriented perpendicular to a central axis of column 1520. As shown in FIG. 6, ion beam 1590 passes through window 1560 (e.g., a metal foil window or screen) and then is directed to impinge on selected regions of a sample 1570 by scan magnet 1550.
In some embodiments, the electric potentials applied to electrodes 1530 are static potentials, generated, e.g., by DC potential sources. In certain embodiments, some or all of the electric potentials applied to electrodes 1530 are variable potentials generated by variable potential sources. Suitable variable sources of large electric potentials include amplified field sources, e.g. such as klystrons. Accordingly, depending upon the nature of the potentials applied to electrodes 1530, accelerator 1500 can operate in either pulsed or continuous mode.
To achieve a selected accelerated ion energy at the output end of column 1520, the length of column 1520 and the potentials applied to electrodes 1530 are chosen based on considerations well-known in the art. However, it is notable that to reduce the length of column 1520, multiply-charged ions can be used in place of singly-charged ions. That is, the accelerating effect of a selected electric potential difference between two electrodes is greater for an ion bearing a charge of magnitude 2 or more than for an ion bearing a charge of magnitude 1. Thus, an arbitrary ion X2+ can be accelerated to final energy E over a shorter length than a corresponding arbitrary ion X+. Triply- and quadruply-charged ions (e.g., X3+ and X4+) can be accelerated to final energy E over even shorter distances. Therefore, the length of column 1520 can be significantly reduced when ion beam 1580 includes primarily multiply-charged ion species.
To accelerate positively-charged ions, the potential differences between electrodes 1530 of column 1520 are selected so that the direction of increasing field strength in FIG. 6 is downward (e.g., toward the bottom of column 1520). Conversely, when accelerator 1500 is used to accelerate negatively-charged ions, the electric potential differences between electrodes 1530 are reversed in column 1520, and the direction of increasing field strength in FIG. 6 is upward (e.g., toward the top of column 1520). Reconfiguring the electric potentials applied to electrodes 1530 is a straightforward procedure, so that accelerator 1500 can be converted relatively rapidly from accelerating positive ions to accelerating negative ions, or vice versa. Similarly, accelerator 1500 can be converted rapidly from accelerating singly-charged ions to accelerating multiply-charged ions, and vice versa.
Doses
In some embodiments, the high dose irradiating, to reduce molecular weight (with any radiation source or a combination of sources), is performed until the material receives a dose of at least 2.5 MRad, e.g., at least 5.0, 7.5, 10.0, 100, or 500 MRad. In some embodiments, the irradiating is performed until the material receives a dose of between 3.0 MRad and 100 MRad, e.g., between 10 MRad and 100 MRad or between 25 MRad and 75 MRad. If gamma radiation is used, the dose will generally be towards the higher end of these ranges, while if electron beam radiation is used, the dose may, in some embodiments, be towards the lower end. Dosage rates will also be towards the lower end for some cellulosic materials which already have relatively low molecular weight, e.g. recycled paper.
In some embodiments, the low dose irradiating, to increase molecular weight (with any radiation source or a combination of sources), is performed until the material receives a dose of at least 0.05 MRad, e.g., at least 0.1, 0.25, 1.0, 2.5, or 5.0 MRad. In some embodiments, irradiating is performed until the material receives a dose of between 0.1 and 2.5 MRad. Other suitable ranges include between 0.25 MRad and 4.0 MRad, between 0.5 MRad and 3.0 MRad, and between 1.0 MRad and 2.5 MRad.
The doses discussed above, both high and low, are also suitable for functionalization of the material, with the degree of functionalization generally being higher the higher the dose.
In some embodiments, the irradiating is performed at a dose rate of between 5.0 and 1500.0 kilorads/hour, e.g., between 10.0 and 750.0 kilorads/hour or between 50.0 and 350.0 kilorads/hours. When high throughput is desired, e.g., in a high speed papermaking process, radiation can be applied at, e.g., 0.5 to 3.0 MRad/sec, or even faster, using cooling to avoid overheating the irradiated material.
In some embodiments in which coated paper is irradiated, the paper coating includes resin that is cross-linkable, e.g., diacrylate or polyethylene. As such, the resin crosslinks as the carbohydrate-containing material is irradiated to increase its molecular weight, which can provide a synergistic effect to optimize the scuff resistance and other surface properties of the paper. In these embodiments, the dose of radiation is selected to be sufficiently high so as to increase the molecular weight of the cellulosic fibers, i.e., at least about 0.25 to about 2.5 MRad, depending on the material, while being sufficiently low so as to avoid deleteriously affecting the paper coating. The upper limit on the dose will vary depending on the composition of the coating, but in some embodiments the preferred dose is less than about 5 MRad.
In some embodiments, two or more radiation sources are used, such as two or more ionizing radiations. For example, samples can be treated, in any order, with a beam of electrons, followed by gamma radiation and/or UV light having wavelengths from about 100 nm to about 280 nm. In some embodiments, samples are treated with three ionizing radiation sources, such as a beam of electrons, gamma radiation, and energetic UV light.
Acoustic Energy
Radiation may be used in combination with acoustic energy, e.g., sonic or ultrasonic energy, to improve material throughput and/or characteristics, and/or to minimize energy usage. For example, acoustic energy can be used in combination with high dose radiation to enhance the pulping process.
Referring again to FIG. 1A, in the pretreatment system 114, a starting material that will be used to form the pulp, e.g., wood chips, can be subjected to an inline sonication step using acoustic energy.
FIG. 7 shows a general system in which cellulosic material stream 1210 (e.g., feedstock to make pulp) is mixed with water stream 1212 in reservoir 1214 to form process stream 1216. A first pump 1218 draws process stream 1216 from reservoir 1214 and toward flow cell 1224. Ultrasonic transducer 1226 transmits ultrasonic energy into process stream 1216 as the process stream flows through flow cell 1224. A second pump 1230 draws process stream 1216 from flow cell 1224 and toward subsequent processing.
Reservoir 1214 includes first intake 1232 and second intake 1234 in fluid communication with volume 1236. A conveyor (not shown) delivers cellulosic material stream 1210 to reservoir 1214 through first intake 1232. Water stream 1212 enters reservoir 1214 through second intake 1234. In some embodiments, water stream 1212 enters volume 1236 along a tangent establishing swirling flow within volume 1236. In certain embodiments, cellulosic material stream 1210 and water stream 1212 are introduced into volume 1236 along opposing axes to enhance mixing within the volume.
Valve 1238 controls the flow of water stream 1212 through second intake 1232 to produce a desired ratio of cellulosic material to water (e.g., approximately 10% cellulosic material, weight by volume). For example, 2000 tons/day of cellulosic material can be combined with 1 million to 1.5 million gallons/day, e.g., 1.25 million gallons/day, of water.
Mixing of cellulosic material and water in reservoir 1214 is controlled by the size of volume 1236 and the flow rates of cellulosic material and water into the volume. In some embodiments, volume 1236 is sized to create a minimum mixing residence time for the cellulosic material and water. For example, when 2000 tons/day of cellulosic material and 1.25 million gallons/day of water are flowing through reservoir 1214, volume 1236 can be about 32,000 gallons to produce a minimum mixing residence time of about 15 minutes.
Reservoir 1214 includes a mixer 1240 in fluid communication with volume 1236. Mixer 1240 agitates the contents of volume 1236 to disperse cellulosic material throughout the water in the volume. For example, mixer 1240 can be a rotating vane disposed in reservoir 1214. In some embodiments, mixer 1240 disperses the cellulosic material substantially uniformly throughout the water.
Reservoir 1214 further includes an exit 1242 in fluid communication with volume 1236 and process stream 1216. The mixture of cellulosic material and water in volume 1236 flows out of reservoir 1214 via exit 1242. Exit 1242 is arranged near the bottom of reservoir 1214 to allow gravity to pull the mixture of cellulosic material and water out of reservoir 1214 and into process stream 1216.
First pump 1218 (e.g., any of several recessed impeller vortex pumps made by Essco Pumps & Controls, of Los Angeles, Calif.) moves the contents of process stream 1216 toward flow cell 1224. In some embodiments, first pump 1218 agitates the contents of process stream 1216 such that the mixture of cellulosic material and water is substantially uniform at inlet 1220 of flow cell 1224. For example, first pump 1218 agitates process stream 1216 to create a turbulent flow that persists along the process stream between the first pump and inlet 1220 of flow cell 1224.
Flow cell 1224 includes a reactor volume 1244 in fluid communication with inlet 1220 and outlet 1222. In some embodiments, reactor volume 1244 is a stainless steel tube capable of withstanding elevated pressures (e.g., 10 bars). In addition or in the alternative, reactor volume 1244 defines a rectangular cross section.
Flow cell 1224 further includes a heat exchanger 1246 in thermal communication with at least a portion of reactor volume 1244. Cooling fluid 1248 (e.g., water) flows into heat exchanger 1246 and absorbs heat generated when process stream 1216 is sonicated in reactor volume 1244. In some embodiments, the flow rate and/or the temperature of cooling fluid 1248 into heat exchanger 1246 is controlled to maintain an approximately constant temperature in reactor volume 1244. In some embodiments, the temperature of reactor volume 1244 is maintained at 20 to 50° C., e.g., 25, 30, 35, 40 or 45° C. Additionally or alternatively, heat transferred to cooling fluid 1248 from reactor volume 1244 can be used in other parts of the overall process.
