DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 254

I

E UNDERGROUND WATERS OF 

NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA

BY

STEPHEN R. CAPPS

WITH A CHAPTER ON

:HE CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF THE WATERS

R. B. DOLE

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1910
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIEECTOE

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 254

THE UNDERGROUND WATERS OF 

NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA

BY

STEPHEN K. CAPPS

WITH A CHAPTER ON

THE CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF THE WATERS

BY

R B nOTF Water Resources Bran*.

K. J3. DOLE/ . . ..,

Geological burvey,

Box 3106, Capitol Stalk*

Oklahoma Ciiy, Okk.

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1910
CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction,............................................................. 13

Need of investigations................................................. 13

Previous work......................................................... 13

Conditions under which work was done................................. 15

General summary of results............................................ 15

Acknowledgments...................................................... 16

Geography................................................................. 17

Drainage and relief.................................................... 17

Wabash River system............................................. 17

White River system............................................... 18

Kankakee River system........................................... 18

St. Joseph River system............................................ 18

Lakes............................................................ 18

Marshes........................................................... 19

Climate.............................................................. 19

Native vegetation..................................................... 21

' Soils and crops.................................:...................... 22

Special factors in development.......................................... 23

Oil and gas....................................................... 23

Transportation.................................................... 23

Inhabitants........................................................... 24

Geology.................................................................. 24

Outline of geologic history.............................................. 24

Relations of ground water to geology..................................... 25

Effect of glaciation on topography...................................... 26

Moraines......................................................... 27

Outwash plains-................................................... 27

Till plains........................................................ 27

Surface deposits........................................................ 27

Glacial till......................................................... 27

Description.................................................... 27

Distribution.................................................. 28

Topography................................................... 28

Ground water in the till....................................... 28

Source................................................... 28

Distribution and circulation............................... 29

Types of wells............................................. 29

Morainal drift..................................................... 29

Description.................................................... 29

Distribution.................................................. 30

Topography................................................... 30

Ground water in the morainal drift.............................. 31

Sources and distribution.................................... 31

Types of wells............................................. 31

Outwash deposits................................................. 31

Description.................................................... 31

Distribution.................................................. 31

Ground water in the outwash deposits........................... 32

3
4 CONTENTS.

Geology Continued. Page. 

Surface deposits Continued.

Valley alluvium.................................................. 32

Description and distribution.................................... 32

Ground water in the alluvium.................................. 33

Sand............................................................. 34

Character and distribution...................................... 34

Ground water in the sands..................................... 34

Eock formations...................................................... 35

General geologic section........................................... 35

Ordovician system................................................. 37

St. Peter sandstone............................................. 37

Description and distribution................................ 37

Source and movements of water............................ 38

Character of the water..................................... 38

Trenton limestone.............................................. 38

Description and distribution................................ 38

Source, occurrence, and movements of water................ 39

Character of water.......................................... 39

Dangers from Trenton water............................... 40

Cincinnatian series............................................ 40

Description................................................ 40

Source, occurrence, and movements of water................ 40

Character of water.......................................... 40

Silurian system................................................... 41

Niagara limestone................................. ........... 41

Kokomo limestone............................................. 42

Silurian water................................................ 42

Devonian system................................................... 44

Description.................................................... 44

Source, occurrence, and movements of water.................... 44

Carboniferous system (Mississippian series)........................... 44

Knobstone group.............................................. 44

Description............. .................................. 44

Source, occurrence, and movements of water................ 45

Ground water ............................................................. 45

Sources................................................................ 45

Prevailing ideas.................................................... 45

Actual conditions................................................. 46

Movements............................................................ 47

In the surface zone................................................ 47

In the deeper zones............................................... 48

Occurrence............................................................ 50

Relation to topography............................................. 50

Relation to structure.............................................. 50

Pores.......................................................... 50

Bedding planes............................................... 50

Joints........................................................ 51

Relation to type of material......................................... 51

Unconsolidated deposits........................................ 51

Consolidated deposits........................................... 51

Sandstones............................................... 51

Shales.................................................... 52

Limestones............................................... 52
CONTENTS. 5

Ground water Continued. Paga

Volume................................................................ 52

Mineral matter in solution............................................. 53

Springs............................................................... 53

Drift springs...................................................... 53

Rock springs....................................................... 54

Wells................................................................. 55

Methods of construction............................................. 55

Open wells.................................................... 55

Description............................................... 55

Disadvantages............................................ - 55

Bored wells................................................... 56

Driven and drilled wells....................................... 57

Driven wells.............................................. 56

Drilled wells............................................'... 57

Combination wells.............................................. 57

Flowing wells..................................................... 58

Essential conditions........................................... 58

In surface deposits................................ ........... 58

In rock....................................................... 59

Location of flowing wells....................................... 61

Lifting devices..................................................... 62

Bucket and windlass.......................................... 62

Siphon........................................................ 62

Pumps....................................................... 62

Hydraulic rams................................................ 62

Public supplies...................... .................................... 63

Relative merits of sources............................................... 63

Surface water..................................................... 63

Wells............................................................. 64

Springs.................................................... 1...... 65

Care of public water supplies........................................... 65

Public and private ownership of water supplies.......................... 66

Detailed descriptions....................................................... 70

Boone County.......................................................... 70

Surface features and drainage...................................... 70

Geology and ground water......................................... 70

Unconsolidated materials....................................... 70

Consolidated materials.......................................... 71

Artesian areas.................................................. 72

Supply for the city of Lebanon...................................... 73

Village and rural supplies...................... .................... 74

Thorntown..................................................... 74

Whitestown.................................................... 74

Zionsville...................................................... 75

Jamestown.................................................... 75

Rural districts................................................ 75

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................... 75

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 76

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 77

Carroll County........................................................ 78

Surface features and drainage...................................... 78

Geology, and ground water......................................... 78

Unconsolidated materials....................................... 78

Consolidated materials.......................................... 79

Artesian areas.................................................. 80
6 CONTENTS.

Detailed descriptions Continued.

Carroll County Continued. Page.

City and village supplies............................................ 81

Delphi....................................................... 81

Flora......................................................... 82

Camden....................................................... 83

Burlington.................................................... 83

Pittsburg..................................................... 83

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................... 84

Rural districts................................................ 84

Records of type wells (tabulated)............................... 85

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 86

Cass County........................................................... 87

Surface features and drainage...................................... 87

Geology and ground water......................................... 87

Unconsolidated materials....................................... 87

Consolidated materials.......................................... 89

Artesian areas.................................................. 89

City and village supplies............................................ 90

Logansport..................................................... 90

Royal Center.................................................. 91

Galveston...................................................... 92

Walton,...................................................... 92

Young America................................................ 92

, Other village supplies (tabulated)............................... 93

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ '93

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 94

Clinton County........................................................ 95

Surface features and drainage...................................... 95

Geology and ground water......................................... 95

Unconsolidated materials....................................... 95

Consolidated materials.......................................... 96

Artesian areas.................................................. 96

City and village supplies.......................... .................. 97

Frankfort..................................................... 97

Colfax...............................................^........ 98

Kirklin........................................................ 99

Rossville..................................................... 99

Mulberry................................................"..... 99

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................... 100

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 100

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 101

Elkhart County....................................................... 102

Surface features and drainage...................................... 102

Geology and ground water......................................... 103

Unconsolidated materials....................................... 103

Consolidated materials.......................................... 104

Artesian areas.................................................. 104

City and village supplies............................................ 104

Elkhart........................................................ 104

Goahen......................................................... 106

Nappanee..................................................... 107

Wakarusa............................................v......... 107

Middleburg.................................................... 107
CONTENTS. .7

Detailed descriptions Continued.

Elkhart County Continued. Page.

City and village supplies Continued.

Bristol......................................................... 107

Millersburg.................................................... 107

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................... 108

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 108

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 109

Fulton County......................................................... 110

Surface features and drainage...................................... 110

Geology and ground water......................................... Ill

TJnconsolidated materials....................................... Ill

Consolidated materials.......................................... Ill

Artesian areas................................................ 112

City and village supplies................................. ........ 112

Rochester.................................................... 112

Kewanna.................................................... 113

Akron....................................................... 114

Tiosa......................................................... 114

Fulton........................................................ 114

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................. 115

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 115

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 116

Grant County........................................................ 117

Surface features and drainage...................................... 117

Geology and ground water......................................... 118

Unconsolidated materials..................................... 318

Consolidated materials........................................ 119

Artesian areas................................................ 120

City and village supplies.......................................... 321

Marion........................................................ 121

Gas City..................................................... 122

Fairinount.................................................... 122

Jonesboro.................................................... 122

Upland...................................................... 123

Vanburen......................:............................. 123

National Military Home...................................... 124

Matthews..................................................... 124

Swayzee..................................................... 124

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................. 124

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 126

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 127

Hamilton County...................................................... 329

Surface features and drainage...................................... 129

Geology and ground water......................................... 129

Unconsolidated materials..................................... 129

Consolidated materials........................................ 130

Artesian areas................................................ 131

City and village supplies.......................................... 133

Noblesville.................................................. 133

Sheridan...................................................... 134

Cicero....................................................... 134

Arcadia...................................................... 134

Atlanta...................................................... 134
8 CONTENTS.

Detailed descriptions Continued.

Hamilton County Continued. Page. 

City and village supplies Continued.

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................. 135

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................. 136

Analyses of waters (tabulated)......................'.......... 137

Hancock County...................................................... 138

Surface features and drainage...................................... 138

Geology and ground water......................................... 138

Unconsolidated materials. .................................... 138

Consolidated materials........................................ 139

Artesian areas................................................ 140

City and village supplies.......................................... 141

Greenfield.................................................... 141

New Palestine................................................. 141

Fortville..................................................... 141

Charlottesville............................................... 141

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................. 142

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 142

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 143

Hendricks County..................................................... 143

Surface features and drainage...................................... 143

Geology and ground water......................................... 144

Unconsolidated materials..................................... 144

Consolidated materials. ....................................... 145

Artesian areas................................................ 145

City and village supplies. ......................................... 146

Danville...................................................... 146

Plainfield..................................... ............... 146

Pittsboro..................................................... 147

Brownsburg................................................... 147

Coatsville..................................................... 147

North Salem. ................................................ 147

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................. 148

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 148

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 149

Howard County. ............^ ........................................ 150

Surface features and drainage...................................... 150

Geology and ground water......................................... 150

Unconsolidated materials..................................... 150

Consolidated materials........................................ 151

Artesian areas................................................ 151

City and village supplies.......................................... 153

Kokomo. ... ................................................ 153

Greentown .................................................. 154

Russiaville.................................................... 154

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................. 155

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 156

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 157

Kosciusko County..................................................... 158

Surface features and drainage...................................... 158

Geology and ground water......................................... 159

Unconsolidated materials..................................... 159

Consolidated materials........................................ 159

Artesian areas................................................ 160
CONTENTS. 9

Detailed descriptions Continued.

Kosciusko County Continued. . Page.

City and village supplies.......................................... 161

Warsaw....................................................... 161

Syracuse..................................................... 162

Milford...................................................... 162

Pierceton..................................................... 162

Mentone..................................................... 163

Other village supplies (tabulated)............ ................ 163

Records of typical wells (tabulated"). ........................... 164

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 165

Madison County....................................................... 166

Surface features and drainage...................................... 166

Geology and ground water......................................... 166

Unconsolidated materials. .................................... 166

Consolidated materials........................................ 167

Artesian areas. ............................................... 168

City and village supplies.......................................... 169

Anderson.................................................... 169

Elwood...................................................... 170

Alexandria.................................................... 170

Frankton..................................................... 171

Summitville...... ........................................... 171

Pendleton. ............ ................................... 172

Lapel......................................................... 172

Orestes....................................................... 172

Ingalls........................................................ 172

Other village supplies (tabulated).............................. 173

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 174

Analyses of waters (tabulated) ................................ 175

Marion County........................................................ 177

Surface features and drainage...................................... 177

Geology and ground water......................................... 177

Unconsolidated materials....................................... 177

Consolidated materials........................................ 178

Artesian areas. ............................................... 179

City and village supplies.......................................... 179

Indianapolis.................................................. 179

Brightwood.................................................. 182

Fort Benjamin Harrison....................................... 182

Other village supplies (tabulated).............................. 183

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 184

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 185

Marshall County....................................................... 187

Surface features and drainage...................................... 187

Geology and ground water......................................... 188

Unconsolidated materials...................................... 188

Artesian areas................................................ 189

City and village supplies............................................ 190

Plymouth..................................................... 190

Bremen....................................................... 191

Argos......................................................... 191

Bourbon. .................................................... 192

Culver....................................................... 192

Other village supplies (tabulated).............................. 193
10 CONTENTS.

Detailed descriptions Continued. 

Marshall County Continued.

City and village supplies Continued. Page.

Records of typical wells (tabulated) ............................ 193

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 194

Miami County......................................................... 196

Surface features and drainage...................................... 196

Geology and ground water......................................... 197

Unconsolidated materials.........'............................. 197

Consolidated materials........................................ 198

Artesian areas................................................ 198

City and village supplies.......................................... 199

Peru......................................................... 199

Converse...................................................... 200

Denver. ................................ t ..................... 200

Bunker Hill.................................................. 201

Other village supplies (tabulated).................. ........... 201

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 202

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 203

St. Joseph County. ................................................... 205

Surface features and drainage...................................... 205

Geology and ground water......................................... 206

Unconsolidated materials...................................... 206

Artesian areas................................................ 206

City and village supplies.......................................... 207

South Bend................................................... 207

Mishawaka................................................... 209

Walkerton.................................................... 210

New Carlisle................................................... 210

North Liberty................................................ 211

Other village supplies (tabulated).............................. 211

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 212

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 213

Tipton County......................................................... 215

Surface features and drainage...................................... 215

Geology and ground water......................................... 216

Unconsolidated materials. .................................. ^.. 216

Consolidated materials. ........................................ 216

Artesian areas................................................ 217

City and village supplies.......................................... 217

Tipton........................................................ 217

Windfall...................................................... 218

Sharpsville.................................................... 218

Kempton. ................................................... 218

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................. 219

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 216

Analyses of waters (tabulated)................................. 220

Wabash County....................................................... 221

Surface features and drainage...................................... 221

Geology and ground water......................................... 222

Unconsolidated materials..................................... 222

Consolidated materials. ....................................... 223

Artesian areas................................................ 223

City and village supplies.......................................... 225

Wabash...................................................... 225

North Manchester............................................. 225
CONTENTS. 11

Detailed descriptions Continued. 

Wabash County Continued.

City and village supplies Continued. Page.

Roann........................................................ 226

La Fontaine.................................................. 226

Laketon...................................................... 226

Other village supplies (tabulated)............................. 227

Records of typical wells (tabulated)............................ 228

Analyses of water (tabulated) ................................. 229

Chemical character of the waters of north-central Indiana, by R. B. Dole..... 230

Introduction.......................................................... 230

Methods of analysis.................................................... 230

Expression of analytical results. ....................................^. I. 232

Standards for classification.............................................. 233

Mineral constituents of water....................................... 233

Uses of water...................................................... 234

Water for domestic purposes....................................... 234

Conditions in north-central Indiana............................ 234

Physical qualities............................................. 235

Bacteriological qualities....................................... 235

Chemical qualities............................................. 236

Water for boiler use................................................ 238

Importance of mineral content.................................. 238

Formation of scale............................................. 238

Corrosion................................ , ................... 239

Foaming...................................................... 240

Remedies for boiler troubles.................................... 240

Boiler compounds................................................ 241

Numerical standards.......................................... 242

Water for other industrial uses..................................... 244

General statement............................................ 244

Effect of free acids............................................ 245

Effect of suspended matter..................................... 245

Effect of color................................................. 246

Effect of iron.................................................. 246

Effect of calcium and magnesium.............................. 247

Effect of carbonates........................................... 248

Effect of sulphates............................................. 248

Effect of chlorides. ........................................... 248

Effect of organic matter........................................ 249

Effect of hydrogen sulphide................................... 249

Effect of other substances...................................... 249

Water for medicinal use........................................... 249

Purification of water................................................... 251

General discussion................................................ 251

Slow sand filtration................................................ 253

Mechanical filtration............................................... 255

Cold-water softening.............................................. 256

Feed-water heating............................................... 257

Chemical composition of the waters.................................... 258

Water from the unconsolidated deposits............................. 258

Water from the rock................................................ 261

Surface water..................................................... 262

Summary........................................................ 264

Field assays.......................................................... 265

Index................................................................... 269
ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page. 

PLATE I. Map of surface deposits of north-central Indiana................... 16

II. Map to show thickness of surface deposits of north-central Indiana.. 26

III. Geologic map of north-central Indiana........................... 36

IV. Map of artesian areas of north-central Indiana. ................... 58

V. A, A common type of well-drilling rig; B, Solution channels in

"Niagara" limestone.......................................... 58

VI. A, Water oozing from bedding planes of limestone; B, Flowing well

at Danville waterworks....................................... 118

VII. A, Flowing well at Matter Park, near Marion, Ind.; B, Well at Matter

Park when wells at a paper mill half a mile away are pumped...... 120

FIGURE 1. Index map showing area covered by this report. ................. 14

2. Relations of flood-plain wells to the neighboring stream.............. 46

3. Influence of surface slopes and of structure on movements of underground waters............................................... 48

4. Diagram showing relation of the water table to the surface topography. ...................................................... 50

5. Conditions producing springs in glacial drift. .................... 54

6. Conditions producing springs in rocks. .......................... 54

7. Conditions that yield artesian flows in moraines and in outwash

gravels...................................................... 59

8. Conditions of flow in alluvial gravels with head supplied from the

drift gravels................................................. 59

9. Conditions of flow in alluvial gravels with head supplied from the

limestone.................................................... 59

10. Conditions that yield artesian flows in rocks...................... 60

11. Conditions for artesian flows in limestone, with head supplied by the

overlying drift................................................ 61

12. Diagram showing source of artesian head in the valley of Deer Creek. 90 

12
UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

By STEPHEN R. CAPPS.

INTBODUCTION.

NEED OP INVESTIGATIONS.

The region discussed in this report includes an area of 7,611 square 

miles in north-central Indiana, between 85° 27' and 86° 44' west 

longitude and 39° 36' and 41° 46' north latitude. The counties 

included are Hendricks, Marion, Hancock, Boone, Hamilton, Madison, Clinton, Tipton, Carroll, Howard, Grant, Cass, Miami, Wabash, 

Fulton, Marshall, Kosciusko, St. Joseph, and Elkhart. (See fig. 1.)

The work was undertaken during the season of 1907 as a part of 

the underground-water investigations of the United States Geological 

Survey. The object of these investigations is to supply to communities, municipalities, and water users generally definite information as to the quantity, quality, distribution, accessibility, and proper 

safeguarding of the ground-water supplies, which, with the increasing 

pollution of surface waters by industrial wastes and a growing population, are becoming more and more important. North-central Indiana includes not only many closely settled farming and manufacturing 

centers, but a region in which there has been extensive development 

of the oil and gas industries, and hence there is particular need for 

reliable information upon which to base a proper practice in watersupply development. In such development in the future ground waters 

will-share as they have in the past. They are utilized for domestic 

supplies, for manufacturing enterprises of various sorts, and by railroads and other users of steam power. In some places large sums 

have been wasted in unwise attempts at development, as, for example, in deep drilling at points where a careful study of conditions proves 

that suitable supplies are to be found at shallow depths or not at all.

PREVIOUS WORK. *

In 1899 a paper on the wells of northern Indiana; by Frank Leverett,0 was issued by the Geological Survey. Although Mr. Leverett 

collected the material for this paper during his investigations of the

a Wells of northern Indiana: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 21,1899.

13
14 UISTDBEGEOUND WATBES OP JSTOETH-CB3STTEAL INDIANA.

glacial geology of the State and was not directing his attention particularly to the conditions of water supply, his results were found to 

be of such value that the edition of his paper was soon exhausted. 

W. S. Blatchley,a of the Indiana Geological Survey, has published 

an excellent paper on the mineral waters of Indiana. This paper,

L > \ «

I ^ v. *-^,-»/

FIGURE 1. Index nlap showing area covered by this report.

as its title indicates, deals only with a special phase of the general 

problem. In the sixteenth report of the state geologist of Indiana, 

the records of many deep wells are given, and a number of these records are used in the present paper.

a Blatcjhley, W. S., Mineral waters of Indiana: Twenty-sixth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and. 

Nat. Res., 1901.
INTRODUCTION. 15

The report of the Indiana state board of health for 1906 includes 

a description of the public water systems of the State. This paper, 

by H. E. Barnard, although brief, contains valuable data. Other 

scattered references to underground-water conditions occur in the 

various reports of the Indiana Geological Survey, but these reports 

are not complete for any considerable areas.

In this report many valuable data have been taken from the various 

reports of Franlf Leverett, especially in regard to the glacial geology 

of the area. The map of the glacial geology (PL I) is compiled from 

his earlier maps and from an unpublished map which will appear more 

fully under his name in a report of this Survey which is now in the 

hands of the printer. .The geologic map in this report follows the 

geologic map of Indiana, by T. C. Hopkins,tt and the geologic section is 

compiled from sections published by W. S. Blatchley and George II. 

Ashley,6 and by Frank Leverett.c

CONDITIONS TINDER WHICH WORK WAS DONE.

The field work upon which this report is based was begun July 1, 

1907, under the direction of F. G. Clapp. Mr. Clapp remained in the 

field until September 10, and the writer until November 9, of the 

same year. After Mr. Clapp withdrew from the field to undertake 

investigations elsewhere, the northern four counties were investigated 

wholly by the writer, by whom the report on the whole area was 

prepared.

The field study of the geology of this region was necessarily confined for the most part to the Pleistocene deposits, since the underlying rocks outcrop at the surface at widely separated localities, 

because of the thick mantle of glacial deposits overlying them. But 

wherever rock outcrops could be found they were studied carefully, 

especial attention being paid to joints, bedding planes, and other 

openings with reference to their capacity for holding or affording 

passage for underground waters.

Every township and every community of 25 people or more was 

visited and an examination made of the conditions of the local water 

supply. It was not possible to visit each well, but when such visits 

were impracticable correspondence with the owners yielded much 

information.

GENERAL, SUMMARY OF RE STILTS.

In the area under discussion a great variety of conditions are met 

in endeavoring to obtain supplies of underground water. About 

two-thirds of the area is covered with drift to a depth of over 100 

feet, and in such places by far the greater number of the wells obtain

a Hopkiiis, T, C., Geological map of Indiana; Indiana Geoi. Surv., 1901-1903.

6 Kept. Indiana State Geologist, 1897.

o Water-Supply Paper U, S. Geol. Survey No. 114, pp. 258-263,
16 TJNDEEGEOTJND WATEES OF NOBTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

their water from the drift. In the areas where the drift is less than 

100 feet thick the conditions also vary greatly. Where rock lies at 

a depth of 30 feet or less the greater number of wells reach or penetrate the rock. Where the drift is more than 30 feet thick less than 

half the wells reach the rock. This 30-foot dividing line is only 

approximate, however, and the conditions vary in different localities. 

As driven and drilled wells become more common the number of 

them that reach the rock increases.

There are few places in the area where enough water for domestic 

purposes can not be obtained at moderate depths. Difficulties are 

often met, however, in obtaining wells of sufficient yield for public 

supplies or for manufacturing purposes where large quantities of 

water are needed.

In order that the sources of the most abundant and accessible 

water supplies in this area might be reported upon definitely, the 

conditions in 378 cities, towns, and villages were investigated, and a 

considerable amount of work was done in the country districts between 

these communities.

Especial attention was paid to the water conditions in communities having public supplies. Recommendations are herein made as 

to possible improvements where such supplies are inadequate or show 

bad sanitary conditions.

More or less complete records of about 1,200 wells were procured. 

The more significant of these in each county, as well as the analyses 

of the various waters, are tabulated at the end of each county 

description.

In all, 83 areas in which flowing wells occur were visited and their 

outlines mapped. These areas are discussed in the county descriptions, and suggestions are made as to the possibility of obtaining 

flowing wells.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

From the nature of the work it was necessary that information 

should be obtained from a very large number of persons, of whom it 

is impossible to make individual mention but to all* of whom thanks 

are due for courtesies rendered. To Dr. J. N. Hurty, secretary of the 

state board of health, and to Dr. H. E. Barnard, chemist of the state 

board of health, the thanks of the author are particularly due for courtesies in analyzing water samples and for other assistance. In each 

congressional district the Representative gave valuable information and 

aid. The officials of the various railroads in the area have been uniformly courteous in furnishing information concerning the waters 

along their lines. A large number of chemical analyses and well 

records were obtained from the files of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railway, the Lake Erie and Western Railroad, 

the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railway, the Lake
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 254- PLATE I

86°

41°

40'

MICHIGAN"

44

40

.V*:i2j

'., Nofe The contours are based upon Leverell's

I topographic mapoFOhioand Indiana,upon railroad 

alhfudes,and upon aneroid deferminaHons by 

! F.G.CIapp and S.R.Capps

Compiled from published and unpublished

OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA 

SHOWING THE SURFACE DEPOSITS

BY STEPHEN R. CAPPS 

Scale e25,000

Corxto-u.r- inter>vml 5O feet 

19 O9

LEGEND

Alluvium Moraines Till pl.-tius Oiitwash. api-oiis and 

till plains

Bovclder belts
GEOGRAPHY. 17

Shore and Michigan Southern Kailway, and the Erie Kailroad. Records of a great number of oil and gas wells were obtained from Mr. 

L. A. Von Behren, of the Marion Gas Company; Mr. Charles Dale, of 

the Cicero Gas Company; Mr. Sherman, of the Noblesville Gas and 

Improvement Company, and many others. Material assistance was 

rendered by the majority of the superintendents and chief engineers 

of the city waterworks of the region, among whom Mr. H. McK. 

Landon, of the Indianapolis Water Company, and Mr. E. E. Hully, 

of the Marion Water Works Company, furnished especially valuable 

data. Of the many well drillers who were seen, the following made 

some sacrifice of time to give information: Messrs. John E. Weigel, 

of Marion; Charles Million, of Lake Cicott; the firm of Linton & 

Graf and Mr. Wm. H. Hay worth, of Logansport; Messrs. D. M. 

Kimmerling, of Anderson; S. Mason, of Fisher's Switch; Patrick 

O'Shea, of South Bend; and T. F. Hersey, of Lebanon. In addition 

to the foregoing a number of other citizens have taken interest in 

the work and given exceptional assistance in various ways. Among 

these are: The Hon. C. B. Landis, of Delphi; Mr. T. E. Cartwright, 

of Summitville; Dr. C. W. Burket, of Warsaw; Mr. Cicero Simms, of 

Frankfort; and Mr. S. T. Mark, of Alexandria.

GEOGRAPHY.

DRAINAGE AND RELIEF.

General relations. Except Elkhart County and parts of St. Joseph 

and Kosciusko counties, which drain by St. Joseph River into Lake 

Michigan, and a considerable portion of St. Joseph and Marshall 

counties, which drain by Kankakee River into Illinois River, the 

area under discussion lies in the Ohio River basin. It is a plateau 

from 700 to slightly more than 1,000 feet above sea level. Only the 

deeper river valleys fall below the lower limit, White River at the 

south edge of the area having an elevation of less than 700 feet, while 

Wabash River, at the west-central edge, has incised its valley considerably below the 600-foot level. The total range in elevation is 

about 450 feet. (See PI. I.)

Wabash River system. The largest and most important drainage 

basin of this region is that of Wabash River. This stream flows 

somewhat south of west across Wabash, Miami, Cass, and Carroll 

counties. It has a deep, well-developed valley, which is cut 100 to 

150 feet below the level of the bordering uplands. The flood plain 

of the stream varies in width from one-fourth mile to 2 or 3 miles, 

and is generally limited by bluffs of Niagara limestone, into which 

the valley has been cut. Wabash River and its tributaries drain 

about 4,050 square miles of the region under discussion, considerably 

.more than one-half the whole area. 

46448° WSP 254 10 2
18 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

The most important tributaries of the Wabash are (1) Mississinewa 

River in Miami, Wabash, and Grant counties; (2) Eel River in Kosciusko, Wabash, Miami, and Cass counties; (3) Tippecanoe River in 

Carroll, Kosciusko, and Fulton counties; (4) Pipe Creek in Cass, 

Miami, and Grant counties; (5) Wild Cat Creek in Carroll and Howard 

counties; (6) Eel River in Cass, Miami, and Wabash counties.

White River system. Next in importance to the Wabash basin in 

respect to the area drainage is the basin of West Fork of White River, 

with an area in this district of about 1,900 square miles. The stream 

flows west and south across Madison, Hamilton, and Marion counties 

and furnishes water for a number of the larger cities along its banks. 

The only important tributary within this area is Fall Creek, which 

flows through the same counties as White River but lies farther 

south and east.

Most of Hancock County and small areas in eastern Marion and 

southern Madison counties drain through Sugar and Brandywine 

creeks and their tributaries into East Fork of White River. Neither 

of these creeks is notable for its size or for the development of its 

valley.

Kankakee River system. The northern two-thirds of Marshall 

County arid the south and west parts of St. Joseph County are drained 

by Kankakee River and its tributaries. The river flows southwestward through the Kankakee marsh and joins Desplaines River below 

Joliet, 111., to form Illinois River.

St. Joseph River system. In the northeast corner of the region 

there is an area of about 700 square miles, including Elkhart and 

parts of St. Joseph and Kosciusko counties, which is tributary to St. 

Joseph River. This river flows into Lake Michigan and belongs to 

the great St. Lawrence drainage basin. It makes a loop southward 

from Michigan into Elkhart County and flows west-southwest to 

South Bend, at which city it turns sharply northward and reenters 

Michigan. Elkhart River, its only important tributary in Indiana, 

traverses Elkhart County from south to north and receives the drainage from a part'of northern Kosciusko County.

Lakes. Scattered throughout the morainic portions of this region 

are many small lakes and ponds. Almost without exception these 

lakes occupy basins left in the irregular surface of the glacial 

moraine deposits. Kosciusko County alone has over 60 such 

lakes, and they are numerous in St. Joseph, Elkhart, Marshall, and 

other counties. In spite of the abundance of these bodies of water 

there is none of great size. Wawasee and Syracuse lakes in northeast Kosciusko County are connected and form the largest lake in 

the area. They are together 6 miles long and have an area of a little 

more than 5 square miles. Some of these lakes, including Maxin-
GEOGRAPHY. 19

kuckee, Wawasee, and Winona lakes, have become popular as summer watering places.

Marshes. Much the same agencies that produced the lakes of 

this region have caused the extensive marshy areas that have 

existed, especially in the northern counties. Considerable areas in 

Fulton, Marshall, Kosciusko, and St. Joseph counties were formerly 

so marshy that cultivation was out of the question. Much has been 

done in the last generation to reclaim these wet lands, and networks 

of drainage ditches have so reduced the water level in some of the 

marshes that they are now annually plowed without great inconvenience from the moisture. The ditching is still in progress and 

the area of the waste lands is being rapidly reduced. Ditching projects have been especially successful in Cass, Kosciusko, and Marshall 

counties, and in these and in St. Joseph County are the largest of 

the areas still to be drained.

CLIMATE.

Northern Indiana is a region of temperate climate and moderate 

rainfall. The following tables show the temperature and precipitation for some stations within the area from 1900 to 1906, and by months 

for 1907. It will be seen that the highest temperature recorded in 

this period was 106° F., at Indianapolis in the summer of 1901, and 

the lowest was 24° F., at Delphi in the winter of 1905. These 

were both exceptional seasons, the average range of temperature for 

these cities being less than 110°.

Temperature at seven Indiana cities, 1900-1906. 

[Degrees Fahrenheit.]

Delphi.................

Delphi.................

1900.

Maximum.

94 

97 

94 

93 

95 

98 

93

Minimum.

-7 

-7 

-7 

-6 

0

_ g

-9

Mean.

51.6 

54.0 

52.7 

52.1 

52.7 

50.9

1903.

Maximum.

96 

100 

94 

97 

97 

97 

93

Minimum.

- 8 

-12 

- 9 

-10 

-10 

-12 

-10

Mean.

51.1 

49.4 

51.9 

50.7

50.6 

48.1

1901.

Maximum.

104 

104 

106 

102 

105 

105 

103

Minimum.

-11 

-12 

-10 

- 9 

-12 

-12 

-15

1904.

Maximum.

92 

95 

91

95 

94 

94

Minimum.

-13 

-20 

- 7 

-12

-15 

-18 

-11

Mean.

49.1 

47.6 

50.3

47.8 

48.2 

45.7

Mean.

51.2 

49.9 

52.0

50.2 

50.9 

49.1

1902.

Maximum.

93 

95 

93 

94 

' 96 

97 

91

1905.

Maximum.

90 

95 

92 

94 

96 

95

Minimum.

-17 

-24 

-16 

-20 

-19 

-20

Mean.

.50.9 

49.3 

51.8 

50.3 

49.2 

50.3

Minimum.

- 7 

-12

- 7 

-11 

-10 

-11

Mean.

51.8 

49.9 

52.4 

51.4 

50.7 

51.2 

49.5

1906.

Maximum.

93 

96 

92 

96 

98 

95 

95

Minimum.

-10 

-13 

- 2 

-19 

- 9 

-14 

- 6

Mean.
20 UNDERGROUND WATERS OE NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Precipitation at seven Indiana cities, 1900-1907. 

[Inches.]

Delphi ...............................

South Bend................ . ... ...

1900.

40.69

38.45

40.65

37.94

94 ee

1901.

28.68

30.92

30.33

31.37

29.52

32.35

1902.

39.20

42.51

37.70

40.86

39.96

40.63

41.53

1903.

34.68

33.48

32.46

31.50

38.38

39.81

42.32

1904.

40.61

40.23

45.42

32.43

41.88

31.47

1905.

45.33

40.87

33.27

38.14

39.64

39.27

1906.

32.85

39.27

36.47

35.97

41.70

43.54

35.63

1907.

43.33

44.91

38.56

38.54

44.62

43.70

43.58

Temperature at eight Indiana cities, by months, 1907. 

[Degrees Fahrenheit.]

Anderson .............. . .

Delphi.....................

Kokomo ........ ........ .

South Bend.. ....... .

Delphi .........

Indianapolis ..... .

South Bend. .............

Anderson.......

Delphi......... .

Indianapolis..... . .

Kokomo .........

Marion. ...... .............

South Bend. ...............

January.

Maximum.

66 

66 

69 

67 

65 

65 

60 

65

Minimum.

-1 

_ 2 

2 -3 

_ ^

-3 

-2

-4

Average.

33.0 

29.8

32.8 

30.2 

31.8 

30.6

26.7

May.

Maximum.

83 

84 

83 

82 

85 

84 

80 

80

Minimum.

32 

28 

34 

29 

30 

28 

30 

26

Average.

56.2 

54.8

54.' 5 

55.8 

55.2 

55.0 

51.9

September.

Maximum.

86 

92 

87 

90 

95 

88 

85 

91

Minimum.

37 

33 

40 

33 

35 

33 

37 

35

Average.

64.9 

63.7

"63." 4 

65 

64.2 

63.2 

63

February.

Maximum.

59 

58 

63 

59 

61 

58 

50 

53

Minimum.

3 

0 

6 -0 

-0 

2 -1 

-3

Average.

28.7 

26.4

28.4 

27.2 

27.6 

26.5 

24.4

June.

Maximum.

88 

92 

88 

92 

94 

93 

88 

90

Minimum.

40 

42 

45 

40 

44 

38 

42 

45

Average.

66.7 

66.8

"66." 5~ 

68.2 

67.2 

67.9 

65.6

October.

Maximum.

82 

86 

83 

85 

89 

84 

72 

83

Minimum.

20 

23 

31 

25 

26 

55 

27 

27

Average.

51

48.8

49.4 

50.2 

49.8 

49.3

48.4

March.

Maximum.

82 

85 

82 

84 

86 

85 

75 

82

Minimum.

20 

17 

24 

17 

18 

18 

20 

15

Average.

48.0 

44.8

48.0 

46.6 

46.6 

44.6 

41.6

July.

Maximum.

90 

93 

93 

90 

93 

91 

88 

87

Minimum.

52 

45 

52 

45 

46 

48 

50 

47

Average.

73.4 

73.6

"72." 7~ 

75.2 

74.2 

74.2 

71.0

November.

Maximum.

 61 

60 

58 

58 

59 

56 

55 

56

Minimum.

18 

15 

20 

15 

17 

17 

19 

26

Average.

39.3 

37

"39.T 

39 

38.2 

38.1 

37.9

April.

Maximum.

75 

80 

75 

77 

78 

79 

69 

70

Minimum.

22 

19 

27 

20 

20 

19 

21 

17

Average.

42.3 

41.4

41.9 

42.4 

43.2 

41.4 

39.0

August.

Maximum.

89 

94 

90 

93 

95 

92 

87 

90

Minimum.

49 

45 

54 

45 

46 

45 

48 

45

Average.

70.2 

70.0

"69." 8 

71.2 

70.5 

70.1 

69.0

December.

Maximum.

60 

CO 

60 

60 

61 

60 

55 

55

Minimum.

10 

9 

18 

11 

10 

9 

10 

14

Average.

33.4 

30.8

34." 6 

32 

32.4 

31.8 

29.8

Precipitation at eight Indiana cities, by months, 1907. 

[Inches.]

Anderson....... .

Delphi..............

Indianapolis.... ....

South Bend.........

Jan.

6.40

7 00

7.68

5

CQ

4.60

7.01

4.80

3.42

Feb.

0.15

QO

.18

.04

.35

.15

.15

.42

Mar.

4.69

3 93

4.07

3.80

4.62

5.31

3.91

Apr.

2.76

1 Q1

2.07

2 08

1.71

2.64

2.32

3.76

May.

2.85

2.85

2.35

4.20

4.13

June.

4.88

S

en

4.68

6.46

4.83

July.

6 43

4.41

4.88

e 7Q

4.61

5.10

Aug.

Q OC

2.33

4.05

6

19

2.99

3.48

Sept.

2.27

2.31

2.51

2.71

2.66

4.73

4.82

Oct.

1.89

2.23

2.42

1.70

2.35

1.60

2.43

Nov.

2.18

2.52

1.74

2.42

2.00

2.57

2.36

Dec.

3.48

5.53

3.23

3.83

4.84

4.40

4.92

Year.

JO QQ

44 91

QQ KA

44. 62

44.14

43.58
GEOGRAPHY. 21

The annual precipitation, which is rather evenly distributed, 

varies from, about 30 inches in very dry seasons to over 40 inches in 

wet seasons, but even in the driest seasons there is usually enough 

rain to insure crops.

As the ground is frozen for about four months each year, and the 

precipitation then is of course in the form of snow, very little of it can 

enter the ground during that period. During the remaining eight 

months the soil is in condition to absorb large amounts of the rainfall, 

and this goes to swell the ground-water supply. The direct influence 

of the rainfall on shallow wells is noticeable wherever such wells are 

in use. During the spring, when the rainfall is heaviest, and when, 

in addition, the snows that have accumulated on the surface during 

the winter melt, the ground-water level often rises notably, sometimes filling wells nearly to the top and flooding cellars which are not 

tightly walled and floored. Later, in the dry summer months, the 

water table is lowered by evaporation from the surface, by leakage 

from springs and seeps along the lowlands, and by the drain upon the 

waters by vegetation and by wells. In seasons of exceptional drought 

the water table may be so lowered below the bottom of the shallower 

wells that they fail. Often if such wells are deepened a few feet the 

water table is again encountered, and the wells once more become 

productive.

The influence of climatic or seasonal conditions on the deeper 

wells is much less evident. In most deep-lying formations the 

movements of the water are very slow, and a change in the supply 

caused by seasonal conditions might be observable, if at all, not 

until long after the cause for the change had passed.

The waters in many deep water-bearing rocks are under hydrostatic pressure from a head at some distant point, and are separated 

from the surface by impervious beds. Under such conditions, 

changes in season or in rainfall in the area about the well would 

have no effect whatever upon the supply of the well, unless they 

also were effective in the region from which the water-bearing beds 

derived their supply.

NATIVE VEGETATION.

The greater part of northern Indiana was originally heavily 

timbered, and the timber lands still produce a considerable amount 

of saw logs. The white, red, and burr oak logs are much sought, 

and the best bring high prices from the manufacturers of furniture 

and veneer. Beech is the timber of next importance; hickory, elm, 

ash, and maple are also abundant.

The timber lands are now nowhere extensive, and have been 

reduced to small areas which are surrounded by cultivated fields. 

Carelessness and waste are still exhibited in the management of the
22 UNDERQUOTING WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

timber lands and the cutting of timber, and a little study and care 

would greatly increase the future production of the forests, which 

become more and more valuable with the rapidly advancing price 

of lumber.

Undisturbed timber lands are admirable agents in the conservation of underground water. The thick loamy soil of woodlands, 

formed of decaying matted leaves and roots, is well adapted to retain 

moisture, and the shade of the forest greatly retards evaporation. 

By retaining the water that falls upon them the forest soils reduce 

the run-off and increase the quantity that sinks into the ground. 

Thus the forest lands act as reservoirs and assist in equalizing the 

ground-water supply. In the areas where all forests have been 

cut away and the fields put under cultivation it has been noticed 

that the water table has fallen, and wells which formerly furnished 

abundant water are now dry for part of the year.

SOILS AND CROPS.

The soils of northern Indiana, though varied, are for the most 

part rich, as are most of the soils in the Mississippi Valley which 

have been deposited by glacial agencies. Most of the farm lands 

have a soil composed of a mixture of oxidized glacial clay and organic 

material. The glacial till is a mixture of ingredients gathered from 

the country to the north, and the efficiency of this mixture has long 

been known from the large production of most of the areas which 

were fortunately coated with it. As far down as it reaches this till 

is fertile, and as the average thickness over northern Indiana is more 

than 100 feet, there is at least no immediate danger that the soils 

will be removed from this region by erosion. The glacial drift, originally bluish, has commonly been oxidized to yellow for a few feet 

below the surface.

In many areas which are or have been low and marshy there is 

a layer a foot or two thick of light, black soil largely composed of 

decomposed vegetable matter. This soil is locally called muck, 

and in certain sections it produces large crops of onions and potatoes. 

The vegetable matter has in some places accumulated in sufficient 

amount and purity to form a considerable layer of peat.

Along the bottom lands of both large and small streams are found 

the alluvial soils. The extent of these alluvial areas varies with the 

width of the valley bottoms, but wherever found they furnish most 

desirable farming land, unless the high waters from the streams 

flood them too frequently.

In the northern counties there are broad flat areas mapped by 

Leverett as sandy till plains (PL I), in which are various combinations 

of till-plain and outwash materials. As a whole the soils in these
GEOGRAPHY. 23

areas contain more sand and gravel than the soils of the typical till 

plains, as in much of western Kosciusko and eastern Marshall counties.

Along the west edge of Marshall, Fulton, St. Joseph, and Cass 

counties are areas where the surface materials consist for the most 

part of impure sands. These sandy areas are on the eastern edge of 

what was in glacial times a broad shallow lake, which has been named 

Lake Kankakee. The sands were deposited along the shores of the 

lake and winds have spread them over much country that never lay 

beneath the lake itself. The sandy soils are cultivated in many places, 

but will not support as heavy crops as the clayey soils.

Northern Indiajnafalls within the "corn belt," and a greater acreage 

is devoted to this cereal than to any other crop. Over much of 

the country wheat is a close rival at present, the high price of wheat 

in the past few years having caused much land which had previously 

been used for corn culture to be planted in wheat. Oats and other 

cereals are also important crops, while in some places onions and 

potatoes are cultivated almost to the exclusion of the grains.

SPECIAL FACTORS IN DEVELOPMENT.

Oil and gas. Within the last twenty-five years rich strikes of 

petroleum and natural gas have been made in various parts of the 

area, and, as usual, many people have been attracted to the oil and gas 

fields. The oil was piped or hauled to various centers outside of the 

producing fields to be refined, but the gas drew to the fields a multitude of manufacturers who, seeing increased profits from the use 

of this cheap and abundant fuel, located their plants wherever the gas 

was to be had. A list of the various users of gas for manufacturing 

purposes in the year 1888 is given in one of the reports of the Department of Geology and Natural History of Indiana.0 Since that report 

was published, however, the supply has diminished greatly and 

numerous wells have been abandoned. Some districts have " played 

out" entirely. Many factories found it impossible to operate successfully, and their vacant buildings are a common sight in the old 

gas fields.