An adapter section 1226 creates fluid communication between reactor volume 1244 and booster 1250 coupled (e.g., mechanically coupled using a flange) to ultrasonic transducer 1226. For example, adapter section 1226 can include a flange and O-ring assembly arranged to create a leak tight connection between reactor volume 1244 and booster 1250. In some embodiments, ultrasonic transducer 1226 is a high-powered ultrasonic transducer made by Hielscher Ultrasonics, of Teltow, Germany.
In operation, generator 1252 delivers electricity to ultrasonic transducer 1252. Ultrasonic transducer 1226 includes a piezoelectric element that converts electrical energy into sound in the ultrasonic range. In some embodiments, the materials are sonicated using sound having a frequency of from about 16 kHz to about 110 kHz, e.g., from about 18 kHz to about 75 kHz or from about 20 kHz to about 40 kHz (e.g., sound having a frequency of 20 kHz to 40 kHz). The ultrasonic energy is delivered to the working medium through booster 1248. Ultrasonic energy traveling through booster 1248 in reactor volume 1244 creates a series of compressions and rarefactions in process stream 1216 with intensity sufficient to create cavitation in process stream 1216. Cavitation disaggregates the cellulosic material dispersed in process stream 1216. Cavitation also produces free radicals in the water of process stream 1216. These free radicals act to further break down the cellulosic material in process stream 1216.
In general, 5 to 4000 MJ/m3, e.g., 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 2000 or 3000 MJ/m3, of ultrasonic energy is applied to process stream 16 flowing at a rate of about 0.2 m3/s (about 3200 gallons/min). After exposure to ultrasonic energy in reactor volume 1244, process stream 1216 exits flow cell 1224 through outlet 1222. Second pump 1230 moves process stream 1216 to subsequent processing (e.g., any of several recessed impeller vortex pumps made by Essco Pumps & Controls, Los Angeles, Calif.).
While certain embodiments have been described, other embodiments are possible.
As an example, while process stream 1216 has been described as a single flow path, other arrangements are possible. In some embodiments, e.g., process stream 1216 includes multiple parallel flow paths (e.g., flowing at a rate of 10 gallon/min). In addition or in the alternative, the multiple parallel flow paths of process stream 1216 flow into separate flow cells and are sonicated in parallel (e.g., using a plurality of 16 kW ultrasonic transducers).
As another example, while a single ultrasonic transducer 1226 has been described as being coupled to flow cell 1224, other arrangements are possible. In some embodiments, a plurality of ultrasonic transducers 1226 are arranged in flow cell 1224 (e.g., ten ultrasonic transducers can be arranged in flow cell 1224). In some embodiments, the sound waves generated by each of the plurality of ultrasonic transducers 1226 are timed (e.g., synchronized out of phase with one another) to enhance cavitation acting upon process stream 1216.
As another example, while a single flow cell 1224 has been described, other arrangements are possible. In some embodiments, second pump 1230 moves process stream to a second flow cell where a second booster and ultrasonic transducer further sonicate process stream 1216.
As still another example, while reactor volume 1244 has been described as a closed volume, reactor volume 1244 is open to ambient conditions in certain embodiments. In such embodiments, sonication pretreatment can be performed substantially simultaneously with other pretreatment techniques. For example, ultrasonic energy can be applied to process stream 1216 in reactor volume 1244 while electron beams are simultaneously introduced into process stream 1216.
As another example, while a flow-through process has been described, other arrangements are possible. In some embodiments, sonication can be performed in a batch process. For example, a volume can be filled with a 10% (weight by volume) mixture of cellulosic material in water and exposed to sound with intensity from about 50 W/cm2 to about 600 W/cm2, e.g., from about 75 W/cm2 to about 300 W/cm2 or from about 95 W/cm2 to about 200 W/cm2. Additionally or alternatively, the mixture in the volume can be sonicated for about 1 hour to about 24 hours, e.g., for about 1.5 hours to about 12 hours or for about 2 hours to about 10 hours. In certain embodiments, the material is sonicated for a pre-determined time, and then allowed to stand for a second pre-determined time before sonicating again.
Referring now to FIG. 8, in some embodiments, two electroacoustic transducers are mechanically coupled to a single horn. As shown, a pair of piezoelectric transducers 60 and 62 is coupled to slotted bar horn 64 by respective intermediate coupling horns 70 and 72, the latter also being known as booster horns. The mechanical vibrations provided by the transducers, responsive to high frequency electrical energy applied thereto, are transmitted to the respective coupling horns, which may be constructed to provide a mechanical gain, such as a ratio of 1 to 1.2. The horns are provided with a respective mounting flange 74 and 76 for supporting the transducer and horn assembly in a stationary housing.
The vibrations transmitted from the transducers through the coupling or booster horns are coupled to the input surface 78 of the horn and are transmitted through the horn to the oppositely disposed output surface 80, which, during operation, is in forced engagement with a workpiece (not shown) to which the vibrations are applied.
The high frequency electrical energy provided by the power supply 82 is fed to each of the transducers, electrically connected in parallel, via a balancing transformer 84 and a respective series connected capacitor 86 and 90, one capacitor connected in series with the electrical connection to each of the transducers. The balancing transformer is known also as “balun” standing for “balancing unit.” The balancing transformer includes a magnetic core 92 and a pair of identical windings 94 and 96, also termed the primary winding and secondary winding, respectively.
In some embodiments, the transducers include commercially available piezoelectric transducers, such as Branson Ultrasonics Corporation models 105 or 502, each designed for operation at 20 kHz and a maximum power rating of 3 kW. The energizing voltage for providing maximum motional excursion at the output surface of the transducer is 930 volt rms. The current flow through a transducer may vary between zero and 3.5 ampere depending on the load impedance. At 930 volt rms the output motion is approximately 20 microns. The maximum difference in terminal voltage for the same motional amplitude, therefore, can be 186 volt. Such a voltage difference can give rise to large circulating currents flowing between the transducers. The balancing unit 430 assures a balanced condition by providing equal current flow through the transducers, hence eliminating the possibility of circulating currents. The wire size of the windings must be selected for the full load current noted above and the maximum voltage appearing across a winding input is 93 volt.
As an alternative to using ultrasonic energy, high-frequency, rotor-stator devices can be utilized. This type of device produces high-shear, microcavitation forces that can disintegrate materials in contact with such forces. Two commercially available high-frequency, rotor-stator dispersion devices are the SupratonTM devices manufactured by Krupp Industrietechnik GmbH and marketed by Dorr-Oliver Deutschland GmbH of Connecticut, and the DispaxTM devices manufactured and marketed by Ika-Works, Inc. of Cincinnati, Ohio. Operation of such a microcavitation device is discussed in Stuart, U.S. Pat. No. 5,370,999.
While ultrasonic transducer 1226 has been described as including one or more piezoelectric active elements to create ultrasonic energy, other arrangements are possible. In some embodiments, ultrasonic transducer 1226 includes active elements made of other types of magnetostrictive materials (e.g., ferrous metals). Design and operation of such a high-powered ultrasonic transducer is discussed in Hansen et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,624,539. In some embodiments, ultrasonic energy is transferred to process stream 16 through an electrohydraulic system.
While ultrasonic transducer 1226 has been described as using the electromagnetic response of magnetorestrictive materials to produce ultrasonic energy, other arrangements are possible. In some embodiments, acoustic energy in the form of an intense shock wave can be applied directly to process stream 16 using an underwater spark. In some embodiments, ultrasonic energy is transferred to process stream 16 through a thermohydraulic system. For example, acoustic waves of high energy density can be produced by applying power across an enclosed volume of electrolyte, thereby heating the enclosed volume and producing a pressure rise that is subsequently transmitted through a sound propagation medium (e.g., process stream 1216). Design and operation of such a thermohydraulic transducer is discussed in Hartmann et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,383,152.
In some embodiments, it may be advantageous to combine irradiation and sonication devices into a single hybrid machine. For such a hybrid machine, multiple processes may be performed in close juxtaposition or even simultaneously, with the benefit of increasing pretreatment throughput and potential cost savings.
For example, consider the electron beam irradiation and sonication processes. Each separate process is effective in lowering the mean molecular weight of cellulosic material by an order of magnitude or more, and by several orders of magnitude when performed serially.
Both irradiation and sonication processes can be applied using a hybrid electron beam/sonication device as is illustrated in FIG. 8. Hybrid electron beam/sonication device 2500 is pictured above a shallow pool (depth  ̃3-5 cm) of a slurry of cellulosic material 2550 dispersed in an aqueous, oxidant medium, such as hydrogen peroxide or carbamide peroxide. Hybrid device 2500 has an energy source 2510, which powers both electron beam emitter 2540 and sonication horns 2530.
Electron beam emitter 2540 generates electron beams that pass though an electron beam aiming device 2545 to impact the slurry 2550 containing cellulosic material. The electron beam aiming device can be a scanner that sweeps a beam over a range of up to about 6 feet in a direction approximately parallel to the surface of the slurry 2550.
On either side of the electron beam emitter 2540 are sonication horns 2530, which deliver ultrasonic wave energy to the slurry 2550. The sonication horns 2530 end in a detachable endpiece 2535 that is in contact with the slurry 2550.
The sonication horns 2530 are at risk of damage from long-term residual exposure to the electron beam radiation. Thus, the horns can be protected with a standard shield 2520, e.g., made of lead or a heavy-metal-containing alloy such as Lipowitz metal, which is impervious to electron beam radiation. Precautions must be taken, however, to ensure that the ultrasonic energy is not affected by the presence of the shield. The detachable endpieces 2535, are constructed of the same material and attached to the horns 2530, are used to be in contact with the cellulosic material 2550 and are expected to be damaged. Accordingly, the detachable endpieces 2535 are constructed to be easily replaceable.
A further benefit of such a simultaneous electron beam and ultrasound process is that the two processes have complementary results. With electron beam irradiation alone, an insufficient dose may result in cross-linking of some of the polymers in the cellulosic material, which lowers the efficiency of the overall depolymerization process. Lower doses of electron beam irradiation and/or ultrasound radiation may also be used to achieve a similar degree of depolymerization as that achieved using electron beam irradiation and sonication separately.
An electron beam device can also be combined with one or more of high-frequency, rotor-stator devices, which can be used as an alternative to ultrasonic energy devices, and performs a similar function.
Further combinations of devices are also possible. For example, an ionizing radiation device that produces gamma radiation emitted from, e.g., 60Co pellets, can be combined with an electron beam source and/or an ultrasonic wave source. Shielding requirements may be more stringent in this case.
Ion Generation
Various methods may be used for the generation of ions suitable for ion beams which may be used in treating the cellulosic or lignocellulosic materials. After the ions have been generated, they are typically accelerated in one or more of various types of accelerators, and then directed to impinge on the cellulosic or lignocellulosic materials.
(i) Hydrogen Ions
Hydrogen ions can be generated using a variety of different methods in an ion source. Typically, hydrogen ions are introduced into an ionizing chamber of an ion source, and ions are produced by supplying energy to gas molecules. During operation, such chambers can produce large ion currents suitable for seeding a downstream ion accelerator.
In some embodiments, hydrogen ions are produced via field ionization of hydrogen gas. A schematic diagram of a field ionization source is shown in FIG. 10. Field ionization source 1100 includes a chamber 1170 where ionization of gas molecules (e.g., hydrogen gas molecules) occurs. Gas molecules 1150 enter chamber 1170 by flowing along direction 1155 in supply tube 1120. Field ionization source 1100 includes an ionization electrode 1110. During operation, a large potential VE (relative to a common system ground potential) is applied to electrode 1110. Molecules 1150 that circulate within a region adjacent to electrode 1110 are ionized by the electric field that results from potential VE. Also during operation, an extraction potential VX is applied to extractors 1130. The newly-formed ions migrate towards extractors 1130 under the influence of the electric fields of potentials VE and VX. In effect, the newly-formed ions experience repulsive forces relative to ionization electrode 1110, and attractive forces relative to extractors 1130. As a result, certain of the newly-formed ions enter discharge tube 1140, and propagate along direction 1165 under the influence of potentials VE and VX.
Depending upon the sign of potential VE (relative to the common ground potential), both positively and negatively charged ions can be formed. For example, in some embodiments, a positive potential can be applied to electrode 1110 and a negative potential can be applied to extractors 1130. Positively charged hydrogen ions (e.g., protons H+) that are generated in chamber 1170 are repelled away from electrode 1110 and toward extractors 1130. As a result, discharged particle stream 1160 includes positively charged hydrogen ions that are transported to an injector system.
In certain embodiments, a negative potential can be applied to electrode 1110 and a positive potential can be applied to extractors 1130. Negatively charged hydrogen ions (e.g., hydride ions H−) that are generated in chamber 1170 are repelled away from electrode 1110 and toward extractors 1130. Discharged particle stream 1160 includes negatively charged hydrogen ions, which are then transported to an injector system.
In some embodiments, both positive and negative hydrogen ions can be produced via direct thermal heating of hydrogen gas. For example, hydrogen gas can be directed to enter a heating chamber that is evacuated to remove residual oxygen and other gases. The hydrogen gas can then be heated via a heating element to produce ionic species. Suitable heating elements include, for example, arc discharge electrodes, heating filaments, heating coils, and a variety of other thermal transfer elements.
In certain embodiments, when hydrogen ions are produced via either field emission or thermal heating, various hydrogen ion species can be produced, including both positively and negatively charged ion species, and singly- and multiply-charged ion species. The various ion species can be separated from one another via one or more electrostatic and/or magnetic separators. FIG. 11 shows a schematic diagram of an electrostatic separator 1175 that is configured to separate a plurality of hydrogen ion species from one another. Electrostatic separator 1175 includes a pair of parallel electrodes 1180 to which a potential VS is applied by a voltage source (not shown). Particle stream 1160, propagating in the direction indicated by the arrow, includes a variety of positively- and negatively-charged, and singly- and multiply-charged, ion species. As the various ion species pass through electrodes 1180, the electric field between the electrodes deflects the ion trajectories according to the magnitude and sign of the ion species. In FIG. 11, for example, the electric field points from the lower electrode toward the upper electrode in the region between electrodes 1180. As a result, positively-charged ions are deflected along an upward trajectory in FIG. 11, and negatively-charged ions are deflected along a downward trajectory. Ion beams 1162 and 1164 each correspond to positively-charged ion species, with the ion species in ion beam 1162 having a larger positive charge than the ion species is beam 1164 (e.g., due to the larger positive charge of the ions in beam 1162, the beam is deflected to a greater extent).
Similarly, ion beams 1166 and 1168 each correspond to negatively-charged ion species, with the ion species in ion beam 1168 having a larger negative charge than the ion species in ion beam 1166 (and thereby being deflected to a larger extent by the electric field between electrodes 1180). Beam 1169 includes neutral particles originally present in particle stream 1160; the neutral particles are largely unaffected by the electric field between electrodes 1180, and therefore pass undeflected through the electrodes. Each of the separated particle streams enters one of delivery tubes 1192, 1194, 1196, 1198, and 1199, and can be delivered to an injector system for subsequent acceleration of the particles, or steered to be incident directly on the cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. Alternatively, or in addition, any or all of the separated particle streams can be blocked to prevent ion and/or atomic species from reaching cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. As yet another alternative, certain particle streams can be combined and then directed to an injector system and/or steered to be incident directly on the cellulosic or lignocellulosic material using known techniques.
In general, particle beam separators can also use magnetic fields in addition to, or rather than, electric fields for deflecting charged particles. In some embodiments, particle beam separators include multiple pairs of electrodes, where each pair of electrodes generates an electric field that deflects particles passing therethrough. Alternatively, or in addition, particle beam separators can include one or more magnetic deflectors that are configured to deflect charged particles according to magnitude and sign of the particle charges.
(ii) Noble Gas Ions
Noble gas atoms (e.g., helium atoms, neon atoms, argon atoms) form positively-charged ions when acted upon by relatively strong electric fields. Methods for generating noble gas ions therefore typically include generating a high-intensity electric field, and then introducing noble gas atoms into the field region to cause field ionization of the gas atoms. A schematic diagram of a field ionization generator for noble gas ions (and also for other types of ions) is shown in FIG. 12. Field ionization generator 1200 includes a tapered electrode 1220 positioned within a chamber 1210. A vacuum pump 1250 is in fluid communication with the interior of chamber 1210 via inlet 1240, and reduces the pressure of background gases within chamber 1210 during operation. One or more noble gas atoms 1280 are admitted to chamber 1210 via inlet tube 1230.
During operation, a relatively high positive potential VT (e.g., positive relative to a common external ground) is applied to tapered electrode 1220. Noble gas atoms 1280 that enter a region of space surrounding the tip of electrode 1220 are ionized by the strong electric field extending from the tip; the gas atoms lose an electron to the tip, and form positively charged noble gas ions.
The positively charged noble gas ions are accelerated away from the tip, and a certain fraction of the gas ions 1290 pass through extractor 1260 and exit chamber 1210, into an ion optical column that includes lens 1270, which further deflects and/or focuses the ions.
Electrode 1220 is tapered to increase the magnitude of the local electric field in the region near the apex of the tip. Depending upon the sharpness of the taper and the magnitude of potential VT, the region of space in chamber 1210 within which ionization of noble gas atoms occurs can be relatively tightly controlled. As a result, a relatively well collimated beam of noble gas ions 1290 can be obtained following extractor 1260.
As discussed above in connection with hydrogen ions, the resulting beam of noble gas ions 1290 can be transported through a charged particle optical column that includes various particle optical elements for deflecting and/or focusing the noble gas ion beam. The noble gas ion beam can also pass through an electrostatic and/or magnetic separator, as discussed above in connection with FIG. 11.