Transportation. The situation of the area gives it uncommon 

transportation facilities. All the railroads between Chicago and 

the East take courses south or southeast around the south end of 

Lake Michigan, and most of these roads cross the area considered in 

this report. In addition, a network of railroads crosses in other 

directions, and these roads, with the increasing number of electric 

interurban lines, afford exceptional opportunities for marketing crops 

and for easy communication between towns. The rapid development 

of the country is in large measure due to these conditions.

"Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., pp. 280-301.
24 UNDERGROUND WATEES OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

INHABITANTS.

The nineteen counties covered by this report have an aggregate 

area of 7,611 square miles. As shown by the census of 1900, the 

population was then 781,690, an average of 102 inhabitants to the 

square mile. The actual distribution of the population, however, is 

rather irregular. In Fulton County settlement is least dense, there 

being but 45 people to the square mile, while in Marion County the 

average is 493 to the square mile. This high average is due, of course, 

to the location in Marion County of Indianapolis, which is much the 

largest city in the State.

South Bend, the second city in size in the area, had, in 1900, a 

population of 35,999. There were at that time no other cities larger 

than 30,000.

Aside from the cities, the population throughout the nineteen 

counties is rather evenly distributed, and the larger counties have, 

in general, a proportionately large population.

GEOLOGY.

OUTLINE OF GEOLOGIC HISTORY.

Briefly, the geologic history of this area is as follows: For a very 

long period, during Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and 

Carboniferous times, the seas over this region varied in depth from 

time to time, giving the conditions necessary for the successive 

formation of sandstones, shales, and limestones to a thickness of 

several thousand feet. Between the deposition of the Cambrian and 

the Carboniferous sediments there were certainly a few and probably 

many periods when land emerged from the seas and was worn away 

by the streams, waves, and winds. After and probably during 

Carboniferous time there was a general emergence of this land from, 

the water, and perhaps the area has never since been covered by the 

sea. At different times during the slow processes of sedimentation 

and of changes in the relations of land and sea stresses were set up 

in the rocks of the earth's surface at certain places and the beds were 

locally folded and distorted, as we can now see by the notable departure of the beds from, the horizontal, as at Delphi. During this long 

period of emergence the land was subjected to the erosion of streams 

and other agencies and was doubtless notably reduced. The land 

surface was cut into ridges and valleys and the streams established 

well-developed drainage lines. This was the condition at the beginning of the glacial period. .

The glacial period began when a great glacier* slowly advanced 

from the north, covering the land with ice many hundreds and perhaps many thousands of feet thick. The more prominent irregularities 

of the rock surface were worn away and the topography was funda-
RELATIONS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS TO GEOLOGY. 25.

mentally changed. In the course of time, from changes in climatic 

conditions, the glacier melted back far to the north, leaving behind 

it great quantities of detrital material. Later there came again at 

least one and perhaps more than one ice invasion, reducing still further 

the rock surfaces or overriding the former deposits and adding to the 

already enormous deposits of glacial debris.

With the final withdrawal of the ice the Recent period was begun. 

Since the beginning of this period the streams and other erosional 

agencies have been constantly at work, reestablishing drainage lines 

to replace those which the glaciers disturbed and placing under stream 

control the irregular surfaces of the glacial deposits. Much work 

still remains to be done by the streams before the marshes and lakes 

are all drained, but this work is being forwarded in a notable way 

by the artificial construction of drainage ditches.

RELATIONS OF GROUND WATER TO GEOLOGY.

A very intimate relation exists between the geology of a region and 

its underground water supply. With the temperate climate and 

abundant rainfall with which the area here under discussion is 

favored, the abundance of the ground water, the ease with which it 

can be obtained, and the character of the water depend in great measure upon the structure, texture, and composition of the materials 

which compose the upper portion of the earth's crust. The underground waters occupy the openings of various kinds which exist in 

the materials below the surface. With favorable conditions of 

topography, the underground waters will be easily available if such 

openings are numerous, large, and continuous, and will be difficult to 

obtain if the openings are few, small, and discontinuous. The 

chemical character of the water, too, is determined by the chemical 

composition of the materials through which it passes, by the solubility of the constituents, by the length of time the water remains 

in contact with the soluble elements, and by conditions of pressure, 

temperature, etc. A fuller discussion of the relation of the different 

types of materials to the underground waters will be given in the following pages. As the relation of the underground waters to the formations in which they occur is a definite one, it is possible, if the 

character, composition, and depth of the underlying formations are 

known, to predict with a considerable degree of accuracy the amount, 

character, and depth of the water which may be obtained by wells in 

a given place. A careful study of the geology and of the succession 

of geologic formations is therefore necessary for a proper interpretation 

of the facts collected in an investigation of this kind.
26 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 

EFFECT OF GLACIATION ON TOPOGRAPHY. 

MOVEMENTS OF THE ICE.

Before the great ice invasions of the glacial epoch the topography 

of this region was very different from that of the present. At that 

time the great sheet of bowlder clay, now covering the region, was 

absent, and the then-existing surface forms were the result of erosion 

by preglacial streams in the rocks which at present underlie the 

mantle of glacial deposits. Most of these earlier stream valleys had 

courses very different from those followed by the present streams, 

and the surface of the country was much steeper and more rugged 

than it is now. Upon the advance of the great glacier from the north 

all this was changed. The ice, moving slowly south, first removed 

all the soil and loose materials, and then, with its base shod with 

fragments of rock frozen into the ice, gradually wore down the hills 

and smoothed off the most prominent irregularities. Great quantities of rock debris were picked up and carried by this ice sheet. 

Much of this material was collected from areas far to the north, from 

which the ice came, and many bowlders of crystalline rock are scattered over the surface and incorporated with the bowlder clay. As 

there are no crystalline rocks in place for a long distance north of the 

present position of some of these bowlders, it is certain that they 

must have been carried far before they were dropped by the ice.

The materials which the ice gathered in its southward journey 

were deposited toward the south or melting edge of the glacier. 

Much was deposited beneath the. thinning glacier edge as till, filling 

depressions and grading over the worn rock surfaces. Many of those 

stream valleys which had not been erased by the grinding action of 

the glacier were filled full and leveled over by the deposits of glacierbrought debris. Some such filled-in valleys can be recognized by collecting the records of well drillings, some of which show a great 

depth to rock, while others near by reach rock at much shallower 

depths. Such an old preglacial valley is that described by J. A. 

Bownocker,a which runs from the Ohio River Valley near Cincinnati 

north along the present Little Miami Valley, and then northwest and_ 

west through Grant and into Wabash County. This buried canyon 

certainly continues still farther north and west, but the data at 

present available are insufficient to determine its entire course. 

There is some evidence that it follows the course indicated in Plate 

II, across Wabash and Miami counties.

It has been shown b that this region has been subjected to more 

than one glacial invasion, but it was the last ice advance that had 

the greatest influence in molding the present surface, for the last

« Ohio State Acad. ScL, Special Paper No. 3.

6 Eighteenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4, 1898, p. 434.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 254 PLATE

K KJART '

PLYMOUTH^ 

I */ / - f Iitwo

^ROCHESTER

VPx. G I, N T

FRANKFORT©

Salem Brovmaburg |

, Nohe. The corUoursare based upon LevereH-'s

J ] I topographic map oFOhio and Indiana,upon railroad

1 a!Mhudes,and upon aneroid de^e^minal ions by 

1 T.G.CIappand S.R.Capps

can be considered only approxiMAP OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA

SHOWING THE THICKNESS OF SURFACE DEPOSITS

BY STEPHEN R. CAPPS

Scale eseT

U) 2O Miles

Corvtoxir irxteirvT*! 5O feet

H« .ck at O to 2O feet 

l>elow the. surface

Rock at 2O to 50 feet Rock at 5O to TOO feet Rock at 1OO to 200 feet Rock at more than 2OO feet 

below the sirr-face below the surface below the surface below the surface
SUfiFACE DEPOSITS. 27

glacier rehandled and rearranged the materials which it found in its 

course and effaced the irregularities of the drift as left by its predecessor, while its own moraines are unmodified by destructive agencies 

except the slow ones of weathering and stream erosion since the 

withdrawal of ice.

MORAINES.

At the edge of the ice, as it covered this region, was deposited much 

of the material that it had picked up and carried with it. Many of 

these deposits form huge irregular ridges, which the ice left as it 

retreated, forming successive moraines farther and farther north. 

As the edge of the ice sheet was irregular in outline, and as the general retreat of the glacier was irregular and interrupted by short 

advances, the moraine deposits are most unsystematic. The ice at. 

each advance would modify or destroy all the. previously formed 

moraines over which it passed. m These conditions account for the 

irregular and patchy distribution of the morainic areas, as shown on 

the map (PL I).

OUT WASH PLAINS.

At the base of many of the morainic deposits are plains of fine 

gravels, sands, and silts which slope at a low angle away from the 

morainic ridges. These plains were deposited at the time the glaciers 

were building the moraines. The abundant waters from the melting 

ice flowed away from the ice edges and carried with them large quantities of the finer debris. This material was deposited beyond the 

moraines and built up the gentle slopes there. It is in such deposits 

or in the irregular gravel beds of the moraines themselves that most 

of the gravel pits throughout the area are located.

TILL PLAINS.

Perhaps the most notable topographic feature of this area is the 

great extent of the plains formed of pebbly clay or till. These plains 

were built below the body of the glacier wnich was advancing over 

them, and the present level or slightly rolling surface of much of the 

country, especially south of Wabash River, is due to these deposits 

of till or ground moraine. The till is discussed more fully in the following pages.

SURFACE DEPOSITS.

GLACIAL TILL. 

DESCRIPTION.

The term till has been applied to those clayey phases of glacial 

debris which were laid down by the great ice sheets that covered this 

area in Pleistocene times. It consists of a compact clayey matrix, 

through which are scattered pebbles, bowlders, and angular pieces
28 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

of rock ranging from microscopic dimensions to a diameter of several 

feet. The rock fragments in this particular region are derived generally from the local limestones. There are many representatives, 

however, of the crystalline rocks of Canada that were brought hundreds of miles by the ice to their present resting place. The large 

bowlders in the till are usually of these more resistant crystalline rocks. 

At some places the till contains thin beds of rudely stratified gravels 

or sands, but these form only a small percentage of the total thickness.

DISTRIBUTION.

Originally the till sheet seems to have been continuous over the 

whole area. Postglacial erosion has now removed it from a few narrow strips along the valleys of the more important streams, but otherwise the till sheet is practically unbroken. It does not, however, 

outcrop everywhere at the surface. Plate I shows the present distribution of the till plains. Although much of the surface is now 

occupied by morainal deposits, outwash plains, and alluvium, the 

moraines and outwash deposits generally and the alluvium in most 

places are underlain by this great till sheet. The till varies in thickness in different parts of the area from a thin layer to more than 400 

feet, and probably averages more than 100 feet thick throughout 

north-central Indiana (PL II).

TOPOGRAPHY.

The till, where not overlain by morainal deposits, has characteristically a very mild topography. Over entire townships there is 

often a range of only a few feet in elevation, with even the stream 

valleys less than a dozen feet below the level of the plain. The dead 

level of a perfect plain is usually broken by slight undulations or 

swells of 4 or 5 feet from trough to crest. This extensive till sheet 

forms the broad plateau of the whole region here discussed. The 

plateau surface ranges from a little below 700 feet to about 900 feet 

above sea level, and is broken by the valleys of the larger streams 

and by the more or less ridgelike, superimposed terminal-moraine 

deposits.

GROUND WATER IN THE TILL.

Source. As it occupies the plateau tops and the crests of the 

stream divides, the till must receive most of its water from the rainfall. The flatness and imperfect drainage of much of its surface 

results in the absorption of a large proportion of the rainfall. In 

those areas where the till is overlain by gravelly morainic drift these 

more porous materials receive the rainfall and feed it to the underlying till. In places, too, there are deep preglacial valleys in the rock 

surface which have been filled with till, and here it doubtless receives 

some water from the rock. For the most part, however, the waters 

are absorbed directly from the rainfall.
SURFACE DEPOSITS. * 29

Distribution and circulation. By far the greater part of the till is 

composed of a fine-grained clay, which has a rather large proportion 

of pore space, but in which the individual pores are small. In the 

flat areas the water table approaches close to the surface, and most 

of the body of this material is saturated with water contained in these 

pores. The thin beds of gravel or sand, or of gravelly or sandy clay, 

also have a large amount of pore space, with larger individual pores. 

In some of these beds, if they happen to be higher at one end than at 

the other, waters under artesian pressure are found, the more impervious clayey beds above and below being effective in preventing the 

dissipation of the head which the slope of the bed gives to the water.

Even in the close-textured portion of the till there is some circulation of the waters, but the movement is very sluggish. On the 

other hand, in coarse gravel beds in the till the circulation may be 

very rapid. There may be all gradations in rapidity of movement 

between these two extremes, the rate varying with variations in the 

texture of the material.

Types of wells. In most till areas the amount of available water 

for well supply is small. The most common wells are open or dug, 

and these will generally supply sufficient water for domestic use. 

They have been locally called seep wells, from the slow way in which 

the water seeps out of the till, and definite water channels are rarely 

encountered in this material. Dug wells, while furnishing sufficient 

water for ordinary domestic use during most of the year, are apt to 

fail in exceptionally dry seasons when the water table has become 

lower than usual. Furthermore, the open shallow wells are always in 

danger of pollution from cesspools and barnyards, the drainage from 

which enters the ground and becomes part of the ground-water supply. 

Tubular wells that case off the surface waters are much safer and can 

more easily be put down to such depths that they will not be affected 

by drought. If tubular wells will not supply sufficient water, deep 

dug wells, open only near the bottom, and with tightly cemented 

walls and tops, are recommended.

MORAINAL DRIFT. 

DESCRIPTION.

The terminal-moraine deposits in this region are formed largely of 

the same sort of materials as those which make up the till. They 

consist of a heterogeneous mixture of glacial debris, composed of 

great bowlders, pebbles, and blocks of rock mixed indiscriminately 

with sands and clays. The common matrix of this unstratified mass 

is a blue clay. The bowlders and bits of rock included in the drift 

are derived both from the native rocks of the area and from the 

crystalline rocks of the upper course of the glacier in Canada, Inter-
30 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

bedded with the unassorted drift are numerous lenses or pockets 

of stratified sands and gravels, some lying flat and some much disturbed. The morainal drift differs from the till in that it has never 

been subjected to the great pressure of an overriding ice body, and 

has not had the glacial kneading and squeezing which has given the 

till its tough, compact character.

DISTRIBUTION.

The morainic tracts, of irregular shapes and distribution, were 

deposited at the ice edge during the retreat of the glacier. Doubtless 

many moraines that do not now exist were built while the ice was 

advancing or during temporary halts in the general period of advance. 

Such moraines, however, were overridden and obliterated by the 

southward-moving ice edge. Only those survived which were built 

on territory which the ice never again invaded. In an area in which 

the moraine material is thin or absent we may inferv that the final 

ice retreat was continuous and rapid. The presence of a well-defined 

moraine ridge indicates that the ice edge was approximately stationary at this point for some time.

The distribution of the different morainic areas is shown on Plate I. 

It will be seen that, while scattered irregularly over the entire area, 

they are more prominent topographically and more continuous north 

of Wabash River than south of it.

The Maxinkuckee moraine extends, in this area, from Tippecanoe 

River in Fulton County north through Marshall into St. Joseph, and 

thence eastward through Elkhart County. Another, deposited 

between two lobes of the great glacier, extends from a point a few 

miles north of Delphi northeastward through Carroll,. Cass, Miami, 

Wabash, and Kosciusko counties. The other moraines are smaller^ 

more patchy in distribution, and of less vigorous development.

TOPOGRAPHY.

Since terminal moraines are deposited along the front of a glacier 

it is natural to expect them to be more or less ridgelike in form. 

This is true of the great belt which crosses parts of Cass, Miami, 

Fulton, Wabash, and Kosciusko counties from northeast to southwest, and of portions of the Maxinkuckee moraine. The smaller 

patches are ridgelike only in their general relations to the surrounding till plateau. The surface commonly consists of an irregular 

succession of sharp hills and basin-like depressions. Many of the 

depressions contain lakes or have been silted up to form marshes. 

In many parts the moraine surface is thickly strewn with bowlders, 

most of them of the resistant crystalline rocks.
SURFACE DEPOSITS. 31 

GROUND WATER IN THE MORAINAL DRIFT.

Sources and distribution. All the moraines lie on top of the till 

plateau and stand up somewhat above their surroundings. Because 

of their elevated position the only source for the underground water 

of these deposits is the rainfall, a large part of which is absorbed by 

the porous drift. Some of it issues from the drift as springs or seeps 

near the base of the moraine, and some is fed to the underlying till.

In the moraines much of the water-is held in the fine pores and 

gravelly portions of the unstratified clays. The clays give up their 

waters slowly, and wells in the bowlder clay, though commonly 

yielding enough water for household use, do not generally strike 

abundant supplies. Those wells which penetrate bodies of gravel 

or coarse sand, on the contrary, commonly yield largely, and it is 

from such open beds that most of the wells in the moraines obtain 

their water. The coarse gravel and sand beds are miheh more common in morainal drift than in the till plains, and as a result wells are 

more easily obtained and the water supplies are more abundant in 

the drift than in the till.

Types of wells, Almost anywhere in the morainic areas tubular 

wells may be successful if they are continued downward to a bed of 

open material. Bowlders are encountered by many wells in the drift, 

causing difficulty, but. most wells that avoid them are successful. 

Artesian wells are in some places obtained in the drift gravels and 

sands.

OUTWASH DEPOSITS. 

DESCRIPTION.

Beyond the edge of a terminal moraine the till plain is in many 

places covered by an outwash plain formed while the moraine was 

being built. The abundant waters from the melting ice, heavily 

charged with detiris from the glacier, built out alluvial fans of low 

slope from the base of the terminal moraine. In places the fans 

coalesced to form a continuous outwash plain or apron. Outwash 

plains are composed of imperfectly assorted gravel, sand, and silt. 

The individual particles of the beds are of the same materials which 

make up the moraines, but the assorting action of the waters has 

separated and arranged them, the coarser materials lying nearest the 

moraine and the finer farther away.

DISTRIBUTION.

While all the outwash plains are in close relation to the moraines 

next to which they were formed, such plains are not present beyond 

every mojcaine, but only where the slopes caused the glacial waters to 

flow out over a flat plain, as in northwest Kosciusko and eastern 

Marshall County (PI. I). Where the waters drained into deep valleys and left their deposits in them, the chances were favorable for 

the postglacial removal of the outwash gravels.
32 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 

GROUND WATER IN THE OTTTWASH DEPOSITS.

The outwash plains receive much of their water directly from the 

rainfall, and the porous materials of which they are composed readily 

absorb the water precipitated upon them. The moraines at their 

upper edge also supply them with water by seepage and by direct 

communication between the gravels.

In the open gravel and sand beds of an outwash plain the-lateral 

movements of the water are free and may be very rapid. If a single 

bed is continuous from the upper to the lower edge of the plain and 

has an outlet for the water below, the movement of the water may 

be free enough to keep the gravel bed drained. If, on the other 

hand, such a bed were included between impervious beds and had 

no free outlet below, a considerable artesian head would develop 

toward the lower edge of the inclined plain. Such conditions are not 

uncommon, gRid in certain areas many flowing wells are supplied in 

this way.

The outwash materials have, as a rule, remained uncemented. 

The ground waters, therefore, are contained in the minute pore 

spaces of the fine materials and in the larger openings of the coarser 

sands and gravels, In the coarser deposits which compose most of 

the outwash plains a great portion of the contained water is available for well supplies, and the most common type of well is the driven 

well, usually only 12 to 15 feet deep. Driven wells may furnish an 

unfailing supply of water but are not safe from the pollution of 

privies, manured fields, etc. To be perfectly safe they should be 

driven to a water-bearing bed below an impervious clayey layer.

VALLEY ALLUVIUM. 

CHARACTER AND DISTRIBUTION.

All the larger streams of the areas here discussed have broadened 

their valleys and built up flood plains along at least a part of their 

courses. Many of the smaller streams have patches of alluvial bottom lands along their valleys, but alluvial deposits reach especially 

notable size in the valleys of St. Joseph, Wabash, and White rivers. 

The deposits are composed of the roughly assorted detrital materials 

which the stream has carried and left in favorable localities. The 

materials are gravels, sands, and silts, derived from the glacial 

deposits and from any material over which the stream has traveled, 

and contain the native limestones and decomposed shales, as well 

as the glacier-borne erratic materials.

It is uncommon for one of the large streams of this area to occupy 

the whole of its valley bottom, and it does so only in flood season or 

where the stream flows over a rock ledge. The remainder of the 

valley floor is alluvial material. Generally this floor is below high-
STTBFACE DEPOSITS. 33

water level, and is overflowed in flood seasons. Above this at some 

places there are remnants of older, higher flood plains which now 

stand as terraces above the present river flat. The alluvial bottoms 

vary- in width, the widest measuring 3 or 4 miles, and appear on an 

areal map as long, narrow areas following the courses of the larger

streams.

«H.OTrND WATEK IN THE ALLTTVITTM.

The valley alluvium, like the materials of the outwash plain, 

consists of uncemented, imperfectly stratified gravels, sands, and 

muds. In all these materials the waters are in the openings 

between the particles. As the amount of available water in muds 

and fine sands is small, it is necessary to reach coarse sands or 

gravels for successful wells. Few wells 8 to 15 feet in depth fail 

to enter such gravel beds, and abundant water is everywhere obtainable at little expense. Valley alluvium, from its nature, occurs in 

valley bottoms where the water table approaches the surface, and 

water is obtained with such ease that people often neglect to go a 

few feet deeper than the water table, though by so doing they might 

obtain a much safer and more palatable water supply.

Much of the water in alluvial deposits is directly absorbed from 

the rainfall, for the porous beds will readily receive large amounts 

of water. Perhaps still more important is the water received by 

seepage or springs from the materials which form the uplands. The 

valley sides may be composed either of till, as they are in most 

places, or of limestone or shale, or of morainic deposits. A common 

but erroneous idea is that the bottom-land waters are supplied by 

the streams that flow through them. The movement of the underground waters is from the uplands toward the streams; and instead 

of the stream supplying water to its banks, the banks are constantly 

augmenting the stream by the escape of their stored waters. Chemical analyses of the stream waters and of the ground waters of the bottom lands in this area show a great difference, the stream waters 

containing much less lime than the ground waters. Only at times 

when the streams rise more rapidly than the water table of their 

banks do the streams furnish any addition to the ground-water supply, and then only for a short time. (See fig. 4.)

In the open and more porous beds of valley alluvium the movement of the ground waters may be rapid. The water table of the 

uplands is higher than that of the valleys, and this causes the waters 

to move streamward. There is also some movement of the waters 

down valley. (See fig. 4.) Under favorable conditions artesian pressure may develop in alluvial deposits, the head being furnished by 

the higher water table of the uplands. (See figs. 8 and 9.)

46448° WSP 254 10 3
34 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

SAND. 

DESCRIPTION AND DISTRIBUTION.

St. Joseph, Marshall, Fulton, and Cass counties, along their western edges, border on an area which, during the retreat of the last 

glacier, was occupied by a large lake, which has been called Lake 

Kankakee.0 The basin which it occupied is now a sandy plain, and 

wind-blown sand tops the glacial clays for some distance east of the 

borders of the lake flat. The water-laid sands are in many places 

coarse or even gravelly, and were derived from the glacial deposits 

along the shores and shallows of the lake and from the debris dumped 

directly into the lake by the glacier. East of the shore of this extinct 

lake the sands, being wind sorted, are fine and contain little or no 

gravel.

Only a very small area of the region under discussion lies within the 

old lake basin, which is remarkably flat and featureless. Formerly 

the lake bed was an almost impassable marsh, but by systematic 

ditching much of it has been reclaimed. East of the lake basin 

the wind-blown sand has spread and emphasized the topography of 

the underlying drift. In some places small but distinct dunes occur.

GROUND WATER IN THE SANDS.

As the wind-blown sand lies altogether on the surface of the area 

in which it occurs, it is evident that its water is derived almost wholly 

from the rainfall. The lake-bed deposits, also, are largely dependent 

upon the rainfall for their water, although the bordering shores of 

glacial drift and dune sand supply some water to tiie sand beds.

The sandy deposits are unconsolidated and not subject to joints, so 

the contained water all occurs in the pore spaces between the rock 

particles. The pore space in sand is very large, ranging up to 35 or 

40 per cent of the whole volume, and wells driven into the lake beds 

always get abundant waters close to the surface. In the windblown sands the pore space is large, but the particles are small and of 

uniform size, so that the sands have a habit of packing very closely. 

Drillers often have great trouble in finding a bed of material coarse 

enough so that it will not crowd into the strainer at the well bottom 

and clog it up. The sand also packs so closely around the pipes that 

wells are driven in and pulled with difficulty. The wind-blown 

sands are usually not deep, and even where blown into dunes of considerable size they are usually so well drained as to be of little value as 

water producers.

oLeverett, Frank, Mon, U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 38,1899, pp. 334-338.
UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL, INDIANA. 35

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

GENERAL GEOLOGIC SECTION.

Many wells penetrating deep into the earth pass through rock 

formations which do not come to the surface in the region. By 

a careful examination of the records of well borings, and by a comparison of these with the geologic succession in other areas where the 

deep-lying beds of northern Indiana outcrop at the surface, geologists 

have been able to determine in some detail the series of rocks which lie 

below the surface to great depths. Only those formations which 

have an influence upon the water supply of the region are of interest in 

this discussion, and only those will be discussed which have been 

penetrated by the drill. The following table shows in a general way 

the geologic formations represented, their thickness, general constitution, and value as water carriers:
Generalized section of the rock formations of northe

System. Series. Group or formation.

1 Sellersburg limestone o .................

I Jeffersonville limestone <*. ..............

Niagara formation: b

Thickness.

Feet. 

0-600

600

50-100

I 100-350

100-500

±50

1 260-1,000

_i_ cnfl

25-80

150-250

±400

Bedded limesto

stone) in certa

in many part

greenish shade

glacial drift in 

and west parts 

below. Does n

area treated.

not outcrop in 

a The Sellersburg and Jeffersonville limestones together are the "Corniferous" of well drille

6 The name "Niagara," as commonly used by well drillers, includes the Kokomo limeston
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 254 PLATE

0 8 E P H

_ _ j_

r.V-Qd: i ,r x~~. ^

' \ FRANKFORT©'

1^

, I. __ . __ . ___ 

' I

Note. .The contours are based upon Leveret-f's

^opo§raphic map oFOhio and Indiana, , upon railroad

alMfudes^nd upon aneroid determinal-ions by

F.G.CIappand S.R.Capps

GEOLOGIC MAP OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA The outlines of the various formations were 

taken from T. C. Hopkins's geologic map of 

Indiana, Indiana Geological Survey, 1901-1903. 

On account of the generally heavy mantle of 10 

surface deposits these outlines can be con- t: 

sidered only approximate.

Scale 625.000 

o___________op 2O Miles

Contoxir in.ter*vs.l 5O feet 

1909

QUATERNARY

LEGEND

CARBONIFEROUS DEVONIAN SILURIAN

(Wo outcrops)

h Mississij>pian 

'Kiiobstone group)

New Albany sliale. SoUersbui-g and Kokpmo limestone, and 

Jeffersonville limestones Niagara formation
BOCK. FORMATIONS. . S7

Except the Pleistocene deposits, which for the most part are unconsolidated materials, all the rocks of this region are sedimentary down 

to the bottom of the deepest well borings. In this area we have three 

great types of sedimentary deposits with which to deal: (1) Sandstones, which were deposited under water in the zone where wave 

action was important. In north-central Indiana sandstones are seldom 

encountered in the sinking of wells, and except in a small area in 

Hendricks and Boone counties are important as a source of supply 

only in borings of very great depth. (2) Shales, which were laid down 

under water; some of them in a zone farther from the shore and in 

deeper water than the sandstones, and some of them close to shore 

along low marshy coasts, in protected lagoons or near mouths of 

streams which carry fine sediments. Shales are encountered by 

wells in northern Indiana immediately below the glacial deposits, 

although they are nowhere close to the surface. In the southwest 

portion of the area, especially in Hendricks, Marion, Boone, Clinton, 

and Carroll counties, the shales are at many points entered immediately below the till, and at a few places outcrop at the surface along 

stream cuts. In the remainder of this area, shale is invariably 

encountered by wells that are sufficiently deep to go through the 

glacial deposits and the underlying limestone. It is seldom that 

these shales yield satisfactory supplies of water, and a knowledge of 

their distribution and characteristics is important to all drillers in 

order that they may avoid these unproductive deposits. (3) Limestones form the third type of sedimentary rocks. The idea formerly 

prevailed that the limestones were laid down in very deep waters, far 

from the shore. Of recent years, however, it has been generally 

conceded that they were deposited in water less than 100 fathoms 

deep. This is beyond the shale-forming zone, but is far shallower 

than the depths formerly believed necessary for the formation of 

limestone. Indeed, coral limestones are now known to be forming 

close to the shore. The chief essentials of a limestone-forming area 

are abundant lime-secreting organisms, comparatively shallow water, 

and an absence of clastic sediments. No deposits occur in northcentral Indiana of such character as to prove beyond doubt that this 

area was ever covered by deep seas.

ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM. 

ST. PETER SANDSTONE.

Description and distribution. The St. Peter sandstone is known 

to underlie the "Trenton" limestone, although it has been penetrated 

but a few times in the northern part of Indiana, in which it nowhere 

comes to the surface. In areas where it does outcrop, and according 

to the records of drillings in this and other regions, the formation 

consists of a massive, porous sandstone, composed of rather firmly
38 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

cemented siliceous sand. Where penetrated by the drill it has 

been found to be 150 to 224 feet thick. It is underlain by the 

"Lower Magnesian" limestone.

Doubtless this sandstone underlies the whole of the State, for 

over a great range of territory it has always been found when the 

bottom of the "Trenton" has been reached. The "Trenton" is 

known to lie continuously below this area.

Source and movements of water. The nearest outcrop of the St. 

Peter sandstone is in Wisconsin, some two hundred miles from the 

nearest point in this area. From this outcrop it slopes gently southward. Above the St. Peter there are, in Indiana, thick deposits of 

impervious shale, which prevent the entrance into the sandstone of 

any surface waters. Where encountered by borings, the waters of 

the formation are found to be under considerable artesian pressure, 

and it is probable that they have traveled slowly through the porous 

rock from its outcrop in Wisconsin and that the artesian head is 

transmitted from the same place. The water is included in the pores 

of the rock as well as in any joints or bedding planes that may exist. 

The rock is massive, however, and it is not likely that the joints 

are large or continuous for any great distances, as joints probably 

develop more freely near the surface than in these formations, which 

are deeply buried. The movements of the waters, therefore, are 

doubtless very slow, and the period of time during which the waters 

have been confined in the rock must have been very long.

Character of the water. The water from the St. Peter sandstone has 

not been put to use in the region under discussion. Something is 

known of its character, however, for at Cincinnati, Ohio, 100 miles 

southeast of Indianapolis, many wells have penetrated this sandstone, and it is probable that the chemical contents of the water 

are similar in the two areas. At Cincinnati the water is heavily 

charged with salt and iron and contains also a noticeable amount of 

hydrogen sulphide.

"TRENTON" LIMESTONE.

Description and distribution. The deepest rock formation of this 

district that has been frequently reached by the drill is called the 

"Trenton" limestone. Because of the great development of the 

petroleum and natural-gas industries in northern Indiana many hundreds of wells have been drilled into the "Trenton," in which all the 

important strikes in oil and gas have been made. The formation is 

a massive limestone about 500 feet thick. Its actual thickness is 

seldom recorded, for oil and gas, where found at all, are near the top of 

the formation, and hence few wells penetrate deeply into it. The 

top of the "Trenton" lies 850 to 900 feet below the surface in the 

southeastern counties of this area, the depth gradually increasing to
KOCK FORMATIONS. 39

the north and west. The "Trenton" underlies the whole of the area 

covered by this report.

Source, occurrence, and movements of water. The nearest outcrop 

of the "Trenton" limestone is in the river valleys in Kentucky, south 

of Cincinnati. There its top is between 500 and 600 feet above sea 

level, while in Hancock County, Ind., it is below sea level. This gives 

the formation a dip to the northwest of 5 or 6 feet per mile. Above 

it there is a thick series of impervious shales which prevent the 

entrance of any surface waters. The source, then, of the water 

found in the "Trenton" is probably the crest of the Cincinnati arch, 

as the low broad anticline is called which runs south from Ohio and 

Indiana into Kentucky and which gives the westward dip to the beds 

on its flank. It may, however, be in the area in northern Illinois and 

southern Wisconsin, in which these beds come to the surface.

The "Trenton" limestone equivalent which outcrops in Kentucky 

is a rather solid close-grained rock of small pore space. It is probable 

that in oil and gas areas the pore space is much greater. It is traversed, however, by extensive systems of joints and by well-defined 

bedding planes. Both of these sets of openings have in places been 

enlarged by solution, so that the rock now has certain well-marked 

circulation channels. The bedding planes, especially, provide open 

continuous passages for the water, and wells in the "Trenton" rarely 

fail to strike such channels. It is not surprising, therefore, that the 

"Trenton" waters, where encountered in north-central Indiana, have 

lost little of their head and rise in the wells far above the level at 

which they are reached.

Character of water. The "Trenton" waters are all highly mineralized and are especially heavy in sodium chloride, some of them 

being almost saturated with salt. The salt waters are commonly 

associated with the oil and gas of the "Trenton," and often flood the 

wells in such quantities that they can not be pumped for oil profitably. 

As in many other marine formations, the salt was probably derived 

originally from the evaporation of sea water. In pumping the petroleum the oily salt waters are pumped from the wells and allowed to 

run over the land and gradually find their way to the streams. In 

this way the streams, and to a considerable extent the ground waters, 

have been polluted. Isaiah Bowman0 has suggested that by direct 

ditching and by piping these waters to the streams the pollution of 

the ground waters could be largely avoided. The pollution of the 

streams seems inevitable as long as the oil and gas wells are producing. When these fail, the streams will have an opportunity to return 

to their normal state.

oSackett, R. L., and Bowman, Isaiah, The disposal of strawboard and oil-well waste: Water-Supply 

Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 113,1905.
40 UNDESGBOtmD WATERS Of NORTH-CENIBAL INDIANA.

Dangers from "Trenton" water. As stated above, the salt waters 

of the "Trenton" limestone are often under considerable artesianpressure and in some places will rise in the wells as high as or higher 

than in the Niagara formation. While oil or gas wells are in use they 

are cased below the Niagara to keep the water from this and overlying 

formations out of the well. In this way the "Trenton" and Niagara 

waters are prevented from mixing. On the failure or exhaustion of 

deep wells the pipe is often pulled out. A state law has been passed 

requiring that all "pulled" wells should be tightly plugged below the 

Niagara. This is to prevent the fresh water from above from getting into the oil or gas bearing rocks, as well as to keep the salty 

"Trenton" waters out of the Niagara, if the "Trenton" waters are 

under sufficient pressure to rise to this level. Unfortunately the laws 

have been evaded and many wells are not properly plugged, so that 

the salty "Trenton" waters have in places forced their way into the 

Niagara formation in sufficient quantities to give the Niagara waters 

a decidedly salty taste. The whole supply of rock waters in certain 

regions has been imperiled in this way. It is impossible to undo the 

harm that has already been done, but an appreciation of the serious 

consequences of a ruined rock water supply should do much to bring 

about in the future a stringent enforcement of the laws for the proper 

plugging of all pulled wells.

CINCINNATIAN SERIES.

Description. Above the "Trenton" there occur three great 

groups of shales and limestones the Utica shale below and the 

"Lorraine" and Kichmond formations above. The Utica consists 

of persistent, close-grained brown or black shales from 50 to 400 

feet in thickness, while the "Lorraine" and Richmond formations 

consist principally of greenish or bluish shales with thin interbedded 

layers of limestone. The three formations together have ordinarily 

a thickness between 500 and 700 feet.

Source, occurrence, and movements of water. The shales which 

compose the great proportion of these beds are so close-grained as to 

be practically impervious. The water they contain is included in the 

microscopic openings between the tiny particles and is held with 

great tenacity by the shales. Capillary attraction and adhesion to 

the walls of the pores make these waters almost stationary. It 

seems probable that some of the water has been in the shales since 

they were first deposited. Well borings that pass through 500 or 600 

feet of these formations get very little water, and what they do get 

comes largely from the limestone layers,

Character of water. Few wells in this area find their supply in 

the shale formations, and there was no opportunity to take samples 

of unmixed shale waters. In southwestern Ohio and southeastern
ROCK FOBMATIONS. 41

Indiana, where these beds come to the surface, the waters are found 

to be heavily charged with minerals, containing much more than any 

of the waters of the surface deposits. This large mineral content 

results from the lack of free circulation through the shales, the consequent long time during which the contained water remains in 

contact with them, and the comminuted condition of the particles, a 

condition that aids in the solution of the minerals. These shales do 

not outcrop in north-central Indiana, and are not to be considered 

as a possible source for well supplies there.

SILURIAN SYSTEM. 

NIAGARA LIMESTONE.

Definition. The term "Niagara group" is sometimes used in 

Indiana to include all rocks of Silurian age. More commonly it is 

made to include the massive limestones which lie immediately below 

the drift in much of the northeast part of Indiana. (See PI. III.) In 

all the more important oil fields of this area the Niagara is the first 

rock reached and its thickness is an important consideration with 

oil and gas well drillers, as it is necessary to case the wells through the 

limestone to keep out the water. The formation ranges from a thin 

bed to more than 500 feet thick, varying with the amount of erosion 

which the surface has suffered. As stated above, the records of well 

borings often include the Kokomo limestone ("water lime") under 

the term "Niagara."

Lower division. The lower part of the Niagara is a series of limestones and shales 50 to 100 feet thick which has been called "Clinton." 

This lower division nowhere outcrops in north-central Indiana, but 

nearer the crest of the Cincinnati anticline, in southeastern Indiana 

and southwestern Ohio, the beds come to the surface. Like the 

underlying rocks, these beds lie on the flank of the Cincinnati arch 

and dip to the west and north 5 or 6 feet per mile.

This lower division of the Niagara is inclosed above and below by 

dense impervious shales, so that there is little opportunity for the 

beds to receive waters from the adjoining formations. It seems 

probable from the slope of the beds and the exposed outcrops to the 

southeast that the waters contained in these rocks have come from 

the surface outcrops. In the shale beds the waters are held in fine 

pores, and little movement takes place, as open continuous passages 

are lacking. The limestones are compact and dense and the joints 

and bedding planes offer the only channels for circulation. In oil and 

gas wells the casing is usually continued through the lower division 

(so-called "Clinton"). The uncased wells which go to these beds 

receive most of their water from the upper division of the Niagara, and 

no opportunity was afforded to obtain samples of unmixed waters
42 TJNDEBGEOUND WATEBS OF NOBTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

from the lower division. In this area these beds are not important 

as water producers.

No information was obtained in regard to the character of the waters 

from the lower division of the Niagara. In southwestern Ohio a the 

waters from this horizon are as soft as any of the ground waters. 

In that area these rocks are near the surface, and the waters are in 

continuous circulation and probably do not remain in the rock long 

enough to dissolve much mineral matter. In north-central Indiana, 

however, the beds lie much deeper, the water circulation is slower, 

and the waters are doubtless much more heavily charged with minerals than those in the southwestern Ohio region.

Upper division. The limestones of the upper division of the 

Niagara formation are thick and massive, normally 100 to 500 feet 

thick. They are the oldest rocks which outcrop in the area discussed. They are in many places somewhat crystalline and bluish 

or buff. Thin beds of shale OK "breaks" occur far apart in the 

limestone, and at its base borings pass through 2 to 40 feet of 

fine-grained greenish shale.

KOKOMO LIMESTONE ("WATER LIME").

The Kokomo is also a thick, heavy limestone, but is not so massive 

or so dense in texture as the Niagara and does not show any crystalline structure. Like that of the Niagara its surface is ordinarily covered by a thick coating of till, and the outcrops are limited for the 

most part to the sides of the deeper valleys. It is well exposed at 

Kokomo, hence its name.

This limestone is rather flat-lying in the eastern part of northcentral Indiana, having a low, uniform dip to the west. It has 

been greatly disturbed along a northwest-southeast axis, along 

which the beds are often steeply uptilted and much fractured. This 

disturbance has been called the Wabash arch.6 In the north and 

southwest portions of the area the Kokomo is overlain by later 

sedimentary beds.

SILURIAN WATER.

Source, In the areas where the limestones lie immediately below 

the glacial deposits the limestone waters are largely derived from the 

till. The actual surface outcrops of the rocks are of small extent 

and are almost all in the deeper valleys where the waters move 

outward from the rocks. The main source of the rock waters is 

therefore in the overlying surface deposits. In the southwest quarter 

of this area and in its northern portion these limestones dip below

a Puller, M. L., and Clapp, F. G., Underground waters of southwestern Ohio: Water-Supply Paper 

U. S. Geol. Survey No. 259 (in preparation;. 

b Thompson, Maurice, The Wabash arch: Thirteenth Kept. State Geologist Indiana, 1888, pp. 41-53.
SOCK POEMATIONS. 43

the later rocks, which contain impervious beds of clay and shale. 

Under such conditions the limestone waters come from the higher 

areas, where they are in contact with the permeable water-bearing 

beds or where the rocks outcrop at the surface and can absorb the 

rainfall directly.

Occurrence and movements. The texture of the limestones is dense, 

and all waters included in the body of the rock are in such fine openings that they are not readily yielded up. The available waters are 

those which occupy the systems of joints and the bedding planes of 

the rocks. Such openings are in places widened by solution to 

form channels several inches or even a few feet in diameter. (See 

PI. V, -B.) The bedding planes especially are utilized by the circulating waters. This is well shown in many stone quarries, where 

a thin sheet^of water constantly flows out from certain bedding 

planes (PL VI, A). To have a freely circulating water supply a 

rock formation must have continuous openings and an outlet for the 

water at some point lower than the head. With these conditions in 

a limestone, those openings which are largest and have the most 

direct course between the source and the outlet have the advantage 

and receive the most water. With more rapid circulation comes 

increased solution along the favored channels. In this way complex 

drainage systems are occasionally developed below the surface. An 

abandoned channel of this sort is shown in the quarry face in Plate 

V, B. Wells which go through the surface deposits usually find good 

supplies of water within a few feet of the top of the limestone in the 

joints and cracks of the rock. Where the limestones are interrupted 

by shale beds abundant water is usually found just above the impervious shales. Occasionally a drill will break into a solution channel 

in the rock and drop to the bottom, and most wells which encounter 

openings of this kind prove to be inexhaustible.

Before the glacial period the surface of the limestones was much 

broken up and was deeply decayed by weathering. The advancing 

ice removed much of this broken and loose material, and left many 

hard, fresh surfaces of rock. In some places, however, the erosion 

was less severe, or post-glacial weathering has been especially effective, 

for beneath the till there is a zone of broken and weathered limestone. 

Into this weathered zone the water penetrates readily, and wells 

driven through the till into the broken limestone commonly find 

abundant waters.

Character. As is to be expected, the limestone, waters are invariably 

hard. The content of lime and magnesium is high and notable 

amounts of sulphates and chlorides are found in many samples 

analyzed.
44 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

DEVONIAN SYSTEM.

Description. The Devonian beds underlie the southwest quarter of 

this area, but have few outcrops and are not very well known. (See 

PI. III.) They are divided into the Pendleton sandstone, the Jefferr 

sonville limestone, the Sellersburg limestone, and the black New 

Albany shale. The limestones range in thickness from a thin edge at 

their eastern border to 200 or 300 feet where they have suffered no 

erosion. The outcrops are usually covered with a heavy deposit of 

glacial till. The sandstone, the type locality of which is in Madison 

County, varies in thickness up to 20 feet.

The New Albany shale is a close-grained black or bluish shale about 

100 feet thick, which outcrops in a narrow strip between the Devonian 

limestones and the Mississippian shales. (See PL III.) It is covered 

by a thick till sheet and few wells go into it.

The Devonian beds occur also in the northern portion of the area 

but are so deeply covered by surface deposits that their distribution 

is not known.