Noble gas ions that can be produced in field ionization generator 1200 include helium ions, neon ions, argon ions, and krypton ions. In addition, field ionization generator 1200 can be used to generate ions of other gaseous chemical species, including hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.
Noble gas ions may have particular advantages relative to other ion species when treating cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. For example, while noble gas ions can react with cellulosic or lignocellulosic materials, neutralized noble gas ions (e.g., noble gas atoms) that are produced from such reactions are generally inert, and do not further react with the cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. Moreover, neutral noble gas atoms do not remain embedded in the cellulosic or lignocellulosic material, but instead diffuse out of the material. Noble gases are non-toxic and can be used in large quantities without adverse consequences to either human health or the environment.
(iii) Carbon, Oxygen, and Nitrogen Ions
Ions of carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen can typically be produced by field ionization in a system such as field ionization source 1100 or field ionization generator 1200. For example, oxygen gas molecules and/or oxygen atoms (e.g., produced by heating oxygen gas) can be introduced into a chamber, where the oxygen molecules and/or atoms are field ionized to produce oxygen ions. Depending upon the sign of the potential applied to the field ionization electrode, positively- and/or negatively-charged oxygen ions can be produced. The desired ion species can be preferentially selected from among various ion species and neutral atoms and molecules by an electrostatic and/or magnetic particle selector, as shown in FIG. 11.
As another example, nitrogen gas molecules can be introduced into the chamber of either field ionization source 1100 or field ionization generator 1200, and ionized to form positively- and/or negatively-charged nitrogen ions by the relatively strong electric field within the chamber. The desired ion species can then be separated from other ionic and neutral species via an electrostatic and/or magnetic separator, as shown in FIG. 11.
To form carbon ions, carbon atoms can be supplied to the chamber of either field ionization source 1100 or field ionization generator 1200, wherein the carbon atoms can be ionized to form either positively- and/or negatively-charged carbon ions. The desired ion species can then be separated from other ionic and neutral species via an electrostatic and/or magnetic separator, as shown in FIG. 11. The carbon atoms that are supplied to the chamber of either field ionization source 1100 or field ionization generator 1200 can be produced by heating a carbon-based target (e.g., a graphite target) to cause thermal emission of carbon atoms from the target. The target can be placed in relatively close proximity to the chamber, so that emitted carbon atoms enter the chamber directly following emission.
(iv) Heavier Ions
Ions of heavier atoms such as sodium and iron can be produced via a number of methods. For example, in some embodiments, heavy ions such as sodium and/or iron ions are produced via thermionic emission from a target material that includes sodium and/or iron, respectively. Suitable target materials include materials such as sodium silicates and/or iron silicates. The target materials typically include other inert materials such as beta-alumina. Some target materials are zeolite materials, and include channels formed therein to permit escape of ions from the target material.
FIG. 13 shows a thermionic emission source 1300 that includes a heating element 1310 that contacts a target material 1330, both of which are positioned inside an evacuated chamber 1305. Heating element 1310 is controlled by controller 1320, which regulates the temperature of heating element 1310 to control the ion current generated from target material 1330. When sufficient heat is supplied to target material 1330, thermionic emission from the target material generates a stream of ions 1340. Ions 1340 can include positively-charged ions of materials such as sodium, iron, and other relatively heavy atomic species (e.g., other metal ions). Ions 1340 can then be collimated, focused, and/or otherwise deflected by electrostatic and/or magnetic electrodes 1350, which can also deliver ions 1340 to an injector.
Thermionic emission to form ions of relatively heavy atomic species is also discussed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,928,033, entitled “Thermionic Ionization Source,” the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.
In certain embodiments, relatively heavy ions such as sodium ions and/or iron ions can be produced by microwave discharge. FIG. 14 shows a schematic diagram of a microwave discharge source 1400 that produces ions from relatively heavy atoms such as sodium and iron. Discharge source 1400 includes a microwave field generator 1410, a waveguide tube 1420, a field concentrator 1430, and an ionization chamber 1490. During operation, field generator 1410 produces a microwave field which propagates through waveguide 1420 and concentrator 1430; concentrator 1430 increases the field strength by spatially confining the field, as shown in FIG. 14. The microwave field enters ionization chamber 1490. In a first region inside chamber 1490, a solenoid 1470 produces a strong magnetic field 1480 in a region of space that also includes the microwave field. Source 1440 delivers atoms 1450 to this region of space. The concentrated microwave field ionizes atoms 1450, and the magnetic field 1480 generated by solenoid 1470 confines the ionized atoms to form a localized plasma. A portion of the plasma exits chamber 1490 as ions 1460. Ions 1460 can then be deflected and/or focused by one or more electrostatic and/or magnetic elements, and delivered to an injector.
Atoms 1450 of materials such as sodium and/or iron can be generated by thermal emission from a target material, for example. Suitable target materials include materials such as silicates and other stable salts, including zeolite-based materials. Suitable target materials can also include metals (e.g., iron), which can be coated on an inert base material such as a glass material.
Microwave discharge sources are also discussed, for example, in the following U.S. patents: U.S. Pat. No. 4,409,520, entitled “Microwave Discharge Ion Source,” and U.S. Pat. No. 6,396,211, entitled “Microwave Discharge Type Electrostatic Accelerator Having Upstream and Downstream Acceleration Electrodes.” The entire contents of each of the foregoing patents are incorporated herein by reference.
Particle Beam Sources
Particle beam sources that generate beams for use in irradiating cellulosic or lignocellulosic material typically include three component groups: an injector, which generates or receives ions and introduces the ions into an accelerator; an accelerator, which receives ions from the injector and increases the kinetic energy of the ions; and output coupling elements, which manipulate the beam of accelerated ions.
(i) Injectors
Injectors can include, for example, any of the ion sources discussed in the preceding sections above, which supply a stream of ions for subsequent acceleration. Injectors can also include various types of electrostatic and/or magnetic particle optical elements, including lenses, deflectors, collimators, filters, and other such elements. These elements can be used to condition the ion beam prior to entering the accelerator; that is, these elements can be used to control the propagation characteristics of the ions that enter the accelerator. Injectors can also include pre-accelerating electrostatic and/or magnetic elements that accelerate charged particles to a selected energy threshold prior to entering the accelerator. An example of an injector is shown in Iwata, Y. et al.
(ii) Accelerators
One type of accelerator that can be used to accelerate ions produced using the sources discussed above is a Dynamitron® (available, for example, from Radiation Dynamics Inc., now a unit of IBA, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium). A schematic diagram of a Dynamitron® accelerator 1500 is shown in FIG. 6 and discussed above.
Another type of accelerator that can be used to accelerate ions for treatment of cellulosic or lignocellulosic-based material is a Rhodotron® accelerator (available, for example, from IBA, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium). In general, Rhodotron-type accelerators include a single recirculating cavity through which ions that are being accelerated make multiple passes. As a result, Rhodotron® accelerators can be operated in continuous mode at relatively high continuous ion currents.
FIG. 15 shows a schematic diagram of a Rhodotron® accelerator 1700. Accelerator 1700 includes an injector 1710, which introduces accelerated ions into recirculating cavity 1720. An electric field source 1730 is positioned within an inner chamber 1740 of cavity 1720, and generates an oscillating radial electric field. The oscillation frequency of the radial field is selected to match the transit time of injected ions across one pass of recirculating cavity 1720. For example, a positively-charged ion is injected into cavity 1720 by injector 1710 when the radial electric field in the cavity has zero amplitude. As the ion propagates toward chamber 1740, the amplitude of the radial field in chamber 1740 increases to a maximum value, and then decreases again. The radial field points inward toward chamber 1740, and the ion is accelerated by the radial field. The ion passes through a hole in the wall of inner chamber 1740, crosses the geometrical center of cavity 1720, and passes out through another hole in the wall of inner chamber 1740. When the ion is positioned at the enter of cavity 1720, the electric field amplitude inside cavity 1720 has been reduced to zero (or nearly zero). As the ion emerges from inner chamber 1740, the electric field amplitude in cavity 1720 begins to increase again, but the field is now oriented radially outward. The field magnitude during the second half of the ion's pass through cavity 1720 again reaches a maximum and then begins to diminish. As a result, the positive ion is again accelerated by the electric field as the ion completes the second half of a first pass through cavity 1720.
Upon reaching the wall of cavity 1720, the magnitude of the electric field in cavity 1720 is zero (or nearly zero) and the ion passes through an aperture in the wall and encounters one of beam deflection magnets 1750. The beam deflection magnets essentially reverse the trajectory of the ion, as shown in FIG. 15, directing the ion to re-enter cavity 1720 through another aperture in the wall of the chamber. When the ion re-enters cavity 1720, the electric field therein begins to increase in amplitude again, but is now once more oriented radially inward. The second and subsequent passes of the ion through cavity 1720 follow a similar pattern, so that the orientation of the electric field always matches the direction of motion of the ion, and the ion is accelerated on every pass (and every half-pass) through cavity 1720.
As shown in FIG. 15, after six passes through cavity 1720, the accelerated ion is coupled out of cavity 1720 as a portion of accelerated ion beam 1760. The accelerated ion beam passes through one or more electrostatic and/or magnetic particle optical elements 1770, which can include lenses, collimators, beam deflectors, filters, and other optical elements. For example, under control of an external logic unit, elements 1770 can include an electrostatic and/or magnetic deflector that sweeps accelerated beam 1760 across a two-dimensional planar region oriented perpendicular to the direction of propagation of beam 1760.
Ions that are injected into cavity 1720 are accelerated on each pass through cavity 1720. In general, therefore, to obtain accelerated beams having different average ion energies, accelerator 1700 can include more than one output coupling. For example, in some embodiments, one or more of deflection magnets 1750 can be modified to allow a portion of the ions reaching the magnets to be coupled out of accelerator 1700, and a portion of the ions to be returned to chamber 1720. Multiple accelerated output beams can therefore be obtained from accelerator 1700, each beam corresponding to an average ion energy that is related to the number of passes through cavity 1720 for the ions in the beam.
Accelerator 1700 includes 5 deflection magnets 1750, and ions injected into cavity 1720 make 6 passes through the cavity. In general, however, accelerator 1700 can include any number of deflection magnets, and ions injected into cavity 1720 can make any corresponding number of passes through the cavity. For example, in some embodiments, accelerator 1700 can include at least 6 deflection magnets and ions can make at least 7 passes through the cavity (e.g., at least 7 deflection magnets and 8 passes through the cavity, at least 8 deflection magnets and 9 passes through the cavity, at least 9 deflection magnets and 10 passes through the cavity, at least 10 deflection magnets and 11 passes through the cavity).
Typically, the electric field generated by field source 1730 provides a single-cavity-pass gain of about 1 MeV to an injected ion. In general, however, higher single-pass gains are possible by providing a higher-amplitude electric field within cavity 1720. In some embodiments, for example, the single-cavity-pass gain is about 1.2 MeV or more (e.g., 1.3 MeV or more, 1.4 MeV or more, 1.5 MeV or more, 1.6 MeV or more, 1.8 MeV or more, 2.0 MeV or more, 2.5 MeV or more).
The single-cavity-pass gain also depends upon the magnitude of the charge carried by the injected ion. For example, ions bearing multiple charges will experience higher single-pass-cavity gain than ions bearing single charges, for the same electric field within cavity. As a result, the single-pass-cavity gain of accelerator 1700 can be further increased by injecting ions having multiple charges.
In the foregoing description of accelerator 1700, a positively-charged ion was injected into cavity 1720. Accelerator 1700 can also accelerate negatively charged ions. To do so, the negatively charged ions are injected so that the direction of their trajectories is out of phase with the radial electric field direction. That is, the negatively charged ions are injected so that on each half pass through cavity 1720, the direction of the trajectory of each ion is opposite to the direction of the radial electric field. Achieving this involves simply adjusting the time at which negatively-charged ions are injected into cavity 1720. Accordingly, accelerator 1700 is capable of simultaneously accelerating ions having the same approximate mass, but opposite charges. More generally, accelerator 1700 is capable of simultaneously accelerating different types of both positively- and negatively-charged (and both singly- and multiply-charged) ions, provided that the transit times of the ions across cavity 1720 are relatively similar. In some embodiments, accelerator 1700 can include multiple output couplings, providing different types of accelerated ion beams having similar or different energies.
Other types of accelerators can also be used to accelerate ions for irradiation of cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. For example, in some embodiments, ions can be accelerated to relatively high average energies in cyclotron- and/or synchrotron-based accelerators. The construction and operation of such accelerators is well-known in the art. As another example, in some embodiments, Penning-type ion sources can be used to generate and/or accelerate ions for treating cellulosic or lignocellulosic-based material. The design of Penning-type sources is discussed in section 7.2.1 of Prelec (1997).
Static and/or dynamic accelerators of various types can also generally be used to accelerate ions. Static accelerators typically include a plurality of electrostatic lenses that are maintained at different DC voltages. By selecting appropriate values of the voltages applied to each of the lens elements, ions introduced into the accelerator can be accelerated to a selected final energy. FIG. 16 shows a simplified schematic diagram of a static accelerator 1800 that is configured to accelerate ions to treat cellulosic or lignocellulosic material 1835. Accelerator 1800 includes an ion source 1810 that produces ions and introduces the ions into an ion column 1820. Ion column 1820 includes a plurality of electrostatic lenses 1825 that accelerate the ions generated by ion source 1810 to produce an ion beam 1815. DC voltages are applied to lenses 1825; the potentials of the lenses remain approximately constant during operation. Generally, the electrical potential within each lens is constant, and the ions of ion beam 1815 are accelerated in the gaps between the various lenses 1825. Ion column 1820 also includes a deflection lens 1830 and a collimation lens 1832. These two lenses operate to direct ion beam 1815 to a selected position on cellulosic or lignocellulosic material 1835, and to focus ion beam 1815 onto the cellulosic or lignocellulosic material.
Although FIG. 16 shows a particular embodiment of a static accelerator, many other variations are possible and suitable for treating cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. In some embodiments, for example, the relative positions of deflection lens 1830 and collimation lens 1832 along ion column 1820 can be exchanged. Additional electrostatic lenses can also be present in ion column 1820, and ion column 1820 can further include magnetostatic optical elements. In certain embodiments, a wide variety of additional elements can be present in ion column 1820, including deflectors (e.g., quadrupole, hexapole, and/or octopole deflectors), filtering elements such as apertures to remove undesired species (e.g., neutrals and/or certain ionic species) from ion beam 1815, extractors (e.g., to establish a spatial profile for ion beam 1815), and other electrostatic and/or magnetostatic elements.
Dynamic linear accelerators—often referred to as LINACS—can also be used to generate an ion beam that can be used to treat cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. Typically, dynamic linear accelerators include an ion column with a linear series of radiofrequency cavities, each of which produces an intense, oscillating radiofrequency (RF) field that is timed to coincide with injection and propagation of ions into the ion column. As an example, devices such as klystrons can be used to generated the RF fields in the cavities. By matching the field oscillations to the injection times of ions, the RF cavities can accelerate ions to high energies without having to maintain peak potentials for long periods of time. As a result, LINACS typically do not have the same shielding requirements as DC accelerators, and are typically shorter in length. LINACS typically operate at frequencies of 3 GHz (S-band, typically limited to relatively low power) and 1 GHz (L-band, capable of significantly higher power operation). Typical LINACS have an overall length of 2-4 meters.
A schematic diagram of a dynamic linear accelerator 1850 (e.g., a LINAC) is shown in FIG. 17. LINAC 1850 includes an ion source 1810 and an ion column 1855 that includes three acceleration cavities 1860, a deflector 1865, and a focusing lens 1870. Deflector 1865 and focusing lens 1870 function to steer and focus ion beam 1815 onto cellulosic or lignocellulosic material 1835 following acceleration, as discussed above. Acceleration cavities 1860 are formed of a conductive material such as copper, and function as a waveguide for the accelerated ions. Klystrons 1862, connected to each of cavities 1860, generate the dynamic RF fields that accelerate the ions within the cavities. Klystrons 1862 are individually configured to produce RF fields that, together, accelerate the ions in ion beam 1815 to a final, selected energy prior to being incident on cellulosic or lignocellulosic material 1835.
As discussed above in connection with static accelerators, many variations of dynamic accelerator 1850 are possible and can be used to produce an ion beam for treating cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. For example, in some embodiments, additional electrostatic lenses can also be present in ion column 1855, and ion column 1855 can further include magnetostatic optical elements. In certain embodiments, a wide variety of additional elements can be present in ion column 1855, including deflectors (e.g., quadrupole, hexapole, and/or octopole deflectors), filtering elements such as apertures to remove undesired species (e.g., neutrals and/or certain ionic species) from ion beam 1815, extractors (e.g., to establish a spatial profile for ion beam 1815), and other electrostatic and/or magnetostatic elements. In addition to the specific static and dynamic accelerators discussed above, other suitable accelerator systems include, for example: DC insulated core transformer (ICT) type systems, available from Nissin High Voltage, Japan; S-band LINACS, available from L3-PSD (USA), Linac Systems (France), Mevex (Canada), and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (Japan); L-band LINACS, available from Iotron Industries (Canada); and ILU-based accelerators, available from Budker Laboratories (Russia).