Source, occurrence, and movements of water. The limestones have 

few surface outcrops and must receive their waters at their contact 

with the overlying till. No water could enter them from above in 

their deeper portions, where they are covered by the impervious New 

Albany shale.

The New Albany shale is so close grained that it contains little 

water and retains what it has. Very little additional water is needed 

to keep up the supply. The water is nearly stationary.

The limestones contain some water in minute pores, but their 

available supply is in the joints, bedding planes, and solution passages. At Indianapolis many wells are supplied by this limestone, 

and in a number of them the drill has broken into well-defined channels. Many of the wells give a large yield, but the demand upon the 

rock waters in this city is greater than the supply and the head 

has been gradually becoming lower for a number of years.

CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM (MISSISSIPPIAN SERIES). 

" KNOBSTONE " GROUP.

Description. In the extreme southwest corner of the area covered 

by this report the rock formation nearest the surface is the " Knobstone" group, which lies immediately below the glacial deposits in 

parts of Marion, Hendricks, Boone, and Clinton counties. (See PI. 

III.)

The "Knobstone" group consists of an alternating series of sandstones and shales, the sandstones gaining in relative importance 

toward the top of the group. The "Knobstone " at its greatest development has a thickness of about 600 feet. The beds are little disturbed and dip to the southwest as an inclined plane of low slope.
SOURCES OP GROUND WATERS. 45

Source, occurrence, and movements of water. The outcrops of the 

"Knobstone" everywhere in this area are drift covered, though they 

are the youngest rocks of north-central Indiana. The numero«» shale 

beds which are distributed through the group effectively prevent the 

vertical circulation of waters. The rock waters therefore must be 

derived from the drift at the point of contact with the porous4teds of 

the underlying formations. The shale beds are so close grained 

that the circulation of water in them is inconsiderable. In the sandstones the circulation is more free but is confined by the shales to 

single beds.

In the area of the "Knobstone" outcrops most of the wells 

are supplied by waters from the overlying surface deposits. The 

few wells which enter the rock find fair supplies in the sandstones, 

but no water in the shales. In the sandstone the waters are commonly found in crevices in the rock and in the pores.

GROUND WATER. 

SOURCES.

PREVAILING IDEAS.

An idea which seems to have found rather wide credence in States 

bordering the Great Lakes is that the flowing wells are in some way 

connected with these lakes and that the head of the wells is maintained 

by them. Of the area here discussed only a narrow strip along the 

Wabash River in the neighborhood of Delphi has a lower elevation 

than 581 feet, the level of Lake Michigan, and Lake Erie is still 

lower. Delphi is about 75 miles from Lake Michigan. A large surface stream from Lake Michigan to Delphi would flow sluggishly, 

while the friction of underground waters in even the most porous of 

rocks would so reduce this head in 75 miles that a flow would be out 

of the question. Furthermore, the mouths of nearly all the flowing 

wells in the area are far above the level of Lake Michigan.

As for the shallower wells which do not enter rock at all, the source 

of head is as a rule local and is generally not more than a few miles 

from the well and commonly only a few hundred feet. This will be 

readily understood from the fact that most of these wells end in beds 

of gravel interbedded with glacial clays. These gravel beds are 

commonly of slight extent and vary greatly in thickness even in 

short distances. The source of head in such gravel beds must be 

within the limits of the open bed, which is usually only a few 

square miles in area.

Another common expression is that the drill penetrated a "lake" of 

water. Most such " lakes " of water are beds of porous gravel through 

which the water can enter the well as rapidly as it is pumped out. 

Actual cavities filled with water are locally found in limestones, but
46 UNDEBGBOUND WATEES OF NOBTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

are not generally encountered in the areas which were glaciated. 

The erosive action of the ice wore away the upper portion of the 

limestone below the zone in which such caverns are likely to occur, 

and the period of time since the glacial epoch has been too short for 

the formation of very extensive solution channels.

Another common and perfectly natural idea is that the wells in the 

lowlands near rivers or lakes are supplied by these bodies of water. In 

some instances this is actually so, but the water supplied to most 

wells is drawn from the store of ground water and not from the surface 

waters. This will be understood by reference to figure 2; Wis a well 

situated along a river flat; G-G' is the surface of the water table. 

The normal movements of the underground water are in the direction 

of the arrows. As long as the amount of water pumped from well W 

is not greater than can be supplied from the ground water without 

lowering it below the level of the river bank, or the stream does not 

rise more suddenly than the water table of its banks, the well will 

receive little water from the river. This has been definitely determined by the analyses of the waters 

from both sources. 

If the well is pumped 

enough to lower the 

water level the water

FIGURE 2. Relations of flood-plain wells to the neighboring stream.

flow into the well,

which will yield a mixture of ground water and river water. The same 

conditions obtain if the well is located near a lake or a marsh.

ACTUAL CONDITIONS.

Ground water is a term which has been applied to water, from whatever source, which is below the earth's surface. With little exception this water has all been precipitated upon the surface of the 

earth and absorbed through the various kinds of pores, cracks, and 

open spaces. As shown by the preceding paragraph, it is evident 

*hat the ground-water supply receives slight contributions or none 

from the established surface streams or lakes. On the contrary, the 

streams owe their permanence to a perpetual supply which they 

receive from the body of ground water. Without this ground-water 

supply most of the shorter streams would speedily drain their basins 

after each shower and would then remain dry until the next rain. 

As it is, numberless streams having very small drainage basins flow all 

or almost all of the year and fail, if at all, only when the groundwater level has been lowered below their beds by a season of great 

evaporation with little rainfall.

For the source of the great body of ground water we must therefore look to the precipitation which is absorbed by the earth and
MOVEMENTS OF GROUND WATERS. 47

which percolates below the surface into the openings of the underlying materials. The total precipitation in any region can be divided 

into three parts: (1) That which is evaporated directly; (2) that 

which runs off the surface at once; (3) that which is absorbed and 

becomes ground water. The proportions of these three divisions 

vary greatly under different conditions of topography, soils, climate, 

and precipitation. With given conditions of precipitation, climate, 

and soil, however, the great factor in determining the proportions of 

the above three classes, i's the topography, or configuration of the 

earth's surface. It is clear that in areas of steep slopes and wellestablished drainage the proportion of run-off will be large at the 

expense both of absorption and evaporation. In regions of slight 

relief and of few and sluggish streams the proportion of run-off will 

diminish and that of absorption and evaporation increase. As stated 

above, these proportions are vitally influenced by the character of 

the soil and the climate and the rate and character of the precipitation. As the area under consideration is for the most part a nearly 

level plateau of moderate elevation, without many deep valleys, 

the absorption is relatively large and all of this absorbed water goes 

to swell the body of ground water on which the wells depend,

MOVEMENTS. 

IN THE SURFACE ZONE.

The manner in which the water is absorbed and stored in the earth 

varies greatly with the materials. In the unconsolidated surface 

materials which cover almost the entire area there is a nearly complete absence of well-defined continuous openings or passages. In 

these materials the water is absorbed into the pores between the 

particles by gravity and by capillary action and gradually moves 

downward to the water table, where it is stored in similar openings. In loose material the amount of water which can be held and 

the rapidity of movement possible for the waters are determined by 

the character of the materials and the size and continuity of the 

openings. In fine-grained clays the amount of water which can be 

stored may be large, but the movements of the water are necessarily 

extremely slow. In coarse, uniform gravel, on the contrary, the 

storage capacity for water is great and the movements of water may 

be rapid.

The waters near the surface of the water table move much more 

rapidly than those more deeply situated. The surface of the 

water table fluctuates somewhat with the seasons, but these movements decrease rapidly downward except in rocks with well-defined 

and continuous water channels. Toward the surface of the water 

table the movements of the underground waters have commonly a.
48 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL. INDIANA.

close relation to the movements of the surface waters. This is especially true in this region, where the water table is ordinarily in the 

unconsolidated, structureless glacial till. This relation is shown by 

the arrows in figure 2. Figure 3 shows a different set of conditions. 

If the rock surface R-R' is considered to represent the surface of 

the earth the movements of the ground waters would be along the

3. Influence of surface slopes and of structure on movements of underground waters. Dotted 

line G-G' is the water table. Broken line R-R' is the rock surface. The water movements in this rock 

are along the bedding planes. The material above the rock is a rather impervious pebbly clay. The 

arrows indicate the direction of the underground water movements. D is a plateau with equal slopes 

toward A and B. On the slope toward B both the clay and rock waters move toward B. Only the 

clay waters move toward A, the rock waters moving in the opposite direction. The waters at H and 

/, independent of the surface topography, move past valley B to valley C. The conditions are favorable for artesian flows from rock wells at B and Oil the surface deposits are impervious.

bedding planes in disregard of the surface slopes. If, however, the 

rock surface is covered to some depth with glacial drift, the upper 

ground waters will move in the same direction as the surface drainage, but the movements of deeper waters will be controlled by the 

structure of the rock.

IN THE DEEPEE ZONES.

The movements of the deeper underground waters are determined 

by an entirely different set of factors from those which regulate the 

movements near the surface. The most important of these factors 

are the character and the structure of the saturated materials and 

the opportunity for escape of the waters. In very deep waters 

changes of temperature may be the controlling influence in the circulation, but such deep waters are reached by few wells and are therefore outside the province of this paper.

The older consolidated rocks which lie under the surface deposits 

contain water in their openings down to the bottom of the deepest 

borings. These rocks all contain a considerable amount of pore 

space, usually less than the unconsolidated materials. These pores 

contain some water, but the movements of the water in the pores is 

usually too slow to furnish wells with suitable supplies. Parallel to 

the beds of many rocks there are sheetlike openings called bedding 

planes. Many of the rocks, though they may be very dense in texture, have continuous openings or cracks which cross the bedding 

planes. Such cracks are called joints. From the open and continuous nature of the joints and bedding planes they form the most 

natural and convenient channels for the movements of underground 

waters and for their storage. In many places abundant supplies of
MOVEMENTS OF GROUND WATERS. 49

water are found in deep-lying limestones or sandstones, which are 

separated from the surface of the earth by beds of impervious shales. 

In such places we must look to some distant point for the source of 

the waters to a place where the water-bearing formation comes to 

the surface or where at least the overlying impervious formation is 

lacking. This point may be scores or even hundreds of miles from 

the point where the water is reached by the wells, and the water 

has traveled the whole distance through the joints, bedding planes, 

and pores of the rock. This is true of a few wells which have 

found their water supply in the porous St. Peter sandstone or the 

underlying sandstones. The nearest point of outcrop of these formations is far up in Wisconsin and the waters must have come at 

least that distance.

Although we have certain rock waters whose source is distant, it 

does not necessarily follow that the source of all rock waters is far 

from the point at which they are reached by wells. On the contrary, 

many rock waters are supplied by the precipitation in the immediate neighborhood of the wells from which the water is drawn. 

This may be true even though the rock does not outcrop at the surface. If the rock is overlain by porous gravel or gravelly clay the* 

water may penetrate through this into the rock and move downward 

into still deeper rocks if there is no intervening impervious bed. 

There can be no question that in this area much of the rock water is in 

this way supplied by the overlying drift to the rock. The "Niagara" 

limestone, which lies immediately below the drift in much of the 

east and central parts of this area (see PL III), yields abundant waters 

to a large number of wells, though it actually outcrops at the surface 

over a very small area. The waters are fed to the limestone by the 

drift above, and many flowing wells along the bottom lands have 

tapped this source of supply. It is impossible to estimate accurately the time which may have been required by certain deep 

waters to move from their sources to the point where the water now 

issues from the wells. We know only that even with the most favorable conditions an open, porous, or much fractured and jointed rock, 

with a strong head of water and a free outlet below the length of 

time the water must have required to travel, say, 100 miles is necessarily great. With the actual conditions in the St. Peter sandstone a rather porous but not much fractured rock, with considerable head but no adequate outlet below the period of time the 

water has been in the rock is without doubt enormous. It even 

seems reasonable to suppose that in some of the deep-lying, impervious shales a part of the water now found may possibly have 

been there since the sediments were first laid down, 

46448° WSJP 254 10 4
50 UNDERGBOUND WATEKS OF NOBTH-CENTBAD INDIANA.

OCCURRENCE. 

RELATION TO TOPOGRAPHY.

Below the earth's surface a level may always be reached at which 

the materials are saturated with water. This saturation may extend 

downward indefinitely, or only to some impervious layer. In either 

case the upper surface of the saturated zone is known as the water 

table. There is an intimate relation between this water table and 

the surface topography, and while the water table usually follows, 

in a general way, the slopes of the surface, it is much less irregular 

and of milder relief. Thus, on hilltops there is a ready drainage on 

all sides, and the waters falling on the surface flow off rapidly as 

surface waters, or entering the soil become ground waters and escape 

more slowly by percolation. The level of the water table is, therefore, farther from the surface on the hilltops than in the lowlands, 

where there is a less ready escape for the ground water and where

the surface slopes 

are less conducive 

to rapid run-off. 

Figure 4 indicates 

the relation of the

IGUKE 4. Diagram showing relation of the water table, II-II' to the ground-water table 

surface topography I-I'. The most favorable locations for wells are ®

at E, A, and B It should be noted that well C, though on much to the Surface slopes, 

higher ground than D, finds water nearer the surface. The arrows These relations 

indicate the direction of the underground water movements.

are important only

in their influence on the waters near the surface of the water table. 

The deeper waters are affected by the variations of the water table 

only as these variations either increase or decrease the hydrostatic 

pressure in their own areas.

RELATION TO. STRUCTURE.

Rock waters have certain characteristic methods of occurrence and 

the manner of occurrence in each type of rock is more or less constant. In general, rock waters are contained in three varieties of 

openings (1) pores, (2) bedding planes, and (3) joints. Any one 

or all of these classes 'of openings may become enlarged by solution 

to form continuous channels of considerable extent.

Pores. Pores are the minute openings between the imperfectly 

fitting particles of which a rock is composed. In many rocks the 

total amount of water contained in the pores is greater than that 

contained in all the other openings. The pore spaces, however, have 

a remarkable capacity for holding their water and do not commonly 

yield much to wells.

Bedding planes. -Bedding planes are the sheet-like partings between beds of rock that are different in texture or arrangement of 

materials. Bedding planes may be very inconspicuous in fresh rocks,
OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 51

but become prominent as soon as the rock is attacked by solution or 

weathering. As a result of the slow percolation of the water along 

the bedding planes the openings may be enlarged by solution until 

passages of considerable size are formed, especially in limestones and 

in calcareous shales. In many sedimentary rocks the bedding planes 

offer the readiest means of circulation to the rock waters and 

therefore furnish the best supplies to wells that penetrate them.

Joints, All hard, brittle rocks are traversed by sets of cracks 

formed to relieve stresses which have at some time been set up in the 

rocks. In sedimentary rocks some of these planes of fracture coincide with the bedding planes and can not be distinguished from 

them. Other sets of cracks may intersect the bedding planes, and 

these, which in this area are usually nearly vertical, are called joints. 

In many rocks the joints offer the easiest means of passage for underground waters, and some of them are dissolved out to form welldefined underground stream courses. Such solution passages have 

a tendency to form at the intersection of a joint with a bedding plane. 

It is a common occurrence with drillers for the drill to " drop " several 

inches, or even a foot or two, into one of these solution cavities. An 

abundant supply of water is generally found in these openings.

RELATION TO TYPE OF MATERIAL. 

TTNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS.

Since the unconsolidated materials contain no definite partings corresponding with the joints and bedding planes of the hard rocks, the 

waters are all contained in the pores. The pores range in size from 

the large openings in coarse gravels to the capillary and subcapillary 

openings in the dense clayey till. As the amount of water available 

for wells depends for the most part upon the size and continuity of 

the pores, the texture of the material determines to a large degree the 

value of any bed as a water producer. The characteristic features 

of the various types of unconsolidated materials and their capacity to 

furnish wells with water have already been discussed.

CONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS.

Sandstones. Most sandstones yield considerable water from their 

pores as well as from their joints and bedding planes, and where 

sandstones are found within a reasonable distance of the surface they 

generally offer a good source for well supplies. In north-central 

Indiana, however, the only notable sandstone deposit is the St. 

Peter, which is a good water producer where accessible but which in 

this region lies so deep that it has been reached by the drill only a 

few times. Some wells in western Boone and Hendricks counties 

are supplied by waters from sandstones of the "Knobstone" group.
52 UNDEBGBOUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Shales. The shales of this area are fine-grained rocks which 

are not much indurated. On account of their softness they are 

rather plastic, and the stresses which have fractured the harder 

limestones and sandstones have not had this effect on the shales. 

The impervious character of these shales is unfavorable to the 

circulation of underground waters, and not many solution channels 

are developed in them. Although the pores occupy relatively great 

space, they are too fine to permit the water to escape readily. Hence 

few wells find satisfactory supplies in the shale beds.

Limestones. Although limestones, contain a relatively small 

amount of pore space, they afford the best source of rock-water 

supply in this region because of their solubility and the consequent fact that the percolating waters have so widened and 

enlarged the joints and bedding planes as to convert them into open 

channels, through which the water circulates freely when once it has 

penetrated them. Thousands of wells have been drilled into the Silurian limestones ("Niagara" of well drillers), and very few of them have 

failed to find sufficient water for domestic use. In many places large 

quantities of water are obtained from this limestone for manufacturing purposes and for city supplies.

VOLUME.

As already stated, the volume of underground water depends in a 

measure upon the surface configuration of the region. No matter 

how great the precipitation or how great a proportion of this water 

enters the ground, the volume of ground water will not be large unless 

the topography of the region and the character of the materials are 

favorable for holding it. If there is a ready opportunity for the 

waters to escape to the surface again, the water table will be lowered 

as fast as it is augmented from above. For this reason the water 

table in a region of deep valleys and narrow divides will, on the 

average, be much farther from the surface than in another area of 

similar climate and materials where the general level is little 

dissected by valleys. The greater part of northern Indiana consists 

of till plains of slight relief, and over most of this area the water table 

stands near the surface.

By available water is meant that water in a formation which is free 

to enter a well sunk near it. This definition excludes a large part 

of the water in very fine-grained materials, such as shales and clays, 

in which the pores are so small that their capillary attraction and 

their lack of continuity prevent the escape of water. In the coarser 

sands and gravels the pores and openings are large and relatively 

more continuous, and nearly all of the water in such coarser deposits 

is available. The amount of available water, therefore, depends 

more upon the texture of the material than on the total amount of
SPRINGS. 53

pore space. A clay may contain 25 to 35 per cent of pore space, but 

may yield very little water to wells; a coarser sand, with perhaps 

less pore space, may yield the greater part of its water to wells. 

Sandstones, if porous, will give up much of their content of water. In 

limestones the only water available is that which lies in the welldefined joints, bedding planes, and solution channels. The water 

contained in the body of the limestone is not available.

MINERAL MATTER IN SOLUTION.

The amount and character of the mineral matter which underground waters carry depend upon a complex set of conditions. Two 

factors, however, deserve particular discussion because of their 

relative importance. The amount of mineral matter which a ground 

water carries depends (1) on the solubility of the materials through 

which the waters have passed and (2) on the length of time during 

which the water has remained in contact with these materials. The 

solubility of the materials encountered is, perhaps, the most important single factor. Waters passing through salt beds, for example, 

might in a short time become very saline, even to the point of saturation. Other waters might remain in pure siliceous sandstones or 

quartzites for ages without acquiring much silica. With regard to 

lime, magnesium, and similar substances with which waters are rarely 

saturated, it is largely the time during which the waters are in contact with these substances that determines the amounts dissolved, 

though temperature, pressure, and the chemical action of the substances in solution upon those encountered are important factors. 

The relations between the character of the rock formations and the 

quality of the waters from them are discussed in the chapter on the 

chemical character of the waters by R. B. Dole (pp. 230-267).

SPRINGS. 

DRIFT SPRINGS.

As a result of the coating of glacial deposits which almost completely mantles this region, most of the springs that occur throughout the area necessarily emerge from the glacial drift. All springs 

that come from these glacial deposits are classified as drift springs. 

It is possible that in some springs the waters are supplied from channels in the rock below, but when this could not be determined, the 

waters were classed as coming from the materials out of which they 

emerge.

For the occurrence of well-defined springs it is necessary that the 

water table should come to the surface and that the surrounding 

water-bearing materials should allow a ready circulation of the waters. 

If the materials are close grained and the circulation is sluggish, the
=r£}^r-:=;;^=r-=i^=. --. Bowlderr _

54 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

water will emerge as "seeps 7 ' and not as well-defined springs. ^ In 

the drift favorable conditions most commonly occur in the morainic 

areas where there is considerable surface relief, and where there are 

many beds of gravel interbedded with clayey drift. Figure 5 shows 

two conditions in a moraine which would give springs. Spring No. 1 

comes from a gravel lens in the bowlder clay. This lens has no surface outcrop above, but receives its water slowly from the overlying 

drift. As the water can escape most readily by following the open

gravel bed to its 

outcrop, spring No. 

1 is formed. Spring 

No. 2 emerges from 

the contact of the 

gravel capping on 

a hilltop with the

FIGURE 5. Conditions producing springs in glacial drift. T .

underlying more

impervious bowlder clay. The water absorbed at the surface passes 

down through the gravel to the clay and follows the contact to its 

outcrop on the hillside, where spring No. 2 is formed.

ROCK SPRINGS.

The rock outcrops in this area are almost all located along the sides 

of the deeper valleys, and it is along these valley-side outcrops that 

most of the rock springs are found. The springs issue from just 

above some impervious bed in the limestone, or from some solution 

channel or prominent bedding plane. In some places, especially in 

fresh quarry exposures, there are flows of water from all the more 

conspicuous bedding planes. (See PI. VI, A.) Figure 6 illustrates 

the conditions favorable for rock springs along the valleys. Bed No. 

1 is till; No. 2 is a fractured and somewhat weathered limestone overlying an impervious shale, No. 3. Springs will issue at A and A'. 

Beds Nos. 4,5, and 6 are limestone. Between beds 4 and 5 there is the 

opening of a large solution passage, and a large spring discharges at B'.

In unglaciated limestone regions the upper 

portion of the limestone 

is in many places so 

honeycombed by solution caverns and passages that surface

FIGUKE 6. Conditions producing springs In rocks.

streams of large volume may disappear into these underground 

channels, to reappear at a distance as large springs. In northern 

Indiana there may once have been many such underground streams; 

but the erosion of the glaciers removed the more open upper surface 

of the limestone, and the larger underground channels have not yet
WELLS. 55

been reestablished. For these reasons the rock springs are all rather 

small as compared with those of unglaciated areas.

W. S. Blatchley has published a report on the mineral waters of 

Indiana," which includes descriptions and analyses of several springs 

and mineral wells in north-central Indiana.

WELLS.

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION. 

OPEN WELLS.

Description. Open wells are commonly 3 or 4 feet in diameter and 

15 to 30 feet deep, though a number ranging from 50 to 70 feet were 

found. They are ordinarily walled up with brick or broken rock, 

without cement or mortar, so that water can enter from any bed 

through which the well passes. The depth is determined by the 

abundance of the water encountered. The deepening is usually continued until the water comes in so rapidly that digging is impossible, 

when the wall is laid. Most well diggers can tell of experiences with 

wells in which little water was found until suddenly a porous gravel 

or a passage in the clay was opened from which the water poured so 

rapidly that the well could not be walled up. It may be necessary 

to fill such a well with broken rock for several feet before a wall can 

be started.

Disadvantages. Open wells often "go dry" in dry seasons, when 

the need for water is greatest. This is always possible unless the 

well bottom is below the permanent water table and in a material 

which yields a continual and readily available supply. Open wells 

are subject to contamination, both from above and below ground. 

The only protection usually afforded to wells above is a board platform. Constant wetting and drying usually causes the boards to 

warp and shrink, leaving cracks between them. The drippings from 

the spout upon the well top carry down into the well whatever 

accumulations there are of dirt from shoes, domestic fowls, or other 

sources. In the country the farm well is the congregating place for 

domestic animals. The waste water allowed to run over the ground 

near by carries down with it any soluble material it may find and 

reenters the well.

Many open wells are polluted from below the surface. The liquid 

materials from cesspools and the drainage from manure piles, chicken 

yards, and manured fields enters the ground and becomes part of the 

body of underground water upon which the wells depend. In open 

wells this polluted water from above can enter at the top of the water 

table as well as the purer water below.

«Blatchley, W. S., Mineral waters of Indiana: Twenty-sixth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and 

Nat. Res., 1901. Halsall Spring, near Maxwell, Hancock County, p. 57; Cartersburg Mineral Spring, near 

Cartersburg, Hendricks County, p. 60; Winona Mineral Springs, at Winona Lake, Kosciusko Connty, p. 69.
56 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

BORED WELLS.

Bored wells are by no means rare, but are far less common than 

either of the other two types. They are bored with an auger and 

lined with tile or wood. The joints in some such wells are filled with 

cement, but are likely to leak, as the cement must be put in before the 

tile is lowered into the boring. They have been found to be less 

satisfactory-than the driven or drilled wells.

DRIVEN AND DRILLED WELLS.

General description. Up to the last decade the dug or open well 

was the type most commonly used for domestic purposes, both in 

towns and rural districts. With the ditching of low or marshy tracts 

and the decrease in the acreage of timber lands, the water table has 

gradually become lower. Within the memory of many older residents 

the water table in certain areas has been lowered from 5 or 6 feet 

below the surface to 15 or 20 feet below. In these areas dug wells 

which for years furnished an unfailing supply of water are now dry for 

the greater part of the year. A more general knowledge of the proper 

sanitary conditions for wells has also led to the abandonment of 

many dug wells. To replace the unsatisfactory open wells, thousands 

of driven and drilled wells have been put in and a large number of men 

now make a profession of drilling or driving them. Throughout the 

area as a whole the drilled and driven wells now conside'rably outnumber the open wells. They are much smaller than the open wells 

and range in diameter from \\ to 8, 10, or even 12 inches. At least 

nine-tenths of them are 2 inches or less in diameter. The wells consist of a tightly jointed iron pipe sunk into the earth to a water-bearing bed. If this bed is a loose material, such as sand or gravel, a 

strainer or screen is placed over the lower end of the pipe to keep the 

gravel or sand out of the well. If the well is in rock the pipe is left 

uncovered below.

Driven wells. Driven wells are those which are made by driving a 

pipe into the loose surface deposits without first making a hole for the 

pipe to go into. They can be sunk only in unconsolidated materials 

and never go into rock. To make the pipe drive more easily and to 

keep it from filling up with loose material, a conical brass point, full of 

fine perforations, is fastened to the lower end. There are many 

methods of driving the pipe, varying from the wooden hand maul 

to a steam-driven trip hammer, the method used depending on the 

depth and character of material to be penetrated.

The driven wells are especially adapted to areas of valley alluvium, 

of gravelly outwash, or of till or morainic drift in which there are 

gravelly or sandy layers. Many can be driven in a few hours and at 

very little expense. No pollution can get into the well from above 

and water is drawn only from the deepest and usually the safest
WELLS. 57

water bed. Many driven wells show a decrease in supply after a 

few years' use, due to corrosion or clogging of the screen. The pipe 

can usually be pulled at small expense, the screen cleaned or replaced, 

and the well redriven, with a renewal of the original supply.

Drilled wells. Drilled wells are made by first drilling a hole and 

then driving a pipe into it. The hole is commonly made with a 

wedge-shaped drill driven by a steam engine. Plate V, A, shows a 

common type of well rig used in this area. Under the classification 

of drilled wells comes a type of well made by forcing water or steam 

under high pressure through a pipe into the loose surface deposits, 

and forcing the pipe down constantly as the materials below are 

washed out of the top with the water, or forced out by the steam. 

This process is often called jetting, and sometimes the wells are called 

driven wells. Still another process is a combination of the jet and 

the drill. The drill, with a small opening on either side just above 

the cutting edge, is jointed to an iron pipe. Through this pipe water 

is constantly forced into the well, and the materials loosened by the 

drill and the streams of water are carried out of the well top by the 

water.

Drilled wells are the prevailing type in areas where the rock waters 

are the chief source of supply. On the till plains the tough clays in 

some places prevent the driving of deep wells and there drilled wells 

are more common. The bowlders embedded in the till will stop a 

driven well, but the drill can cut through them. In any material 

in which it is necessary to go to a depth of 100 feet or more the wells 

are usually drilled.

Drilled wells that end in unconsolidated materials are provided 

with a screen, let down on the inside of the casing after the well is 

completed. A common method is to lower a screen, 3 or 4 feet long, 

to the well bottom and then to pull back the casing far enough to 

expose the screen.

COMBINATION WELLS.

A combination of the dug and driven or of the dug and drilled wells 

is very common. Many dug wells that fail in dry seasons, or for 

other reasons have proved unsatisfactory, are deepened by driving 

or drilling. In such wells care should be taken to continue the 

casing up through the well to the surface to prevent the dug-well 

waters from entering the driven or drilled wells. Wells drilled into 

the bottom of dug wells are likely to receive some water from the 

old well, unless the casing fits the hole very snugly. It is recommended that when these combination wells are made the dug portion 

of the well should be filled up with clean clay. This will prevent 

any possible pollution of the deeper waters by those from the old well.
58 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

FLOWING WELLS. 

ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS.

In many areas in north-central Indiana the waters in certain beds 

are under sufficient artesian pressure to cause them to flow at the 

surface without pumping. These flowing wells are much prized, as 

they furnish a continual supply of fresh water for city, domestic, or 

farm uses. Plate TV shows the areas in which, flowing wells have 

been obtained.

The conditions necessary for artesian flow were defined a number 

of years ago by T. C. Chamberlin. 0 These conditions apply both to 

the flows from rock wells and to those from surface deposits, and are 

as follows:

1. A pervious stratum to permit the entrance and the passage of water.

2. A water-tight bed below to prevent the escape of the water downward.

3. A like impervious bed above to prevent the escape upward, for the water, being 

under pressure from the fountain head, would otherwise find relief in that direction.

4. An inclination of these beds, so that the edge at which the waters enter will be 

higher than the surface at the well.

5. A suitable exposure of the edge of the porous stratum, so that it may take in a 

sufficient supply of water.

6. An adequate rainfall to furnish this supply.

7. An absence of any escape for the water at a lower level than the surface of the 

well.

A recent paper of M. L. Fuller b has added a number of modifications to the requisite conditions of artesian flow as outlined by 

Chamberlin.

In many wells which do not flow the water rises under artesian 

pressure, but not to the top. In these the conditions are the same 

as for flowing wells, except that the pressure is not adequate 

to raise the water to the surface. In both kinds the waters are 

under artesian pressure, but in this report only those areas in which 

actual flowing wells are found are mapped as artesian areas. In the 

region treated in this report there are two distinct types of flowing 

wells (a) those whose water is derived from surface deposits, and 

(&) those whose water is derived from rock.

IN SURFACE DEPOSITS.

Most flowing wells in surface deposits reach their supply in gravel 

beds in the moraines, in the till, or in fluvioglacial outwash plains 

below the moraines. In figure 7, A is a well sunk to a lens of gravel 

in moraine. The fountain head of the water is at the outcrop of 

this gravel bed higher up on the moraine. The area in which flowing

a Requisite and qualifying conditions of artesian wells: Fifth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1885, 

pp. 125-173. 

& Summary of the controlling factors of artesian flows: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 319,1908.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 254 PLATE JV

i - --w v__> v >. xx- \ i j Ell:hart>rxw, \,A> \^ Miaaiettimy i

tx/\ Tl^Ht-A^/v^l

O S E P H

I i '"ygi^"

* ~ " i ; ''-& si'

o^y s^

eeovra . ; /

__ __ _LT\St. __/_

\ ^J/ ] '. \tr*ls4-^l^ ^ ~^^-\ ' Note. The contours are based upon LevereNs

\ >^Y\ -I' *\\l/ ^~~~~ '^cton ^ I topographic map oFOhio and Indiana, upon railroad

- ^~ - i »-^ '- - *'J - - - - M a!Htudes,and upon aneroid dehemVmaHons by

. F.G.CIapp and S.R.Capps

MAP OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA

SHOWING ARTESIAN WELL AREAS

BY STEPHEN R. CAPPS Area, in wliLcli flowing 

"wells occur

Scale eas.ooo 

o __________1,0 _2O Miles

interval 5O feet 

19 O9
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 254 PLATE V 

A. COMMON TYPE OF WELL-DRILLING RIG.

B. SOLUTION CHANNELS 'N NIAGARA LIMESTONE.
WELLS. 59

wells might be obtained is very small. In the well at C the water 

would rise under artesian pressure almost to the surface, but would

FIGURE 7. Conditions that yield artesian flows in moraines and in outwash gravels.

not flow. Flowing well B, on the outwash plain, taps a gravel bed 

between two impervious clay beds. The head for the water comes

FIGURE 8. Conditions of flow in alluvial gravels with head supplied from the drift gravels. Artesian 

waters are found In alluvial gravel by well W, and the head is supplied by an irregular gravel bed in the 

drift. Flows may also be obtained by wells at W from the drift gravels. G-O', water table.

from the gravel outcrop at the base of the moraine. Wells anywhere on the plain around B would get flowing water.

FIGURE 9. Conditions of flow in alluvial gravels with head supplied from the limestone. 6-6', water 

table. Water for wells W, W is supplied to the gravel by the limestone, which receives the water from 

the till.

Figure 8 shows conditions in which wells in valley alluvium may 

find flowing waters, the head being supplied from the surface deposits; 

in figure 9 the head of water is supplied from the limestone.

IN ROCK.

In the part of this area which lies south of Wabash River there 

are in every county numerous wells that penetrate rock. North of

FIGURE 10. Conditions that yield artesian flows in rocks.

the Wabash the surface deposits are very deep and few wells go 

through them. In all parts of the area, however, the wells that
60 TJNDEKGROtTND WATEES OF NORTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

go deep into the Silurian limestones ("Niagara") encounter water 

under artesian pressure. This pressure is generally not sufficient to 

give flows in the uplands, but in the river valleys many deep wells 

get flowing waters from these rocks. The question naturally arises 

as to the source of the waters. Most writers in discussing flows from 

rock ascribe the source of head to some higher outcrop of the waterbearing formation at a point where it can receive the rainfall directly 

or from pervious overlying beds. In applying such an interpretation 

to the flows from rock in parts of this area grave difficulties are 

encountered, and the ordinary hypothesis seems to fail. The opportunities for water to enter the "Niagara" limestone at distant and 

higher outcrops are outlined below.

At a point 7 miles east of Richmond, Ind., the "Niagara" has an 

elevation of almost 1,200 feet above sea level, but is covered by 25 

to 50 feet of drift. At Richmond, at an elevation of about 950 feet, 

this limestone comes to the surface on the sides of the canyon-like 

valley of the East Fork of Whitewater River, but the cliff-like outcrops are unfavorably situated for absorbing large quantities of surface waters. Between this high outcrop and the flowing wells above 

mentioned there is a distance of about 50 miles, throughout the 

whole of which distance the "Niagara" lies immediately below the 

drift. The drift itself varies so in texture that it can hardly be supposed to form an impervious covering for the limestone for so long a 

distance.

The Richmond area lies on the flank of the Cincinnati arch, from 

which the rocks all dip to the west. It may be that waters entering 

near the base of the Niagara at Richmond and flowing westward 

along the gently dipping bedding planes pass beneath impervious 

shale beds and accumulate enough head to supply flowing wells in 

the lowlands. The possibilities of flows from this source are illustrated in figure 10. A is the covering of glacial deposits; B is the 

'' Niagara'' limestone with its interbedded shales. The surface waters, 

entering the base of the limestone at F, pass downward under an 

impervious shale bed. A well at G will find water under artesian 

pressure, but owing to loss of head from friction the well will not flow. 

Well D, in the lowlands, gets flowing water. At well E the waters 

have entered the limestone through the thin drift toward G, but the 

thick drift of the valley has prevented their escape, and a flow is 

obtained in the upper part of the limestone. The flows from the 

"Niagara''' are all found in the deeper valleys or in depressions somewhat below the level reached by the surrounding surface deposits, 

and the head is generally not more than a few feet above the surface. 

In certain wells the flowing waters are procured from below impervious shale beds, or "breaks" in the limestone, and in these wells the 

head of the waters is probably transmitted from a distance. (See
WELLS. 61

fig. 10.) In most wells, however, the flows are from the upper part 

of the limestone, and such a distant source for the wateis seems 

improbable. /

The head for most of the flows from rock seems to be furnished by 

the heavy overlying mantle of glacial drift. In the drift the water 

table stands high above the valley bottoms, and even where the transmission of water from the drift to the rock is slow a constant pressure may be maintained in the rock waters if there is no ready escape 

for them. Wells tapping such a rock supply may obtain flows if they 

are situated in the deeper valleys or at the foot of the drift hills. 

Figure 11 shows the conditions for flow in such an area.

Most of the deep wells which obtain flowing waters from great 

depths were drilled originally for gas or oil. In these wells an outer 

casing or drive pipe, usually 8 inches in diameter, is driven down to 

the surface of the rock, and within this pipe a 6-inch casing is carried 

down to the bottom of the " Niagara" to shut out the water from that 

rock. The flowing waters, if such are encountered in the limestone, 

come up between the drive pipe and the casing. When no oil or gas

WT :

FIGURE 11. Conditions for artesian flows in limestone, with head supplied by the overlying drift. WTis 

the water table. The water percolates slowly into the limestone from the drift and at A is under pressure from the hydrostatic column between A and A'. The pressure is transmitted through the open 

bedding planes and joints to B, and well W obtains an artesian flow.

is found or when the supplies fail the casing and drive pipes are as a 

rule pulled. Pulled wells are required by state laws to be plugged 

below the limestone to prevent the interchange of waters between 

the "Trenton" and the "Niagara." In many flowing wells the 

drive pipe is left in and the well used to supply water.

LOCATION OF FLOWING WELLS.

It is often difficult to predict just where artesian wells can be 

had, and no general statement will cover all parts of this area. 

It can only be said that wells in depressions or at the base of high 

moraines are more likely to obtain flows than those on higher ground.

The areas in which flowing wells from rock are obtainable are 

usually long, narrow belts occupying the bottoms of the larger valleys. Most flowing wells from surface deposits are due to local 

conditions, which are confined to small areas. The map (PI. IV) 

gives the location and outlines of the areas in which flowing wells 

have been obtained. Future borings will doubtless modify the out-
62 UNDEKGKOUND WATEKS OF NOKTH-CENTKAL INDIANA.

lines of certain of the districts, enlarging some and reducing others. 

Probably some entirely new flowing-well districts may be found. 

The map has been compiled from* the fullest data obtainable at 

this time.

LIFTING DEVICES.

Bucket and windlass. A few open wells from which the water is 

drawn by buckets on a windlass are still in use. The owners of such 

wells are commonly convinced that water drawn in this way is superior 

in taste to that taken from a pump. There is always danger from 

pollution, however, in these wells by small animals or other objectionable matter entering the well mouth. A tight well cover should 

always be put in place when water is not being drawn.

Siphon. The siphon principle may locally be utilized when running water is desired at some point below the level at which the 

water stands in a well. This system is used at the Kokomo city 

waterworks. A number of wells are drained by a siphon into a large 

well at the waterworks. The water is pumped directly from this 

large well.

Pumps. Of the many pumps of various makes and kinds on the 

market, the greater number are so simple and so familiar as to 

need no description. For shallow wells the iron pitcher pump with 

the valve near the spout is much used. For open wells of moderate 

depths the wooden pump is popular. Most of the deeper dug, driven, 

or drilled wells for household and farm uses are equipped with iron 

force pumps with the valve below the water level. Some of these 

pumps are connected to windmills and may be pumped either by hand 

or by wind power. Factories, city waterworks, and large users of 

water in general employ water pumps operated by steam, gas, or 

gasoline. The chief types of power pumps are the reciprocating steam 

pumps, the air lifts, and the gasoline engines of various makes. Hotair engines have also been used to some extent.

Hydraulic rams. Throughout the area here discussed, but especially in the country districts, there are many flowing wells of good 

head and volume from which only a small fraction of the flow is used. 

If the pressure of these wells is sufficient to raise the water a few feet 

above the surface, or if there is a decline of the surface near the well, 

a hydraulic ram can be installed which will pump sufficient water for 

domestic and farm uses. The efficiency of hydraulic rams has been 

observed to vary from 30 to 71 per cent. That is, a ram at a well 

with a head of 10 feet and a flow of 10 gallons a minute will lift from 

3 to 7 gallons a minute to a height of 10 feet, or 0.3 to 0.7 gallon to a 

height of 100 feet. Many houses in small towns or in the country 

are supplied with running water in this way, and water systems 

could be installed in many more at a small initial expense. The 

cost of maintenance of such a system is exceedingly small. In New
PUBLIC SUPPLIES. 63

Palestine, Hancock County, there is a privately owned water system, 

supplied by artesian wells and pumped by a hydraulic ram, which 

furnishes water to 20 or 30 families.

PUBLIC SUPPLIES.

In the area under discussion there are 54 towns and cities which 

have public water supplies drawing waters from surface streams, 

lakes, wells, springs, or a combination of wells and streams, as follows:

Source of public supplies in towns and cities.

From lakes...................................................... 3

From streams.................................................... 3

From wells...................................................... 44

From springs.................................................... 1

From streams and wells........................................... 3

Of the public systems 48 out of 54 obtain all or part of their water 

from underground sources,

RELATIVE MERITS OF SOURCES. 

SURFACE WATER.

In all regions as thickly settled as north-central Indiana the larger 

surface streams are sure to be contaminated to some extent, and the 

pollution may enter the streams in a number of ways. If towns or 

cities are located along the banks of a stream, the sewage is discharged into it. If there are no municipalities along the stream 

course, the drainage from dwellings and from manured fields or pastures is almost certain to supply objectionable organic matter. The 

salty or oily waters from the wells in oil or gas regions also are turned 

into the natural drainage channels. Even in the absence of sewage 

the streams all become turbid after every rain storm, so that for 

'some time the water in its raw state is unfit for use.

The three cities which use river water altogether are Logansport, 

Anderson, and Mishawaka. The waters at Logansport and Mashawaka are unfiltered, and therefore subject to contamination. A filtration system has been installed at Anderson, and the filtered water 

is greatly superior to the raw water. At Indianapolis, Peru, and 

Goshen part of the water supply is from wells and the rest from 

streams. At Indianapolis White River water, used only after filtration, is very good. At Peru the water is ostensibly supplied from 

wells, but inasmuch as a considerable proportion of raw river water 

is constantly pumped into the mains the supply must be considered 

a serious menace to the health of the city. Part of the city water of 

Goshen is supplied from Rock Run, which flows for some distance 

through the town, having on its banks dwellings, barns, and outhouses that unquestionably pollute the water,
64 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Other things being equal, lakes are less likely to become contaminated than rivers, for their length of shore line is much shorter, as 

compared with the volume of water, than that of streams, and almost 

all pollution enters surface waters from the shores. It is, moreover, 

much easier to guard the shores of a lake from pollution than to control conditions along the banks of a stream which traverses a considerable stretch of country.

Three of the 54 municipalities are supplied from lakes. These are 

Warsaw, Rochester, and Syracuse. Center Lake, the source of supply at Warsaw, lies at the edge of the town, and the character of the 

water is questionable. The water from Rochester Lake at Rochester 

is itself of fair purity, but it becomes polluted in its passage through 

a mile-long mill race in the town. The conditions at Syracuse are 

much the same as at Rochester. Syracuse and Turkey lakes are 

bordered by extensive marshes, and the water is noticeably colored 

by organic matter, besides being exposed to contamination in its 

passage from the lake to the pumps through an open mill race. To 

summarize, in every instance in this area in which surface water is 

used for a public supply the water in a raw state is unsafe. In two 

instances it has, by careful filtration, been purified and converted 

into a very satisfactory supply.

The surface waters are superior to underground waters for many 

industrial purposes, because they contain a much smaller proportion 

of incrustants. This lower mineralization makes them especially 

desirable for locomotive-boiler supplies and for steaming purposes in 

general. On the other hand, the lower temperature of the ground 

waters especially recommends them for cooling purposes in brewing, 

distilling, and ice manufacture.

WELLS. \

Of the 44 public supplies in which well water is used altogether or. 

in part it is probably true that the worst of the well waters is as 

good as or better than the best of the surface waters mentioned above, 

in the raw state. Most of the well supplies are greatly superior to 

the surface supplies, at least with regard to their healthfulness. The 

wells at public waterworks are usually drilled deep in order to secure 

large quantities of water, and waters from deep beds are much less 

likely to be polluted than waters from near the surface. The wells for 

public supplies can be located at a distance from possible sources of 

contamination, and the ground around the wells can be guarded to 

prevent unhealtliful conditions.

In a few towns in this area the wells for the public supply are 

shallow and are surrounded by barns, buildings, and dwellings, with 

the accompanying manure piles, slops, and privy vaults. It is a 

curious fact that people who are ordinarily careful about their habits
PUBLIC SUPPLIES. 65

of life should be careless about so vital a thing as the condition of 

their drinking water. Typhoid fever, one of the most dreaded forms 

of sickness in this area, is caused by the transfer of the infection from 

a typhoid patient into the alimentary system of another person. 

Contagion is spread largely through the pollution of drinking water 

by sewage which carries the typhoid-fever bacillus. Above all 

things a public water supply should be protected from this danger. 

Wells to be absolutely safe should be drilled or driven to a considerable depth, 50 or 60 feet at least, and should be lined with a tightly 

jointed iron pipe to keep out all the waters except those at the well 

bottom. Commonly, the deeper the well is the safer the water. If 

the wells are located at a distance from buildings or other sources of 

sewage, the danger is reduced to a minimum. In a few places it has 

been found to be impossible to obtain sufficient water from deep 

drilled or driven wells. Fairly safe waters may be obtained, as at 

Elkhart, from open dug wells if a considerable area of land around 

the wells is reserved and carefully guarded. Open wells should be 

several hundred feet from the nearest outhouse and carefully protected from surface wash to be safe from pollution.

SPRINGS.

Springs furnish the water for only one public supply in this region. 

At Delphi excellent springs emerge from a gravel terrace 3 miles 

northeast of the city, and the city waterworks collect this water and 

supply it to the people. There is every reason to believe that this 

supply is pure and good, but the common idea, that all springs are 

pure, is by no means true. Springs are subject to exactly the same 

dangers of pollution as wells. The waters are the same as those 

secured from wells, the only distinction being that springs have a 

natural instead of an artificial outlet. If the waters issue from shallow depths in towns or below manured pastures, near outhouses 

or barnyards, they should be avoided with the same care as should 

similarly situated dug wells.

CARE OF PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES.

When sanitary conditions are assured for the wells at public waterworks, it is still essential that care should be taken to avoid all danger 

of pollution of the waters while they are stored and before their distribution through the mains. There is no danger of such pollution 

in tight iron standpipes which are covered over. Covered wooden 

tanks are also safe. Open tanks will receive slight deposits of dust 

and possibly some pollution from birds and insects, but this is. likely 

to be of negligible quantity. Open reservoirs should be carefully 

guarded to prevent the entrance of surface waters or of sewage by 

46448° WSP 254 10 5
66 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

underground circulation. Cement-lined reservoirs are safe except 

from surface wash and from dust and dead animals. The amount 

of dust should be unimportant and other pollution can be avoided 

by proper care. Cisterns, if tight, are safe, and if the surface of the 

stored water is kept above the level of the ground-water table any 

leakage from cracks will be outward from the cistern. Cisterns below 

the water table should be inspected as often as possible in order that 

means may be adopted to prevent the entrance* from without of 

waters through cracks or flaws in the masonry.

In water mains in which the water is under pressure the pressure 

from within the pipes is much greater than that from without, and 

any defect in the pipes will cause a leak outward. No water from 

without can by any chance get into a high-pressure pipe. Where 

the water flows by gravity from one well to another, or where suction 

is used to draw water from wells or reservoirs a loose joint or hole 

in the mains might permit the entrance of sewage from without. 

Constant care is necessary to avoid such a contingency.

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE OWNERSHIP OF WATER SUPPLIES.

The obvious advantage of public water supplies over private wells 

is their greater convenience. With the constant pressure maintained in a municipal system, running water can be had at any time 

wherever it has been piped. Furthermore, there is the important 

advantage of abundant water and high pressure for protection from 

fire. But beside these two commonly recognized advantages, there 

is the all-important one, the health of the consumers, to be considered. In thickly settled communities, and especially in towns 

that have no sewerage system, a great quantity of liquid sewage 

is constantly soaking into the ground, some of which finds its 

way to the shallow wells used for drinking water. Such a condition is unpleasant to contemplate and extremely dangerous, but 

strangely enough it exists in most towns. Each well owner is sure 

that his water is the best in the world. He is accustomed to it, and 

it tastes just right to him. Yet examination of the water may show 

it to be Heavily polluted. The best solution of the water problem 

is a carefully planned public supply. Wherever they are possible, 

deep driven or drilled wells are recommended. They should be 

located as far as possible from any source .of pollution, and 'if practicable should be drilled to some water-bearing bed below an impervious bed of clay. These conditions should give a water supply 

far superior in every way to that obtained from shallow private wellsOf the 54 public water supplies of this region, 19 are owned by 

private individuals or companies; 2 by the United States Government (at the National Military Home near Marion, and at Fort
PUBLIC SUPPLIES. 67

Benjamin Harrison); and the remaining 33 by the different municipalities.

There are certain advantages, both in municipal and in private 

ownership. The principal arguments in favor of private ownership 

of public water supplies are as follows:

1. The officials of a private water company do not hold office by 

political favor, but their connection with the business is permanent 

and their interest in and knowledge of the details is proportionately 

great.

2. As a result of better business methods, the cost of running a 

water plant is usually less in private than in public concerns.

3. The installation of improvements by a private company is simpler and does not require the tedious city-council legislation often 

necessary for such expenditures in a municipal system.

4. It is to the advantage of a private company to furnish as good 

and as cheap a supply as possible, in order to encourage the use of 

the system.

On the other hand, there are many advantages in a system owned 

by the town or city:

1. It is not necessary in a municipal system to charge enough for 

the water to pay a dividend on the capital invested.

2. In private companies there is always the tendency to insist that 

the water is pure, no matter what the actual conditions are. In 

municipal supplies there is a better opportunity for knowing the 

actual condition of the water.

3. It is not necessary, with a municipal supply, to postpone improvements until there is a sufficient increase in the receipts of the company 

to insure dividends on the cost of extension.

4. As the public officers hold their positions at the will of the people, 

there is a tendency for them to furnish as good a water supply as 

possible at a fair rate.

For these and other reasons municipal ownership of public waterworks has proved more satisfactory than private ownership in the 

area under discussion, as shown by the^proportion of 33 to 19.
68 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

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Milford. ........

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New Palestine. 

Noblesville.....

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Royal Center. . . 

Russia ville. ....

South Bend.... 

Summitville...

Upland ........ 

Vanburen......

Walkerton.....

Fulton.... 

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St. Joseph.

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St. Joseph.

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Kosciusko

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1 well....... 

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1 well.......

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1 well.......

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70 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS.

BOONE COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Boone County comprises 427 square miles and in 1900 had a 

population of 26,321, or 61 people to the square mile. Lebanon, 

the county seat, is in the center of the county, 25 miles northwest of 

Indianapolis.

This county extends along the divide between White and Wabash 

rivers and includes the highest land in Indiana west of White River. 

The surface has an elevation of 825 to 975 feet, or a range of approximately 150 feet (PL I). The greater part of the surface consists, 

of slightly undulating uplands unbroken by any notable irregularities of surface. Across this plain and crossing the area from 

southeast to northwest is a narrow belt of low irregular hills. A 

part of another belt, of much the same character, crosses the southwest corner of the county. As usual in till-plain areas there is an 

almost complete absence of natural lakes or ponds. There are a 

few artificial ponds, used for stock, but the county as a whole is well 

drained.

The county contains no large streams. Eagle Creek flows along 

the eastern edge, and in the neighborhood of Zionsville its valley is 

about 60 feet below the level of the uplands. Sugar Creek, in the 

northwest corner, has also a well-developed valley. The other 

streams are still smaller and flow from 10 to 30 feet below the level 

of the upland.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Immediately below the surface in Boone County unconsolidated 

deposits which vary in thickness from 25 to more than 200 feet are 

everywhere present. They consist of alluvium, morainic drift, and 

pebbly till, and most of the wells draw their supplies from these 

materials. A general discussion of the character and water supplies 

of the surface deposits is given on pages 27-35.

The alluvial deposits are limited to the valleys of Sugar and Eagle 

creeks and to the flats of the still -smaller streams. Their total area 

can not be more than a few square miles.

The moraines of this county (see PL I) are not of great height or 

thickness. In the moraine areas satisfactory wells can almost everywhere be obtained at moderate depths. The porous character of 

the deposits enables them to"store large quantities of water and to 

yield it readily to wells. It is ordinarily not necessary to go through 

the drift into the underlying rock for sufficient water supplies.
BOONE COUKTY. 71

The larger portion of the county is a level till plain. The till 

ranges from 25 to 300 feet in thickness, notwithstanding the fact 

that its surface is flat and plainlike (PL II). This variation in 

thickness is due to the irregular surface .of the underlying rock. 

The glacial ice moved over this surface and deposited enough detrital 

matter to fill the depressions and to level over the whole area.

The water moves very slowly through the fine-grained till, and to 

obtain it loosely curbed wells of large wall area have been much used. 

Of late years most of the open wells have been abandoned. It has 

been found that deep driven or drilled wells will almost certainly 

strike porous gravel beds in the till, and the gravel water so obtained 

is so much better and the supply so much more abundant than that 

from the clay that many people have preferred to bear the additional 

expense of sinking a deep well rather than to put in a cheaper shallow 

dug well. Drillers have been so successful in finding water in the 

till that few wells have gone through it into the rock.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

As stated above, the underlying rock formations are everywhere 

covered in this county by surface deposits, and no outcrops occur. 

Our knowledge of their distribution is derived altogether from comparisons with known outcrops in neighboring areas and from the 

records of well drillings. The probable distribution of the geologic 

formations is shown on Plate III.

The "Knobstone" group lying immediately below the till, in the 

west and southwest portions of the county, consists of limestones, 

sandstones, and shales. As a result of their superior hardness these 

rocks withstood the preglacial and glacial erosional agencies much 

better than the underlying New Albany shale. Wherever the "Knobstone" beds remain, they rise within 40 to 60 feet of the present surface. The older, less resistant shale has been deeply eroded beyond 

the edge of the "Knobstone," which, if the glacial materials were 

removed, would stand up as a sharp escarpment 100 to 200 feet 

above the shales to the east.

Over most of the areas underlain by the "Knobstone" the till has 

furnished sufficient water for domestic use. A few wells at Jamestown, Advance, Max, and in that part of the county south of Lebanon, 

have encountered a limestone 40 to 70 feet below the surface, which 

wherever penetrated has yielded abundant waters within a few feet of 

its top.

The New Albany shale underlies the surface deposits in all of central and eastern Boone County except the extreme northeastern 

corner (PL III). Although it is everywhere covered with till to a 

depth of 100 to 300 feet, this close-grained blue or black shale has been 

entered by the drill at many points. It contains much water, but it is
72 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES OF NORTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

so fine-textured that wells procure little or none. The formation is 

also too deep to be easily reached by the ordinary well-drilling rig.

Below the New Albany shale are two Devonian limestone formations 

known as the Sellersburg limestone and the Jeffersonville limestone, 

which are believed to outcrop below the drift in the extreme northeast corner of the county (PL III). The overlying drift is about 200 

feet deep in this locality, and no records could be found of wells which 

have gone deeply into the rocks. No water is now drawn from them, 

and in Boone County it has yet to be determined whether these limestones contain available waters for wells.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

In Boone County there are six separate areas in which flowing wells 

have been found. In Plate IV these areas have been outlined and 

numbered.

In the northwest corner of Boone County, between Thorntown and 

Colfax, there is a narrow area about 4 miles in length, east and west, 

in which flowing wells may be obtained in the lowlands. (PL IV, No.

2.) These wells yield moderately and obtain their water in gravel at 

a depth of about 80 feet.

In the east edge of Thorntown, on the flat of Prairie Creek, there 

is a flowing well on the property of Mr. Samuel Jett. (PL IV, No.

3.) This well, which is 900 feet deep, was drilled in 1887 for gas, but 

gas was not found in paying quantities. In drilling an abundant supply of water was encountered in a gravel bed at a depth of about 90 

feet. The drive pipe was drawn back to this bed and the well was 

plugged at 95 feet. It is reported that the well when first drilled 

would spout an 8-inch jet of water 7 feet above the well mouth. This 

indicates a flow of over 3,000 gallons per minute. The top of the well 

has now been plugged, leaving a small opening that leads to a hydraulic ram, which pumps abundant water for the house and barn. 

For a record of this well see page 76, No. 9, and for analysis of the 

water see page 77, No. 4. A number of the deeper wells in Thorntown, 

30 feet above the creek flat, get water under artesian pressure, but 

they do not flow. It seems almost certain that other flowing wells 

might be obtained in the creek bottom both above and below Mr. 

Jett's well.

Between Lebanon and Hazelrig, along a low morainic plain and in 

the valley of Prairie Creek, is an area in which a number of wells that 

flow have been sunk. (PL IV, No. 4.) The flows were obtained in 

beds of gravel or coarse sand at a depth of about 50 feet. The yield 

of the wells is small and is growing more feeble with the general lowering of the water table.

Mr. J. F. Kersey, a well driller of Lebanon, reports that a flowing 

well was obtained north of Whitelick, on the farm of Mr. W. John-
BOONE COUNTY. 73

ston. (Pi. IV, No. 5.) This well was reported to be 60 feet deep and 

to have flowed 30 gallons per minute when first drilled. No further 

information was obtainable.

A flowing well is reported in the valley of Eagle Creek, on the farm 

of Mr. Perry Moore, 2% miles northwest of Zionsville. (PI. IV, No. 

6.) This well is 81 feet deep and its water comes from a bed of sand 

and gravel in the glacial till. The water rises in the pipe 6 feet above 

the surface, and the flow is about 1 gallon per minute. It is probable 

that the area in which flowing wells may be procured is small.

SUPPLY FOR THE CITY OF LEBANON.

Lebanon, the county seat of Boone County, had in 1900 a population of 4,465, and is the only city in this county which has a public 

water supply. The supply for the waterworks, which are owned by 

the city and were built in 1894, was originally from three wells. One 

of these is a dug well 20 feet in diameter and 43 feet deep. It has a 

cement wall and receives all its water from a gravel bed at the bottom. 

The other original wells were 97 and 230 feet deep, and both received 

their supply from gravel beds. Since the plant was built four more 

wells, 8 inches in diameter and 97 feet deep, have been drilled, and one 

well was sunk to a depth of 816 feet. The materials penetrated by 

this well were as follows:

Partial log of deep well at Lebanon waterworks.

Soil................................... ............ . . ..............................

Clay.......................... ................. ... ............. . ...........

Stiff clay. ................................ ........ . ..... ........... ...........

Shale...................... ------.......-...............'...............................

Limestone.

Thickness.

Feet. 

\ jq ; ^

j- 54

A

1 133

170

Depth.

Feet.

43

230

400

This well found no satisfactory supply. The pipe was later blown 

in two at 230 feet for the purpose of obtaining water at that depth, 

but the well was never productive and is now abandoned. The 

water from all the wells comes from gravel below blue clay, and 

there seems to be little likelihood of pollution from the surface. 

Up to January, 1908, this water was distributed from a standpipe 

with a capacity of 189,000 gallons, giving a pressure throughout the 

town of 45 to 50 pounds. A new underground cement reservoir, 

with a capacity of 500,000 gallons, was completed during 1907, and 

direct pressure from the pumps can be furnished in emergencies. 

Analyses of the water from the city wells are given on page 77, 

Nos. 2 and 3.
74 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

In Lebanon many people still supply themselves with water from 

private wells, and although there are a few open wells in use the 

driven and drilled wells are in greater favor. In the west part of 

town water is obtained at depths of 40 to 60 feet; in the east part 

wells 100 to 300 feet deep are more common. Occasionally a 

drilling will fail to reach an open gravel bed in the till, and two or 

three have penetrated the underlying shale without obtaining satisfactory supplies of water. The records of a number of wells in and 

near Lebanon are given by Leverett.0

VILLAGE AND RURAL SUPPLIES.

Thorntown. Thorntown, with a population of 1,511 in 1900, is 

situated on a till ridge which slopes downward to the valley of 

Prairie Creek on the east and to Sugar Creek on the north. The 

town has no public waterworks and all the supplies are obtained 

from wells, of which shallow, open wells 15 to 25 feet deep are most 

common. In a town of this size, as there is no sewer system, a large 

amount of objectionable matter from cesspools, barnyards, and other 

sources enters the ground to join the body of water from which the 

shallow wells are supplied, and such a supply is unsafe. On the 

other hand, there are a few drilled or driven wells which penetrate 

through a thick layer of till into a gravel bed, and the water there 

obtained is much safer than that from the shallow wells.

Thorntown should have a public water supply. The large flowing 

well in the creek bottom east of the town would easily furnish sufficient water for the entire village. The water is of good quality for 

domestic purposes, as shown by the chemical analysis on page 77, 

No. 4. Pneumatic pressure tanks or some other simple water system could be installed here at a relatively small cost, and would 

furnish fire protection, of which the town is greatly in need.

Section of deep boring at Thorntown. &

Feet.

Drift........................................................ 65

Subcarboniferous limestone and shale.......................... 238

Hamilton shale............................................... 87

Corniferous limestone......................................... 37

Niagara limestone............................................. 407

Hudson River and Utica....................................... 373

Trenton...................................................... 80

1,287

Whitestown. Whitestown is situated on a till plain, and the wells, 

of various types, range in depth from 12 to 110 feet. The dug wells 

depend upon seepage water from the till, but the deeper driven and 

drilled wells enter lenses of gravel or sand and the supply from these

a Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 26, 1899, pp. 13-17.

& Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 263.
BOONE COUNTY. 75

is more abundant. In one well 105 feet in depth the water rises 

within 9 feet of the surface and shows no variation in head either 

with the seasons or with heavy use. For the record and analysis of 

this water see page 76 (No. 14) and page 77 (No. 5).

Zionsville. Zionsville lies in the lowlands near Eagle Creek, and 

the water table is nowhere far below the surface. Its water supply 

is drawn for the most part from shallow dug and driven wells, although 

there are a few drilled wells from 50 to 110 feet in depth. All the 

wells obtain water from gravel beds and none penetrates to rock. 

The deeper wells encounter water under artesian pressure. A well 

in the cellar of J. W. Brendel flows with a small stream 3 feet below 

the surface. (-See p. 76, No. 15, and p. 77, No. 6.)

Jamestown. The wells in Jamestown are drilled and dug, the dug 

wells getting water in the glacial clays or gravels and the drilled 

wells entering limestone at about 40 feet. The dug wells receive 

water through their walls at all levels and are subject to pollution, 

but the deeper drilled wells case off the surface waters, and are supplied only by the limestone, in which cool, palatable, and abundant 

water is commonly found. The town well, opposite the hotel, is 

drilled into rock.

Rural districts. On' the farms of the county wells supply water for 

domestic purposes and for watering stock. Most of them obtain their 

waters from the surface deposits, though a few enter the rock. Until 

within the last few years the open well was the rule, but with improved methods drilled and driven wells have gradually superseded 

the less sanitary dug wells.

Other communities. The table below gives a list of other communities, with information regarding their water supply:

Other milage supplies in Boone County.

Town.

Max..............

Pike.............

Whitelick........

a 

o

03 S"

ft 

O

&H

310

97

46

32

64

134

66

127

100

149

178

Source.

Wells, drilled,

driven, and dug.

dug; springs.

Wells, dug and

driven.

.....do..............

.....do..............

drilled, and dug.

driven.

.....do.... ..........

.....do..............

.....do..............

.....do..............

.....do..............

Depth of wells.

a

iJ

Feet.

40

20

8

14

11

10

20

18

40

15

10

10

1

03

O

Feet.

110

100

120

150

96

125

150

150

150

175

116

150

d

o

a

o

Feet.

65

25

12

16

15

20,75

25,60

25

45

20

25

25

M

O

a

A0> fi

Feet.

65

100

70

t!<

VI

_0 J

%£ §

a> W

Feet.

8

10

8

12

8

4-15

16

40

1-10

7-15

13

Character of water 

beds.

stone.

Sand, gravel, and

limestone.

Gravel.

Do.

Gravel and limestone.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Sand and gravel.
76 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two tables that follow give complete information regarding 

a number of typical wells in Boone County and their waters. The 

numbers in the last column in each table refer to identical wells in 

the other table.

Records of typical wells in Boone County.

No.

1

2

3

 4

5

6

7

8

10

11

13

T4

15

16

17

Owner.

Town well

Do........

J.W.Wills...

non. 

Do........

Do........

George W. La 

Toilette.

Albert Wetherald.

man.

man. 

Willis Johnston.

del. 

Town well ....

A. Perry 

Moore.

Location. 

vance railroad 

station.

zelrigg. 

2 miles E. of Hazelrigg. 

Kirkland.. ........

.....do.............

.....do.............

ImileSE. ofShannondale.

town. 

3£ miles NW. of

Thorn town. 

3 miles NE. of

Thorn town. 

3J miles NE. of

Thorn town. 

1 mile N. of Whitelick.

At Farmers' Bank, 

Zionsville. 

2i miles NW. of 

Zionsville.

fto> ft

Ft. 

on

47

175

51

230

816

97

60 

1,700

187

140

140

60

10S

81

iEH

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

Drilled. .

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Open.... 

Drilled..

Diameter.

In.

3

2

8

8

8

4 

8

4

4

3

03

s-g

A-0

fto> 

Q

Ft.

90

47

175

51

230

97

60 

90

120

140

60

1AC

78

<D

C3 fr* D

OJ Q CO

EH

Feet.

- 8

+ 2

- 6

-20

-20

+ 7

i 19

-10

+ 4

+ 7

+ 5

- 9

+ 6

Water-bearing materials.

.....do.......

Blue limestone.

Clay........

Sand........

.....do.......

Till.........

Gravel and 

sand.

Depth rock. to 

Ft. 

60

230

230

230

30

| S 

EH

Galls.

30

1

Temperature.

°F.

51

50

54

Analysis No.

2

4

5

6

8
Mineral analyses of waters in Boone Coun

[Parts per million.]

No.

1

2

3

4

6

8

Owner,

J.W. Brendel......

Zionsville Water

and Electric Co.

Location.

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

Source.

Drilled well, 90 ft.

by 2 in.

Drilled well, 230 ft.

Drilled well, 97 ft..

Drilled well, 1,700

ft. a

Drilled well, 105 ft.

by 4 in.

Drilled well, 108 ft.

by 3 in.

Wells.............

Analyst.

.....do..........

.....do..........

.....do..........

H. E. Barnard..

Date.

1907

1907

1907

1907

1907

1907

Material 

in which 

water

occurs.

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do.....

Till........

O

CQ

0

CQ

24

?4

10

a?

^

a

oM

0.01

2.3

1.0

1.2

.01

4.

.4

X

 <

3

S

"

4

Water from only 90 feet below the surface.
78 UNDERGKOUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

CABBOLL COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Carroll County, which lies on the western edge of the area treated 

in this report and halfway between its northern and southern borders, 

has an area of 370 square miles and in 1900 had a population of 

19,953. That part which lies east and southeast of WabashRiver is a 

dissected till plain with level upland areas between the valleys of the 

larger streams. A few small areas of terminal moraine give locally 

a somewhat more rolling topography (PI. I), and an area of irregular 

moraine lies between Wabash and Tippecanoe rivers.

Carroll County is exceptionally well provided with surface streams, 

the most important being Wabash River, which crosses the northwest corner of the county. The valley of this river is broad and well 

developed, and varies in width from one-half mile to 2 miles. The 

river lies 100 to 130 feet below the surrounding plain, and its valley 

bottom is occupied by alluvial deposits of low slopes. Above the 

bottom lands the bluffs rise sharply for about 100 feet and then 

merge with the till plains of the upland. The lowest point in the 

county is where Wabash River crosses the county line below Delphi, 

about 575 feet above sea level; the highest point in the county is 

about 800 feet above sea level, giving a range of elevation of approximately 225 feet.

Next in importance to the Wabash is Tippecanoe River, which 

flows along the west edge of the county. Its valley is neither so 

broad nor so deep as that of the Wabash and is less than 100 feet 

below the uplands. It varies from one-fourth to 1 mile in width, and 

the bluffs at the valley sides are steep. The Tippecanoe joins the 

Wabash 3 miles south of the county line.

Wild Cat and Deer creeks are both important streams, and flow 

from east to west across the county to join the Wabash. Both these 

creeks have developed flood plains in proportion to their size, and 

they, with numerous smaller streams, have aided in dissecting the 

till plateau.

As a result of the complete drainage of this county, there are no 

large natural lakes or ponds. A few artificial ponds have been 

formed by damming a stream valley or a gully, but all are small.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

In the valleys of Wabash and Tippecanoe rivers and of Wild Cat 

and Deer creeks, as well as in the valleys of many smaller streams, 

there are alluvial plains of varying width. The alluvium occurs 

either as flood-plain flats, usually known as the "first bottom," or as
CABBOLL, COUNTY. 79

terraces above the flood plain. The terraces that lie at different 

heights up to 75 feet above the stream are remnants of older flood 

plains, which have been partly removed since their formation. In 

the Wabash Valley the stream deposits vary in thickness up to 30 

feet, or may be missing, for in flood time the river scours its channel 

down to bed rock.

The alluvial beds have a large pore space, and a capacity for holding a great deal of water, almost all of which is readily available if 

reached by wells. In the valley bottoms sufficient water is usually 

present to saturate the alluvium well up toward the surface, so that 

conditions are ideal for obtaining plentiful water at shallow depths. 

For farm use driven wells have been found to be cheapest and 

most satisfactory for procuring waters from alluvium, and they are 

in general use wherever these deposits occur.

The moraines of Carroll County are nowhere prominent topographic 

features. They occur as disconnected patches (see PI. I), with 

bowlder-covered surfaces of slight relief, and the low hills nowhere 

stand more than a few feet above the surrounding plains. Those 

patches which occur near Wabash River are outlying remnants of the 

great interlobate moraine which extends from Carroll County northeast into Michigan. There is generally enough gravel or sand in the 

moraines to afford domestic wells a fair yield of water from drilled or 

driven wells. In the absence of coarse beds open wells in the bowlder 

clay will obtain moderate amounts of seep water.

The till, which covers most of the surface of the county, is generally thickest on the stream divides and thinnest along the valleys. In 

a number of valleys the streams have cut entirely through the till, 

exposing the bed rock below; in other places, as at Cutler, wells 150 

feet deep have failed to reach the bottom of the till. At Delphi 

Wabash River has removed the glacial deposits and exposed the 

rocks. In those areas where porous gravel or sand beds occur in the 

till water can be best obtained by drilled or driven wells, although 

such beds are in many places too deep to be easily reached by open 

wells. The only recourse in those areas where gravels and sands are 

absent is to sink open dug wells, into which the water seeps gradually 

from the till.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The New Albany shale, which underlies the surface deposits in the 

southwest half of the county (see PL III), outcrops near Delphi and 

in the valley of Rock Creek, but is covered, except in the deep valleys, 

by surface deposits up to 150 feet thick. These black shales seldom 

serve as the source of well supplies, for although the pore space is 

large and the proportion of water contained is considerable, this 

water is not yielded to wells unless well-defined open passages are
80 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

encountered. In Rockfield one or two wells have obtained good 

supplies from this shale.

The Devonian limestones are the uppermost beds of rocks in much 

of eastern and northern Carroll County (PL III). Most of this area 

is covered by the till plateau, and the only reported outcrops of these 

limestones are along Wabash River above Delphi and in Rock Creek 

east of Tilinan. Only a few wells have penetrated the limestones, 

though such wells have always been successful. A well north of the 

village of Darwin obtained a fine supply when the drill in limestone 

dropped 8 inches into an opening of some sort. As the overlying 

drift nearly everywhere furnishes enough water it is unnecessary to 

sink to the rock.

A limestone which is usually classed with the Niagara but which 

has also been referred to as Devonian, outcrops at the surface in the 

neighborhood of Delphi, and forms the rock surface below the drift 

in a portion of the east and north parts of the county (PL III). 

The fracture joints, solution passages, and bedding planes of the 

limestone are filled with water to a, level within 12 or 15 feet of the 

surface. Below this level drilled wells commonly find good supplies 

of water in the openings of the rock. Wells drilled into the rock 

should be put down to a considerable depth and cased for some distance below the ground-water level, as the deeper waters are less 

likely to be contaminated than those nearer the surface. The broad 

outcrops of limestones are so broken that any liquid matter is readily 

absorbed at the surface and shallow rock wells might easily be polluted 

in this way.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

At Delphi waters under artesian pressure have been found in all 

borings that have gone deeply into the " Niagara " limestone. (PL IV, 

No. 7.) Two such wells are now flowing, the best known of which is 

the " Delphi artesian well," a drilled originally for gas or oil to a depth 

of 912 feet.

Section of deep loell at Delphi.b

Feet. 

Niagara limestone............................................... 587

Hudson River limestone and shale................................. 220

Utica shale..................................................... 93

Trenton limestone................................................ 12

912

The principal flow of water is said to come from a depth of 165 

feet, but the temperature of the water (57° F.) would indicate that 

at least part of it comes from greater depths. The water is much

a Described by J. N. Ilurty, Twenty-sixth Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Res., pp. 29-30, 

& Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 241,
CABBOLL, COUNTY. 81

used for drinking. A second well, producing a similar water but 

yielding a smaller flow, is situated at the Monon Railroad bridge 

across Deer Creek.

Two flowing wells are reported from the Wabash Valley northwest 

of the village of Burrows. (PL IV, No. 8.) As limestone outcrops 

along the river in this neighborhood, it is presumed that these wells 

enter rock.

Along the valley of Sugar Creek, near Radnor, there is an area in 

which good flowing wells have been obtained. (PL IV, No. 9.) 

There are five flowing wells in this valley, which range in depth from 

29 to 39 feet. All but one of these were put in during 1907. The 

artesian waters occur in a gravel bed in the till and are obtained by 

driven wells, which can be sunk here for 75 cents per foot. A complete flowing well may thus be obtained at a cost of less than $30.

At Burlington, near Wild Cat Creek, there are several flowing wells. 

(PL IV, No. 10.) The only one of these about which information 

could be obtained was drilled to a depth of 97 feet, the lower 7 feet 

being in limestone, from which the flow was obtained. The well is 

on the slope of the river bluff, about 35 feet above the creek, and the 

water is used at a creamery. There is good reason to believe that 

other flowing wells may be obtained in this neighborhood if situated 

upon ground as low as or lower than the creamery and drilled into 

the limestone.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Delphi. Delphi, the county seat of Carroll County, is situated in 

the broad valley of Wabash River and about 30 feet above that 

stream. It has one of the best city water supplies in Indiana, 

obtained from springs about 3 miles northeast of the city. The 

springs are three in number, and issue from the base of a gravel terrace which rises about 40 feet above them. In the present waterworks, which were built in 1891, the water is collected from the 

springs, which are covered by spring houses, and carried by gravity 

through wooden pipes to a buried reservoir of 387,000 gallons 

capacity. From the reservoir it is pumped by steam to a 37,000 

gallon standpipe, 116 feet high, from which the water is distributed 

by direct pressure to about 5£ miles of city mains, ranging from 8 to 

4 inches in diameter. There are 459 service taps, which supply more 

than 90 per cent of the people of Delphi. Practically everybody in 

the city proper depends upon the city supply, but in North Delphi 

and the later additions the city water is not so generally used.

The healthfulness of the water supply is attested by the general 

health of the city. There is no record of a single case of typhoid 

fever among the people who use only the city water. Up to the pres46448° WSP 254 10 6
82 UNDEBGBOUND WATERS OF NOBTH-CENTKAL INDIANA.

ent time the supply has been adequate, but additional water will be 

needed if the growth of the city continues.

A large additional supply could be obtained from springs known as 

"Falling Springs," 2 miles southwest of the court-house, between the 

Wabash Railroad and the river, near the county line. These springs 

apparently emerge from above the rock and below the till and are 

cold and clear. The land above is under cultivation, and there are 

no houses near by, so there is little danger of pollution of this water. 

The flow of the largest spring is estimated at 100 gallons a minute, 

enough to supply at least 50 per cent of the present population of the 

city. There are many other large springs which issue from the 

bluffs of the Wabash above and below Delphi.

In the outskirts of the city a good many families rely on cisterns 

and shallow wells for their water. Such wells are either in the surface alluvial gravels or in the upper part of the limestone, and waters 

from either source are likely to become contaminated, especially near 

settlements.

It is reported that some wells in the limestone have been spoiled 

by the artesian sulphur waters from unplugged gas wells. The state 

law which requires that all abandoned wells must be plugged at the 

base of the limestone should be more strictly enforced, as the leakage 

from such wells is continuous when, the waters are under artesian 

pressure and may affect the upper waters for considerable distances 

from the wells.

Flora. Flora, with a population, in 1900, of 1,209, is a thriving 

town situated on the till plateau, 8 miles southeast of Delphi. A 

public supply was installed in the summer of 1907 by the Flora 

Water Company, a part of the stock in this company being owned by 

the city. An 8-inch well has been drilled to a depth of 195 feet, of 

which the last 60 feet are in limestone. The principal water supply 

was obtained at 185 feet, and none was found below this. The well 

was tested and was found to yield 100 gallons per minute during a 

half day's continuous pumping.

A pneumatic pressure system with two 60,000-gallon tanks is used. 

The water is pumped into the tanks, which are partly filled with air, 

and the air pressure forces the water through the mains, of which 

there are about 3 miles, 8, 6, and 4 inches in diameter.

Before the installation of the public system the town was supplied by 

private wells, most of which were shallow driven wells, obtaining 

water in the sand and gravel in the till at depths of 16 to 40 feet, 

though a few drilled wells which enter rock at about 140 feet were 

used. The shallow wells are dangerous and to their use may perhaps 

be ascribed the prevalence of typhoid fever in the town at certain 

times.
CAEROLL COUNTY. 83

Oamden. Camden is situated on a gently undulating till plain 

near Deer Creek and about 5 miles east of Delphi. It has no public 

supply in general use, although there is a small private system, the 

water from which is used for sprinkling. The water for this system 

is obtained from a 185-foot drilled well, sunk 65 feet into limestone, 

and the water obtained from this limestone is pumped by a gasoline 

engine to a tank 40 feet high, from which it is distributed by gravity. 

The system has 1,500 feet of 2-inch mains and supplies 14 taps. Only 

20 barrels of water per day are consumed. An analysis of this water 

is given on page 86 (No. 2).

In Camden most of the water for domestic use is obtained from 

open wells 15 to 30 feet deep, which secure water from gravelly beds 

or from seepage from the clay. The open wells are always a source 

of danger, as they readily receive any drainage from kitchen slops, 

outhouses, or any other liquids which may be absorbed at the surface. 

Wherever it is possible, water from the deep wells should be used and 

the open wells abandoned and filled up.

Burlington. The village of Burlington is situated on the edge of a 

rolling till plain near the valley of Wild Cat Creek, and about 60 feet 

above it. Beneath the town the till is 130 to 140 feet in thickness, 

so that most of the wells are driven into gravel in the till, although a 

few deep drilled wells go into the limestone at the base of the till and 

get water under artesian pressure. On the slope of the bluff and 

below the plain some wells in limestone will flow at the surface.

A number of large springs issue from a gravel bed near the base of 

the creek bluffs, the largest of which, on property belonging to the 

heirs of Amos Miller, flows about 15 gallons per minute. The spring 

emerges from just below the cemetery, and there is a possibility of 

pollution from this source.

Pittsburg. Pittsburg lies on a narrow strip of terrace and on the 

side of the bluff of Wabash River, opposite Delphi, and its water 

supply is obtained from springs and dug wells. The springs flow out 

from the base of the bluff, apparently from gravel beds. One of the 

best of the springs is owned by the county, and its water, which has 

been piped to a watering trough at the principal crossroads, is used 

by many families for drinking purposes. The wells in the town are 

almost all of the open type. Near the river they reach to limestone 

at depths of 12 to 15 feet, but on the higher ground the limestone is 

deeper, and the water is found in gravel beds in the till. In a 60-foot 

section of the till, offered by a cut along the Monon Railroad, at the 

edge of the town, the upper 30 feet consist of beds of oxidized gravel 

which have been cemented into a conglomerate. Below these the 

section consists of blue, unoxidized till.
84 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Other communities. A tabulated list of other communities in the 

county, with the conditions of water supply in each, is given below:

Other village supplies in Carroll County.

Town.

Bringhurst. . . 

Burrows.....

Deer Creek. . .

Hopedale.... 

Lockport. ....

Pyrmont. ....

Sleeth........

Walker.......

Wheeling....

Population 

(1900).

448

187 

150

120

25 

117

102 

30 

75 

100 

 150 

46 

25

177 

50

Source.

Wells, drilled and dug. . .

Wells,driven and drilled 

Wells, dug and drilled. . 

Wells, dug and driven . 

Wells, dug and drilled . .

Dug wells and springs. . 

Wells, driven and dug. .

.....do..................

Wells, dug and driven... 

Wells, dug..............

Wells, dug and drilled. . . 

Wells, dug and driven. . .

Wells, dug and drilled... 

Wells, driven and dug. . .

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 14"

35 

12 

10 

10

13 

20

18 

19 

12 

18 

15 

11 

30

20 

16

Greatest.

Feet. 

120

90 

150 

96 

175

150 

115

106 

40 

115 

30 

55 

14 

130

118 

60

Common.

Feet. 

65

35 

80 

15 

12

40 

30

70 

30 

20 

20 

15 

12 

45

30 

20

Depth 

to 

rock.

Feet. 

125

50-60

22

135

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet. 

12

20 

6-12 

10

3-20

16 

4-35 

8 

15 

5 

10 

10

Character of 

water beds.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel and sand. 

Gravel. 

Do. 

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel. 

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Gravel and limestone. 

Do. 

Gravel.

Rural districts. In the county there are great numbers of wells for 

household use and for watering stock. Some of these are in the surface deposits, and some go into the underlying rock. In the matter 

of deep driven and drilled wells, the inhabitants of Carroll County 

have been rather backward, and there are still an unusually large 

number of open wells in use. The popularity of the driven and 

drilled wells is increasing, however, and almost all new wells are of 

one of these two types.

Carroll County is especially fortunate in the possession of a large 

number of springs. Most of these rise from the base of the bluffs 

along stream valleys, and the waters, always cold and clear, are commonly free from contamination and where available afford an unexcelled supply.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables give detailed information regarding typical wells in Carroll County and analyses of their waters. The 

numbers in the last column of each table refer to identical wells in 

the other table.
Records of typical wells in Carroll Coun

No.

1 

2 

3

4 

5 

6

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19

Owner.

Fort Wayne and Wabash Valley 

Traction Co. 

B.C. Rice........................

Daniel A. Eller. ..................

Philip Ray.. ......................

J. E. Snelf........................

Dr. G. L.McNeal..... ............

R. A. Newell......................

Location.

.....do............................

.....do............................

Carroll............................

.....do............................

Center and Columbia sts., Flora. . .

S W. J, sec. 24, T. 25, R. 2. ........

Walker............. .............

Depth.

Feet. 

103 

97 

37

185 

125 

25 

20 

176 

13 

200 

28 

35 

103 

100 

29 

92 

14 

145 

98

Type.

Drilled. . 

...do..... 

Driven. .

Drilled. .

...do..... 

Dug.....

...do.....

Drilled..

Dug.....

Drilled.. 

Driven.. 

Drilled. . 

...do.....

...do..... 

Driven. . 

Drilled..

Drilled.. 

...do... .

Diameter.

Inches.

2 

2 

2

4

4 

2 

4 

2 

4 

1J 

' 2i

3 

4

Depth 

to 

water 

bed.

Feet. 

100 

90 

37

150 

125

.176

200 

28

100 

100 

29 

40

140 

98
Mineral analyses of waters in Carroll Co

[Parts per million.]

NT o.

1

2 

3

4

5 

8

7 

8

9

10 

11

12

13 

14

15 

16 

17

Owner.

Fort Wayne and 

W abash Valley 

Traction Co. 

B.C. Rice........

Philip Roy.......

Dr. G. L. McNeal.

C. B. Landis......

W. A. Trobaugh.. 

John A. Crecraft. .

T. G. Timmons... 

J.E.Snell.. ......

Location.

.....do........ 

Deer Creek....

.....do...'..... 

Delphi........

.....do........

1J miles SW. of 

Delphi. 

North Delphi.

South Delphi. 

Flora.........

.....do........

Pittsburg.... .

Rockfleld ..... 

Carroll........ 

.....do........

Source.

tr

Well, 37ft.... 

Well, 185 ft.a. .

Open weft, 25 

ft. 

Open well, 13

WeB, 176ft... 

Springs....... 

Spring.. .....

"Fal 1 i n g 

springs." 

Well, 35 ft. by 

4 in. 

Well, 14ft.... 

Well,200 ft.by 

4 in. 

Well, 28ft. by

2 in.

Well 29 ft. by

Open well, 10 

ft. 

Open well, 20 

ft. 

Drilled well, 

118 ft.

Analyst.

H. E. Barnard 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........ 

R. B.Dole.... 

.....do........

H. E. Barnard 

.....do........

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do.........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........ 

.....do........

Date.

Nov., 1907 

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do...... 

Sept., 1907

Nov., 1907 

...do......

...do...... 

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do...... 

...do......

Material in 

which water 

occurs.

Limestone .

.....do.....

Limestone . 

Gravel. .... 

.....do.....

.....do.....

Limestone .

Gravel. .... 

Limestone .

.....do.....

.....do..... 

Limestone .

Silica (Si02).

"21

25

Iron (Fe).

0,8

1.0 

40

00

1.00 

.07 

06

,1

1.60

.05 

.30

20

,80

01

.00 

.20

Aluminum (Al).

....

Water from 150 feet.
UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 87

CASS COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Cass County, in the west-central part of the region under consideration, has an area of 420 square miles. Its population in 190t) was 

34,545, an average of 82 inhabitants to the square mile. The county 

seat, Logansport, 68 miles from Indianapolis and 100 miles from 

Chicago, lies a little northeast of a line connecting these two greater 

cities.

The county exhibits more diversity of surface than many equal 

areas within the State, chiefly because it contains parts of two important stream valleys. The most striking topographic feature is the 

valley of the Wabash, which crosses the county from east to west as 

a very definite trough that ranges in width from a few hundred feet 

to a mile and is incised from 100 to 150 feet below the level of the 

uplands north and south of it. The valley of Eel River, roughly parallel to that of the Wabash, joins the latter at Logansport, and is a 

similar but slightly less prominent topographic feature.

The uplands north of the Wabash Valley are diversified by low 

morainal hills, and another belt of similar irregular topography occupies the strip between Deer Creek and the south line of the count}". 

Except where streams are cut below them or moraines rise above 

them the uplands are flat, featureless plains.

The Wabash and the Eel are the chief streams of the county, as 

their valleys are the principal depressions. Where either river has 

cut below the glacial mantle into the underlying rock its valley is 

narrow, its banks are cliff-like, and its channel is impeded by rapids, 

but in the drift areas the valleys broaden, and the water courses are 

bordered by narrow belts of alluvial bottoms. The other streams 

of the county are small and their valleys are cut but a few feet below 

the level of the uplands across which they flow.

A few small lakes in the northern part of the county, like other 

lakes in northern Indiana, occupy depressions in the morainal drift. 

Lake Cicott, the largest, 9 miles west of Logansport, is 1 mile long and 

one-fourth mile wide. The county as a whole is well drained and 

contains no large marshes.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

TTOCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The alluvial sands and gravels, since they are stream-laid deposits, 

are confined practically to the strips of bottom and bench 1-and that 

border the rivers. Not every terrace, however, overlies deposits of 

this character, for in a few localities, where the streams flow over 

rock, the benches also are cut in rock which may be veneered by a
88 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

film of alluvial gravels a few feet or a few inches thick. Deposits of 

the strictly alluvial type in this county are confined almost entirely 

to the valleys of Wabash and Eel rivers, but in the western part, north, 

west, and south of Lake Cicott, there are similar surface deposits of 

sand.