In some embodiments, van de Graaff-based accelerators can be used to produce and/or accelerate ions for subsequent treatment of cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. FIG. 18 shows an embodiment of a van de Graaff accelerator 1900 that includes a spherical shell electrode 1902 and an insulating belt 1906 that recirculates between electrode 1902 and a base 1904 of accelerator 1900. During operation, insulating belt 1906 travels over pulleys 1910 and 1908 in the direction shown by arrow 1918, and carries charge into electrode 1902. Charge is removed from belt 1906 and transferred to electrode 1902, so that the magnitude of the electrical potential on electrode 1902 increases until electrode 1902 is discharged by a spark (or, alternatively, until the charging current is balanced by a load current).
Pulley 1910 is grounded, as shown in FIG. 18. A corona discharge is maintained between a series of points or a fine wire on one side of belt 1906. Wire 1914 is configured to maintain the corona discharge in accelerator 1900. Wire 1914 is maintained at a positive potential, so that belt 1906 intercepts positive ions moving from wire 1914 to pulley 1910. As belt 1906 moves in the direction of arrow 1918, the intercepted charges are carried into electrode 1902, where they are removed from belt 1906 by a needle point 1916 and transferred to electrode 1902. As a result, positive charges accumulate on the surface of electrode 1902; these charges can be discharged from the surface of electrode 1902 and used to treat cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. In some embodiments, accelerator 1900 can be configured to provide negatively charged ions by operating wire 1914 and needle point 1916 at a negative potential with respect to grounded pulley 1910.
In general, accelerator 1900 can be configured to provide a wide variety of different types of positive and negative charges for treating cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. Exemplary types of charges include electrons, protons, hydrogen ions, carbon ions, oxygen ions, halogen ions, metal ions, and other types of ions.
In certain embodiments, tandem accelerators (including folded tandem accelerators) can be used to generate ion beams for treatment of cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. An example of a folded tandem accelerator 1950 is shown in FIG. 19. Accelerator 1950 includes an accelerating column 1954, a charge stripper 1956, a beam deflector 1958, and an ion source 1952.
During operation, ion source 1952 produces a beam 1960 of negatively charged ions, which is directed to enter accelerator 1950 through input port 1964. In general, ion source 1952 can be any type of ion source that produces negatively charged ions. For example, suitable ion sources include a source of negative ions by cesium sputtering (SNICS) source, a RF-charge exchange ion source, or a toroidal volume ion source (TORVIS). Each of the foregoing exemplary ion sources is available, for example, from National Electrostatics Corporation (Middleton, Wis.).
Once inside accelerator 1950, the negative ions in beam 1960 are accelerated by accelerating column 1954. Typically, accelerating column 1954 includes a plurality of accelerating elements such as electrostatic lenses. The potential difference applied in column 1954 to accelerate the negative ions can be generated using various types of devices. For example, in some embodiments, (e.g., Pelletron® accelerators), the potential is generated using a Pelletron® charging device. Pelletron® devices include a charge-carrying belt that is formed from a plurality of metal (e.g., steel) chain links or pellets that are bridged by insulating connectors (e.g., formed from a material such as nylon). During operation, the belt recirculates between a pair of pulleys, one of which is maintained at ground potential. As the belt moves between the grounded pulley and the opposite pulley (e.g., the terminal pulley), the metal pellets are positively charged by induction. Upon reaching the terminal pulley, the positive charge that has accumulated on the belt is removed, and the pellets are negatively charged as they leave the terminal pulley and return to the ground pulley.
The Pelletron® device generates a large positive potential within column 1954 that is used to accelerate the negative ions of beam 1960. After undergoing acceleration in column 1954, beam 1960 passes through charge stripper 1956. Charge stripper 1956 can be implemented as a thin metal foil and/or a tube containing a gas that strips electrons from the negative ions, for example. The negatively charged ions are thereby converted to positively charged ions, which emerge from charge stripper 1956. The trajectories of the emerging positively charged ions are altered so that the positively charged ions travel back through accelerating column 1954, undergoing a second acceleration in the column before emerging as positively charged ion beam 1962 from output port 1966. Positively charged ion beam 1962 can then be used to treat cellulosic or lignocellulosic material according to the various methods disclosed herein.
Due to the folded geometry of accelerator 1950, ions are accelerated to a kinetic energy that corresponds to twice the potential difference generated by the Pelletron® charging device. For example, in a 2 MV Pelletron® accelerator, hydride ions that are introduced by ion source 1952 will be accelerated to an intermediate energy of 2 MeV during the first pass through column 1954, converted to positive ions (e.g., protons), and accelerated to a final energy of 4 MeV during the second pass through column 1954.
In certain embodiments, column 1954 can include elements in addition to, or as alternatives to, the Pelletron® charging device. For example, column 1954 can include static accelerating elements (e.g., DC electrodes) and/or dynamic acceleration cavities (e.g., LINAC-type cavities with pulse RF field generators for particle acceleration). Potentials applied to the various accelerating devices are selected to accelerate the negatively charged ions of beam 1960.
Exemplary tandem accelerators, including both folded and non-folded accelerators, are available from National Electrostatics Corporation (Middleton, Wis.), for example.
In some embodiments, combinations of two or more of the various types of accelerators can be used to produce ion beams that are suitable for treating cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. For example, a folded tandem accelerator can be used in combination with a linear accelerator, a Rhodotron® accelerator, a Dynamitron®, a static accelerator, or any other type of accelerator to produce ion beams. Accelerators can be used in series, with the output ion beam from one type of accelerator directed to enter another type of accelerator for additional acceleration. Alternatively, multiple accelerators can be used in parallel to generate multiple ion beams. In certain embodiments, multiple accelerators of the same type can be used in parallel and/or in series to generate accelerated ion beams.
In some embodiments, multiple similar and/or different accelerators can be used to generate ion beams having different compositions. For example, a first accelerator can be used to generate one type of ion beam, while a second accelerator can be used to generate a second type of ion beam. The two ion beams can then each be further accelerated in another accelerator, or can be used to treat cellulosic or lignocellulosic material.
Further, in certain embodiments, a single accelerator can be used to generate multiple ion beams for treating cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. For example, any of the accelerators discussed herein (and other types of accelerators as well) can be modified to produce multiple output ion beams by sub-dividing an initial ion current introduced into the accelerator from an ion source. Alternatively, or in addition, any one ion beam produced by any of the accelerators disclosed herein can include only a single type of ion, or multiple different types of ions.
In general, where multiple different accelerators are used to produce one or more ion beams for treatment of cellulosic or lignocellulosic material, the multiple different accelerators can be positioned in any order with respect to one another. This provides for great flexibility in producing one or more ion beams, each of which has carefully selected properties for treating cellulosic or lignocellulosic material (e.g., for treating different components in cellulosic or lignocellulosic material).
The ion accelerators disclosed herein can also be used in combination with any of the other treatment steps disclosed herein. For example, in some embodiments, electrons and ions can be used in combination to treat cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. The electrons and ions can be produced and/or accelerated separately, and used to treat cellulosic or lignocellulosic material sequentially (in any order) and/or simultaneously. In certain embodiments, electron and ion beams can be produced in a common accelerator and used to treat cellulosic or lignocellulosic material. For example, many of the ion accelerators disclosed herein can be configured to produce electron beams as an alternative to, or in addition to, ion beams. For example, Dynamitron® accelerators, Rhodotron® accelerators, and LINACs can be configured to produce electron beams for treatment of cellulosic or lignocellulosic material.
Moreover, treatment of cellulosic or lignocellulosic material with ion beams can be combined with other techniques such as sonication. In general, sonication-based treatment can occur before, during, or after ion-based treatment. Other treatments such as electron beam treatment can also occur in any combination and/or order with ultrasonic treatment and ion beam treatment.
Paper Additives
Any of the many additives and coatings used in the papermaking industry can be added to or applied to the fibrous materials, papers, or any other materials and products described herein. Additives include fillers such as calcium carbonate, plastic pigments, graphite, wollastonite, mica, glass, fiber glass, silica, and talc; inorganic flame retardants such as alumina trihydrate or magnesium hydroxide; organic flame retardants such as chlorinated or brominated organic compounds; carbon fibers; and metal fibers or powders (e.g., aluminum, stainless steel). These additives can reinforce, extend, or change electrical or mechanical properties, compatibility properties, or other properties. Other additives include starch, lignin, fragrances, coupling agents, antioxidants, opacifiers, heat stabilizers, colorants such as dyes and pigments, polymers, e.g., degradable polymers, photostabilizers, and biocides. Representative degradable polymers include polyhydroxy acids, e.g., polylactides, polyglycolides and copolymers of lactic acid and glycolic acid, poly(hydroxybutyric acid), poly(hydroxyvaleric acid), poly[lactide-co-(e-caprolactone)], poly[glycolide-co-(e-caprolactone)], polycarbonates, poly(amino acids), poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s, polyanhydrides, polyorthoesters and blends of these polymers.