Water is generally abundant, of good quality, and easily obtained 

in the bottom lands. The alluvium remains saturated at least up to 

the level of the streams, so that wells sunk in it are less affected by 

drought than those in the glacial deposits of the uplands, and the 

thorough washing and sorting that the material has undergone during the process of deposition has removed from it much of the mineral 

matter that it originally contained, so that the water obtained from 

it is softer than that from the till, and, where protected from contamination, is pure.

Driven wells are easily and cheaply installed in the bottom lands, 

and few fail to yield a supply that is excellent and ample for all purposes,

Morainal drift occupies the greater part of the upland surface of 

Cass County, the underlying till, at places scarcely distinguishable 

from it by the drillers, appearing at the surface only in two areas, one 

south of the Wabash, between it and Deer Creek, the other in the north 

half of the county (PI. I).

The thickness of both the moraine and the till varies in different 

parts of the uplands. Southwest of Adamsboro, between Wabash 

and Eel rivers, wells 100 feet deep do not reach rock, and the topography of this divide indicates that the greater part of this thickness 

is morainal material. North of Eel River the moraine may be even 

thicker, while along the south edge of the county it is so thin that all 

except the shallowest wells pass through it into the till below.

In the areas of rougher topography the drift is almost everywhere 

of open texture, permitting free circulation of water. Wells sunk in 

these areas yield abundantly, but the water table is at many places 

50 to 70 feet below the ground surface. Because of the free circulation and the abundance of the supply, however, continued pumping 

fails to lower the water level. In those morainal areas where the 

relief is less marked the water table is nearer the surface.

The till, wherever it may be found either beneath the moraines or 

at the surface, where it forms a level or slightly undulating plain, is of 

the usual type that is, it is a compact clayey mass which yields water 

but sparingly except from interbedded sand or gravel layers. These 

layers, however, are in most localities sufficiently abundant to make 

it highly probable that any deep drilled well will pass through one 

or more such beds, from which abundant water may as a rule be 

procured.
CASS COUNTY. 89

Generally speaking, the waters derived from the till are the hardest 

that are obtained from the unconsolidated materials in this county, 

those derived from the moraines being next in hardness.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The Devonian limestones, the youngest of the hard rock deposits of 

Cass County, immediately underlie the glacial material in the southcentral part of the county and appear at the surface in the valleys of 

Wabash and Eel rivers. Beneath the Devonian in this part of the 

county and just below the drift throughout the remainder of the 

county lie the Silurian ("Niagara") limestones. These limestones 

also outcrop in the valleys of Wabash and Eel rivers east of the zone 

along which the Devonian beds appear. Deep borings at Logansport 

indicate a thickness of 540 feet for the Silurian there and prove that 

several so-called "breaks" or beds of shale are mterstratified with the 

more massive limestone. These shale layers serve as confining beds and, 

where other conditions are favorable, make possible the accumulation 

of sufficient head in the water beneath them to cause it to flow at the 

surface.

The depth to rock varies widely within the county. The fact that 

it appears at the surface in the valleys of the Wabash and the Eel has 

already been mentioned. In the southern half of the county scattered wells reach the Devonian rocks, but in the area north of the 

Wabash the Silurian is so deeply buried that few wells extend to it.

Some wells obtain good supplies of water from the unconsolidated 

beds just above the limestones, but better yields are almost everywhere to be had from the rock itself a few feet below its upper surface. 

Both of the limestones are intersected by open joint and bedding 

planes that form crevices which afford free passage for water. These 

crevices are especially numerous near the surface of the rock, and few 

wells that penetrate it for a short distance fail to obtain an abundant 

supply. Plate V, BJ shows solution passages in the limestone. Such 

openings, if encountered by wells, commonly supply large quantities 

of water.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

At the Northern Indiana Insane Asylum at Longcliff, 2 miles southwest of Logansport, there are two deep wells in the limestone, one of 

which flows 2 and the other 3 gallons a minute. (PI. IV, No. 11.) 

One of these wells is 230, the other 618 feet deep, but as neither of 

them is cased below the rock surface the depth from which the water 

rises is not known.

Near the southern edge of the county, along the lowlands of Deer 

Creek and its tributaries, is another area of flowing wells. (PL IV, 

No. 12.) The surface deposits here are 50 or 60 feet thick, and the
90 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

wells passing through this mantle strike the artesian water in the 

upper part of the underlying limestone. The conditions that cause 

this flow, shown diagrammatically in figure 12, seem simple and. clear. 

In the vicinity of Kokomo the limestones are near the surface, and so 

are favorably situated for the absorption of rainfall. Between 

Kokomo and the Deer Creek lowlands the limestones are covered by 

a sheet of impervious till, which confines the water sufficiently to give 

it the necessary head.

At Galveston, in the southeast corner of the county (PI. IV, No. 

13), there is an old well, drilled originally for gas, that yields about 

20 gallons of water a minute. This water is under sufficient pressure 

to rise over 5 feet above the surface. No record of the well could be 

obtained, but there can be little doubt that the water comes from the 

"Niagara" limestone, which is here 40 to 60 feet below the surface. 

The fact that the water is sulphurous (analysis No. 4, p. 94) adds to 

this probability. It is likely that the head which causes this water to 

flow originates farther east and south.

In the Wabash Valley in the vicinity of Logansport all of the deep 

wells in the limestone encounter water under artesian pressure. In a 

number of these the pressure is sufficient to produce a flow. (PI. IV,

No. 14.) The strongest yield is reported 

from a boring for gas, 

said to be the deepest

FIGURE 12. Diagram showing source of artesian head in the valley of pfle, q Poiintv Thi«!

Deer Creek. At Kokomo (K) the limestone is near the surface and U1 vabb vuuiitj . j.ms>

can absorb the rainfall. Between Kokomo and Deer Creek (D) the rock Well, the property of

is covered by a sheet of impervious till. In the valley of Deer Creek Toml W Kennedv is

the water, which is under artesian pressure, will flow at the surface at ' $ '

W. At W the water from the same depth will rise toward the in the West end of the

surface but will not flow. city> When it Was

first drilled the water is said to'have spouted 2 feet above the top of 

the 6-inch casing, indicating a yield of nearly 1,000 gallons a minute at 

that time. Since then the well has been plugged to stop the waste.

In addition to the flowing wells there are in Logansport many rock 

wells in which the water rises to or nearly to the surface. They 

probably derive their supply from open connected channels in the 

limestone, for some wells that are near together are apparently interdependent. For example, it has been proved by the Logansport Ice 

and Cold Storage Company that when either of its four wells is 

pumped the water in the others is lowered. Strong drafts on the 

ice company's wells also lower the head in other neighboring wells.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Logansport. Logansport, the county seat of Cass County, with a 

population in 1900 of 16,204, is situated in the valley bottom at the 

junction of Wabash and Eel rivers, at an altitude of about 600 feet
CASS COUNTY. 91

above sea level. The waterworks, which are owned by the city, were 

built in 1875. Eel River is the source both of the water supply and 

of the power by which it is distributed, the power being developed by 

a dam built across the stream.

About half the population uses the city water, which is distributed 

by direct pressure through 33 miles of mains from 2 to 20 inches in 

diameter. These mains supply 202 fire hydrants and 3,220 taps, the 

total consumption being from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 gallons a day.

Since the city water is derived from a surface source, it is very soft, 

contains little scale-forming material, and has the reputation among 

the railroads of being an ideal boiler water. For manufacturing and 

steaming it is superior to the limestone water obtained from the wells, 

but for drinking, used as it is in Logansport without filtration, it is 

less desirable. Eel River, like other surface streams in closely settled 

regions, is in constant danger of pollution. In periods of flood the 

unsatisfactory condition of the water is obvious, but there may be 

greater danger in the clearer water that is pumped into the mains 

during periods of low water in the streams. The installation of a 

filtration plant would greatly improve conditions here.

The 50 per cent of Logansport's inhabitants who do not use the 

city water depend on cisterns and private wells for their supply. The 

wells are 15 to 90 feet deep, dug or drilled, and obtain water either 

from gravels or from the underlying limestone, which is at most 

places found at less than 40 feet below the surface. In the past, 

shallow, open dug wells have been much used, but it is now recognized 

that they are very unsafe in an area that is so closely settled, hence 

most of them have been wisely abandoned for drilled wells, 40 to 60 

feet deep, that penetrate the underlying rock and obtain from it safe, 

though hard, waters.

Royal Center. Royal Center is a thriving town in the northwest 

corner of Cass County, with a population of about 1,000. A municipal waterworks system owned by the city has been installed and a well 

6 inches in diameter and 280 feet deep has been drilled as a source of 

supply. This well, which derives its water from the " Niagara" limestone, has been tested and found to have a capacity of 15,000 gallons 

an hour. The water is pumped from the well to a 68,000-gallon 

wooden tank at an elevation of 90 feet. This elevation gives a domestic pressure of 40 pounds, but for protection from fire the water is 

pumped directly into the mains and a much higher pressure is thereby 

obtained. The system, with its 2 miles of 4 to 6 inch mains and its 

72 services, supplies about one-third of the inhabitants of the city, 

the average daily consumption being about 25,000 gallons.

The remaining two-thirds of the people still use private wells, the 

greater number of which are 40 to 60 feet deep. The water supply 

for these wells comes from gravel beds in the till, and since these
2 UNDEBGROUND WATEES OF NORTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

gravels are protected from pollution by the compact clay above them, 

they form safe reservoirs. Typhoid fever is therefore almost unknown 

in Royal Center.

Galveston. Galveston, in the southeast corner of Cass County, 

stands about 20 feet above Deer Creek on a gently undulating till 

plain. The town supply is drawn from an 8-inch drilled well, 180 

feet deep, owned by W. H. Sprinkle. At 63 feet below the surface 

this well enters the "Niagara" limestone, whence it procures its 

supply.

A pump with a capacity of 110 gallons a minute is operated by a 

gasoline engine which forces water into a 500-barrel tank that stands 

50 feet above the ground. From this tank it is distributed to the 

users through 5 miles of 2 and 4 inch mains. Twenty-five hydrants 

are provided for fire protection, and direct pressure is used when 

needed. Nearly all the people in Galveston use the public supply, 

but there are a few private drilled wells, from 80 to 180 feet deep, 

one of which flows.

Walton. Walton, 9 miles southeast of Logansport, with a population in 1900 of 498, has no waterworks system. All the local water 

supplies are drawn from wells, of which many types are represented, 

open dug wells predominating. The wells range in depth from 15 to 

25 feet and they rarely fail, but those that stand near outhouses or 

other buildings are unsafe. In this village there are a few deeper 

drilled wells that enter rock at 60 to 100 feet below the surface and 

procure plentiful supplies of perfectly safe potable waters. (Analyses 18 and 19, p. 94.) Wells of this deeper type are strongly recommended.

Young America. Young America is a flourishing and progressive 

village in the southwest corner of the county, 9 miles from the nearest 

railroad station. Until within a few years all water has been obtained 

from dug wells, but the tendency of late has been to sink deep-drilled 

wells. The village is very favorably situated to procure the deeper 

supplies, for excellent potable waters (analysis No. 20, p. 94) are found 

here in limestone at depths of 60 to 80 feet, and when tapped the 

waters rise to within 20 feet of the surface. Under these conditions 

all of the shallower wells should be abandoned, and when this step is 

taken typhoid fever should be much less prevalent than it is now.

Other communities. A tabulated list follows of other communities 

in Cass County, with the conditions of water supply in each.
CASS COUNTY. 93

Other milage supplies in Cass County.

Town.

New Waverley. . .

Population 

(1900).

143 

86

138 

40

100 

105

40 

170 

30

35

280

175 

100

Source.

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

..... do.. ............

.....do..............

.....do..............

Wells, drilled.......

Wells, driven and 

dug. 

Wells, driven and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, drilled and 

driven. 

.....do..............

Wells, driven, 

drilled, and dug. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, driven, 

drilled, and dug.

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

16

16

20 

18

10 

20

27 

15 

20

60 

10

9 

12

Greatest.

Feet. 

30

120

80 

100

47 

45

87 

115 

110

90 

60

112 

120

Common.

Feet. 

25

20

30 

23

40

45

30 

20 

60

70 

15

16 

80

Depth 

to 

rock.

Feet. 

4

90

70 

4

56

8 

80 

280

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet.

16 

10

8 

20

15-30 

12

9

Character of 

water beds.

Limestone.

Gravel and 

limestone. 

Gravel. 

Gravel and 

limestone. 

Limestone. 

Gravel.

Sand.

Clay and 

limestone. 

Gravel.

Do.

Gravel and 

limestone. 

Do.

Gravel.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

In the two following tables are given detailed information regarding typical wells in Cass County and analyses of their waters. The 

numbers in the last column of each table refer to identical wells in

the other table.

Records of typical wells in Cass County.

No.

1

2 

3

4 

5

6 

7 

8 

9

10 

11

12 

13 

14 

15

16 

17

18

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24

Owner.

G. P. Dvkeman. . 

B.Castaldi.......

W.H. Sprinkle..

J. W. Griffin.....

T. Saunders...... 

F. M. Million.....

A. V. Watkins...

Logansport Ice 

"and Cold Storage Co.

City of Logansport. 

.....do...........

John W. Kennedy.

Northern Indiana 

Insane Asylum.

D. J. Forgy...... 

Daniel Moon .....

City waterworks . 

Schoolhouse..-.-- 

W. S. Kepner. . . .

Dr. N. W. Cody. .

Location.

.....do..........

5 miles W. of 

Galveston. 

Lake Cicott..... 

.....do..........

Logansport..... 

.....do..........

Riverside Park .

Electric-1 i g h t 

plant.

3J miles NE. of 

Logansport.

New Waverly. .. 

1 mile S. of Onward. 

Roval Center. . . 

Twelve Mile..... 

Wal ton. ........

.....do..........

Young America. 

Logansport. ....

Depth.

Feet. 

120 

80 

190

100(?)

75 

30 

115 

600

104

447

380 

1,606

101 

618

61 

18 

12

290 

130 

78 

106 

65 

87

Type.

Drilled. . 

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Driven. . 

Drilled.. 

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do..... 

...do.....

Driven. . 

Dug.....

Drilled. . 

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

Diameter.

In.

4

8

2

2

U

4 

8

8

8

8 

6

3

8

2 

11

6

4

4 

4 

5

bed. Depth to water

Ft. 

115 

80

75 

30 

115 

100

100

447

370

100

60 

18

280

"65

above Head)(+ or below ( ) surface.

Ft. 

-15

-20

+ 5

+ 3

-16 

0

0

+21

+ 3

+

-50

+

+ 3

- 6

-10

-10 

-20

Water-bearing materials.

Limestone . 

.....do.....

.....do..... 

.....do.....

.....do.....

Sand.......

.....do.....

Limestone . 

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do......

.....do.....

.....do.....

Limestone .

.....do.....

.....do.....

Limestone .

Limestone . 

Sandstone . 

Limestone . 

.....do......

rock. Depth to 

Ft. 

90

63

56 

t,

?,

8 

35

9

70 

81 

60

Flow minute. per 

Galls.

"~20 

10

1 

t

2

......

Temperature.

°F.

"52 

52

54

Analysis No.

1 

21 

3

4 

2

5

8 

7

9 

12

13 

14 

15

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

6
Mineral analyses of waters in Cass Count

[Parts per million.]

No.

1 

2 

3

4 

5

6

7 

8

9 

10

11 

12 

13

14 

15

16

17 

18

19 

20 

21

Owner.

G. P. Dykeman. 

J. W. Griffin.... 

W. H. Sprinkle..

F. M. Million... 

Dr.N. W Cody.

Riverside Park.. 

Logansport Ice 

and Cold StorrCo. 

KBnfc_. ....

I>. D. Dyteman.

Northern Indiana 

Insane Asylum. 

.....do..........

John Winn. . . ..

D. J. Forgy..... 

Daniel Moon ....

Public supply...

Schoolhouse. .... 

W. S. Kepner...

B. Castaldi. ....

Location.

5 miles W. of 

Galveston. 

Galveston. ....

.....do........

Lake Cicott. .. 

Logansport . . .

.....do........ 

.....do........

3J m'les E. of 

Logansport. 

3 miles E. of 

Logansport.

.....do........

New Waverley 

1 mile S. of 

Onward. 

Royal Center. .

Twelve Mile.. 

Walton .......

.....do........

Young America.

Source.

Drilled well, 120 ft. by 

4 in. 

Drilled well, 100 ft. 

by 2 in. 

Drilled well, 190 ft. 

by 8 in.

Driven well, 30ft. by 

liin. 

Drilled well. 87 ft. by 

5 in. 

Drilled well, 447 ft. ...

Drilled well, 104 ft. 

by 8 in.

Drilled well, 101 ft. 

by 3 in.

Wells................

Drilled well, 618 ft. 

by 8 in. 

Drilled well, 61 ft. by 

2 in. 

Driven well, 18 ft....

Open well, 12ft......

Drilled well, 290 ft. 

bv 6 in. 

Drilled well, 130 ft . . .

Drilled well, 78ft. by 

4 in. 

Drilled we'll, 106J ft. 

by 4 in. 

Drilled well, 65 ft. by 

4 in. 

Drilled well, 80ft....

Analyst.

H.E.Barnard 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

R B DO!P

Date.

1907.......

1907.......

Oct., 1907

1907.......

Nov., 1907 

...do......

Aus.. 1907

Material in 

which 

water 

occurs.

.....do....

.....do....

.....do....

Sand......

. .do. . . .

do do do

H.E.Barnard 

.....do........

H.E. Barnard 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

1907.......

1907.......

1907.......

1907.......

1907.......

1907....... 

1907.......

1907.......

1907.......

Oct., 1907 

1907.......

Nov., 1907

Limestone 

.....do....

.....do....

.....do....

Limestone 

Sandstone 

Limestone 

.....do....

Silica (SiO2).

'oT

bc 

S

9 4

1 6

3

10

.1

1?

18

39

.5

.02 

.08

1 4

7

5.0 

1 6

1 0

1.2

0.5

?, 4

1 0

1.6 

3 6

01

1
UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 95

CLINTON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Clinton County, in the western tier of the counties here discussed, 

has Carroll and Howard counties on the north, and Boone on the 

south. With an area of 402 square miles, it had in 1900 a population of 70 inhabitants to the square mile. Frankfort, the county seat, 

is 40 miles northwest of Indianapolis.

Practically the whole of the county, which lies on the plateau 

between Wabash and White rivers, is to be classed as uplands. 

The surface slopes from an elevation of 900 feet above sea level in 

the southwest quarter to less than 700 feet in the valley of Middle 

Fork of Wild Cat Creek, where it crosses the west county line\ 

Through the whole county the rock is overlain by a thick layer of 

glacial till, which has entirely obscured the topography of the underlying rock. The present relief is entirely due to the form given to 

the surface deposits by the glacier and to the subsequent shaping of 

the materials by erosion. The greater part of the county is a level 

till plain, although in the north half there are several small areas of a 

few square miles each which are occupied by morainal drift, and in 

these areas the surface is less regular and the relief greater than in 

equal areas of till surface, although the moraines are nowhere very 

prominent topographic features.

Clinton County has no large streams. Several creeks have their 

sources here, but only one, South Fork of Wild Cat Creek, flows 

across the county from a source outside of it. The valley of this 

creek north of Michigantown is merely a shallow dip in the till 

plain, but becomes gradually deeper toward the west. Middle Fork 

of Wild Cat Creek rises in the northeast corner of the county, flows 

northwest into Carroll County, and then curves southwest to reenter 

Clinton County and flows across its northwest corner. All the other 

creeks are small and have valleys that lie only a few feet below the 

plain.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

As there are no large, well-developed valleys, the alluvial deposits 

of the county are unimportant. In the lower courses of Middle and 

South Forks of Wild Cat Creek there are narrow flood plains of 

alluvium, and these deposits, even in small areas, are good water 

bearers. The water lies near the surface and the open gravels yield 

their waters readily to wells. Driven wells are the cheapest and 

most satisfactory type for use in alluvium, but care should be taken 

not to drive the wells through the alluvium into the underlying till 

for the gravels are not of great depth in the small valleys.
96 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL. INDIANA.

The moraines of this county are patchy in distribution (PI. I) and 

occur only as rather thin deposits on top of the till. Wells in them 

locally find water above the till, but in most places it is necessary to 

go through the morainal beds into the till. Driven or drilled wells 

are commonly employed for this purpose.

As shown in Plate I, the till occupies most of the surface of the 

county and is actually continuous over it, though covered locally 

by moraines. In the southwest corner of the county the rock is 

within 125 to 150 feet of the surface, but throughout the county the 

till probably averages 250 feet thick, and at Frankfort it is 275 feet 

and at Kirklin 300 feet to the underlying rock (PI. II). In this 

county the gravel beds of the till are in many places far below the 

surface or are too thin to supply much water. Consequently most 

of the wells are dug or open and are supplied by seepage from the 

close-textured till. Such wells, if dug below the level of the water 

table during the dry seasons, will usually supply enough water for 

family use. For the use of stock or for manufacturing purposes 

such wells are inadequate. Large users of water must supply themselves from surface waters or put in deep drilled or driven wells, 

which are commonly successful in reaching gravel or sand beds. At 

Frankfort large quantities of water for the city supply are drawn 

from open gravel beds in the till.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The outcrops of three great groups of rocks extend across this 

county beneath the surface deposits, and occur as belts running 

from northwest to southeast (PL III). At the east edge of the 

county the uppermost rocks are the Devonian limestones, the oldest 

of the three series. Next younger and uppermost in the central and 

northwest portions is the New Albany shale. In the extreme southwest corner of the county the highest rocks are the shales of the 

"Knobstone" group, of Mississippian age. These rocks have all 

been described in previous parts of this report. None of them furnishes water to the wells in Clinton County.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

At Alhambra Lake, one-quarter mile south of the court-house at 

Frankfort (PL IV, No. 15), there is a single flowing well. As this 

well is below the surface of the lake, there was no opportunity to 

determine its yield. In 1884 there were five flowing wells at this 

lake, one of which yielded 96 gallons per minute, and the area in 

which flowing wells could be obtained was at that time much larger 

than it is now. Flowing wells could then be obtained all along the 

creek, and the water at the city pumping station would rise 6 feet 

above the surface. Alhambra Park was for many years a thriving 

resort, with boating and bathing in the lake. The artesian waters
CLINTON COUNTY. 97

were all obtained from a gravel bed, 65 feet below the surface, and 

the head is from the uplands near by.

Area 16 extends from Manson eastward for about 4 miles along the 

creek. (PI. IV, No. 16.) At Manson the wells are almost all driven 

into gravel in the till to depths of 35 to 45 feet, and although none of 

them flows constantly several flow at the surface in wet weather. 

One flowing well is reported two miles south of Frankfort.

Two miles north of Kirklin there is a single flowing well in the 

lowlands (see PI. IV, No. 17), driven into gravel at 40 feet, from 

which the water will rise 9 feet above the surface. The artesian 

conditions are local, though probably other flows could be procured 

in the neighborhood, on ground as low as that near the existing well. 

The water comes from the higher ground not far away.

There are a number of flowing wells along the valley of Middle Fork 

of Wild Cat Creek, north of Boyleston and Hillisburg and in the 

vicinity of Michigantown. (PI. IV, No. 18.) The strongest of these, 

1 mile north of Michigantown, is driven over 100 feet through the 

till into gravel and is said to flow with a 1-inch stream. All the 

wells of this area are in the lowlands, and wells on higher ground 

striking the same gravel beds, would not flow.

In the vicinity of Moran there are two flowing wells (PL IV, No. 19), 

one of which, on the property of N. E. White & Co. (No. 15, p. 100), 

is a dug well 19 feet deep. It obtained a flow of about 1 gallon per 

minute from a gravel bed, and a pump is used to raise the water to 

a convenient height. The second artesian well, 1^ miles west of 

Moran (No. 16, p. 100), is a driven well 60 feet deep and flows almost 

enough to fill a 2-inch pipe. Though the above wells are some distance apart and obtain their flows from different depths, they are 

both in the till and have been classed as in a single artesian area.

Along the valley of North Fork of Wild Cat Creek, between Forest 

and the county line, and in the valley of the tributary east of Sedalia, 

there are five or six artesian wells (PL IV, No. 20), all of which are 

driven into gravel beds in the till, at depths of 35 to 100 feet. The 

waters from these gravels have just enough head to give flows in the 

valleys. The conditions for flows seem to be favorable along much 

of this valley, if the wells are located on low enough ground. Records 

of these wells are given on page 100.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Frankfort. Frankfort, the county seat, is the only city in Clinton 

County which has a public water supply. It lies 3 miles southwest 

of the geographic center of the county, and its population in 1900 was 

7,100. The waterworks of this city are the property of the Frankfort 

Water Works Company, and the water is drawn from 12 drilled

46448° WSP 254 10 7
98 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

i

wells, 6 inches in diameter. One well penetrates to a depth of 208 

feet into an 8-foot stratum of sand, and formerly flowed with a head 

6 feet above the surface. For the last twenty years this head has 

gradually become lower, and the well has long since ceased to flow. 

The other wells are about 82 feet deep, and a gravel bed is reported 

at 55 feet. The water from this gravel enters the well and formerly 

rose under artesian pressure almost to the surface. The head is now 

20 feet below the surface. Although the wells are situated in the 

center of the town, the gravel bed from which the water comes is 

protected above by impervious blue clay and hardpan, and should 

be safe from contamination. There has been some complaint that 

the water is turbid, but on the whole the supply seems to be very 

good. Direct pressure is used, the water being pumped from a 

400,000-gallon reservoir into the mains. There are now over 16 

miles of mains of thin wrought iron lined with concrete. In 1907 the 

company was engaged in laying 7 miles of additional mains, part of 

this work being already completed at the time the town was visited. 

There are about 2,000 services, and 75 per cent of the people of 

Frankfort use this water, requiring about 1,000,000 gallons per day.

Many families in this city still use water from private wells, most 

of which are driven to depths of 30 to 60 feet and obtain good water 

from the gravels. Unfortunately many shallow dug wells are still 

in use. Some of these, when examined, showed strong evidences of 

pollution by their appearance and odor. Cesspools and wells were 

found side by side and the one very evidently was in direct'connection with the other. Analyses 3 and 4 (p. 101) are of the waters of 

two dug wells that show evidences of the presence of sewage.

From water-well borings and from the record of a well sunk for

gas the geologic section at Frankfort has been found to be as follows:

-f

Log of well drilled for gas at Frankfort.®

Feet.

Clay and hardpan with some gravel............................. 55

Gravel....................................................... 32

Till.......................................................... 113

Sand......................................................... 8

Till.......................................................... 70

Niagara limestone and shale.................................... 380

Trenton [meant for Clinton].................................... 10

Hudson River and Utica shale................................. 400

Trenton limestone............................................ 260

1,328

Coif ax. Coif ax, a village of 768 inhabitants (1900), is in the southwest corner of the county. It has no public water system and the^ 

water used is drawn .from private wells. Most of these are open 

wells, 15 to 25 feet deep, though a few wells, driven and drilled to

» Sixteenth Ann. Eept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 245.
. CLINTON COUNTY. 99

depths of 40 to 50 feet are used. The water rises within 6'or 8 feet 

of the surface, but no flows have been found. The deeper wells go 

through the till into gravels and get pure, safe water. An analysis 

of water from a depth of 102 feet is No. 2 (p. 101). The dug wells are 

very likely to become polluted, and are not safe to use when located 

in a town and surrounded by barnyards and privies.

Kirklin. Kirklin, in southeastern Clinton County, is situated on 

the till plain about a mile south of Sugar Creek. The water supply 

is drawn from dug and driven wells and cisterns, and no public 

water supply has been installed. Most of the wells in use are dug 

wells less than 30 feet in depth. There are, however, a number of 

driven wells, the deepest of which extend to more than 100 feet below 

the surface. None reach bed rock, the water being obtained from gravel 

beds. Under the town there are three gravel beds which may be 

encountered, the first at 15 to 20 feet, the second at 50 to 60 feet, 

and the third at 100 to 115 feet. The shallowest of these is the one 

most commonly drawn upon, but the water at this depth is not safe 

from pollution. From time to time, there has been considerable 

typhoid fever in this town, doubtless due to the use of shallow wells. 

The water in the second gravel is very much safer, and that from the 

third gravel is subject to but very slight chance of becoming contaminated. Analyses of the third gravel waters are Nos. 7 and 8 

(p. 101).

Rosswlle. Rossville, in the northwest part of the county, is on a 

rolling plain. The source of supply is from wells, which are about 

equally divided between the dug and driven types. The most common depth for wells is 30 feet, though some are shallower and some 

deeper. The water is obtained from gravel beds which occur at 

about 25 to 30 feet, and at 40 feet. The general health of the town 

has been good, but the 40-foot wells are recommended as a much 

safer source of supply than the shallower ones. An analysis of water 

from a depth of 40 feet is No. 12 (p. 101).

Mulberry. Mulberry, 8 miles northwest of Frankfort, is supplied 

almost altogether from dug wells, which -range from 12 to 30 feet in 

depth and in which the water from gravel beds rises within 12 feet 

of the surface. Two deeper wells were sunk but were unsuccessful, 

as both encountered quicksand at a depth of about 100 feet and had 

to be abandoned. As the shallow gravel beds seem to be the only 

available source of supply, it would be advisable to sink driven wells 

to these gravels. These wells, if properly cased, would be superior to 

the loosely walled dug wells, because water could enter them only from 

the bottom. The open wells receive water through their walls from 

all depths and are subject to pollution from many sources.

Other communities. A list of other villages with particulars regarding their water supply is given in the following table.
100 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Other village supplies of Clinton County.

Town.

Boyleston.... 

Edna Mills...

Gree tings ville 

Hillisburg.... 

Jefferson.....

Michigantown 

Middlefork. . . .

Pickard.......

Scircleville.... 

Sedalia........

Population 

(1900).

34 

120

72 

286

268 

100 

175 

417 

119 

200 

150

167 

300

Source.

Wells, dug and driven...

.....do...................

.....do...................

.....do...................

.....do...................

.....do...................

Wells, dug and driven...

.....do...................

Wells, dug, driven, and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug and driven... 

.....do...................

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

20 

15 

10 

15 

20 

15 

20 

35 

19 

20 

15 

15

30 

15

Greatest.

Feet. 

101 

45 

18 

100 

110 

64 

82 

45 

125 

70 

60 

150

135 

80

Common.

Feet. 

25 

33 

15 

30 

40 

40 

26 

40 

23 

60 

25 

35

40 

20

Depth 

to rock.

Feet.

225

Head

above 

( + )or 

below ( ) surface.

Feet. 20 

-15 

- 5 

-10

-5 to -10

Oto- 3 

0 to -12 

+4 to- 6 

Oto- 3 -13

-12 

-12

Character of 

water 

beds.

Gravel. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do.

Do. 

Do.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

In the two following tables are given detailed information regarding typical wells in Clinton County and analyses of their waters. 

The last column of each table gives the numbers of identical wells in 

the other table.

Records of typical wells in Clinton County.

No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 

8

9

10

11

12 

13

14

15'

16

17

18

19 

20

21 

22

23

Owner.

G. T. Myers.......

W. H. Davis......

Frankfort Water

Works Co. 

Milton Oliver......

D. A. Coulter......

R. C. Gorham.....

M.E. Miller.......

N. E. White & Co.

Markwood Slipher.

Dr. I. S. Earhart..

Charles Fulkerson. 

H. F. Cheney......

John Kemner.... . . 

Carl Peitsch.......

paugh.

Location.

1 mile SW. of

Boylestown. 

Colfax. ............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

Kirklin...........

.....do.............

son. 

Michigantown. . . . . Middlefork.......

ImileN. of Middlefork.

li miles W. of Moran.

Sec. 25 T. 21, 

R. IE. 

Sec. 24, R. 1 W.,

Owen township. 

Sedalia............ 

.....do.............

a"ft

<u ft

Ft.

OK

216

100

82

15

20 

83

52

SO

120 

65

65

19

60

21

40

40 

46

46 

on

115

ft 

>> H

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Dug.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do..-. 

...do.....

...do.....

Dug.....

Driven..

Dug.....

Drilled..

Driven.. 

...do.....

...do..... 

Drilled..

...do.....

Diameter.

In.1i

2

2

8

6

2

9,

li

2 

li

li

2

li

2J

9i

3

1.

OTJ *» <u a*

13,

o> ft

Ft. 

35

SO

86

50

15

50

100

80

"65

30

19

60

21

40

40

"88

115

+T

£*

$3*

|3|

5 S m

B

Ft.

-15

- 8

 6

-20

"-is

-ie

-12

-14

+ 3

+

+ 2

+ 3

-15

-30

+ 9

+ 7

-20 

-37

Water-bearing materials.

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do...... 

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do...... 

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do...... 

.....do......

.....do...... 

.....do......

.....do......

Depth rock. to 

Ft.

....

Flow minute. per 

Goils.

'""e

1

21 

12

Analysis No.

1

2

3

4 

6

7

g

10

1112

13
Mineral analyses of waters in Clinton Co

No.

1

2

3

4

fi

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Owner.

G. T.Myers... ......

Wm. Powers. .......

Milton Oliver.......

D. A. Coulter.. .....

Lake Erie and Western R. R.

Jas. I. Miller. .......

R. C. Gortiam.......

J.W.Wills.........

Fred -Ridenow ......

N. E. White & Co...

Dr. I. S. Earhart....

Simms & Ashpaugh.

Location.

1 mile SW. of

Boylestown.

Colfax...........

812 First street,

Frankfort.

908 Second street,

Frankfort.

Hillisburg.......

Kirklin. ........

.....do...........

Middlefork. .....

Source.

Driven well, 35 ft. by

Well, 102 ft. by 2 in.o.

Open well, 15 ft. .....

Open well, 20 ft......

Well, 265ft..........

Well, 83ft...........

Well, 102 ft. by 2 in..

Well, 51 ft. by 2 in...

Well, 65 ft. by H in..

Open well, 19 ft.....

Open well, 21ft.....

Well, 40 ft. by li in..

Well, 115 ft. by 3 in..

Analyst.

H. E. Barnard.

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

L. E. & W,

T> T>

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do. .......

.....do.. ......

Date.

Oct. 1907

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

Sept. 1903'

Oct. 1907

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

Sept. 1907

Material

in which

occurs.

Gravel..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Gravel..

...do.....

...do.....

Oct. 1907 ...do.....

~

0

si 

_o

33

fe

g

I-H

2.

2 

4 

1.

2.

1 

.

1

.

1

.

o Water at 80 feet.
102 UNDEBGBOUND WATEBS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

ELKHABT COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Elkhart County, in the northeastern corner of this area and at the 

north edge of the State, is rectangular in outline, measuring 21 miles 

from east to west and somewhat more than 22 miles from the north to 

the south border. The total area is approximately 470 square miles 

and the average population (1900) 96 to the square mile. The county 

seat, Goshen, is near the center of the county, and lies 92 miles east of 

Chicago and 125 miles north of Indianapolis.

Elkhart County has a topography of great diversity. From St. 

Joseph River north to the county line, and for some distance south 

of that stream, the country is low and has very slight relief, and this 

flat area extends to the southeast corner of the county, along the 

valley of Elkhart River (PL I), At the edges of the flat area, moraine 

ridges rise sharply from the plain. South of Bristol the highest. 

points of the moraine are over 200 feet above the flat and reach an 

altitude of over 1,000 feet above sea level. No other county in the 

area here treated has so great a range of elevation as Elkhart County, 

the surface of which rises from less than 750 in the valley of St. 

Joseph River to over 1,000 feet at a number of points. The southwest corner, though covered by glacial deposits, consists of a rolling 

plain of low relief, and is not so high as the moraine-covered areas. 

The surface features of the county are entirely due to the form of the 

unconsolidated materials, as only in the deepest valley, that of St. 

Joseph River, have borings reached rock, which here lies 120 to 160 

feet below the surface. In the high moraines the surface deposits 

have doubtless a thickness of 250 to 400 feet.

Elkhart County lies wholly within the basin of St. Joseph River, 

which enters the county from the north, near Bristol, and, flowing 

somewhat south of west as far as Elkhart, turns west to enter St. 

Joseph County. The stream occupies a rather narrow channel in a 

very wide valley of alluvial materials. The principal tributary is 

Elkhart River, which flows across the county from southeast to 

northwest. Like that of the St. Joseph, its valley is wide and contains extensive alluvial beds. Bauge Creek, Pine Creek, and Little 

Elkhart River are other tributaries to the St. Joseph from the southeast. It receives no important branches from the north.

There are about a score of small lakes in the county which occupy 

depressions in the moraines. The largest is Simonton Lake, 4 

miles north of Elkhart, and its area is but little more than one-half 

square mile.
ELKHART COUNTY. 103

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

TJNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Alluvial deposits here have a considerable area and are of great 

importance as water producers. They lie on both sides of St. Joseph 

River, the alluvial flat ranging from 3 to 5 miles in width. Alluvium 

also occurs in a strip from 1 to 3 miles wide along the Elkhart River 

valley. At Elkhart wells penetrate about 34 feet of gravel and sand 

before they strike the underlying glacial clay. At Bristol the deepest 

wells have been sunk only 30 feet and have failed to reach the bottom 

of the alluvium. At Goshen, which is near the edge of the alluvial 

plain, the gravels are thinner but increase in depth toward the 

valley center.

Bordering the terminal moraines and occupying the gentler slopes 

below them there are in some places plains of alluvial material of 

different origin from the above-described valley deposits. These are 

outwash plains of the kind described on page 31.

Underground water is abundant throughout almost the entire 

alluvial area, for rainfall is rapidly absorbed at the surface and the 

relief is so slight that the waters are not readily drained from the 

lowlands, while the open and porous character of the beds makes the 

water readily available. The very fact that deep wells are absent 

in these alluvial areas is a sufficient indication that satisfactory 

supplies can be obtained at moderate depths. Driven wells from 

15 to 30 feet deep are commonly used, and for household or farm 

uses these have proved satisfactory.

The moraines have a greater surface area than any other class 

of deposits in Elkhart County, occupying about one-half the surface. 

They all lie south of St. Joseph River, and there is a sharp topographic 

break between the alluvial plain along this river valley and the 

ridgelike moraines. Much of the surface is strewn with large and 

small bowlders. Driven or drilled wells are preferred in these 

deposits, as with them it is possible to go to greater depths if water is 

not found near the surface. The wells range in depth from 15 to 200 

feet and the best supplies of water are usually found in gravel or 

sand beds in the clay.

It is probable that the till underlies all the other surface deposits 

of the county and exists as a continuous sheet below them and above 

the rock, although it occupies the surface only in the southwest 

corner of the county (PI. I). There the topography is that of a 

rolling plain, broken only by the shallow valleys of small streams. 

Few surface cuts show gravel beds in the till, but the drill commonly 

reveals their presence at some depth. The clayey portions of the 

till yield water slowly to wells, and to procure satisfactory quantities 

of water it is commonly necessary to sink open wells of large surface 

area from 15 to 40 feet in depth to obtain the'seepage from the clay. 

Driven and drilled wells are generally successful in procuring abundant 

water in beds of gravel.
104 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

A study of the position, succession, and character of rock beds in 

this county explains why the rock beds here have never been utilized 

as a source of water supplies and demonstrates that these rock 

waters can never be exploited to any great extent. A well boring at 

Elkhart (PL I), in the lowest portion of the county, shows the surface 

deposits to be 122 feet deep. Below this there is a thickness of 429 

feet of shales which yields no water. It is therefore 551 feet down to 

the first rock formation, the " Corniferous" limestone of the well 

drillers, which might be expected to yield abundant supplies of water, 

and even this water would be likely to contain objectionable quantities of sulphur and salt. In the higher portions of the county, where 

the glacial deposits are thicker, an additional 100 or even 200 feet 

must be added to the above depth at which limestone will be encountered. The cost of such deep borings will prevent them from ever 

becoming common, and underground waters must be obtained from 

the surface materials.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

In and about the city of Elkhart, along the lowlands of St. Joseph 

River, is an area in which about a dozen flowing wells have been 

obtained (PL IV, No. 21), the best known of which are at Island and 

McNaughton parks. These wells are reported to obtain the flowing 

waters from sand and gravel beds at depths of 60 to 90 feet. As 

shown in the well log on page 105, the water-bearing beds are protected from pollution from above by many feet of close-grained blue 

till. Flows can be obtained only in the bottom lands, where the 

waters will rise 2 or 3 feet above the surface. On higher ground the 

same artesian waters .may be encountered by wells, but the head is 

sufficient to carry the water only a few feet above the level of the 

river. An analysis of water from the Island Park flowing well is 

No. 11 (p. 109).

Area 22 (PL IV) includes the low ground in and near Wakarusa, 

where there are 10 or 15 flowing wells and a large number in which 

the water is under artesian pressure but does not rise to the surface. 

The flows are all obtained from a gravel bed lying from 28 to 40 

feet below the surface of the till. The wells are all driven, and the 

pipe most used is 1| inches in diameter. None of the wells gives a 

large flow, but the yield, from a fraction of a gallon to 5 gallons per 

minute, continues throughout the year. The temperature of the 

wells tested was 51° F. An analysis of the water from one of these 

wells is No. 21 (p. 109).

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Elkhart. Elkhart lies at the junction of Elkhart and St. Joseph 

rivers and in 1900 had a population of 15,184. The public water 

system, installed in 1884, is owned by the Elkhart Water Company,
ELKHAHT COUNTY. 105

a private corporation. The water is drawn from three dug wells, 

34 feet deep, two of which are 40 and the other 30 feet in diameter. 

The materials penetrated were sand and gravel, clay being encountered at the bottom. The wells, situated at the edge of the town, in 

a grove owned by the water company, are a considerable distance from 

the nearest dwellings and outhouses, and the supply seems to be a 

very satisfactory one. The city health officer reports that no case of 

typhoid fever has ever been traced to the city water. There is some 

objection, however, to a yellowish color which the water has after a 

fire has necessitated more than the ordinary pumping. The extra 

pressure tends to loosen deposits of iron which have formed in the 

mains, and this discoloration of the water lasts for a few hours. 

Up to the present time the supply from the wells has been sufficient 

for all purposes. The company has an emergency connection with 

Christiana Creek, so that in case of fire an additional supply can be 

obtained.

Direct pressure is used to supply about 33 miles of mains, which 

range from 6 to 24 inches in diameter. There are 3,320 taps, and it 

is estimated that about one-fourth of the people of Elkhart use this 

water, from 2,000,000 to 6,000,000 gallons per day being required to 

meet the demand.

About three-fourths of the people of this city still use private wells, 

most of which are driven, though many dug wells are still in use. 

The common depth from which water is drawn is 25 feet, or practically the same depth as the city wells, but the waters of private wells 

are more likely to become contaminated, for many of them are 

located near houses where kitchen slopsmre thrown out, and are often 

close to dug privy vaults. In the open-textured gravels and sands 

the liquids from these quickly penetrate to the ground-water table 

and become a part of the water supply. It is probable that safer 

waters could be secured from beds of gravel in the underlying till. 

From a deep boring for gas and from shallow well records, the following succession of beds has been determined for this vicinity: 0

Log of well drilled for gas at Elkhart.

Soil, etc. ................................................................................

Corniferous hmestone.

Thickness.

Feet. 

5

29

88

213

215

Depth.

Feet. 

5

34

122

335

550

Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 242.
106 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORlH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Goshen. Goshen lies on Elkhart River, near the center of the 

county. The public waterworks, built in 1880, are owned by the 

city, and the water is drawn from Rock Run and from two dug wells, 

24 and 36 feet deep and 24 and 40 feet in diameter. They are dug 

through gravel, the walls being cemented, so that water can enter only 

from the bottom. The water from these wells is unsatisfactory. One 

of them is situated near the gas plant, and the water is covered with 

a thick, greasy scum and has a decided odor. Part of the city water 

comes from Rock Run, which flows for more than a mile through the 

edge of the town before it reaches the waterworks. There are many 

dwellings, barns, and outhouses along its course, and pollution from 

some of these sources is almost certain.

The city water is pumped by steam pumps to a standpipe 146 feet 

high, from which the water is distributed by gravity to 25 miles of 

mains ranging from 4 to 20 inches in diameter. An average of 

1,500,000 gallons per day is needed to supply 1,800 services and 292 

fire hydrants. In case of fire the standpipe is cut off and direct 

pressure is used.

The city has spent large sums of money in trying to obtain well 

water at the city plant. It is reported that $70,000 was spent in 

completing one dug well.

In the south part of the town the supply of underground water is 

very abundant. All driven wells have encountered plentiful waters 

at depths of 30 feet or less, and excavations for buildings are difficult 

on account of the inflow of ground waters. A fine city supply could 

be obtained by drilling shallow wells into the'gravel a little distance 

beyond the settled portion of the town. An analysis of water from 

these gravels is No. 16 (p. 109).

About 20 per cent of the people of this city use private wells for 

domestic purposes, and a number of manufacturing establishments 

also have their own wells, most of which are driven, though there are 

still a few dug wells in use. All penetrate into gravel, and they range 

in depth from 18 to 90 feet. No water wells strike bed rock, for the 

record of an old gas boring shows that the rock here lies 165 feet below 

the surface. The log of this well is as follows: a

Log of well drilled for gas at Goshen.

Feet. 

Drift.......................................................... 165

Shale, Subcarbonif erous and Devonian.......................... 308

Corniferous limestone........................................... 60

Water lime.................................................... 32

Niagara limestone............................................. 728

Hudson River limestone and shale............................... 307

Utica shale. .................................................. 215

Trenton limestone.............................................. 239

2,054

Sixteenth Arm. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 246.
ELKHABT COUNTY. 107

Nappanee. Nappanee owns its own waterworks, the water for 

which is drawn from three drilled wells 160 feet deep, two 6 inches 

and one 12 inches in diameter. The town is situated on a rolling till 

plain and the waters are found in gravel beds below the till. The 

water is pumped by steam to a 75,000-gallon tank 116 feet high, from 

which it is distributed by gravity. There are 4 miles of 8, 6, and 

4 inch mains and 315 taps, and about half of the people use this water.

Besides the public supply there are many private wells in Nappanee. 

Most of them are driven, but some are drilled and a few dug. Only 

the dug wells are shallow and receive the water by seepage from the 

till, while the driven and drilled wells are 60 to 120 feet deep, the 

common depth being about 70 feet. The water comes from gravel 

beds, and for domestic uses the supply seems to be an admirable one.

Wakarusa. Wakarusa, on a rolling till plain 10 miles southwest of 

Goshen, has no public water supply. The wells are driven and drilled 

and range in depth from 15 to 165 feet. The most common depth is 

35 feet, and all the wells enter gravel. There are many flowing wells 

in the town which afford an excellent supply (Nos. 18, 19, 20, p. 108). 

An analysis of the water from one of these flowing wells is No. 21 

(p. 109).

Middleburg. -Middleburg is situated on an alluvial plain at the 

base of a very high, steep moraine ridge. Almost every family has 

its own private driven or drilled well, and there is no public supply. 

As a result of the topographic situation of this town the conditions for 

obtaining wells differ greatly in short distances. In the alluvium it 

is rarely necessary to drive a well more than 30 feet deep to obtain 

plenty of water, but on the moraine a depth of 150 feet is in some 

places required before a satisfactory supply is obtained.

Bristol. In Bristol, on the great St. Joseph River alluvial plain, 

the wells are all driven and all have reached unfailing water. The 

deepest well in town is but 25 feet deep, and the depth of the alluvium 

at this place is not known. The water rises in the wells within 10 or 

12 feet of the surface, and even the driest seasons fail to lower the 

head to any noticeable extent.

Millersburg. Millersburg is situated on a low moraine in the southeast part of the county. All the wells here are driven, usually to a 

depth of about 28 feet. The deepest well in town is 65 feet deep 

and does not reach rock. ' The water supply comes from a gravel bed 

in the moraine and rises within 18 feet of the surface.

Rural districts. 1 In the rural districts the conditions vary with the 

material at the surface. In alluvial areas driven wells are largely 

used and are generally not sunk to depths of more than 30 feet. 

Water is more difficult to obtain in the morainic deposits, and driven 

or drilled wells, ranging in depth from 15 to 200 feet, are most common, the water being usually found in gravel in the drift. In
108 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

those portions of the county where the till comes to the surface the 

conditions for wells are least favorable. Here dug wells are most 

common, and the water is yielded to them slowly by seepage. Deep 

drilled wells, almost without exception, encounter water-bearing 

gravel beds in the till if they reach sufficient depths.

Other communities. A list of other villages in Elkhart County, 

with particulars of their water supply, is contained in the following

table:

Other village supplies of ElWiart County.

Town.

Jamestown. ....

Southwest.... 

Vistula.........

Waterford......

Population 

(1900).

181 

33 

52

50

456 

52

141

Source.

.....do.................

Wells, driven and 

drilled.

.....do.................

.....do.................

Wells, driven and 

drilled.

.....do.................

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

10 

18 

60

25 

25 

10 

45

20 

10

Greatest.

Feet. 

20 

28 

125

65

no

50 

135

30 

20

Common.

Feet. 

15 

25 

80

50 

65 

15 

45

25 

16

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet. 3-8 

14

6-12

8

8 

8

Character of water 

beds.

Gravel and sand. 

Do. 

Gravel.

Do. 

Do. 

Gravel and sand. 

Gravel.

Gravel and sand. 

Do.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

In the following two tables are given the records of typical wells in 

Elkhart County and analyses of their waters. The last column in 

each table gives numbers referring to identical wells in the other

table.

Records of typical wells in Elkhart County.

No.

1

f,

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

1?

13

14

15

If.

17

18

19

20

Owner.

Elkhart Water Co....

Supply Co.

M.W.Huston. ......

Co.

L. J. Pritchard.......

.....do................

Location.

Bristol......

Elkhart. ....

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

JS

1

fl

Ft.

m

34

8.1

SO

?5

124

80

9/1

36

80

OK

25

?4

28

160

15

?*

on

60

Type.

Dug.....

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Dug.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Diameter.

In.

n

a40

?

?,

1J

2

2

?, MO

1J

It

1J

H14

ji

g

if

H

1J

Depth bd. to water

Ft. 

22

30

80

80

25

65

65

20

20

80

20

20

26

24

28

100

15

28

30

60

0 aj 

+1

s ' £j

a> w

II <" fe sl

fi*

Ft. 

-10

- 6

+ 3

+ 3

- 6

+ 0

+ 2

1 -12

_ 2

-18

-13

 12

-18

-40

- 8

+ 2

+ 7

+ 2

Waterbearing 

material.

sand.

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do......:

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

Depth to rock.

 Ft.

122

Flow minute. per 

Galls.

1C

2

5

4

£

I&

°F.

51

,51

51

Analysis No.

1,2,8

3

IS

16

17

18

19

»

21

Feet.
Mineral analyses of waters in Elkhart Cou

No.

1 

2 

3

4

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10

11 

12

13

14 

15

16 

17

18 

19 

20

21

Owner.

Do.............

Public supply......

(Field House addition.)

(Johnson's addition.)

Do.............

Goshen Manufacturing Co. 

Banta Furniture 

Co.

Henry Wagner. ....

Location.

Elkhart. ....

.....do.......

...:.do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do....... 

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do....... 

.....do.......

Millersburg . 

Nappanee... 

F a r m a n 

Bros. store, 

NewParis. 

Wakarusa...

Source.

Open wells, 34 ft......

Well, 85ft. by 2 in....

.....do.b.. .............

... .do.<f ..............

Wells, 34ft............ 

Well, 80ft. by 4 in....

Well, 65 ft. by 2J in...

Well, 60 ft. by 1\ in...

Well, 75ft. by 1\ in...

.....do.................

Open wells, 24 and 40 

ft. 

Well, 25ft. by 11 in...

Well, 23 ft. bvlj in...

Well, 28ft. by 1J in...

Wells, 100 to 160ft.«...

Well, 15ft. by \\ in... 

Well, 28ft. by 1J in...

Analyst.

Lake Shore and 

Michigan Sou them R. Pv. 

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do............. 

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

Chase Palmer ..... 

H. E. Barnard.... 

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do............. 

.....do.............

Date.

1907.......

1903. ......

1903.......

May, 1903 

Feb., 1903

...do.......

...do......

...do.......

Oct., 1907 

1907....... 

1907. ......

1907. ......

1907.......

1907. ...... 

1907.......

Material 

in which 

water 

occurs.

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Gravel . . 

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

O 

oo

03 

O

'Si

15 

10

18

0

0

1 

Average .of three analyses. 6 Normal stage. Average of five analyses. 
110 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

FULTON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Fulton County is in the western tier of counties of this area and is 

bordered on the north by Marshall and Kosciusko counties and on 

the south by Cass and Miami. It is irregular in outline and is notched 

on its east edge by the corners of Kosciusko and Miami counties. It 

has an area of 382 square miles, and had, in 1900, a population of 

17,453, or an.average of 45 inhabitants to the square mile. The 

county seat is Rochester.

The surface is of mild relief and a large part of it lies between 750 

and 800 feet above sea level. At the southwest corner and in that 

part of the Tippecanoe Valley which lies northwest of Rochester the 

land surface falls below the 750-foot level, but in the narrow east end 

of the county it reaches a height of 900 feet. (See PI. I.) Almost 

all of the county may be classed as uplands. A great interlobate 

moraine (PI. I) crosses the southeast and east edges of this area, and 

the Tippecanoe River valley forms the south border of the great 

Maxinkuckee moraine. A narrow belt of low moraine also extends 

across the county from north to south near its western edge, and 

there is still another patch of moraine southeast of Rochester, in 

which Lake Manitau has its basin. In all of the morainic areas the 

surface is rolling and irregular. On either side of Tippecanoe River, 

and extending from this valley through the center of the county 

southward as far as Rochester, is a plain formed of alluvial sands and 

gravels which have locally been blown to form low dune ridges. 

That part of the surface which is not occupied by morainal or alluvial 

material consists of gently undulating till plains. (See PI. I.)

Fulton County contains about two dozen natural lakes and ponds. 

The largest of these, Manitau Lake, near Rochester, has an area of 

little more than a square mile, while most of them only occupy a few 

acres of ground. All are in the moraine-covered portions of the 

county and lie in depressions in the irregular surface of the moraines.

Tippecanoe River, in the north part of the county, is its only 

important stream. Its valley makes a great crescentic curve around 

the south edge of the Maxinkuckee moraine, and the stream bed is 

not more than 30 or 40 feet below the alluvial plain to the south. 

With the exception of a small area in its extreme southeast corner, 

the entire county drains into the Tippecanoe. The principal tributaries are Grass, Mill, Mud, and Chippewaniick creeks from the south 

and Eddy Creek from the north.
FULTON COUNTY. ' 111

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

TTNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

As stated above, the alluvial deposits of Fulton County are of coniiderable extent in the Tippecanoe Valley and cover a part of the 

plain to the south of it. The alluvium consists of gravels and clayey 

sand and was here deposited beyond the edge of the retreating glacier 

by the streams which flowed from it. The surface is flat and has 

suffered little from stream erosion. West of Kochester the winds 

have blown the alluvial sands into low ridges or dunes.

Throughout the area of alluvial deposits (PL I) the ground-water" 

supply is abundant and easily obtained. In the valley of the Tippecanoe and in the prairie west of Rochester only driven wells are used. 

These wells are obtained easily by driving a 1^-inch pipe with a perforated point 20 or 30 feet into the sand or gravel. Some of the 

wells become clogged with fine sand, but if gravel beds can be reached, 

this trouble is avoided.

Over most of the morainal areas, shown in Plate I, the morainal 

drift is only moderately thick and the relief is mild. The most 

vigorous moraine of the county lies north of Tippecanoe River in the 

neighborhood of Tiosa and Richland Center. In the high moraine in 

northern Fulton County the wells are almost all driven or drilled. 

The shallowest are about 30 feet deep, but occasionally it has been 

necessary to sink wells 150 or even 200 feet. The best, supplies 

of water are always found in gravel or coarse sand beds, which in the 

areas of thin morainal drift can commonly be reached at depths 

less than 100 feet.

The occurrence of the till at the surface is shown in Plate I. The 

surface is in some parts a flat featureless plain, but more generally 

it consists of gentle, wavelike undulations with the crests only a few 

feet above the troughs. In those areas where the till occurs at the 

surface it extends downward to bed rock, which is everywhere more 

than 150 feet below the surface, and it therefore follows that all 

wells of ordinary depth must get their water in the till. For this 

reason dug wells, which obtain the water by slow seepage from the 

clayey till, are most common.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

In only two towns in the county were records obtained of wells 

which have -penetrated to bed rock. At Rochester rock was found 

at 150 feet and at Kewanna 170 feet below the surface. Deep borings in the surrounding country show the surface deposits to reach 

similar thicknesses. With such meager data it has been impossible 

to ascertain closely the distribution of the various rock formations, 

beneath the glacial deposits. Furthermore, up tyo t£j& present time,
112 UNDEBGBOUND WATEES OF NOBTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

it has nowhere been necessary in this county to go to rock for water 

supplies and no wells now receive their supplies from the rock. If 

occasion should arise in the future for seeking additional waterbearing beds, it is likely that water will be found in the Silurian 

("Niagara") limestone which here underlies the surface deposits. 

The Silurian waters are discussed on pages 42-43.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

At Talma, which lies on a gravel terrace along Tippecanoe River 

(PI. IV, No. 23), there are three flowing wells and others in which 

the water rises nearly to the surface. These wells are all about 30 

feet deep, the water coming from a gravel bed below hardpan. One 

bored well, 12 inches in diameter (No. 14, p. 115), for many years 

yielded 36 barrels of water per hour, but its flow has now diminished 

somewhat. In this area flows can be expected only from wells in 

the lowlands near the river.

Several flowing wells are reported to occur in an area 2 miles east 

of Lake Manitau. (PI. IV, No. 24.) The surface is here covered by 

a moraine of low relief, and the artesian waters are doubtless obtained 

from local gravel beds in the moraine. No information could be 

obtained in regard to the character or depth of the wells.

In the valley of Grass Creek, 2 miles southwest of the town of the 

same name, there is a fine flowing well (PL IV, No. 25) 2 inches in 

diameter and 35 feet deep. The water, from a gravel bed, rises 4 

feet above the surface, and the flow is about 20 gallons per minute. 

The yield diminishes somewhat in the dry months of the summer, 

showing that the head of the water is local and that the supply furnished by the rainfall on the surface is at no great distance from the 

well. Other flowing wells could doubtless be obtained in the neighboring lowlands.

Flowing wells have been obtained in the lower portions of the city 

of Rochester. (PI. IV, No. 26.) In 1887 a deep well was bored for 

gas and encountered artesian waters which for a while had sufficient 

pressure to rise in the pipe 8 feet above the surface. It is not known 

certainly from what depth this flow came. In 1907 another flowing 

well was obtained. (No. 12, p. 115.) This well was driven 72 feet 

into a gravel bed, and flows about 2 gallons per minute 8 feet above 

the surface of the ground. Probably other flows could be obtained 

from this same gravel at points near by.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Rochester. Rochester, the county seat of Fulton County, lies on 

the edge of an alluvial plain which extends westward from the city 

for several miles and north to Tippecanoe River, while southeast of 

the city ih& surface is covered with moraine deposits. The city
PULTON COUNTY. 113

installed a waterworks system in 1893, the water being drawn from 

an old mill race fed by Manitau Lake, a shallow lake lying in the low 

moraine a mile southeast of the city. The lake itself is surrounded 

by timber and open land and should afford a good city supply, for 

although there are a number of houses along its shores there should 

be little difficulty in preventing pollution of the lake water from 

these. The water is soft, and though not well suited for drinking 

it is otherwise of good quality. Unfortunately the water is not 

drawn directly from the lake but flows for about three-fourths of a 

mile through an old mill race and is drawn from this near the pumping 

works. Between the lake and the intake pipe the race is open, and 

there is every opportunity for it to become polluted. Privies and 

barns line the banks in town, and the drainage from these and from 

kitchen slops and swill barrels can enter this open ditch, which itself 

is foul with weeds and debris. A pipe line directly to the lake from 

the pumping works would greatly increase the safety of this source 

of supply.

The city water is pumped from the mill race to a standpipe, holding 

105,000 gallons, from which it is distributed by direct pressure to 

10 miles of mains. About one-fourth of the people are supplied by 

the city and use an average of 400,000 gallons per day. Each family 

has a private well for drinking water, and the city water is only used 

for other domestic purposes, for irrigation, and for industrial purposes.

At Rochester wells may be sunk cheaply and with great probability 

of success. The underlying materials are alluvial gravel and fine 

sands and silts. Driven wells, from 15 to 80 feet deep, are numerous 

and almost without exception find never-failing supplies of good 

water. Some few wells have gone deeper than 80 feet, but the most 

abundant waters are found at moderate depths. Analyses of gravel 

waters from this city appear on page 116 of this report. As shown by 

the records of many shallower wells and of one deep boring at Rochester, the succession of beds is about as follows:

Generalized section of the strata at Rochester.®

Feet.

Alluvium........................................................ 35

Glacial till....................................................... 115

Subcarboniferous and Devonian shale ............................. 395

Devonian and Silurian limestones................................. 525

Hudson River and Utica shales.................................... 391

Trenton.

Kewanna. The town of Kewanna installed public waterworks in 

1907, the supply being drawn from a 10-inch drilled well, 150 feet in 

depth, which penetrated a gravel bed in the till and yielded a large 

volume of water when tested. A pneumatic pressure system operated

« Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 257. 

46448° WSP 254 10 8
114 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

by a gasoline engine is used. The water is pumped into two tanks 

10 feet in diameter and 30 feet long, partly filled with air, and from 

the tanks the water is x forced by the air pressure through the mains. 

At the time the town was visited (October 25, 1907) about If miles 

of mains had been laid.

Before the public water system was installed the water supply of 

Kewanna was obtained from privately owned dug or driven wells. 

The dug wells range from 20 to 90 feet in depth; the average depth 

of the driven wells is about 90 feet, at which depth a gravel bed is 

generally encountered. The deeper waters are cool and pure and 

form an excellent source of supply.

Akron. Akron is situated at the east end of the county near the 

line where the till plain to the west gives place to the more irregular 

topography of the moraine. There are still a few dug wells in use 

in this town, though driven wells, which range in depth from 40 to 

60 feet, are much more common. A bed of gravel is in most wells 

encountered between these depths, and the water from it rises within 

20 feet of the surface. There is no public water supply, as the private 

wells furnish an abundance of pure water.

Tiosa. Tiosa is in the north-central portion of the county, in the 

hilly area of the Maxinkuckee moraine. Driven wells are used here 

almost altogether, and gravel, bearing abundant water, is commonly 

found at about 50 feet below the surface. This is known locally as 

the "second gravel," and the water, though hard, is pure and wholesome.

Fulton. The town of Fulton lies in the south-central part of the 

county, 9 miles south of Rochester. Its water supply is drawn 

altogether from driven wells, all 30 feet or less in depth. They 

pass through a loose sandy clay into gravel at 10 to 15 feet 

below the surface, and most of them are driven but a short distance 

into this gravel. There is no sewage system in Fulton, and each 

dwelling has a dug privy vault. Much of the liquid matter from 

the outhouses and from kitchen refuse and barns sinks into the ground 

and becomes part of the underground water supply from which the 

well water is drawn. The water from these wells must, therefore, be 

dangerous for domestic use. Deeper wells would probably find gravel 

below clays, which would protect the water from pollution and yield 

a safe water supply.

Other communities. In the following table is a list of other communities in Fulton County, with particulars regarding their water 

supply:
FULTON COUNTY. 

Other village supplies in Fulton County.

115

Town.

Disko............

Richland Center.

Talma. ..........

Population 

(1900).

125 

142 

50 

75 

150 

20 

17 

136 

32 

145 

50 

10 

125

105

Source.

.....do.................

.....do.................

.....do.................

Wells, driven and dug.

.....do.................

.....do.................

..... do........ .........

.....do.................

Wells, drilled..........

Wells, driven and 

bored. 

Wells, driven, bored, 

and dug.

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

35 

25 

23 

25 

12 

60 

10 

30 

40 

35 

90 

50 

12

15

Greatest.

Feet. 

40 

35 

114 

55 

43 

100 

30 

110 

60 

60 

195 

75 

40

170

Common.

Feet. 

35 

33 

90 

40 

35 

75 

20 

30,100 

50 

45 

160 

65 

36

100

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet. 

10 

8 

25 

15 

15

6

18

0-8 

30

Character of water 

beds.

Gravel. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Gravel and sand. 

Do. 

Gravel. 

Gravel and sand. 

Gravel. 

Gravel and sand. 

Gravel. 

Do.

Gravel or sand.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

In the two following tables are given the records of typical wells 

in Fulton County and analyses of their waters. The numbers in the 

last column of each table refer to identical wells in the other table.

Records of typical wells in Fulton County.

No.

1

2

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

1?,

13

14

15

16

17

Owner.

.....do.............

E.S. Bair.........

Location.

Creek.

.....do............

streets, Rochester. 

Main and Fifth

streets, Rochester.

......do............

.....do............

.....do............

Tiosa.............

,d "ft

O>

Q

Ft. 

13

51

13

^i

150

83

IfiO

580

48

47

89

79.

36

36

36

HiO

33

Type.

Dug....

...do....

...do....

Drilled..

Drilled..

...do....

...do....

...do....

...do....

...do....

Drilled..

Driven

Diameter.

In.

1*

1J

\\

10

H

H

1}

12

li

li

bed. Depth water to

Ft. 

13

SO

12

35

80

IfiO

580

48

47

7?,

36

3fi

36

160

33

'Sg

i"*-* ^

a) M

F ** sl

0) a) tnx2

Ft.

-15

- 8

+ 4

-30

-20

+ 8

+

+

+

Water-bearing materials.

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

Depth rock. to 

Ft.

155

minute Flow per 

Galls.

20

2

20

No. Analysis 

?,

3

S

6

7

13

14

12

11

IS

16
Mineral analyses of waters'in Fulton Cou

[Parts per million.]

No.

1

2 

3

4 

5

7

8 

9

10 

11

12

13

14

15 

16

Owner.

J. Q. Howell......

Erie Railroad.....

Public W6ll

.....do.............

Public supply..... 

.....do............

.....do............

Court-house well . . 

Public well........

Mrs. R. Henry....

Location.

Akron.....^..... 

.....do...........

First National 

Bank, Kewanna. 

Richland Center.

.....do.....:....

.....do.......... 

.....do...........

Fifth and Main 

streets, Rochester.

Seventh and 

Main streets, 

Rochester.

Source.

Well, 57 ft. by 2 in..

Orwsn wall 11 ft

Driven well, 51 ft. 

by 1} in. 

Well, 12ft.........

Driven well, 13 ft. 

by li in. 

Driven well, 83 ft. 

by li in.

Drilled well. 160 ft. 

by 2 in. 

ManitauLake..... 

.....do............

Mill race at waterworks intake. 

Driven well, 72 ft. 

by li in.

Drilled well, 580 ft. 

Driven well, 48 ft. .

Driven well, 36 ft. 

by li in. 

Driven well, 33 ft. 

by li in.

Analyst.

H.E.Barnard. 

.....do........

.....do........

W.S.Landon. 

H.E.Barnard.

.....do.........

.....do........

W.B.Landon. 

Lake Shore 

and Michigan SouthernRailroad. 

H. E. Barnard.

.....do........

.....do.........

W.Van Winkle 

.....do.........

H. E. Barnard. 

.....do........

Date.

Sept., 1907

1907.......

Mar., 1905 

1907.......

1907.......

Sept., 1907

Apr., 1905 

Sept., 1904

Sept., 1907 

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

Nov., 1907 

Aug., 1907

Material in 

which water 

occurs.

.....do......

.....do.....

;....do.....

.....do.....

Limestone . 

Gravel .....

.....do.....

.....do.....

Silica (SiOa).

0.5

18 

17
UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTEAL INDIANA. 117

GRANT COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Grant County lies in the east-central portion of the area included 

in this report and extends 7 miles farther east than any other county. 

It is rectangular and has an area of 416 square miles. The population as shown by the census of 1900 was 54,693, or 131 persons to 

the square mile. This large population is due both to the excellence 

of the farming lands and to the boom which the eastern half of the 

county has experienced from the development of the natural gas 

and oil fields.

With the exception of the Mississinewa River valley the whole of 

Grant County consists of uplands. West of this river the surface is 

a plain of very slight relief. Its character is somewhat undulating, 

but there are no pronounced prominences, and the valleys are all shallow. The plain is nowhere 100 feet above the river. There are 

also plains east of the river in the southeast corner of the county 

and in-the northeast corner (PI. I). East of Mississinewa River, 

and roughly parallel with it, is a well-defined moraine ridge which lies 

on top of the till beds. It is nowhere more than 50 feet thick, but its 

ridgelike form and its irregular surface distinguishes it from the surrounding plains of till.

In the uplands the form of the surface has no relation to that of 

the underlying rock. All the inequalities of the rock surface have 

been covered by a filling of glacial deposits, and the rock outcrops 

at only a few points in the bottom of the Mississinewa Valley.

The largest and only important stream of the county is Mississinewa 

River, which crosses the county from southeast to northwest to 

join the Wabash near Peru. Its valley, though shallow, is well 

defined. At Marion the stream flows about 50 feet below the level 

of the surrounding uplands, and at the north edge of the county the 

valley is somewhat less than 75 feet deep. The ledges of limestone 

which outcrop below Marion have retarded the deepening of the 

valley above them. The Mississinewa basin is rather narrow in 

Grant County. Pipe and Wild Cat creeks drain the western part of 

the county and tributaries of Salamonie River, the northeast portion,

There are no lakes of importance in Grant County, for although 

lakes are common in moraines in general the moraine here is of low 

relief and is so close to the Mississinewa Valley) that any lakes which 

may have existed have been long since drained by the natural deepening of their outlets.
118 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

TJNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Much information in regard to the thickness of the surface deposits 

in the county has been obtained from the numerous borings for oil 

and gas. The rock surface, before it was covered by glacial ice, was 

crossed by streams which had cut valleys over 300 feet into the rock, 

but the glacial deposits filled these up and leveled the county over. 

The old preglacial valleys have had no influence upon the courses of 

the present streams, but in places cause a great thickening in the 

unconsolidated surface materials above them.

The alluvial deposits of this county all occur along the bottoms 

.of the larger valleys, more especially that of Mississinewa River, 

where they have a width of one-fourth to one-half mile. The thickness of the alluvium varies in different portions of the valley. Below 

Marion the valley has been lowered to the "Niagara" limestone, 

which outcrops along the stream bed, and here the alluvium, where 

present at all, forms only a thin veneer over the rock in the river 

flat. South of Marion the rock surface dips downward and the 

alluvium is thicker. The smaller stream valleys all have alluvial 

deposits varying in amount with the size and development of the 

valley.

An abundant supply of excellent water can be procured almost 

anywhere in the alluvium, and it is generally not necessary to sink 

deep wells in order to reach the waters. In the first bottom the 

waters are found slightly above the* level of the stream, but in the 

higher gravel terraces the water table is farther from the surface.

Grant County contains a single moraine belt which lies east of 

and parallel with Mississinewa River (PI. I). It is 5 or 6 miles 

wide and continuous, though nowhere of great prominence. The 

crest of the moraine stands about 50 feet above the adjoining till 

plains. Throughout the morainal belt most of the wells are 

drilled, and extend to gravel beds at 70 to 100 feet below the 

surface. As the moraine is for the most part not more than 50 feet 

thick it is evident that the supply from these wells is from the till 

below the moraine. Locally driven wells encounter gravel at 50 

feet or less below the surface, and some dug wells in the morainal 

clay obtain small amounts of water.

Over three-quarters of Grant County is covered by a mantle of 

till which conceals the rock and varies in thickness in different parts 

of the county up to 400 feet. This variation is due almost altogether 

to the irregularities of the underlying rock surface, for the till itself 

forms a remarkably flat, featureless upland. One of the most prominent features of the rock surface, although there is no trace of its 

existence in the present surface topography, is a great canyon-like
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY :R 254 PLATE VI

A. WATER OOZING FROM BEDDING PLANES OF LIMESTONE.

B. FLOWING WELL AT DANVILLE WATERWORKS.
GEANT COUNTY. 119

valley, 200 to 300 feet deep, which crosses the northeast corner of 

the county. Mr. J. A. Bownocker a has traced this valley from 

Ohio River up the valley of the Little Miami to New Carlisle, Ohio, 

and thence west and northwest into Grant County. Additional well 

records show it to continue northwest beyond La Fountaine, and it 

doubtless extends still farther northwest. One well in Miami County, 

about 4 miles north of Peru, is reported to have penetrated over 

300 feet of drift without entering rock, and the suggestion is made 

that the well may be in a continuation of this same deep preglacial 

valley (PI. II). In the Mississinewa Valley below Marion the, rock 

has been exposed by stream cutting, and in the southwest corner of 

the county, north of Kigdon, it rises within 6 feet of the surface. 

Thus the thickness of the till is seen to vary within wide limits in 

different parts of the county. Plate II shows the depth to rock 

throughout the area.

The till is in some places very clayey and lacking in beds of gravel 

and sand. When this condition prevails the supply of water is 

small and has to be obtained from dug wells, most of which yield 

only enough water for domestic purposes. Where the till is thick 

deep wells almost everywhere encounter good supplies in gravel, 

and in that part of the county where the till is thin wells are drilled 

into the rock.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The first rock formation which wells enter below the surface 

deposits is the "Niagara" limestone. This is true of all deep wells 

except a few sunk in the deep preglacial valley in the northeast part 

of the county, where the preglacial stream had cut its canyon through 

the limestone to the underlying shale. The depth to the "Niagara" 

varies greatly, as shown in Plate II. The available water in the 

"Niagara" limestone all occurs in the joints and bedding planes, 

which have in many places been dissolved out by the circulating waters 

to form continuous channels. Plate VI, A, illustrates the manner in 

which the water follows the bedding planes. In the deeper valleys 

and in those areas where this formation comes close to the surface, 

the "Niagara" has become an important source of water supply. 

Wells drilled into the limestone are sure to encounter openings from 

which water can be obtained. It is because of this abundance of 

rock water that all gas and oil wells are cased below this formation 

to keep its waters from mingling with the oil and gas from below. 

In the deeper valleys the waters in many wells flow a few feet above 

the surface, and in the higher lands they rise to about the same 

level but will not flow.

"Special Paper No. 3, Ohio State Acad. Sci., 1900..
120 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

Artesian area 27 (PI. IV) includes all of the lowlands along the 

valley of the Mississinewa and extends somewhat up the valleys of 

its larger tributaries. Most of the flowing waters are from the 

"Niagara" limestone, but some are from gravel. By far the greater 

number of the wells were originally drilled for oil or gas. In drilling 

such wells a pipe, 8 or 10 inches in diameter, is driven down to the 

rock. When the boring reaches the bottom of the "Niagara" its 

size is commonly reduced to 6 inches, and a pipe, the casing, is put 

down to the bottom of the rock to keep the rock waters out of the 

well. If oil or gas is found, the casing is left in and the flowing 

waters emerge between the drive pipe and the casing. If the well is 

unsuccessful or becomes exhausted, the pipes are generally "pulled." 

A state law requires that all "pulled" wells be plugged at the base of 

the limestone to prevent the mingling of waters from different depths. 

When both casing and drive pipe are pulled the surface deposits cave 

in and fill the hole. Many flowing wells in this area have been destroyed in this way, as the pipes are the property of the company 

which drilled the well. In some places the owner of the land upon 

which the well is located buys the drive pipe from the company and 

keeps the well for its water supply. Most of the present flows have 

been retained in this way.

In some localities wells supplied by water from the "Niagara" 

limestone are in "sympathy" that is, if one well of a group is drawn 

upon heavily it may affect the head of other wells for some distance 

around. This underground connection is in many places very 

marked. A striking illustration of this phenomenon is shown in the 

"sympathy" between the flowing well at Matter Park and the wells 

of the Marion Paper Company, one-half mile southeast. For six days 

each week the wells of the paper company are pumped heavily, and 

during this time the Matter Park well ceases to flow, and the water 

is raised by a small pitcher pump (PI. VII, B). On Sunday the 

paper mill is idle, and the park well yields a strong flow (PL VII, A).

In addition to the flowing waters from the "Niagara," many good 

flows have been obtained in Marion from gravel beds in the till. The 

wells range from 40 to 150 feet in depth and the artesian waters are 

confined in gravel beds below pebbly till. The flows are small, only 

one well having been observed which flowed more than 2 gallons per 

minute. The temperature of the gravel waters is 52° F.

Many deep borings for gas in the valley of Pipe Creek above and 

belowMier have obtained flows of artesian water from the "Niagara" 

limestone. (PI. IV, No. 28.) This valley has here about the same 

elevation as the valley of the Mississinewa between Marion and Gas 

City. The head of the flowing waters comes from the higher portions
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 254 PLATE VII

A. FLOWING WELL AT MATTER PARK, NEAR MARION, IND.

B. WELL AT MATTER PARK WHEN WELLS AT PAPER MILL, ONE-HALF MILE AWAY, ARE

BEING PUMPED.
GRANT COUNTY. 121

of the limestone to the south, and the impervious till covering prevents the natural escape of the waters. Most of the flowing wells of 

Pipe Creek valley have been destroyed by the pulling of the pipes.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Marion. The public supply of Marion is drawn from drilled wells 

of various depths. There are 17 wells, of which 14 are now in use, 

and all are said to flow when not pumped. One well was estimated 

to flow 50,000 gallons per day when it was drilled, but the head gradually became lower as more wells were sunk. A few wells get water 

at a depth of 68 feet from a gravel bed below till, but most of the water 

is obtained from the "Niagara" limestone, which is encountered at 80 

to 150 feet below the surface. The water system is owned and operated by the city, and the water is pumped from the wells by an air lift 

into three reservoirs of 200,000, 750,000, and 2,000,000 gallons capacity. From the reservoirs it is pumped by steam into the mains. 

About 2,500,000 gallons per day is needed to supply 75 percent of the 

population of the city. Analyses of this water are given on page 126.

The conditions for obtaining wells in Marion are so diverse that no 

general statement can be made to cover them all. The rock is exposed in parts of the river bed, and lies at various depths elsewhere, 

up to 200 feet in the higher parts of town, the surface deposits consisting of blue till, sand, and gravel. Where the rock comes close to the 

surface most of the wells are drilled and secure their supply from 

limestone. If the surface deposits are deep, dug or driven wells are 

more common. The character of the surface deposits and the depth 

to rock in different parts of the city are given by Bowman a in a 

paper issued by this Survey. Most wells sunk into either the surface 

deposits or the rock are successful, and only a few wells out of the 

many hundreds which have been drilled into the limestone have failed 

to procure abundant water. The following is a record of a successful 

gas well in this city: 6

Log of gas well at Marion.

Feet. 

Drift......................................................... 70

Niagara limestone.............................................. 280

Hudson River and Utica........................................ 528

Trenton limestone............................................. 22

900

The ground waters in the vicinity of Marion have been considerably polluted by the salty and oily waters from oil wells. The conditions and suggestions for a remedy are set forth in Bowman's paper.

o Bowman, Isaiah, and Sackett, R. L., The disposal of strawboard and oil-well wastes: Water-Supply 

Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 113, 1905, pp. 36-42. 

6 Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 251.
122 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Gas City. The Gas City waterworks, built in 1898, are owned by 

the city, and the water is drawn from three wells located on the Mississinewa River flat, at the west edge of town. The deepest well is an 

old gas well, which has been plugged at a depth of 325 feet and draws 

its supply from the "Niagara" limestone. Another well also secures 

limestone water at 200 feet below the surface, while the third penetrated 28 feet into the alluvial gravel. The water from all three wells 

is raised by air pressure to a reservoir, from which it is forced by steam 

pumps directly into the mains. About 500 taps are in use and 60 

per cent of the people of the city are supplied by this system.

The sanitary condition of the water from all three wells is good, 

as they are located at some distance from the thickly settled district. 

There are only three houses within one-fourth mile of the wells.

Many privately owned drilled and dug wells are in use in Gas City, 

and over one-third of the people rely on these wells for their water 

supply. The wells range from 35 to 300 feet in depth, and though some 

find sufficient water in the surface deposits, others go to rock, which 

lies from 150 to 180 feet below the surface. The town is situated on 

a till plain and all the well water is hard. There are no springs or 

flowing wells.

Fairmount. The Fairmount public waterworks were installed in 

1894 and are owned and operated by the city. The supply is drawn 

from six wells drilled into the limestone which here lies 20 to 40 feet 

below the surface, and waters under artesian pressure rise to within 

a few feet of the level of the ground. No reservoir or standpipe is 

used, and the water is pumped directly from the wells into the mains. 

About 400 taps are supplied by 4 miles of 10, 8, 6, and 4 inch mains, 

and an average of 300,000 gallons of water per day is used to supply 

65 per cent of the people of the town. The water furnished is good 

and is the best available. Analysis (No. 2, p. 127) shows it to be 

rather high in chlorine and sulphates, possibly from the salt waters 

from neighboring oil or gas borings, but these minerals do not occur 

in objectionable amounts.

Most of the privately owned wells in Fairmount are drilled, but 

a few dug wells are still in use. The drilled wells range from 20 to 

90 feet in depth, though the greater number are about 40 feet deep. 

The best supplies of water are from rock, which is reached at depths 

of 20 to 40 feet.

Jonesboro. The Jonesboro public supply, owned by Trowbridge 

& Niver, is drawn from a dug well, 25 feet deep and 15 feet in diameter, 

sunk into the gravels in the valley of Back Creek. Direct pressure 

is used and an average of about 225,000 gallons of water a day is 

needed to supply 150 services.

The well is at the base of a steep slope and is subject to surface 

pollution. At times the water is noticeably salty, doubtless from the
GEANT COUNTY. 123

salt waters from oil wells farther up the creek. At times, too, a 

reddish deposit collects in the mains in quantities sufficient to color 

the water. This could be remedied by frequent and thorough 

flushings of the mains.

A much safer supply of water could here be obtained from the 

limestone by drilled wells. All danger from surface contamination 

would be avoided and the water, though harder, would be better for 

domestic purposes. An analysis of the city water is given on 

page 127.

In Jonesboro there are many private wells which range from 15 to 

60, but are commonly 40 feet in depth. They are dug or drilled and 

are supplied by waters from the gravel beds in the till. The rock here 

lies from 130 to 160 feet below the surface and therefore is too deep 

to be readily accessible for ordinary wells.

Upland. In 1892 the Upland Water Works Company, a private 

corporation, installed a public supply for Upland, the water being 

drawn from a single well, drilled through 192 feet of till into limestone. There are 3,600 feet of city mains, 4, 3, and 2 inches,in 

diameter, into which the water is forced by direct pressure from 

steam pumps. One hundred and forty taps supply water to about 

60 per cent of the inhabitants, and about 40,000 gallons of water 

are used per day. The city water has a slight taste of oil, doubtless 

due to the imperfect plugging of abandoned oil or gas wells in the 

vicinity. Although this oily taste is somewhat objectionable, the 

water is not known to be unhealthful.

A number of dug or driven wells are still in use in Upland. The dug 

wells are 15 to 25 feet deep, and all fail in dry seasons, but the driven 

wells ,are more successful. A bed of gravel encountered at 110 feet 

supplies unfailing waters.

Vanburen. The public waterworks of Vanburen are owned by 

E. S. Sutton, and a single well, drilled in 1903, furnishes the supply. 

This well, 8 inches in diameter, was sunk 140 feet through surface 

deposits and 35 feet into limestone before water was struck. At 195 

feet the well was shot with 12 quarts of nitroglycerine to fracture the 

rock and increase the supply of water. The well now furnishes 

enough water for the present consumers, but is pumped to about its 

full capacity. The water is lifted by a steam pump to a standpipe 

65 feet high, whose capacity is 400 barrels, and from this it is distributed by gravity. There are 1| miles of mains and 130 consumers, 

who use about 2,000 barrels of water a day. The water is hard and 

has a slight taste of iron, but is wholesome. An analysis of it is 

No. 23 (p. 128).

Vanburen is situated on a gently undulating till plain. Most of 

the private wells are driven from 60 to 80 feet deep, and procure 

plenty of water in gravel. There are some dug wells, but many of 

these fail in times of drouth.
124 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

National Military Home. The National Military Home at Marion 

is supplied with water from 14 drilled wells, of which 12 are 87 feet 

deep and reach a water-bearing bed of gravel. Two other wells in 

limestone, of which one is 340 and the other 500 feet deep, are not 

used at present, as the gravel wells furnish sufficient water. The 

water is pumped to a standpipe 125 feet high, which holds 240,000 

gallons, and the pressure is furnished by gravity from the standpipe. 

There are 3 miles of mains and 1,900 people are supplied, the average 

amount pumped daily being 500,000 gallons. The water is good, 

though it tastes strongly of hydrogen sulphide and iron.

Matthews. Matthews has no public supply. Many privately 

owned drilled, driven, or dug wells are in use. The dug wells, which 

are 15 to 30 feet deep, are apt to fail in dry seasons and many have 

been abandoned. The driven wells are commonly about 60 feet deep 

and furnish good supplies of gravel water. An analysis of water 

from a gravel well in Matthews is No. 19 (p. 128). Most of the wells 

are drilled into the rock, which is here entered at 85 to 113 feet below 

the surface, although along the river bottoms some borings have 

reached rock within 35 feet of the surface. The rock wells yield 

abundant waters of much the same character as that from the limestone in other parts of the county.

Swayzee. Swayzee is supplied by a large number of private wells, 

most of which are drilled into the limestone. The limestone lies from 

18 to 41 feet below the surface, and abundant water is almost always 

found in it. The average rock well is about 100 feet deep and 2 inches 

in diameter. A few dug wells are still in use, and obtain water from 

the till above the rock, but there is always danger that the water from 

such wells will become polluted, especially in towns, and they should, 

wherever possible, be abandoned in favor of the deeper, tubular wells.

Other communities. A list of other villages in Grant County, with 

particulars regarding their water supply, is given in the following 

table:

Other milage supplies in Grant County.

Town.

Arcana. ..... 

Farrville....

Fowlerton . . 

Hackleman . 

Hanfleld....

Herbst...... 

Jadden......

Population 

(1900).

50 

28

53 

82 

100

100

35 

90

Source.

Wells, drilled and dug... 

Wells, drilled...........

Wells, dug and drilled . . . 

.....do...................

.....do...................

.....do...................

.....do...................

.....do...................

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

20 

25

15 

20 

10

10

14 

40

Greatest.

Feet. 

120 

120

200 

40 

200

120

100 

60

Common.

Feet. 

90 

100

100 

30 

15

10

85 

50

Depth 

to rock.

Feet. 

220 

95

170-200 

20 

400

18

300 

30

Head 

above (+) 

or below (-) surface.

Feet. -40

-10

 8

-35 

 5to+ 3

Character of water 

beds.

Gravel. 

Limestone and 

gravel. 

Do. 

Limestone. 

Gravel, till, and 

limestone. 

Gravel and limestone. 

GraveL 

Limestone and 

gravel.
GRANT COUNTY. 

Other village supplies in Grant County Continued.

125

Town.

Landess..... 

Mler. .......

Normal .....' 

Point Isabel.

Puckett. ....

Roseburg . . .

Sweetsers...

Population 

(1900).

194

219

50 

169

11 

30

178

90

160

50

Source.

Wells, dug and drilled . . . 

.....do...................

.....do...................

.....do...................

Wells, drilled...........

.....do...................

Wells, dag and drilled . . .

Wells, dug, driven, and 

drilled. 

Wells, drilled and dug ...

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

10

15

18 

20

90 

20 

20

10

10 

15

Greatest.

Feet. 

150

104 

34 

125

100 

45 

50

50

105 

102

Common.

Feet. 

18

60 

18 

60

90 

35 

30

60 

60

Depth 

to rock.

Feet. 

140

13-26 

98 

40

185 

20 

30-40

35-60 

20-45

Head 

above (+) 

or below (-) surface.

Feet.

-20 

-12 

-12

-60

-8 to -20 

- 5

-15 

-10

Character of water 

beds.

Gravel and limestone. 

Do. 

Gravel. 

Clay and limestone. 

Gravel. 

Limestone. 

Gravel and limestone. 

Do.

Do. 

Till and limestone.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables contain detailed information regarding 

typical wells in Grant County and analyses of their waters. The 

number in the last column in each table refers to identical wells in 

the other table.
Records of typical wells in Grant County

No.

1 

2 

3 

4 

5

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30

 Owner.

T. H. Snider Preserve Co............................

Public supply.. . .................................... 

U.S. Glass Co.... ...................................

C. P.Marks.......................:.................

Fred H . Weir .......................................