When additives are included, they can be present in amounts, calculated on a dry weight basis, of from below about 1 percent to as high as about 80 percent, based on total weight of the fibrous material. More typically, amounts range from between about 0.5 percent to about 50 percent by weight, e.g., from about 0.5 percent to about 5 percent, 10 percent, 20 percent, 30, percent or more, e.g., 40 percent.
Any additives described herein can be encapsulated, e.g., spray dried or microencapsulated, e.g., to protect the additives from heat or moisture during handling.
Suitable coatings include any of the many coatings used in the paper industry to provide specific surface characteristics, including performance characteristics required for particular printing applications.
As mentioned above, various fillers can be included in the paper. For example, inorganic fillers such as calcium carbonate (e.g., precipitated calcium carbonate or natural calcium carbonate), aragonite clay, orthorhombic clays, calcite clay, rhombohedral clays, kaolin clay, bentonite clay, dicalcium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate, calcium pyrophosphate, insoluble sodium metaphosphate, precipitated calcium carbonate, magnesium orthophosphate, trimagnesium phosphate, hydroxyapatites, synthetic apatites, alumina, silica xerogel, metal aluminosilicate complexes, sodium aluminum silicates, zirconium silicate, silicon dioxide or combinations of the inorganic additives may be used. The fillers can have, e.g., a particle size of greater than 1 micron, e.g., greater than 2, 5, 10, or 25 microns or even greater than 35 microns.
Nanometer scale fillers can also be used alone, or in combination with fibrous materials of any size and/or shape. The fillers can be in the form of, e.g., particles, plates or fibers. For example, nanometer sized clays, silicon and carbon nanotubes, and silicon and carbon nanowires can be used. The fillers can have a transverse dimension less than 1000 nm, e.g., less than 900, 800, 750, 600, 500, 350, 300, 250, 200, or 100 nm, or even less than 50 nm.
In some embodiments, the nano-clay is a montmorillonite. Such clays are available from Nanocor, Inc. and Southern Clay products, and have been described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,849,680 and 6,737,464. The clays can be surface treated before mixing into, e.g., a resin or a fibrous material. For example, the clay can be surface treated so that its surface is ionic in nature, e.g., cationic or anionic.
Aggregated or agglomerated nanometer scale fillers, or nanometer scale fillers that are assembled into supramolecular structures, e.g., self-assembled supramolecular structures can also be used. The aggregated or supramolecular fillers can be open or closed in structure, and can have a variety of shapes, e.g., cage, tube or spherical.
Lignin Content
Paper can contain lignin, for example up to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, or even 25% by weight of lignin.
This lignin content can be the result of the lignin present in the lignocellulosic material(s) used to manufacture the paper. Alternatively, or in addition, lignin can be added to the paper as an additive, as mentioned above. In this case, the lignin can be added as a solid, e.g., as a powder or other particulate material, or can be dissolved or dispersed and added in liquid form. In the latter case, the lignin can be dissolved in solvent or a solvent system. The solvent or solvent system can be in the form of a single phase or two or more phases. Solvent systems for cellulosic and lignocellulosic materials include DMSO-salt systems. Such systems include, for example, DMSO in combination with a lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium or zinc salt. Lithium salts include LiCl, LiBr, LiI, lithium perchlorate and lithium nitrate. Magnesium salts include magnesium nitrate and magnesium chloride. Potassium salts include potassium iodide and nitrate.
Examples of sodium salts include sodium iodide and nitrate. Examples of zinc salts include zinc chloride and nitrate. Any salt can be anhydrous or hydrated. Typical loadings of the salt in the DMSO are between about 1 and about 50 percent, e.g., between about 2 and 25, between about 3 and 15 or between about 4 and 12.5 percent by weight.
In some cases, lignin will cross-link in the paper during irradiation, further enhancing the physical properties of the paper.
Paper Types
Paper is often characterized by weight. The weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream, 500 sheets, of varying “basic sizes,” before the paper is cut into the size as sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, 81⁄2×11′′ paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut from a larger sheet into four pieces. In the United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, or 32 lb at most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more.
In Europe the weight is expressed in grams per square meter (gsm or just g). Printing paper is generally between 60 g and 120 g. Anything heavier than 160 g is considered card stock. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper, e.g., one ream of A4 (210 mm×297 mm) size (approx 8.27′′×11.7′′) weighs 2.5 kilograms (approx 5.5 pounds).
The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m3 (16 lb/ft3) for tissue paper to 1500 kg/m3 (94 lb/ft3) for some specialty paper. In some cases the density of printing paper is about 800 kg/m3 (50 lb/ft3).
The processes described herein are suitable for use with all of these grades of paper, as well as other types of paper such as corrugated cardboard, paper board, and other paper products. The processes described herein may be used to treat paper that is used, for example, in any of the following applications: as stamps; as paper money, bank notes, securities, checks, and the like; in books, magazines, newspapers, and art; for packaging, e.g., paper board, corrugated cardboard, paper bags, envelopes, wrapping tissue, boxes; in household products such as toilet paper, tissues, paper towel sand paper napkins; paper honeycomb, used as a core material in composite materials; building materials; construction paper; disposable clothing; and in various industrial uses including emery paper, sandpaper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper, paper chromatography, battery separators, and capacitor dielectrics. The paper may be single or multi-layered paper.
The paper may be made of any desired type of fiber, including fiber derived from wood and recycled paper, as well as fiber derived from other sources. Vegetable fiber materials, such as cotton, hemp, linen, and rice, can be used alone or in combination with each other or with wood-derived fibers. Other non-wood fiber sources include, but are not limited to, sugarcane, bagasse, straw, bamboo, kenaf, jute, flax, and cotton. A wide variety of synthetic fibers, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, as well as other ingredients such as inorganic fillers, may be incorporated into paper as a means for imparting desirable physical properties. It may be desirable to include these non-wood fibers in paper used in special application such as for paper money, fine stationary, art paper and other applications requiring particular strength or aesthetic characteristics.
The paper may be irradiated before or after printing. Radiation may be used to mark the paper, for example by increasing the number of carboxylic acid groups in the irradiated area. This may be useful, for example, in marking currency.
Process Water
In the processes disclosed herein, whenever water is used in any process, it may be grey water, e.g., municipal grey water, or black water. In some embodiments, the grey or black water is sterilized prior to use. Sterilization may be accomplished by any desired technique, for example by irradiation, steam, or chemical sterilization.
Examples
The following examples are not intended to limit the inventions recited in the claims.
Example 1
Methods of Determining Molecular Weight of Cellulosic and Lignocellulosic Materials by Gel Permeation Chromatography
This example illustrates how molecular weight is determined for the materials discussed herein. Cellulosic and lignocellulosic materials for analysis were treated as follows:
A 1500 pound skid of virgin bleached white Kraft board having a bulk density of 30 lb/ft3 was obtained from International Paper. The material was folded flat, and then fed into a 3 hp Flinch Baugh shredder at a rate of approximately 15 to 20 pounds per hour. The shredder was equipped with two 12 inch rotary blades, two fixed blades and a 0.30 inch discharge screen. The gap between the rotary and fixed blades was adjusted to 0.10 inch. The output from the shredder resembled confetti (as above). The confetti-like material was fed to a Munson rotary knife cutter, Model SC30. The discharge screen had 1⁄8 inch openings. The gap between the rotary and fixed blades was set to approximately 0.020 inch. The rotary knife cutter sheared the confetti-like pieces across the knife-edges. The material resulting from the first shearing was fed back into the same setup and the screen was replaced with a 1/16 inch screen. This material was sheared. The material resulting from the second shearing was fed back into the same setup and the screen was replaced with a 1/32 inch screen. This material was sheared. The resulting fibrous material had a BET surface area of 1.6897 m2/g+/−0.0155 m2/g, a porosity of 87.7163 percent and a bulk density (@0.53 psia) of 0.1448 g/mL. An average length of the fibers was 0.824 mm and an average width of the fibers was 0.0262 mm, giving an average L/D of 32:1.
Sample materials presented in the following Tables 1 and 2 include Kraft paper (P), wheat straw (WS), alfalfa (A), and switchgrass (SG). The number “132” of the Sample ID refers to the particle size of the material after shearing through a 1/32 inch screen. The number after the dash refers to the dosage of radiation (MRad) and “US” refers to ultrasonic treatment. For example, a sample ID “P132-10” refers to Kraft paper that has been sheared to a particle size of 132 mesh and has been irradiated with 10 MRad.