.....do ..............................................

Mrs. J.W.McLain.. ................................

Location.

.....do.............

.....do.............

Gas City ..........

.....do.............

Hanfleld ..........

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

Depth.

Feet. 

88 

40 

90 

166 

 103

325 

185 

400 

200 

11 

62 

25 

25 

24 

120-250

42 

100 

372 

150

287

65 

125 

105 

98 

80 

240 

195 

65

Type.

Drilled.... 

...do.......

...do....... 

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

Dug.......

Drilled.... 

Dug.......

...do.......

Drilled.... 

...do.......

Driven.... 

Drilled....

...do....... 

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do....... 

...do....... 

...do.......

Diameter.

In. 

3 

4 

6 

6

8

6

8

8

8 

8

2 

3

8 

8

10

8

3

4

2

3

4 

6 

8 

2

D
Mineral analyses of waters in Grant Coun

[Parts per million.]

No.

1 

2 

3

4

5 

6

7 

8 

9

10 

11

12 

13 

14

15

16 

17

Owner.

C. P. Marks........

Public supply......

German Baptist 

Church. 

Old public supply.. 

Pennsylvania R. R. 

Co.

.....do.............

Matter Park Well..

F. H. Weir.........

Location.

Fairmount.. 

Fo'wlerton . . 

Gas City....

Hanfield,Ind

Jonesboro . . . 

Landess. ....

Marion...... 

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

Source.

Drilled well, 

88ft. by 3 in. 

Drilled wells, 

40 to 90 ft. 

Drilled well, 

103 ft. 

Drilled well,

325+ ft. 

10 oil wells. ... 

Open well, 11 

ft. 

Open well, 25 

ft. 

Open well, 25 

ft. by 15 ft. 

Open well, 24 

ft. 

Wells, 68 ft.... 

Wells.........

Drilled wells

Wells in gravel 

Drilled well in 

rock. 

Drilled well, 

106 ft. by 8 

in. 

Drilled old gas 

well. 

Driven well, 

42 ft. by 8 in.

Analyst.

H. E. Barnard, 

do

/ 

.....do.

.....do.

.....do. 

.....do.

.....do. 

.....do.

.....do.

E. T. Co 

Pennsy 

R. R.

(a 

(a 

(a

R.B.D< 

do

X......

vania 

)le.....

H. E. Barnard.

Date.

Oct., 1907 

...do......

Nov., 1907 

Oct., 1907

Nov.. 1907 

Oct., 1907

...do...... 

...do......

Nov 1907

1877

1897 

1897 

1906

Sept., 1907 

...do......

Nov., 1907

Material 

in which 

water 

occurs.

«

Limestone . 

...do.......

Limestone . 

"Sand."!!!!!!

Gravel. .... 

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do.....

Limestone 

.....do.....

.....do.....

Silica (SiO2).

28 

14

27 

21

Iron (Fe).

0.40

0

1 ?

.08

.4 

3

.01 

.80

.20

12 

.12

Tr

Tr

Tr.

-97

1.5

1.0

Aluminum (Al).

3.2

a First Scientific Station for the Art of Brewing, New 
Mineral analyses of waters in Grant County Co

No.

18

19

vn

21

22

OQ

24

Owner.

man.

J. H. Surface. ......

Location.

.....do......

Source.

225 ft.

65ft. by Sin.

125ft.by41n.

Drilled well,

98 ft. by 3 in.

Drilled* well,

80 ft. by 4 in.

Drilled well 195

ft. by Sin.o

65 ft. by 2 in.

Analyst,

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

Date.

Nov., 1907

...do......

...do......

Oct., 1907

...do......

Nov., 1907

...do......

Material

in which 

water

occurs.

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do.....

0

S

8

2

£

1.4

S

a

S

3

1.0

0.6

.4

.1

2 0

2,4

o Water from 175 feet.
UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 129

HAMILTON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Hamilton County is in the southern part of the area under discussion, in the middle north-south tier of counties and in the second 

tier from the south edge. The county is square, measuring about 

20 miles on each side, and had in 1900 a population of 29,914, or an 

average of 74 people to the square mile.

The county has a total range in elevation of somewhat over 150 

feet. The lowest point is at the edge of Marion County, in the White 

River valley, and the highest portion is in the northwest corner, 

where the surface lies over 900 feet above sea level. The surface is 

for the most part a high till plain which has been more or less dissected by streams. Only two streams are large enough to have excavated well-developed valleys. (See PL I.) A low, broad belt of 

moraine runs north and south along the west edge of the county, and 

in places resembles closely in topography the surrounding till plains.

The surface forms of the entire county are determined by the glacial 

deposits and by the streams, for the rock is everywhere so deeply covered that its irregular surface has no influence upon the present 

topography.

White River controls the drainage of the county, and entering it 

from the east flows west and south to cross the south county line at 

about the middle. The valley is well developed and the stream is 

bordered by alluvial bottom lands less than a mile in width.

The most important tributary of the White is Cicero Creek, which 

flows southward to enter the White below Noblesville. Over the 

remainder of the county there is a network of small streams tributary 

to the above two, but their valleys are shallow and small.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

tJNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The search for reliable water-producing beds has led to the sinking 

of many wells throughout the county, and borings of another class, 

drilled in the attempt to discover oil and gas, have given much 

information in regard to the thickness of the surface deposits. There 

is scarcely a community in which one or two wells have not penetrated to \rock. The records of borings show a wide range in the 

thickness of the surface deposits, and the range is not uncommonly 

great in short distances. An attempt to show the depth to rock has 

been made in Plate II, though the results can only be considered 

approximate, as the records are incomplete. It is certain, however, 

that before the advance of the glaciers over the county the surface 

was more rugged than at present, and there were deep valleys which 

have now been filled.

46448° WSP 254 10 9
130 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

The most extensive alluvial deposits of the county lie along the 

sides of White River in the bottom of the broad valley. They consist 

for the most part of flood-plain or first-bottom lands which are overflowed by the stream in flood seasons. Above the flood plain there 

are occasional benches of alluvium, forming terraces below the river 

bluffs -all that remains of an earlier flood plain. The valley of 

Cicero Creek also contains less extensive beds of alluvium, as do some 

of "the other still smaller valleys. The deposits increase in importance 

as the valleys attain greater size. Water is everywhere abundant in 

alluvium, and many wells are supplied from it. The looseness of 

the materials permits driven wells to be easily obtained, and the 

open gravels allow a ready circulation of the. water. Where not 

exposed to pollution the waters are very desirable, and most of the 

wells are unfailing.

The morainal part of the county, all of which lies along its west edge 

(PL I), is of low relief and contrasts mildly with the topography of the 

till plain. The moraine waters are contained both in the clay and in 

the gravel beds. There are many dug wells which penetrate but a 

little way below the level t)f the water table and which fail in particularly dry seasons. The drilled and driven wells,.which on the 

moraines go through the morainal deposits into the till below, are 

much safer from contamination than the open wells and obtain a 

more reliable water supply.

The till plains comprise more than three-fourths of the surface 

of the county, and in this area the depth to rock averages much more 

than 100 feet. In addition to its surface occurrence (PL I) the till 

underlies both the moraines and the alluvium except in the few 

places in the valleys of White River and Fall Creek where the alluvium lies directly upon the rock. As a result of the wide distribution 

of the till at the surface and of its great thickness, more wells in this 

county draw their water from the till than from all other sources. 

Open or dug wells, into which the water seeps from all levels, are the 

most common type. These do not generally enter any distinct water 

bed or encounter any well-defined water channels, and the water 

seeps slowly out of the clay below the water table. Most dug wells 

have been used for many years, and few new ones have been sunk 

during the last decade. The people have now learned that it is possible, by sinking deeper driven or drilled wells, to obtain more permanent and safer waters from the occasional gravel beds in the till, and 

the use of driven or drilled wells is constantly increasing.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The approximate distribution of the various formations as they lie 

below the surface deposits is shown in Plate III. In the east half of 

the county the "Niagara" limestone is the first rock formation 

encountered, and although the surface of the till plain is very uniform,
HAMILTON COUNTY. 131

the depth to rock varies greatly from place to place. The rock 

surface was first carved by the preglacial streams, then modified by 

the erosion of the glacial ice, and finally leveled over by the glacial 

deposits.

As determined by well borings, the " Niagara" is here of the same 

character as it is farther north. It outcrops at only a few points in 

the valley of White River above and below Strawtown and in the 

valley of Fall Creek, In the White River and Fall Creek valleys 

and in the neighborhood of Clarksville and Fishers Switch this limestone is close enough to the surface to be available for its water 

supply. Many wells draw upon the rock waters, the joints and bedding planes yielding abundant water of good quality, as it is protected 

from pollution from above by the thick mantle of drift.

The Devonian beds that lie immediately below the till in the west 

half of the county nowhere outcrop at the surface, but are known to 

consist largely of limestones, with the New Albany shale probably 

occurring in the extreme southwest corner. The same formations 

outcrop in Carroll County, and are described with the rocks of that 

county. At Westfield and Carmel and in the surrounding country 

many wells that extend into the Devonian limestones obtain abundant waters, which are in many places under artesian pressure, especially in Clay Township. There is but little possibility that rock 

waters from such depths could contain harmful organic matter, and 

they have always been considered a most satisfactory supply.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

There are seven separate areas in the county in which flowing 

wells occur. These are outlined and numbered on Plate IV, and are 

described separately below.

Clay Township, in the southwest corner of the county, has many 

fine flowing wells. (PL IV, No. 29.) The area in which they occur 

is in the lowlands bordering Williams Creek and its tributaries. In 

this neighborhood the Devonian limestones lie about 140 feet below 

the surface, and the flowing waters found in the upper part of the 

limestone or in sand or gravel immediately above it will in many 

wells rise 7 or 8 feet above the surface. All flows are found in the lowlands. On higher ground the same waters occur in the rock, but the 

head is not sufficient to give flowing wells. A moraine extends along 

the west edge of the county, and the wells penetrate much gravel 

before rock is reached. The head of the flowing waters is probably 

in the higher land of this moraine, the waters passing through open 

gravel beds into the limestone, while the head of the water is maintained by the impervious beds of clayey drift.

Flowing wells occur in the creek valley, 5 miles west of Cicero. 

(PL IV, No. 30.) The artesian water, which has a temperature of 

to 52° F., is from the "Niagara" limestone, which here lies
132 TJNDEEGEOTJND WATEKS OF NOETH-CENTEAL INDIANA.

below 150 to 170 feet of clayey till. Doubtless other flowing wells 

could be obtained along this creek bottom by drilling into the limestone.

In Westfield the shallow flowing wells, which are located in the 

lower parts of the town (PL IV, No. 31), are all driven into gravel to 

depths of 14 to 35 feet, and the flows are weak, usually less than 

1 gallon a minute. The temperature of the water in one well was 

found to be 54° F. The waters are protected above by clay, and 

should be free from pollution. The source of the waters is probably 

in the slightly higher moraine to the west.

In flowing-well area No. 32 (PI. IV), which lies along the valley 

of Stony Creek in the east part of the county, the artesian waters 

are from the " Niagara" limestone, which is here covered by 40 feet 

of pebbly till. It was necessary to drill 75 feet into the rock in one 

well before large enough openings were encountered to give a good 

flow.

A few flowing wells have been obtained along the valley of White 

River and its larger tributaries in White River Township (PL IV, 

No. 33), the strongest of which, an abandoned gas well, belongs to 

E. P. Whisman, and is 1^ miles north and 1 mile east of Strawtown. 

The water is from the "Niagara" limestone, and will rise 9 feet above 

the surface. The record of this well, so far as known, is No. 14 in the 

table on page 136. Its strong pressure indicates that other wells in 

the lowlands in this section of the county should also obtain flows.

Two miles west of Arcadia there are flowing wells in the lowlands. 

(PL IV, No. 34.) One is a driven well, 61 feet deep, and another a 

dug well, 16 feet deep, and both are supplied from gravel or sand 

beds below the till. Another well, on the farm of E. A. Hollett, 

enters gravel at 65 feet and is reported to have a strong flow of water, 

which will rise 14 feet above the surface. The conditions of flow 

are local and can not be expected to obtain for more than a short 

distance up and down stream from the above wells. Records of two 

of these wells are Nos. 3 and 4 in the table on page 136.

In the valley of Duck Creek, near Aroma, are two flowing wells 

(PL IV, No. 35), one of which (No. 5, p. 136) was drilled for water to 

a depth of 80 feet and is reported to have gone into the rock. The 

other is an abandoned gas well and its flow certainly comes from the 

"Niagara" limestone.

Several flowing wells have been obtained in the lowlands west of 

Cicero. (PL IV, No. 36.) In these wells, all of which are deep 

borings drilled for oil or gas, the flows come from the "Niagara" 

limestone, which is first entered at about 90 feet below the surface, 

though the flowing waters are encountered at depths of 300 to 500 

feet. The largest flow is about 60 gallons per minute. (See No. 

15, p. 136.)
HAMILTON COUNTY. 133 

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

NoHesviUe. The Noblesville public waterworks, owned by the 

Noblesville Water and Light Company, were first operated in 1892, 

and the water is drawn from drilled wells, of which the company 

owns 17. Of the two that penetrate limestone, one was drilled for 

gas but is now used for its water supply, while the other, 390 feet 

deep, entered rock at about 80 feet. The two rock wells will yield 

750,000 gallons per day. Of the other 15 wells, of which only 9 

are now in use, all enter gravel at 60 to 85 feet. The record of the 

materials penetrated by one of these wells is as follows:

Log of well drilled for Noblesville Water and Light Company.

Feet. 

Soil and clay................................................... 4 J

Dry gravel....................................................... 13

Blue clay (hardpan)............................................. 20

Water, sand, and gravel......................................... 9

Yellow and blue hardpan......................................... 6

Water gravel..................................................... 8

Fine packed sand................................................ 12J

73

Analyses of the water from the gravel wells in 1906 and early in 

1907 showed indications of surface pollution. Steps have now been 

taken to prevent the entrance of surface drainage by cementing 

around the joints of the pipes.

The rock wells are pumped by an air lift into a 50,000-gallon 

reservoir, and the water from this reservoir and from the gravelwells is pumped into the mains by direct pressure. There are 750 

taps supplied by 13 miles of mains, and more than one-third of the 

people use this supply. The average daily consumption of water 

from this source is 480,000 gallons.

About 65 per cent of the people in Noblesville are supplied from 

privately owned wells, the greater number of which are drilled. 

The wells have considerable range in depth, determined in part by 

the depth to the rock, which is from 33 to 175 feet below the surface. 

Most wells are in gravel, though some obtain rock waters. At the 

Model mill a well was drilled through the following materials:

Log of well at Model mill, Noblesville.

Feet.

Gravel......................................................... 44

Clay.........................:................................. 18

Sand........................................................... 3

Clay........................................................... 4

Sand........................................................... 8

Coarse water-bearing gravel....................................... 7

Fine water-bearing sand.......................................... 7

Clay........................................................... 4

Sand^.......................................................... 8

Limestone...................................................... 6

108
134 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 

A deep gas well, the Banner well, had the following section: 0

Log of Banner gas well, Noblesville.

Feet.

Drift............................................................ 73

Niagara limestone and shale...................................... 265

Clinton (?) limestone............................................ 30

Hudson River and Utica......................................... 476

Trenton limestone................................................ 9

853

Sheridan. In Sheridan the waterworks system, owned by G. H. 

Farmer, supplies about 25 services. The water is drawn from two 

driven wells, 150 and 135 feet deep, and pumped to a tank 65 feet 

high, which has a capacity of 300 barrels. From the tank it is distributed by gravity. About 300 barrels per day are used. Both 

wells are driven to gravel beds, and the water is fairly soft.

Most of the wells in Sheridan are driven or dug. The dug wells 

which procure water from a gravel bed at a depth of 30 feet or less 

are unsafe and should be abandoned, for they receive surface drainage as well as gravel water and are likely to be polluted. The driven 

wells that enter deeper gravels are much safer. The rock here 

lies 200 feet beneath the surface, and the expense of sinking drilled 

rock wells for domestic supplies is often prohibitive.

Cicero. At Cicero, which lies on a flat plain, the. till is 160 feet 

thick, and few wells enter rock. The private wells, of which there 

are a large number, are dug and drilled and obtain water from the 

till and from the inclosed gravel beds. The dug wells range in depth 

from 10 to 40 feet, and their water is all drawn from gravel or sand 

beds in the till. In the lowlands along the creek there are many 

good springs and some flowing wells. (See PI. IV, No. 36.)

Arcadia. In Arcadia the wells are dug or drilled and range in 

depth from 10 to 212 feet. The surface deposits are here so thick 

that few wells reach rock, though a few enter limestone at depths of 

130 to 205 feet and yield an admirable supply for most purposes. 

The common depth for wells is about 20 feet, and the dug wells predominate in spite of the danger from their use. The water obtained 

from sand and gravel is abundant and even the shallow wells seldom 

fail.

Atlanta,. Atlanta has no public waterworks, and private wells are 

relied upon for the water supply. Many shallow wells of the open 

or dug type and from 10 to 30 feet in depth are used, and although 

these supply unfailing water their sanitary condition is doubtful. 

The drilled wells are deeper, and as all the surface waters are cased 

off they draw their supply only from the well bottom, from 50 to 

130 feet below ground. No rock is struck at depths less than 220

o Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 253.
HAMILTON COUNTY. 135

to 300 feet, and there are no wells in this town supplied by rock 

waters.

Other communities. In the following table is a list of other villages 

in Hamilton County, with particulars of their water supply:

Other village supplies in Hamilton County.

Town.

Bakers Corners.

Clarksville.....

Eagletown ..... 

Fishers Switch.

New Britton...

Strawtown. .... 

Westfleld......

Population 

(1900).

110 

60 

204 

498 

160

154 

22

275 

200

193 

231

101 

94 

89 

670

Source.

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug, driven, 

and drilled. 

Wells, driven and 

dug. 

Wells, dug, driven, 

and drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

.....do.............

Wells, driven , dug, 

and drilled. 

Wells, driven and 

dug. 

Wells, dug,-driven, 

and drilled. 

.....do.............

Wells, dug and 

driven. 

Wells, dug, driven, 

and drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

.....do.............

Wells, dug, driven, 

and drilled.

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

10

15 

20 

30 

10

10 

15

16 

25

10 

20

10 

10 

25 

20

Greatest.

Feet. 

125

140 

70 

112 

75

142 

90

200 

100

125 

100

110 

200 

112

182

Common.

Feet. 

50

18 

50 

100 

30

20 

30

20 

25

15 

25

15 

100 

75 

25

Depth 

to 

rock.

Feet. 

102

100 

18

200 

100 

240

280 

50 

200

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet.

15 

12 

8

15

12

0-6

Character of 

-water beds.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel.

Do.

Gravel and limestone. 

Limestone.

Gravel. 

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel. 

Do.

Do. 

Do.

Limestone and 

gravel. 

Do.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables contain detailed information regarding 

typical wells in Hamilton County and analyses of their waters. The 

last column of each table gives numbers referring to identical wells 

in the ether table:
Records of typical wells in Hamilton Cou

No.

1

4

E

6

7

10

11

13

1 q

14

15

16

17

1 8

19

30

31

99

00

34

oc

Owner.

.....do............................

F. F.Noble.... ...................

.....do............................

A T ^S7"oat

W W Morris

Location.

.....do..............................

.....do.............---..-.....-..-..

.....do.-....-..-...-.-..........---.

.....do..............................

.....do..............................

.....do..............................

Depth,

Feet. 

163

177

61

80

120

160

1 Cfi

140'

140

86

1,684

QE

92

OJC

60-85

178

108

115

1 Cfi

112

153

Type.

Drilled........

.....do........

Dug..........

Drilled........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

Dug..........

Drilled........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

Drilled........

.....do........

Diameter.

Inches. 

4

4

4

3

8

91? 

S4

f1

3

8

8

4

6

8

2

3

3
Mineral analyses of waters in Hamilton Co

[Parts per million.]

No.

1 

2 

3

4

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10

11 

12

Owner.

Schoolhouse well. . . . 

Stockyards well .....

.....do..............

Taylor & Sons. .....

W.W.Morris.......

Location.

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

5 miles W. of 

Cicero. 

Noblesville....

.....do........

.....do........

Straw town....

Source.

Drilled well, 

163 ft. by 4 

in. 

Drilled well, 

212 ft. by 4 

in. 

Drilled well, 

120 ft. by 4 

in. 

Well, 110 ft. by 

4 in.

Drilled well,

86ft.

ft. 

Drilled well, 

169 ft. 

Drilled wells, 

60 to 85 ft. 

Drilled well, 

345 ft. 

Well, 27ft/...

Driven well, 

150 ft. by 2 

in. 

Drilled well, 

112 ft. by 3 

in.

Analyst.

H.E. Barnard 

.....do........

.....do........

Lake Shore 

and Michigan Southern R. R. 

H.E.Barnard

.....do........

.....do........

R. B. Dole.... 

.....do........

Lake Erie and 

Western 

E.R. 

Chase Palmer.

H.E.Barnard

Date.

Nov. ,1907 

...do......

Oct., 1907 

Dec., 1904

Nov., 1907 

...do......

...do......

Aug., 1907 

...do......

Aug., 1907 

Nov., 1907

Material in 

which water 

occurs.

do

Gravel. .....

Silica (SiO2).

20 

21

21

b

a

s

0.12 

.40

.40

.80 

.00 

1.4 

2.0 

3.0

1.8 

3.0
138 UNDERGBOUND WATEES OP NORTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

HANCOCK COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Hancock County occupies the extreme southeast corner of the 

area covered in this report. It is irregular in outline and has an 

area of 290 square miles. As the population in 1900 was 19,189, 

there was an average of 66 inhabitants to the square mile.

This is essentially an upland county and is more uniformly a 

high plateau than any other portion of north-central Indiana. 

In the neighborhood of Wilkinson the surface, though of mild relief, 

lies more than 1,000 feet above sea level; the extreme northwest 

corner has an elevation of 800 feet. This plateau is composed of 

glacial deposits. The north and northwest portions are a till plain, 

but a low moraine belt covers the south and southeast parts of the 

county, which lies on the divide between White River on the west 

and Blue River on the east. The form of the underlying rock surface 

has had no influence on the present relief of the county. No outcrops occur, and the glacial deposits range from 100 to 300 feet in 

thickness.

Stream cutting has played a comparatively unimportant part in 

shaping the surface of this high plain. The only important valley 

is that of Big Blue River, which crosses the southeast corner of the 

county. Its valley is about 50 feet below the bordering uplands 

and contains a wide flood plain. Next in size is Sugar Creek, which 

crosses the county from northeast to southwest, with a valley which 

varies from only a few feet in depth at the .upper end to 30 or 40 

feet below New Palestine. The river flat has nowhere been greatly 

widened. The only other noteworthy stream is Brandy wine Creek, 

which flows south through Greenfield. The creek lies from 20 to 

30 feet below the plain and its flood plain is narrow.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

TJNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

As will be seen from an inspection of Plate I, the surface deposits 

of Hancock County are almost equally divided between plains of 

pebbly till and morainal drift. Alluvial beds of sufficient extent to 

show on a map of this scale occur only in the valley of Big Blue 

River. Plate II shows the thickness of the surface deposits throughout the county. As they are nowhere less than 90 feet thick, it 

follows that by far the greater number of wells procure their supply 

from the glacial drift above the rock.

The alluvium in the valley of Big Blue River consists of floodplain and terrace deposits of gravels, sands, and silts. During the 

retreat of the last great glacier from this region, the Blue River 

valley afforded one of the important channels of escape for the
HANCOCK COUNTY. 139

abundant waters of the melting ice, and along it there were deposited 

extensive beds of fluvio-glacial debris. The valley is much larger 

than the present stream would have developed, and the alluvial deposits are more extensive than those left by the postglacial streams 

of similar size. The thickness of the valley deposits varies but 

generally falls between 20 and 40 feet. Along Sugar and Brandywine creeks the alluvial beds are more restricted in area and are 

commonly 15 to 25 feet thick. The valley gravels carry abundant 

water obtained from the rainfall and from the seepage of the surrounding uplands. Wells are easily obtained, the simplest and most 

common type being the driven well, 10 to 30 feet in depth. These 

wells give large yields if ended in coarse gravels, and the water, though 

hard, is softer than that either from the till or the limestones. There 

are many wells in alluvium along the Blue River valley and in the 

flats of Brandywine, Sugar, and the smaller creeks.

The southeast half of this county is moraine covered, the surface 

consisting of low, rolling hills, 20 or 30 feet high, with many scattered 

bowlders. There are no sharply defined ridges or areas of strong relief, 

and in this the moraine differs greatly from the great moraine belts 

in the northern part of the State. The surface deposits reach great 

thickness wherever the moraines lie on top of the till, and at Cleveland 

a well was drilled 240 feet deep before it entered rock. The water supplies of the moraine are much like those of the till, as the materials are 

nearly identical. Dug wells predominate, but driven and drilled wells 

are numerous.

In the northern till-covered half of the county the surface is plainlike and rises gradually from the west to the east edge. The thickness of the till seems to be fairly uniform from west to east, the rock 

surface below rising at about the same slope as the till surface. The 

stream valleys are all very shallow, and the topography is remarkably 

uniform and featureless. The clayey till itself furnishes water to a 

large number of shallow dug wells, the water entering through the 

loose-curbed walls as it seeps out slowly from the clay. An increase 

in the amount of gravel in the clay increases the supply of water, 

and distinct beds of gravel almost everywhere yield rather abundant 

supplies. Deep driven or drilled wells generally reach some such 

gravel beds, and few of them enter the underlying rock. Good sanitary protection is given to the deeper gravels by the overlying clays.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The "Niagara" limestone outcrops beneath the drift in northeast 

Hancock County, though it is everywhere deeply covered by the surface deposits. It has been reached by the drill at Fortville, Melners 

Corners, Wilkinson, and Willow, and its character is evidently much 

the same as in the area to the north, where it comes to the surface,
140 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Deep drillings throughout the entire county pass through the 

"Niagara," though in the south, central, and west portions it is overlain by the Devonian beds. All wells entering the "Niagara" obtain 

abundant water, usually in the upper portion of the formation.

Little is known of the character of the Devonian limestones, which 

are the uppermost rocks in the south and west portions of the county 

(PI. III). The records of drillers commonly class them with the 

"Niagara." The Devonian beds are reliable water producers, no 

failure to obtain abundant water in the limestones having been recorded. The water occurs in the fractured and somewhat weathered 

upper portion of the rock or in the deeper joints or bedding planes.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

One artesian area (PI. IV, No. 37) includes the lowlands along 

Brandywine Creek near Greenfield, where there are a number of 

flowing wells, all of which are drilled into limestone. Two are old gas 

wells, one on the property of W. S. Freeze (No. 6, p. 142) and one in 

the flat of Brandywine Creek. It is not known at what depth the 

flowing water was encountered, except that it is from the limestone, 

which is here about 150 feet below the surface. The only other flowing wells in this area, eight in number, are at the Greenfield city waterworks. When these wells are pumped the head is lowered below the 

surface of the ground. The wells are " in sympathy " with the flowing 

well at the creek bottom, which ceases to flow when the city wells are 

being pumped. Although the water is found in the Devonian limestone, the head is probably from waters in the underlying "Niagara" 

limestone. The "Niagara" beds rise toward the east, the direction of 

the Cincinnati arch, and the flowing waters probably come down this 

structural slope.

A number of other flowing wells from abandoned gas borings are 

reported to occur along the Brandywine south of Greenfield.

There are two flowing wells at New Palestine, both on the property 

of Mr. Max Herrlick. The records of the wells are lost, but they are 

reported to have entered rock at 285 feet and to be 1,000 feet deep. 

The flowing water is said to have been encountered at a depth of 200 

feet. The water rises 15 feet above the surface, and is carried to a 

hydraulic ram which pumps 13,000 gallons per day. The water is 

used for the public supply. Other flowing wells could certainly be 

obtained in the near-by lowlands if carried to sufficient depth.

One mile north of Melners Corners, in the valley of Sugar Creek, 

there is a flowing well on the farm of W. A. Collingwood. (PI. IV, 

No. 39.) The water is obtained from gravel at a depth of 20 feet, 

and the flow fills a IJ-inch pipe. The conditions for flow are local, 

but wells in the creek valley near by would also probably strike flowing waters.
HANCOCK COUNTY. 141 

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Greenfield. The city of Greenfield owns and operates waterworks, 

which were established in 1894 at the east edge of the town. The 

water, drawn from eight flowing wells (PL IV, No. 37), is from the 

limestone and is pumped directly into the mains from the wells, a 

domestic pressure of 45 pounds being maintained, while for fire protection the pressure is increased to about 100 pounds. There are 

over 8 miles of mains and 900 taps, and about 75 per cent of the people use this water. About 300,000 gallons per day are pumped.

In Greenfield there are still large numbers of private wells in use. 

The dug wells formerly were more numerous, but they are gradually 

being abandoned and their places taken by driven wells. In the 

north and northeast parts of the town water-bearing gravels are 

found at about 45 feet below the surface, while in the south part of 

town it is necessary to sink wells to a little over 100 feet before good 

supplies are obtained. Before the city supply was installed many 

dug wells were used, and typhoid fever was prevalent. No case of 

this disease has been reported from families which use only the city 

water.

New Palestine. The public supply of New Palestine is owned by 

Max Herrlick. The water flows from the artesian wells already 

described (PL IV, No. 38), and a part of the flow is pumped by hydraulic ram to a tank 86 feet above the wells, which has a capacity of 

6,000 gallons. From the tank the water is distributed by gravity 

to about 2 miles of 2-inch iron mains, and 35 taps are supplied. 

There are no connections with this system for fire protection.

The private wells are dug and driven. The dug wells range in 

depth from 14 to 24 feet, and the driven wells from 30 to 125 feet. 

The common depth for driven wells is 65 feet, and a good bed of 

water-bearing gravel can almost everywhere be found at that depth.

Fortville. In Fortville all the open wells have been abandoned, 

and drilled or driven wells are used altogether. In the town there 

are perhaps six or eight wells which reach rock, and they all have 

abundant water. An analysis of water from the limestone, which 

here lies at a depth of about 165 feet, is No. 3 in the table on page 143. 

The driven wells are sunk either to first or second gravel, first gravel 

being reached at 10 to 35 feet, and second gravel at 70 to 80 feet 

below the surface. Most wells obtain water of good quality from 

second gravel at an average depth of 70 feet.

Charlottesville. Charlottesville has no public supply, and each 

home has a private well from which its water is drawn. Dug wells 

were formerly numerous, but these are being abandoned and driven 

or drilled wells substituted. Gravel, encountered at depths of 30 to 

85 feet, 'furnishes safe and abundant waters, which rise within 15 

feet of the surface. In the town rock lies 170 feet below the glacial 

beds, and no rock waters are used.
142 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Other communities. The following table contains a list of other 

villages in Hancock County, with details regarding their water supply:

Other village supplies in Hancock County.

Town.

McCordsville... 

Melners Corners

Mount Comfort. 

Philadelphia...

Warrington .... 

Wilkinson.....

Willow........

Population 

(1900).

125 

100 

80 

300

301

162 

134 

182 

381

200 

208

127

Source.

Wells, dug and drilled.

.....do................

Wells, driven and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug and drilled. 

Wells, driven and 

drilled.

.....do................

Wells, dug and driven. 

Wells, drilled, bored, 

and dug. 

Wells, dug and driven. 

Wells, drilled, driven, 

and dug. 

Wells, dug and driven.

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

12 

20 

20 

40

14 

9

20 

20 

25 

40

10 

30

20

Greatest.

Feet. 

240 

30 

150 

278

132 

100

35 

40 

80 

138

30

180

80

Common.

Feet. 

200 

20 

130

15 

20

30 

30

75 

50

25

Depth 

to 

rock.

Feet. 

240

276

100 

100

170

180

Head

below 

surface.

Feet.

6 3-10

15

5-10

Character of 

water beds.

Sand and gravel. 

Gravel. 

Sand and gravel. 

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel. 

Do.

Do. 

Do.

Sand and gravel. 

Gravel.

Do. 

Gravel and limestone. 

Sand and gravel.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables contain detailed information regarding 

typical wells in Hancock County and analyses of their waters. 

The last column of each table gives numbers referring to identical 

wells in the other table.

Records of typical wells in Hancock County.

d fc

1

?,

3

4

5

7

8

9 

10

11

1?,

13

14

15

Ifi

17

18

19

20 

21

Owner.

E. F.Cahen.......

City waterworks . .

Cleveland, Cincinnati.Chicagoand 

St. Louis R. R. 

E. L. Dobbins....

ural Gas Co.

W. A. Collingswood. 

Frank Welling....

Doctor Titus......

George Condo ..... 

J. W. Walker. ....

Location.

Fortville........

.....do...........

.....do...........

Greenfleld....... 

.....do...........

.....do...........

li miles N. of

Greenfleld.

.....do........... 

2 miles SW. of

Maxwell.

Cordsville. 

J mile N. of Melners Corners. 

3 miles SW. of

Mount Comfort.

landon.

Wilkinson.......

.....do............

Willow..........

,d

f 

O

Feet. 

175

35|

140

170 

200

171

105

278 

181

910

100

20

147

1,000

90

138

200

187

180 

80

Type.

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Driven. .

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

Driven. .

Diameter.

In.

21

24

8 

fi

fi

4

4

8 

4

3

U

?,

6

91

4

U

3

3 

H

& ' 

& .

3* *^f>

Sfc jr

Ft.

170 

200

171

105

276 

181

80

100

20

147

700

90

138

150

ISO

180

80

Head abovebelow (+) orsurface. ) ( 

Feet. -33

-10

-30

-30

+ 3

-30

-25

-55

-30

+ 6

-37

+15

-20

-30

-15

-20

-20

bear- Water- ing materials.

.....do.......

Limestone. . 

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

Limestone . . 

Gravel. .....

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

Sand........

Depth to rock.

Ft. 

165

170 

170

276

200

165

165

min- Flow per 

ute.

Gals.

......

2

......

75

......

o

fc

 3 

£> a

a

<1

3

1

?,

4
HENDBICKS COUNTY.

Mineral analyses of waters in Hancock County. 

[Parts per million.]

143

No.

1

.,

3

4

Owner.

L. F. Denney.........

City supply...........

No.

1

2

3

4

O

33

s

53

28

£v_^

o

HH

0.60

.80

1.2

1.2

^

e,

a

 sS

100

74

73

48

Location.

Fortville....

.....do......

.....do......

Greenfield...

'So

g.

|

 g

MC3

21

21

24

30

£

n

o 02

2

Source.

Drilled well, 35

ft. by 2J in. 

Drilled well, 140

ft.

Drilled well, 175

ft. by 2J in. 

Drilled wells, 170

ft. by 8 in.

£

a

.s

en

0

3

13

 O

^f?

go

o

,0

O

0.0

.0

.0

.0

 s

^^

%S

0^ 'S ^

C3.2

s

172

324

266

344

Analyst.

H.E. Barnard

.....do.......

.....do.......

Chase Palmer

"o

 d

C3

^o"S^ (-*

f3 

O2

65

26

23

6.2

c_

S3

r

0

S

1.0

2.0

2.0

7.0

_2 "o

O

ajZ

B

S

.30

.20

1.5

Date.

Oct., 1907

...do......

...do......

July, 1907

S

 §

O

-^ a^' '

»-i

g

0.0

.0

.002

O

6

15

0

2

Material in

which water

occurs.

Gravel.

Do.

Limestone.

Do.

2

g

&

280

370

348

326

"3

 s

S|

d ^

 1-1

o 

!?

2

3

1

4

HENDRICKS COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Hendricks County, which lies at the southwest corner of the area 

covered by this report, is about 19 miles wide and 20 miles long from 

north to south, though there is a projection which extends 2 miles 

farther south than the rest of the county. The total area is 408 

square miles, and in 1900 the population was 21,292. Danville, the 

county seat, lies 20 miles west of Indianapolis.

This county occupies a part of the broad plateau between White 

and Wabash rivers, and most of the drainage belongs to the former 

stream. The plateau slopes as an inclined plane from the northwest 

to the southeast corner of the county, and this slope is due more to 

the preglacial surface as left by the ice than to the influence of postglacial erosion. The largest valley is that of White Lick Creek, and 

the lowest point of the county, in this valley, is less than 700 feet above 

sea level, while the highest, in the northwest portion (PL I), reaches 

a height of over 960 feet, giving the county a total range in elevation 

of about 275 feet. Most of the surface consists of a level plain, and 

is, in general, little cut by streams. There is, however, a broad belt 

of moraine which has a north-south trend and lies somewhat west of 

the center of the county (PL I).

White Lick Creek is the dominating stream, and with Little White 

Lick and its other smaller tributaries its basin includes almost half of
144 TJNDEEGBOTJND WATEES OP NOBTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

the surface. The valley is much deeper than is common for streams 

of this volume, the excessive development being due to the fact that 

it discharges into the deep valley of White River, and therefore has 

the low outlet and steep gradient that are favorable to rapid erosion. 

The only other streams of importance are Walnut Creek, in the northwest corner, and Mill Creek, in the southwest corner, both of which 

flow, by way of Eel River, into White River at Worthington.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The principal alluvial beds of the county are found in the valleys of 

Big and Little White Lick creeks, and to a lesser extent in the valleys 

of the other streams. Wherever the alluvium attains a thickness of 

15 feet or more it is almost certain to furnish plenty of water to dug 

or driven wells. From the nature of the materials, however, such 

shallow wells will receive in a short time any sewage which may enter 

the ground in the vicinity, so that pollution must always be guarded 

against. The danger is especially great in towns or in the neighborhood of dwellings or barns; hence water for domestic purposes should 

not be taken from shallow wells so situated. The deeper alluvium, 

if covered by beds of rather impervious clay, may yield a first-class 

water supply.

As stated above, a single moraine belt crosses the county from 

northwest to southeast (PL I). North of Danville the surface is 

rather irregular and rolling, but south of this city the relief becomes 

milder.

As in the till plains, the open wells predominate. The greater 

abundance of gravels has favored the construction of driven or drilled 

wells, and these are constantly increasing in popular favor. The 

depth varies with the distance to the gravel beds, but it is rarely 

necessary to sink wells more than 60 or 70 feet.

As shown in Plate I, till plains occupy most of the county surface. 

The thickness of the material varies greatly, for in the southwest 

corner the drift is generally less than 75 feet thick, but the depth to 

rock increases to the north and east until it reaches more than 200 feet 

in the deepest places. The majority of the wells in the till-plain areas 

are open or dug and range from 15 to 40 feet deep. The water enters 

slowly from the till, but in sufficient quantity for ordinary domestic 

uses. Wells of this type may be obtained almost anywhere, and in 

the rural districts offer a fairly safe supply if located at safe distances 

from outhouse and barnyard drainage. In towns they are not safe. 

Drilled and driven wells have proved very satisfactory, and have 

demonstrated that gravel beds may be entered anywhere if the wells 

are continued 75 feet or more. Locally they are found much nearer 

the surface.
HENDRICKS COUNTY. 145 

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The distribution of the rock formations below the glacial drift is 

shown approximately in Plate III. The exact line of contact between 

the Devonian and Mississippian beds in this county can not be determined, because very few wells have penetrated through the drift to 

them.

The New Albany shale, the uppermost of the Devonian beds, is the 

oldest rock of the county. Little is known here of the character of its 

water supply, although in the counties to the east and north it is 

made up of tight, close-grained beds, which yield little or no water to 

wells. In Hendricks County the drift above has everywhere yielded 

sufficient water before the shale is reached.

The "Knobstone" group, of Mississippian age, lies immediately 

below the drift in all but the northeast portion of this county (PL 

III). These rocks furnish few wells with water in the lower and more 

shaly portion of the formation. In the southwest half the sandstone 

of the "Knobstone" comes within 6 or 8 feet of the surface at some 

places, and wells drilled into it have found plenty of water in the welldefined joints of the rock.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

A flowing-well area lies in the valley of Little White Lick Creek for 

some distance above and below Danville. (PL IV, No. 40.) The best 

flows have been obtained by the Danville waterworks, where six wells 

furnish the entire town supply (PL VI, B}. The water is obtained 

from a gravel bed-below till at a depth of 100 to 112 feet, and rises 12 

to 22 feet above the surface with an enormous volume. The record 

of one of these wells is as follows:

Log of well at'Danville waterworks.

Feet.

Sand and gravel................................................. 14

Hardpan......................................................... 5

Blue clay........................................................ 53

Gravel......................................................... 40 '

112

The gravel beds which yield the flowing waters are of uncertain 

extent. One well drilled by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and 

St. Louis Railway, one-fourth mile southeast of the Danville pumping 

station, penetrated hardpan and found no water in or below it. Flowing wells from the drift have also been obtained near Cartersburg in 

this same artesian area. The Cartersburg Mineral Springs have been 

described by W. S. Blatchley.«

"Mineral waters of Indiana: Twenty-sixth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Res., 1901. 

46448° WSP 254 10 10
146 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

There is an artesian area in the vicinity of Tilden (PL IV, No. 41) 

where two wells flow at the surface, and where in many wells the water 

rises within a few feet of the well mouth. The waters are in every 

well obtained from gravel beds below till, and the wells range from 2.6 

to 114 feet in depth. The record of one of these is No. 14, in the 

table on page 148.

In artesian area No. 42 (PL IV), near New Winchester, a number 

of flowing wells occur, but by no means all the wells flow. None of 

the wells are in deep valleys, and many are only 2 or 3 feet below the 

level of the plain. The water is obtained from the sandstone of the 

"Knobstone" group, which is entered at 30 to 90 feet below the surface, the overlying till preventing the escape of the waters, and the 

head may come from the higher part of the formation, a few miles to 

the north, or from the overlying drift. As no outcrops occur at the 

surface, the water must reach the rock through gravelly portions of 

the drift.

An artesian area (PL IV, No. 43) at North Salem has a single flowing 

well, drilled about fifteen years ago in the hope of obtaining oil or gas. 

The well is 800 feet deep, and the flow is reported to come from a 

depth of 400 feet, probably from the Devonian limestones. The well 

flows with a 1 f-inch stream.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Danville. The Danville public water system is owned by the city, 

and the supply is obtained from six drilled wells in the river valley. 

There are two 2-inch, two 3-inch, and two 4-inch wells, and each is 

about 112 feet deep. They have been described above, as in artesian 

area 40. From the wells, which have a head of 22 feet above ground, 

the water is pumped to a standpipe with an elevation of 100 feet above 

the town and 200 feet above the wells, and is distributed from this by 

gravity. The system has 5 miles of mains and 600 consumers, or 

about 95 per cent of the total population of the town. About 450,000 

gallons per day are pumped. An analysis of this water is No. 4 in the 

table on page 149. The supply is an excellent one, and it is appreciated by the people, as is shown by the large proportion of users of 

the city water.

There are very few private wells in Danville. A small number of 

dug and driven wells are used and some water is obtained from 

springs along the creek valley.

Plainfield. Plainfield has no waterworks, and all the water is 

drawn from private wells. These are dug and driven, are 20 to 25 

feet deep, and obtain their water from a bed of gravel. Such a supply 

is likely to become polluted at any time from the drainage of the 

outhouses and stables of the town. Deep driven and drilled wells
HENDEICKS COUNTY. 147

are the only safe source of underground waters in such thickly 

settled communities.

At the Indiana Boys' School, across the creek from the town, the 

water is obtained from two sources. A fine spring which issues from 

the side of a gravel terrace supplies the drinking water and a deep 

well the water used for other purposes. The record of this well was 

given as follows:

Log of well at Indiana Boys' School, Plainfield.

Feet. 

Soil and brown sandstone........................................ 12

Bluestone ..................................................... 58

Bluestone ...................................................... 160

Red shale....................................................... 18

Brown limestone............................................... 52

Limestone..................................................... 300

White stone...................................................' 3J

6031

Pittsboro. Pittsboro is situated on the till plain about 8 miles 

northeast of Danville, and has no public water supply. The private 

wells, whose waters are obtained from gravel beds, are dug and 

driven, and although they range in depth between 15 and 100 feet as 

extremes, the common depth is only 20 feet. Such a shallow well 

supply should be abandoned in favor of deeper tubular wells.