TABLE 1







Peak Average Molecular Weight of Irradiated Kraft Paper













Dosage1

Average MW ±


Sample Source
Sample ID
(MRad)
Ultrasound2
Std Dev.














Kraft Paper
P132
0
No
32853 ± 10006



P132-10
10
′′
 61398 ± 2468**



P132-100
100
′′
8444 ± 580 



P132-181
181
′′
6668 ± 77 



P132-US
0
Yes
3095 ± 1013





**Low doses of radiation appear to increase the molecular weight of some materials


1Dosage Rate = 1 MRad/hour


2Treatment for 30 minutes with 20 kHz ultrasound using a 1000 W horn under re-circulating conditions with the material dispersed in water.













TABLE 2







Peak Average Molecular Weight of Irradiated Materials












Peak
Dosage1

Average MW ±


Sample ID
#
(MRad)
Ultrasound2
Std Dev.





WS132
1
 0
No
1407411 ± 175191



2
′′
′′
39145 ± 3425



3
′′
′′
2886 ± 177


WS132-10*
1
 10
′′
26040 ± 3240


WS132-100*
1
100
′′
23620 ± 453 


A132
1
 0
′′
1604886 ± 151701



2
′′
′′
37525 ± 3751



3
′′
′′
2853 ± 490


A132-10*
1
 10
′′
50853 ± 1665



2
′′
′′
2461 ± 17 


A132-100*
1
100
′′
38291 ± 2235



2
′′
′′
2487 ± 15 


SG132
1
 0
′′
1557360 ± 83693 



2
′′
′′
42594 ± 4414



3
′′
′′
3268 ± 249


SG132-10*
1
 10
′′
60888 ± 9131


SG132-100*
1
100
′′
22345 ± 3797


SG132-10-US
1
 10
Yes
 86086 ± 43518



2
′′
′′
2247 ± 468


SG132-100-US
1
100
′′
 4696 ± 1465





*Peaks coalesce after treatment


**Low doses of radiation appear to increase the molecular weight of some materials


1Dosage Rate = 1 MRad/hour


2Treatment for 30 minutes with 20 kHz ultrasound using a 1000 W horn under re-circulating conditions with the material dispersed in water.






Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC) is used to determine the molecular weight distribution of polymers. During GPC analysis, a solution of the polymer sample is passed through a column packed with a porous gel trapping small molecules. The sample is separated based on molecular size with larger molecules eluting sooner than smaller molecules. The retention time of each component is most often detected by refractive index (RI), evaporative light scattering (ELS), or ultraviolet (UV) and compared to a calibration curve. The resulting data is then used to calculate the molecular weight distribution for the sample.
A distribution of molecular weights rather than a unique molecular weight is used to characterize synthetic polymers. To characterize this distribution, statistical averages are utilized. The most common of these averages are the “number average molecular weight” (Mn) and the “weight average molecular weight” (Mw). Methods of calculating these values are described in the art, e.g., in Example 9 of WO 2008/073186.
The polydispersity index or PI is defined as the ratio of Mw/Mn. The larger the PI, the broader or more disperse the distribution. The lowest value that a PI can be is 1. This represents a monodisperse sample; that is, a polymer with all of the molecules in the distribution being the same molecular weight.
The peak molecular weight value (MP) is another descriptor defined as the mode of the molecular weight distribution. It signifies the molecular weight that is most abundant in the distribution. This value also gives insight to the molecular weight distribution.
Most GPC measurements are made relative to a different polymer standard. The accuracy of the results depends on how closely the characteristics of the polymer being analyzed match those of the standard used. The expected error in reproducibility between different series of determinations, calibrated separately, is about 5-10% and is characteristic to the limited precision of GPC determinations. Therefore, GPC results are most useful when a comparison between the molecular weight distribution of different samples is made during the same series of determinations.
The lignocellulosic samples required sample preparation prior to GPC analysis. First, a saturated solution (8.4% by weight) of lithium chloride (LiCl) was prepared in dimethyl acetamide (DMAc). Approximately 100 mg of the sample was added to approximately 10 g of a freshly prepared saturated LiCl/DMAc solution, and the mixture was heated to approximately 150° C.-170° C. with stirring for 1 hour. The resulting solutions were generally light- to dark-yellow in color. The temperature of the solutions were decreased to approximately 100° C. and heated for an additional 2 hours. The temperature of the solutions were then decreased to approximately 50° C. and the sample solution was heated for approximately 48 to 60 hours. Of note, samples irradiated at 100 MRad were more easily solubilized as compared to their untreated counterpart. Additionally, the sheared samples (denoted by the number 132) had slightly lower average molecular weights as compared with uncut samples.
The resulting sample solutions were diluted 1:1 using DMAc as solvent and were filtered through a 0.45 μm PTFE filter. The filtered sample solutions were then analyzed by GPC. The peak average molecular weight (Mp) of the samples, as determined by Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC), are summarized in Tables 1 and 2, above. Each sample was prepared in duplicate and each preparation of the sample was analyzed in duplicate (two injections) for a total of four injections per sample. The EasiCal® polystyrene standards PS1A and PS1B were used to generate a calibration curve for the molecular weight scale from about 580 to 7,500,00 Daltons. GPC analysis conditions are recited in Table 3, below.







TABLE 3





GPC Analysis Conditions
















Instrument:
Waters Alliance GPC 2000



Plgel 10μ Mixed-B


Columns (3):
S/N's: 10M-MB-148-83;



10M-MB-148-84; 10M-MB-174-129


Mobile Phase (solvent):
0.5% LiCl in DMAc (1.0 mL/min.)


Column/Detector Temperature:
70° C.


Injector Temperature:
70° C.


Sample Loop Size:
323.5 μL









Example 2
Electron Beam Processing Cardboard Samples
Brown cardboard samples 0.050 inches thick were treated with a beam of electrons using a vaulted Rhodotron® TT200 continuous wave accelerator delivering 5 MeV electrons at 80 kW output power. Table 4 describes the nominal parameters for the TT200. Table 5 reports the nominal doses (in MRad) and actual doses (in kgy) delivered to the samples.







TABLE 4





Rhodotron ® TT 200 Parameters


















Beam




Beam Produced:
Accelerated electrons



Beam energy:
Nominal (maximum): 10 MeV




(+0 keV-250 keV



Energy dispersion at 10 Mev:
Full width half maximum




(FWHM) 300 keV



Beam power at 10 MeV:
Guaranteed Operating Range




1 to 80 kW



Power Consumption












Stand-by condition (vacuum
<15
kW



and cooling ON):





At 50 kW beam power:
<210
kW



At 80 kW beam power:
<260
kW










RF System




Frequency:
107.5 ± 1 MHz



Tetrode type:
Thomson TH781



Scanning Horn












Nominal Scanning Length
120
cm



(measured at 25-35 cm





from window):












Scanning Range:
From 30% to 100% of Nominal




Scanning Length



Nominal Scanning Frequency
100 Hz ± 5%



(at max. scanning length):




Scanning Uniformity (across
±5%



90% of Nominal Scanning




Length)
















TABLE 5







Dosages Delivered to Samples










Total Dosage (MRad)




(Number Associated with Sample ID
Delivered Dose (kgy)1













1
9.9



3
29.0



5
50.4



7
69.2



10
100.0



15
150.3



20
198.3



30
330.9



50
529.0



70
695.9



100
993.6





1For example, 9.9 kgy was delivered in 11 seconds at a beam current of 5 mA and a line speed of 12.9 feet/minute. Cool time between 1 MRad treatments was about 2 minutes.






The cardboard samples treated below 7 MRad were stiffer to the touch than untreated controls, but otherwise appeared visibly identical to the controls. Samples treated at about 10 MRad were of comparable stiffness to the controls to the touch, while those treated with higher doses were more flexible under manipulation. Extensive material degradation was visibly apparent for samples treated above 50 Mrad.
Other Embodiments
It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims.

## Claims

1. A method comprising:
making a paper product on a papermaking machine, using a pulp produced by a process comprising treating a lignocellulosic dry feedstock having a first average molecular weight with at least 2.5 MRad of ionizing radiation to reduce the average molecular weight of the feedstock and pulping the treated lignocellulosic feedstock.

2. The method of claim 1 further comprising subjecting the treated feedstock to a mechanical disintegrating process.

3. The method of claim 1 further comprising applying acoustic energy to the treated feedstock.

4. The method of claim 1 wherein the feedstock comprises wood chips.

5. The method of claim 1 wherein the dose of ionizing radiation is from about 2.5 to about 100 MRad.

6. The method of claim 1 wherein treating comprises irradiating with gamma radiation.

7. The method of claim 1 wherein treating comprises irradiating with electron beam radiation.

8. The method of claim 7 wherein electrons in the electron beam have an energy of at least 0.25 MeV.

9. The method of claim 1 wherein the molecular weight is reduced to about 20,000 to 500,000.

10. The method of claim 9 wherein the feedstock has a starting molecular weight of 1 million or greater.

11. The method of claim 1 wherein the dose of ionizing radiation is from about 25 MRad to about 500 MRad.