Brownsburg. The wells of Brownsburg are dug and driven, the 

former ranging from 15 to 30 feet, and the latter from 30 to 150 feet 

in depth. The common depth for dug wells is 20 feet and for driven 

wells 40 feet, and the water, which comes from the till and from 

gravel beds, rises within 10 or 15 feet of the surface. The driven wells 

40 feet or more in depth are probably safe from pollution. The dug 

wells are open to the same objections stated for wells of this class at 

Plainfield and Pittsboro, and their waters endanger the health of 

the community.

Coatsville. The people of Coatsville depend for their water almost 

wholly upon dug wells from 18 to 30 feet deep, in which the head of 

water varies with the seasons. Gravel is entered at about 25 feet. 

Great care should be exercised to locate wells as far as possible from 

sources of contamination, and driven or drilled wells are much to 

be preferred.

North Salem. The wells of North Salem are dug and driven, and 

from 15 to 75 feet deep. There is one very deep flowing well, which 

was described as in artesian area 43 (p. 146). The town is on a till 

plain, and the only reliable source of supply is the gravel beds in the 

till. The deep driven wells yield a much safer and more satisfactory 

water than that obtained from the dug wells, which are likely to be 

contaminated.
148 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL, INDIANA.

Other communities. The following table contains a list of other 

villages in Hendricks County, with particulars as to their water

supply:

Other village supplies in Hendricks County.

Town.

Belleville.........

Center Valley....

Friendswood. .... 

Hadley.. .........

New Winchester.

Stilesville........

Population 

(1900).

325

268 

253 

92 

478

110 

68 

100 

40

347 

32

116

72 

50 

73 

357

63

Source.

Wells, dug and 

driven. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, driven and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug, driven 

and drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

.....do...............

.....do...............

.....do...............

Wells, dug, drilled, 

and driven. 

Wells, dug and 

driven.

Wells, dug and 

drilled.

.....do...............

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

driven.

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

12

10 

40 

18 

9

14 

14 

10 

15

10

7 

10 

20

12 

15 

12 

9

15

Greatest.

Feet. 

30

150 

110 

70 

140

175 

140. 

100 

50

150

30 

45 

80

30 

30 

30 

245

150

Common.

Feet. 

20

40 

65 

30 

50

70 

30 

20

11-50

10 

30 

25

14 

20 

20 

20

20

Depth 

to 

rock.

Feet.

15 

9-60

20

20-50

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet.

20 

10 

0-10 

5

10

2-8 

1-5

4-16 

15

Character of 

water beds.

Gravel. 

Do. 

Do. 

Gravel and rock. 

Gravel and shale.

Gravel. 

Do. 

Sand and gravel. 

Gravel.

Sand and gravel.

Gravel. 

Sand and gravel. 

Gravel and rock.

Gravel. 

Do. 

Gravel and clay. 

Gravel and sandstone. 

Gravel.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The following tables contain detailed information regarding typical 

wells of Hendricks County and analyses of their waters. The last 

column in either table gives numbers referring to identical wells in 

the other table.

Records of typical wells in Hendricks County.

No.

1

3

5

7

8

9

10

11

13

14

15

16

Owner.

M.T. Hunter......

W. W.Quinn.....

Public well........

J. N. Lockhart....

M. H. Arbuckle . . .

Location.

imileNE.ofTilden

Chester.

S3

p

P

Ft.

225

110

99

90

56

50

205

68

96

800

15

26*

57

96

Type.

Drilled..

Dug.....

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Dug.....

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

.%

P

Ins.

6

4

6

6

2,3,4

ji

8

2

2

OJ 

03

^

5"S

 ff""

fto>

p

Ft.

110

20

40

140

107

96

400

14

26

+T

^ fe S-fs

S3 n 03

ffl

Fee*.

-20

-18

-40

 2

+22

 9

+ 8

 12

+ 3

+ 3J

Waterbearing

materials.

Shale.....

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do.....

Shale.....

.....do.....

Limestone.

.....do.....

.....do.....

.....do.....

&

SH

O

S3

fto>

p

Ft.

60

6

6

fi5

47

40

4(1

70

c

a

E"3

h

Galls.

200

3

t3

JXj

M

&

c3

^

2

1

3

5

6

7
Mineral analyses of waters in Hendricks Co

[Parts per million.]

No.

1

3

4 

S

7

x

Owner.

City supply.......

Public well.......

Location.

Danville ......

Source.

by li in.

Drilled well, 56 ft.

by 6 in.

Drilled wells, 112 ft.. 

Drilled well, 96 ft.

by 11 in. 

Drilled well, 800 ft.

by 8 in. a

Open well, 15ft.....

Analyst.

Chase Palmer.

.....do........

.....do........

Date.

July, 1907.

1Q07

1907.......

Material

in which 

water

occurs.

.....do.....

Shale ......

Gravel .....

.....do.....

Gravel.---.

O

CO

CS

S

CO

19

16

.

(£ 

a

K

0,10

1.8

.00

2.1

9 4

.10

a Water from 400 feet depth. 
150 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

HOWARD COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Howard County is in the central north-south tier of the group of 

counties included in this report, somewhat south of its geographic 

center, and has an area of 295 square miles. Kokomo, the county 

seat, is 50 miles due north of Indianapolis. The population of the 

county in 1900 was 28,575.

The county is a part of the high plain between the valleys of White 

and Wabash rivers, and aside from the valley depression of Wild Cat 

Creek the surface is monotonously level and featureless. Wild Cat 

Creek enters the county from the south near the southeast corner and 

flows northeast and then northwest to Greentown, whence its course 

is westward through Kokomo to the west county line. The course 

of the stream in this county is over 40 miles long and the valley is 

much better developed at the lower than at the upper end. At Burlington, Carroll County, the valley is about 70 feet deep. At Greentown it is less than 30 feet deep, and above it is still shallower. Wild 

Cat Creek drains all of the south half of the county, and a narrow 

strip of the plain to the north. From the south it is fed by Honey, 

Little Wild Cat, and Kokomo creeks. From the north it has no 

important tributaries.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The important alluvial deposits of Howard County are all confined 

to the valley bottom of Wild Cat Creek, though there are small areas 

of alluvium along the courses of its larger tributaries. The valley 

ranges in width from over one-half mile in the west to a small fraction 

of this distance at its upper end, and the alluvium varies much in 

thickness. At Kokomo wells in the bottom lands enter rock after 

penetrating 20 to 30 feet of gravels and sands. Farther west the 

thickness increases. In the alluvial bottom lands underground 

waters are easily obtained. The water table in these areas stands 

within a few feet of the surface, and the coarse sand and gravel beds 

furnish large quantities of water. Driven wells, 10 to 30 feet in 

depth, are commonly used to procure the alluvial waters. The waters 

are potable and safe in rural districts where the wells are sufficiently 

removed from outhouses or stables, but in towns the chances are great 

for pollution by the penetration of sewage into the unprotected 

gravels, and in such situations the shallower alluvial waters should 

be avoided.

The moraines of this county are low and inconspicuous, though 

their somewhat irregular surfaces stand in contrast with the very
HOWARD COUNTY. 151

level aspect of the surrounding till plains. One belt of morainal drift 

extends from Green town northwest into Miami and Cass counties, 

and Russiaville lies on another small isolated patch.

In the gravelly portions of the morainal drift the ground waters are 

abundant and may be obtained by dug, driven, or drilled wells. The 

gravel or sand beds between beds of till furnish the best waters, and 

the relatively impervious till is effective in keeping out objectionable 

drainage from the surface.

From its wide surface distribution (PL I) the till must be depended 

upon to furnish the domestic supplies of water throughout most of 

the county, and the usual method of obtaining water from it is by 

means of loosely curbed dug wells. The water thus obtained may, 

under exceptional conditions, be unfailing and pure; but many such 

wells fail in dry seasons and all are to some extent subject to the dangers of pollution either from the well mouth or from seepage through 

the ground. If dug wells are to be used, great caution should be exercised to locate them at as great a distance as possible from cesspools 

or other sources of contamination.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The surface deposits of all of Howard County are immediately 

underlain by limestones. In the eastern portion the "Niagara" limestone is the uppermost formation. At Kokomo, where the rocks outcrop at the surface, the beds are of the Kokomo limestone ("water 

lime"), next younger than the Niagara. At Russiaville and in the 

extreme southwest portion of the county the Devonian limestones 

underlie the drift. The approximate distribution of these formations 

is shown in. Plate III. The various limestone formations have gained 

the reputation among drillers of being sure water-bearing beds. A 

great many borings throughout the county have entered limestone, 

and almost without exception the wells have obtained satisfactory 

supplies of water.

Chemical analyses (p. 157) seem to show no great difference in composition between the waters from the limestone and those from gravel.

i

ARTESIAN AREAS.

Scattered throughout the county there &re eight areas in which 

flowing wells occur. These are all in the lowlands, usually along the 

valleys of the larger streams. The outlines k>f the areas, as shown in 

Plate IV, are made to include the districts where flows are at present 

known. The boundaries are necessarily only approximate. The lack 

of an accurate topographic base map is one of the causes that have 

made it difficult, in the short time spent in each portion of the county, 

to map the flowing-well areas in detail and accurately.
152 UNDERGROUND WATEES OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

There is an area along the lowlands of Wild Cat and Kokomo creeks, 

near Kokomo (PI. IV, No. 44), in which the limestone waters are under 

artesian pressure. The head of the waters is only a few feet above 

the level of the creeks, but at favorable spots flowing waters have been 

obtained. The best known of these areas is at the city park. The 

rock here lies only 18 feet below the surface, though the flowing wells, 

three in number, range from 49 to 106 feet in depth. The record of 

the strongest of the wells is No. 9 in the table on page 156. The wells 

at the city waterworks, farther upstream, are also reported to flow 

when not pumped. As they are all in use it was impossible to obtain 

the amount of flow or the head. On the property of Thomas J. Dye, 

2J miles south of Kokomo, gas borings have encountered flowing 

waters in the limestone at a depth of about 150 feet, one well in the 

lowlands of Kokomo Creek being estimated to flow 15 gallons per 

minute (No. 17, p. 156). There is reason to believe that other wells 

near the level of the creeks would give artesian flows.

Rock wells along Little Wild Cat Creek, near West Middleton, have 

obtained flowing waters from the limestone. (PI. IV, No. 45.) The 

waters along this valley are under just enough pressure to rise to the 

surface, and the flows are small. 'Farther from the stream the waters 

in rock wells rise somewhat above the level of the creek but do not 

flow.

The west edge of Russiaville borders on West Honey Creek, in the 

valley of which there are flowing wells. (PI. IV, No. 46.) Artesian 

waters are found in both the first and second gravels but none in rock. 

The deepest of these wells penetrated 35 feet of white sand and 62 

feet of blue till to gravel at 97 feet and was cased only through the 

sand to the till.

A well one-half mile west of Fan-field (PI: IV, No. 47) is reported"* 

to have obtained a flow of 5,000 barrels per day from the limestone 

at a depth of 110 feet. The water rises 6 feet above the surface, which 

at this point is 25 feet lower than at the Fairfield railroad station.

About 1 mile west of Fairfield a small branch of Little Wild Cat 

Creek has a shallow valley in which there are two flowing wells (PI. 

IV, No. 48), both of which are abandoned gas wells, the waters coming from the limestone. It is highly probable that rock wells in the 

valley bottom between this area and the flowing wells near West 

Middleton would also obtain flows.

In the valleys of Wildcat and Prairie creeks above Greentown there 

are at least three flowing wells, the flowing waters coming from the 

"Niagara" limestone, which here lies 50 to 75 feet below the surface. 

One well has a temperature of 51° F. and flows about 20 gallons per 

minute. There is reason to believe that wells which penetrate deep

oLeverett, Frank, Wells of northern Indiana: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 21,1899.
HOWARD COUNTY 153

into the limestone are likely to obtain flows anywhere in this county 

along the valley of Wild Cat Creek.

Area 13 (PI. IV), which lies along a branch of Deer Creek, and 

which has been described in part as in Cass County (p. 90), contains 

three flowing wells in Howard County. One was drilled for gas and 

the other two for water. The gas well and the deeper of the water 

wells obtained the artesian flows from limestone. The shallower 

well secured a flow in gravel at a depth of 65 feet. The records of 

these wells are Nos. 14, 15, and 16 in the table on page 156.

Area 10, described in part on page 81, extends across the county 

line from Carroll into Howard County, where it contains one flowing 

well. This well (No. 1, p. 156) is about 35 feet above the level of 

Wild Cat Creek. The water is obtained within 6 inches below the top 

of the limestone, which was struck at a depth of 103^ feet. The 

materials passed through by this boring were as follows:

Log of well on farm of Richard Fisher, 1% miles east of Burlington.

Feet. 

Gravel. ........................^.............................. 9

Blue clay..................................................... 30

Hardpan...................................................... 50

Red clay...................................................... 14J

Limestone..................................................... i

104 

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Kolcomo. The Kokomo public waterworks are owned and operated by the American Water Works and Guarantee Company of 

Pittsburg, Pa., and the pumping station is situated at the east edge 

of the city near Wild Cat Creek. The water is drawn from 13 drilled 

wells scattered for over a mile along the creek bottom lands, and all 

enter the limestone, which here lies 15 to 30 feet below the surface. 

Some of the wells, which are 6, 8, and 10 inches in diameter, and 

range from 160 to 500 feet in depth, are said to flow at the surface 

when not pumped. At present they are all connected, and are 

drained by syphon into a large cistern at the pumping station. The 

water is pumped from this well to the mains, and direct pressure 

from the pumps is maintained. There are 30 miles of mains, 4 to 12 

inches in diameter, and 2,500 taps. About 75 per cent of the people 

use this water, and require an average of 2,000,000 gallons per day.

When the pressure in the mains is increased for fire protection, a 

red sediment which accumulates in the mains is loosened and gives 

the water an objectionable reddish color. Proper flushing of the 

mains would do much to remedy this evil. The supply is otherwise 

very good and the danger of pollution is slight.
154 UNDEBGBOUND WATEES 6F NOBTH-CENTBAL INDIANA.

Many private wells are still in use in Kokomo, and these usually 

obtain water in gravel just above the limestone, or in the limestone 

itself. The surface deposits vary in depth from 40 to 50 feet at the 

north edge of the city to only a few feet near the river. The most 

common type of well is the drilled well, which is sunk to a depth of 

about 75 feet and finds water in the limestone. The record of an old 

gas boring gives the following section: 0

Log of gas boring at Kokomo.

Feet.

Drift............................................................ 61

Waterlime and Niagara........................................... 359

Hudson River limestone and shale............................... 265

Utica shale..................................................... 251

Trenton limestone.............................................. 22

958

Greentown. The public supply of Greentown is owned by Delon 

& Davis, a private company. The water is taken from a single 

4-inch drilled well, 95 feet deep,, which penetrated 17 feet into 

limestone. The water rises within about 25 feet of the surface, and 

the head varies only 3 feet from this level in the driest seasons. A 

gasoline engine is used to pump the water to a tank 65 feet high, 

which holds 10,000 gallons and from which it is distributed by 

gravity. There is about 1 mile of mains, and 95 taps supply onefourth of the population. The amount pumped varies from 5,000 

gallons a day in winter to 20,000 a day in the dry seasons. The 

water is good and affords a very satisfactory supply.

The private wells in this town are dug, driven, or drilled and are 

from 20 to 150 feet in depth. Gravel beds are encountered at about 

25, 45, and 95 feet, and these waters are much used. The overlying 

till beds afford to the deeper gravels a good protection from contamination, and the limestone waters are especially safe and abundant. 

The shallow dug wells are much more dangerous and should be 

abandoned.

Russiaville. The water wells of Russiaville are mostly drilled or 

driven, but a few dug wells are still used. Most of the wells are 

shallow and obtain water in sand or gravel beds at depths of 15 to 

40 feet. In parts of the town the surface deposits are very sandy, 

and water is difficult to obtain.

Other communities. The following table contains a list of other 

villages, with particulars as to their water supply:

o Sixteenth. Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist,, p. 249.
HOWARD COUNTY.

Village supplies in Howard County.

155

Town.

Fairfield.......

New London... 

Phlox..........

West Liberty..

West Middleton.

Population 

(1900).

66 

279

104

24

177 

51

57 

18 

271

60 

202

Source.

Wells, dug and drilled...

Wells, drilled, driven, 

and dug. 

Wells, dug and drilled...

.....do..................

Wells, dug, driven, and 

drilled.

Wells, drilled and dug...

Wells, dug and driven... 

Wells, drilled and dug...

.....do..................

.....do..................

.....do..................

.....do..................

.....do..................

.....do..................

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

10

15 

12

18 

20

18

18 

15

18 

20 

25 

25 

15

15

Greatest.

Feet. 

110

135 

110

115 

125

150

40 

80

120 

150 

125 

142 

85

108

Common.

Feet. 

25

60 

100 

20

115

30 

60

100 

100 

100 

30 

60

20

Depth 

to rock.

Feet. 

100

70-100 

60

85 

70-100

90

60

65 

80 

60 

142 

50-80

100

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet.

10 

10

10

10

20

8

12

Character of 

water beds.

Gravel, sand, 

and limestone. 

Limestone and 

gravel. 

Gravel and 

limestone. 

Do. 

Clay, gravel, 

and limestone. 

Gravel and 

limestone. 

Gravel. 

Gravel and 

limestone. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Sand and 

limestone. 

Gravel and 

limestone.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

In the following tables are given detailed information as to typical 

wells in Howard County, and analyses of their waters. In the last 

column of each table the numbers refer to identical wells in the 

other table.
Records of typical wells in Howard Coun

No.

1

?,

4

fi

6

7

8

9

in

n

12

iq

14

15

17

18

19

30

21

33

33

24

35

Owner.

Richard Fisher. ...................

J. P. Rauchert....................

Pittsburg Plate Glass Co ..........

F. M. Baker.......................

Thomas E. Pickett................

Location.

.....do...................................

.....do...................................

.....do...................................

.....do.....................:.............

.....do...................................

.....do...................................

.....do...................................

1\ miles S. of Kokomo. ..................

.....do...................................

Imile S. of West Liberty................

Depth.

Feet. 

104

110

135

280

124

95

109

160

106

125

114

350

250

C5

900

117

1,000

30

40

97

110

156

95

Type.

Drilled....

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

Drilled....

...do.......

...do.......

Dug.......

Drilled. . . .

Drilled....

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

Diameter.

Inches. 

2

4

4

4

4

4

6

6

6

4

51

10

2

8

01

2

91

4

4

8
Mineral analyses of waters in Howard Co

[Parts per million.]

No.

1 

2 

3

4 

5 

6 

7

8 

9 

10

11 

12 

13

Owner.

Simpson estate. . . . 

Samuel Ingalls ....

Do............

F. M. Baker.......

C. M. Hollingsworth.

Marion Curless....

Location.

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do...........

New London... .

.....do...........

i mile SE. of 

West Liberty. 

West Middleton.

Source.

Drilled well, 35 ft. 

by 4 in. 

Drilled well, 109 

ft. by 4 in.

ft. by 6 in. 

Drilled wells, 160 

ft. by 6 in. 

Drilled well, 500 

ft. by 10 in. 

Drilled well, 106 

ft. by 6 in. 

Drilled well, 450 

ft. by 8 in. 

Wild Cat Creek ». . 

Open well, 30ft... 

Drilled well, 40 ft. 

by 2 in. 

Driven well, 97 ft. 

by 2J in. 

Drilled old gas 

well. 

Drilled well, 95 ft. 

by 4 in.

Analyst.

H. E. Barnard. 

.....do........

.....do.........

J. H. Brewster.

L. S. & M. S. 

R. R. 

Chase Palmer.

L. S. & M. S.' 

R. R. 

.....do......... 

H.E.Barnard. 

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

Date.

Nov., 1907. 

...do.......

Oct., 1907.

Apr., 1907. 

Feb., 1904. 

Aug., 1907. 

Aug., 1903.

Sept., 1904. 

Nov., 1907.

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

Material in 

which water 

occurs.

Limestone . . 

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do.......

Limestone . .

.....do.......

.....do.......

Limestone. .

Silica (Si02).

20

Water at 50 feet. 
158 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

KOSCITJSKO COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Kosciusko County lies in the eastern tier of counties in the area 

covered by this report and in the second tier from the north edge of 

the State. It is the largest county in this region, having an area of 

521 square miles. The 1900 census showed a population of 29,109, 

or an average of about 56 persons to the square mile.

The surface of this county is high, and the drainage is divided 

between the tributaries of Tippecanoe, Eel, Elkhart, and Yellow 

rivers, although within the county none of these streams is large. 

The moraines of the south and east parts are prominent and give 

considerable relief to the surface, but the northwest quarter of the 

county is flat and poorly drained.

The surface deposits are of extraordinary thickness, so that little 

is known about the shape of the rock surface. The present topography is entirely due to the form of the glacial deposits and to the 

subsequent slight erosion of their surface. Only one boring in the 

county has penetrated to rock, which lies at a depth of 245 feet at 

Warsaw. In Noble County, to the east, depths of 375 and 485 feet 

have been reached before rock was encountered.

Tippecanoe River receives most of the drainage from the county, 

including the overflow from a large number of lakes. All its tributaries are small, and the Tippecanoe itself is not a large stream in 

this region of its headwaters. Eel River crosses the southeast corner; 

but its valley here is not large and its tributaries all of which are unimportant, reach back into only the southern tier of townships.

Turkey Creek, a branch of Elkhart River, heads south into the area 

near Wawasee Lake and drains most of Van Buren and Turkey Creek 

townships. Scott and Jefferson townships had naturally very poor 

drainage, and much of the land was formerly useless for cultivation 

on account of its marshy character. Artificial drainage ditches have 

now been constructed to Yellow River, and much of the land has been 

reclaimed.

Kosciusko County has an exceptionally large number of lakes and 

ponds more than any other county in this region. These range in 

size from Wawasee, or Turkey Lake, which has an area of about 6 

square miles and is the largest lake in the State, to small ponds only 

a fraction of a square mile in area. All the lakes occupy depressions 

in the morainic material, and many of them have been partly filled 

by silt and by vegetable growths and are marshy.
KOSCIUSKO COUNTY. 159

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

TTNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

There are no important areas of valley alluvium in the county. 

Narrow flood plains occur along Tippecanoe and Eel rivers, and 

occasionally small benches of alluvium are found locally in the 

smaller valleys; but they are nowhere of sufficient extent to be 

important sources of water sxupply.

The outwash plain northwest of Warsaw has considerable gravel 

and sand mixed with clayey materials and is alluvial in its nature. 

At Leesburg and at Menoquet the outwash deposits are thick enough 

to furnish important water supplies to driven wells of shallow depth. 

Farther northwest the outwash becomes thinner and most wells pass 

through it into the underlying till for their water.

A great morainic belt covers much of this county (PI. I), with its 

surface diversified by rolling hills and hummocks and many of the 

intervening depressions occupied by lakes. The morainic belt is 

broad, and although it forms a sharp ridge in few places it reaches 

heights of about 100 feet above the bordering plains. Water for 

wells of moderate depth is particularly abundant in the moraines. 

Most of the wells are driven and find plenty of water at 30 feet or less, 

but in the more clayey portions wells of greater depth are locally 

necessary. In the lowlands, near streams or lakes, the gravel beds in 

places contain water under sufficient head to flow at the surface; but 

these conditions are strictly local. The water in such cases is derived 

from the uplands at no great distance from the wells.

As shown in Plate I, the till covers a relatively small portion of the 

surface of the county. Its importance is greater, however, than its 

surface distribution would indicate, for throughout the entire county 

the other surface deposits are underlain by a layer of till which will 

probably average 200 feet in thickness. Its character is the same as 

in other parts of this area. In the moraines and the area of heaviest 

outwash water is commonly obtained above the till; but in those 

places where the till comes to the surface or where the outwash is thin 

deep driven or drilled wells penetrate into the till to some gravel or 

sand bed. Such open beds bear abundant waters which are hard but 

uncontaminate d.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

As a result of the very heavy mantle of glacial beds, the underlying 

rocks are nowhere at the surface in Kosciusko County, and only one 

well was found which had penetrated rock. No attempt has been 

made to map the distribution of the rock formations; but a well at 

Warsaw entered limestone, which is presumably of "Niagara" age, 

and it may be that later formations overlie the "Niagara" at the 

north edge of the county. This well, which was drilled for oil or gas,
160 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL, INDIANA.

may be the only well at Warsaw that receives its water supply from 

the rock. The water is under artesian pressure and discharges a 

small stream 4 feet above the surface. (No. 17, p. 164.) An analysis 

of this water is No. 18 in the table on page 165.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

There are about half a dozen flowing wells in Warsaw (PI. IV, No. 

50), all but one of which obtain the water from gravel beds in 

the moraine upon which the town is situated. The depth to the 

flowing water differs in different parts of the town, and the conclusion is that different beds of gravel are drawn upon and that the beds 

are irregular in shape and distribution. At the waterworks plant a 

number of small flows were obtained from a depth o£ 135 feet. At 

the chair factory of A. Wilder & Co. a well 18 feet deep struck water 

that rises to the surface. Other flowing wells have been obtained at 

depths of 78 -and 85 feet, but they are in the lower parts of town, 

and the head is sufficient to give flows only in the lowlands. A complete analysis of one of these waters is No. 17 in the table on page 165.

A single well in Warsaw (No. 17, p. 164) is said to obtain water from 

a rock bed, which is probably of " Niagara " age. This well is reported 

to be cased to a depth of 400 feet, so that the water, which flows as a 

small stream 2 feet above the surface, must come from below this 

depth if the casing is still intact. An analysis of the water is No. 18 

in the table on page 165. The very remarkable similarity between 

this water and that from a shallow well in the drift (No. 17, p. 164) indicates strongly that the water from both wells is from the same depth 

or at least that both are drift waters.

Area 51 (PI. IV) includes the village of Kalorama, a summer resort 

on the northeast shore of Tippecanoe Lake, which lies in a depression 

in the great interlobate moraine. The conditions are favorable for 

artesian wells, and a number of these have been obtained and are 

now flowing. All are driven wells, sunk through pebbly clay into 

gravel at 60 to 75 feet below the surface. The source of the flowing 

water is in the moraine to the north, and the intake of the water is 

probably not more than a mile, at most, from the point of emergence. 

Flows are to be expected only in the lowlands.

A single flowing well is reported from northwest of Wauwas Lake, 

on the property of the Indiana Portland Cement Company. (PI. IV, 

No. 52.) This is said to be a driven well and to flow in a 2-inch 

stream. The well is at the foot of a moraine ridge, and the waters 

are probably supplied to the well by a gravel bed which outcrops 

somewhere in the higher moraine to the east.

A flowing well is reported from, the farm* of Samuel Kile, threefourths of a mile north of Wooster. (PI. IV, No. 53.) It occurs in 

the lowlands and the water is obtained in gravel. The well is said to 

flow in a small stream.
KOSCIUSKO COUNTY. 161

There is a single flowing well between Claypool and Burket, near 

a small creek which flows into Palestine Lake. (PI. IV, No. 54.) 

The well extends 60 feet into gravel, and the water rises 3 feet above 

ground and discharges several gallons per minute. The head is 

doubtless from the moraine ridge to the southeast.

On the property of Lucinda Hazen, 2 miles northeast of Etna 

Green, a flowing well has been obtained on low ground. (PI. IV, 

No. 55.) The well is driven 82 feet to a gravel bed, and at 3 feet 

above the surface flows in a 1-inch stream. Other flows may probably be obtained in the neighborhood on equally low ground.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Warsaw. The public supply at Warsaw is owned and operated by 

the Winona Water and Light Company and the water is drawn from 

Center Lake, a small body of water at the edge of the town. Sanitary 

analyses have so far shown this water to be free from colon bacilli, 

but it is heavily charged with organic matter, of other kinds. A 

marsh at the edge of town which has been used as a dumping ground 

for all sorts of refuse drains into this lake. In flood seasons Tippecanoe River, into which the sewage from Warsaw drains, backs up 

through a canal into Center Lake. At times the water has a decided 

smell and taste of decayed organic matter. By the installation of a 

good filtration system much of the objectionable matter could be 

removed and the supply could be made a very desirable one.

At one time the water company drilled 14 wells, which obtained 

flowing waters in gravel at a depth of about 135 feet. These wells 

were all "in sympathy" with one another and with other flowing 

wells in town. The supply from them was insufficient for the demands 

of the public, and they have been abandoned in favor of the lake 

water.

The water for city consumption is pumped to a standpipe 125 feet 

high, from which it is distributed by gravity. There are 7 to 8 miles 

of mains, 10, 8, 6, and 4 inches in diameter, and 800 taps are in use. 

About two-thirds of the people use the city water supply, and 

1,000,000 gallons a day are pumped.

The people of Warsaw realize that the public water supply is 

unsafe, and almost every family owns a well for drinking water. 

These are driven or dug and range from 12 to 150 feet in depth. All 

terminate in gravel or sand, for the limestone here lies about 250 feet 

below the surface. In favored localities the wells flow, and even on 

higher ground the waters commonly rise within a few feet of the surface. The following materials were penetrated by a deep boring for 

oil in this town: a

a Twenty-sixth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Res., p. 265. 

46448° WSP 254 10 11
162 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Log of boring for oil at Warsaw.

Feet.

Drift.......................................................... 248

Niagara limestone............................................. 652

Hudson River and Utica....................................... 478

Trenton limestone.............................................. 77

1,464

Syracuse. Syracuse is situated on the west shore of a lake of the 

same name, and lies partly on the flat and partly on a well-developed 

morainic ridge. The public waterworks are owned by the city, and 

the water is taken from the lake and carried through an open mill 

race for about a mile through the town. Along the race there are 

houses, barns, and cesspools, and the chances for pollution are 

abundant. The water is pumped by water power developed at the 

end of the race and is forced to a standpipe on the hill. The standpipe has a capacity of 32,000 gallons. The water is distributed by 

gravity and is used by about 20 per cent of the people. From 

5,000 to 30,000 gallons per day are used.

About four-fifths of the people of Syracuse rely upon private wells 

for their water supply, and most of these wells are driven. On the 

hill the wells range in depth from 35 to 130 feet, while on lower 

ground the deepest wells are only 35 and the shallowest only 12 feet 

deep. Gravel was found by all wells, and the water is everywhere 

abundant.

Milford. The town of Milford is situated on an outwash gravel 

plain in the north-central part of the county. The town owns its 

own water system, which has been in operation since 1892. The 

water is taken from four drilled wells, each 40 feet deep, situated 

near the grist mill by which the pumping is done. The water is 

forced to an 83,000-gallon standpipe, 110 feet high, and is distributed 

by gravity. There are 2£ miles of mains, and 71 taps are in use, 

supplying 33 per cent of the population. An average of about 20,000 

gallons of water a day is pumped.

The private supply of Milford is almost all from driven wells, which 

range in depth from 40 to 60 feet. The material penetrated is all 

gravel and sand, and the water is very abundant and rises within 6 

or 8 feet of the surface. Milford has no sewage system, and all the 

drainage from dug privy vaults, kitchen slops, stables, and other 

sources can readily enter the loose soil and become a part of the 

underground water supply. For this reason it is advisable to drive 

the wells deeply into the gravel and to draw water only from the; 

lower and purer beds.

Pierceton. The town of Pierceton installed its own water works in 

18^7? and a single drilled well furnishes the entire supply. The well 

is 8 inches in diameter and 210 feet deep, and the water is supplied 

l?y a gravel bed 10 feet above the bottom of the well, and rises within
KOSCIUSKO COUNTY. 163

50 feet of the well mouth. An analysis is No. 8 in the table on page 

165. A deep-well pump lifts the water to a wooden tank of 15,000 

gallons capacity, and from the tank it is pumped by direct pressure 

into the mains, which are* 6 and 4 inches in diameter and between 

1^ and 2 miles long. About 200 taps are supplied and 20,000 gallons 

per day are needed to supply 50 per cent of the people. The water 

is of fine quality, and the supply a very satisfactory one. There has 

been some complaint because the wooden reservoir becomes slimy 

at times, but reasonable care could prevent this.

Mentone. In Mentone, which has no public supply, the wells are 

all privately owned, and are driven, dug, or bored. The town lies 

on a till plain, and the wells all pass through this material into 

gravel, which is generally encountered at depths of 30 and 80 feet. 

Some of the waters from dug and bored wells are evidently bad, and 

the chances of contamination in such wells are many times greater 

than in the wells from the deeper beds. An analysis of water from 

a depth of 90 feet is No. 6 in the table on page 165.

Other communities. A tabulated list of other villages, with the 

conditions of their water supply, is given below:

Other village supplies in Kosdusko County.

Town.

Etna Green. . .. 

Gravelton......

Menoquet ......

Milford Junction. 

North Webster.

Packerton ......

Sevastopol ..... 

Sidney.........

Vawters Park . .

Winona Lake...

Population 

(1900).

278 

286 

399 

91 

420 

28 

16

67 

390

300 

61 

213

126 

105 

300 

25 

22 

156 

72

Source.

Wells, drilled and driven. . 

.....do....................

Wells, dug and drilled. . . .

Wells, driven and drilled. . Wells, driven and dug. . . .

.....do....................

Wells, dug and driven ....

.....do....................

Wells, driven and drilled..

.....do....................

Wells, driven, drilled, and 

dug. 

Wells, driven and drilled.. 

Wells, driven and dug. . . .

^Vdls driven

.....do....................

Wells, drilled and driven..

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

20 

10 

10 

20 

14 

20 

35 

30 

20 

15 

14 

16

18 

15 

20

30 

15 

20 

12 

20 

20 

20

Greatest.

Feet. 

60 

80 

110 

35 

100 

100 

100 

70 

65 

30 

60 

44

30 

125 

120

65 

100 

140 

60 

40 

100 

100

Common.

Feet. 

45 

15 

70 

30 

25 

90 

50 

60 

25 

20 

20 

18

22 

20 

80

30 

60 

50 

25 

25 

95 

26

Head 

above (+) 

or below 

( ) surface.

Feet. -30

-20 to -50 

-28 

-12

+6 to 5 

-20 

-15 

-15 

-16

- 8 

-15

-30

-15

+4 to -10

Character of 

water beds.

Gravel. 

Do. 

Gravel and sand. 

Sand. 

Gravel 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do.

Do. 

Do. 

Do.

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The following tables give detailed information regarding typical 

wells in Kosciusko County and analyses of their waters. The last 

column of each table contains numbers referring to identical wells in 

the other table.
164 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL, INDIANA.

Records of typical wells in Kosciusko County.

No.

1

6

7

8

g

10

11

12

10

14

15

16

17

la

19

20

Owner.

.....do.............

.....do.............

J. L. Warvel.......

S. N. Hawley......

office.

Water Co.

Mrs. A. Oldfather. .

sembly.

.....do.............

Location.

.....do.............

of Etna Green.

Milford.. ..........

.....do...........

.....do.............

.....do.............

nona Lake.

,d 

H0>

0

Feet. 

18

68

95

. 55

CO

18

40

99

143

26

Af)

150

is

78

+ 400

95

Qfi

63

&>> B

Drilled. .

...do.....

...do.'....

...do.....

Drilled. .

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Dug.....

Drilled..

Drilled. .

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Diameter.

In. 

li

?

H7,

li

H

4

li

?

2

?.

2

8

<>,

Depth to water 

bed.

Feet. 

16

65

90

50

82

18

200

95

45

140

26

42

135

18

78

85

96

63

Headabove(+) ( ) below or

surface.

Feet. 

- 10

- 30

- 12

- 40

1 Q

- 18

- 8

- 50

- 30

- 15

-100

_i_ 91

+ 0

+ 2

+ 4

+ 1

+ 4

+ 8

bearing Wter - materials.

...do.....

.-.do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do....,

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Sand....

Gravel..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

a 

1 

fed 

evg

£ o

Pn

Galls.

1

U

Temperature.

°F.

52

53

Analysis No.

1

2

4

3

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

17

18

14
Mineral analyses of waters in Kosciusko Cou

[Parts per million.]

No.

1 

2 

3 

4 

5

6

7

8 

9 

10 

11

12 

13

14 

15 

16 

17 

18

Owner.

Public well........

.....do.............

Peter Newcomb.. .

.....do.........

.....do.............

Waterworks wells. 

.....do............. 

Mrs. A. Personet..

S. N. Hawley ....

.....do.............

Winona Water and 

Light Co. 

Winona Lake Assembly.

Mrs. Anna Oldfather.

Location.

Burket........

Etna Green . . . 

.....do.........

Milford.. ...... 

Pierceton ..... 

Sevastopol ....

.....do.........

Winona Lake.

Assembly 

grounds.

.....do.........

.....do.........

Source.

Driven well, 18 ft. 

bv 11 in. 

Drilled well, 68 ft. 

by 2 in. 

Driven well, 55 ft. 

by 2 in. 

Driven well, 95 ft. 

bv li in. 

Driven well, 18 ft. 

bv l\ in. 

Well, 90 ft. bv 2 in. 

Drilled wells, 40 ft. 

by 4 in. 

Drilled well, 210 ft. 

bv 8 in. 

Drilled well, 99 ft. 

by 11 in.

by 2 in. 

Driven well,143 ft. 

by 2 in.

Driven well, 42 ft. 

bv 2 in. 

Drilled wells, 96 ft.

Center Lake.......

Drilled well, 78 ft 

bv 2 in. 

Drilled well, 400ft.

Analyst.

H. E. Barnard.. 

.....do........... 

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do........... 

.....do........... 

.....do........... 

.....do...........

.....do.....:..... 

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do...........

Pennsyl v a n i a 

R. R. 

R. B. Dole......

.....do...........

Date.

Sept., 1907 

...do....... 

...do.......

...do.......

1907. ......

...do.......

...do....... 

Sept.,1907 

...do....... 

...do.......

...do....... 

...do.......

...do.......

...do.......

Sept.,1907 

...do.......

Material 

in which 

water 

occurs.

Gravel . . 

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Gravel. . 

...do..... 

...do..... 

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Sand. . . .

Silica (SO2).

13 

9.9

27

?,7

Iron (Fe).

0.60 

1.2 

1 60

1.6

01

20

.01 

.15 

.10 

1.2

1.4 

04

60

3

.70 

4. 

1.06 

1.3

0

1
166 UNDEBGBOUND WATEES OF NOBTH-CENTEAL INDIANA.

MADISON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Madison County, which lies on the east edge of this area and in the 

second tier of counties from the south edge, is rectangular in outline 

and about twice as long as broad. Anderson, the county seat, is 32 

miles northeast of Indianapolis. The county has an area of about 460 

square miles, and had in 1900 a population of 70,470, or an average 

of 153 to the square mile. This population is due in part to the fertility of the farm lands, but is to a greater extent the result of the finds 

of natural gas in this and adjoining counties. At the present time, 

however, the supply of natural gas has decreased noticeably, many 

wells have been abandoned, and many factories whose existence 

depended on this cheap fueL have shut down.

The maximum relief of this county is a little more than 100 feet, but 

a large portion of its surface lies between 850 and 900 feet above sea 

level (PL I). The surface is a nearly level plain, interrupted only 

by the valleys of the larger streams.

The entire surface drainage of the county is received by White 

River and its tributaries. This river, which crosses the county from 

east to west somewhat south of the center, has a valley in most 

places much less than 90 feet deep, and commonly not more 

than one-half mile wide. Fall Creek, the largest tributary, crosses 

the south edge of the county. Near Emporia its valley is about 40 

feet below the till plain, and becomes deeper westward. Pipe Creek, 

the most important tributary from the north, flows from the northeast corner to join White River a mile below Perkinsville. Each of 

these three large streams has a number of less important tributaries, 

but most of the valleys are mere grooves in the plain, and the uplands 

are flat and uneroded.

As moraines are lacking in the county, there are no natural lakes. 

The level plains offer no undrained depressions to form lake basins, 

and there is no evidence that lakes have ever existed here.

The only noteworthy area in which marshes occur is in the northwest corner, between the headwaters of Pipe Creek and Mississinewa 

River. Here a very flat area was formerly marshy, but by means of 

artificial surface ditches and by tiling the wet fields much of this land 

has been reclaimed.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

tTNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Important alluvial beds are found only along the bottoms of White 

River and Fall and Pipe creeks (PL I). These range in width from 

a few feet to about one-half mile, and their width along a single valley
MADISON COUNTY. 16*7

varies within short distances. Wells that penetrate the alluvium 

almost invariably reach abundant water at no great depth.

Pebbly clay or till occupies almost all of the surface except the 

narrow belts of valley alluvium, and is continuous below most of the 

alluvial beds (PI. I). The thickness of the till throughout the 

county is shown in Plate II. At a few points in the deep valleys the 

bed rock outcrops and the till is absent, but at other places it is 

very thick. North of Halford is a narrow belt that is doubtless a 

part of the valley of a preglacial stream, in which the till is from 300 

to 500 feet thick (PI. II). It is possible that this buried valley 

extends to the northeast and connects with the valley that crosses 

Grant County, though the course it follows is not clear. Throughout 

the county as a whole the thickness of the till averages about 100 feet.

In most of that part of the county which lies south of Alexandria 

the drift is so deep that the ordinary wells do not go through it but 

obtain supplies of water from the drift itself. Many loosely curbed 

dug wells are in use, and some of them fail to reach gravel beds, but 

are supplied by slow seepage from the pebbly clay. Drilled wells are 

now becoming more popular, and experience has shown that few of 

these fail to find a water-bearing gravel bed somewhere above the 

limestone. The drift waters are all very hard, and, though good for 

household and farm purposes if not polluted, they are poor for 

steaming.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The "Niagara" limestone, the youngest rock formation in this 

county, is everywhere the first bed rock found beneath the till. It 

outcrops in the valley of Fall Creek near Pendleton and in the White 

River valley near Anderson, but is elsewhere covered by glacial 

deposits of various thickness. The discovery of natural gas in this 

region has brought about the drilling of many deep wells, and by 

compiling the records of these it has been possible to determine 

approximately the depth to rock throughout the county (PI. II). 

The "Niagara" limestone has proved to be a reliable source of supply 

for drilled wells. This fact became generally known when it was 

found that all gas borings had to be cased through the "Niagara" to 

keep the "Niagara" waters out of the lower part of the well. The 

waters are under artesian pressure and will flow at the surface in 

many lowland areas. Large numbers, of abandoned gas wells are 

used for their water supply, and many rock wells have been drilled 

for the purpose of obtaining water, especially in those localities where 

the surface deposits are of moderate thickness. The waters are hard, 

but the overlying till protects them from contamination and the 

sanitary condition is usually excellent.
168 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

Flowing wells have been obtained in an area along the bottom 

of Pipe Creek valley extending from below Frankton above Alexandria and including the lower ends of some of the larger tributary 

valleys. (PI. IV, No. 56.) All these wells are on very low 

ground near the stream, and almost all are old gas wells, the water 

coming from the "Niagara" limestone. The largest flow is from a 

well 2 miles northeast of Frankton, which yields about 90 gallons 

per minute, and most of the flows are much less. It seems probable 

that wells in the valley below Frankton, as far down as the mouth, 

would find flowing waters. Records of flowing wells in this area are 

Nos. 16 and 17 in the table on page 174.

Area 57 (PL IV) includes the valley of White River for some distance above and below Anderson. In this area are several flowing 

wells, all of which procure water from the "Niagara" limestone. 

The source of the waters may be from the southeast toward Richmond, for in this direction the limestone is higher than in Madison 

County and in the intervening area the drift covering is thick. It 

is probable, however, that the water supply of this limestone is at 

least in part from the overlying till, and the artesian head may be 

from the till rather than from distant outcrops of this formation. 

This area may possibly be continuous downstream with area 56, by 

way of the lower valley of Pipe Creek.

In area 58 (PL IV) the conditions are very similar to those already 

described for areas 56 and 57. It includes the valley of Fall Creek 

entirely across the county, and the valley of Lick Creek to a point 

above Ingalls. Almost every gas well in the valley bottom between 

Pendleton and Middleton in Henry County yields flowing water. As 

in areas 56 and 57, the waters are from the "Niagara" limestone and 

the head is from the southeast. Further drilling will be likely to 

extend this area westward, as the valley becomes lower in that direction, and flows may be found along Fall Creek in Hamilton County.

A single flowing well is reported from the farm of Mr. John Fisher, 

2J miles southeast of Pendleton, in the valley of a small stream. (PL 

IV, No. 59.) This well was bored for gas, and the limestone was 

entered 60 feet below the surface. The "Niagara" is here 203 feet 

thick, and the flowing water comes from it.

In area 60 (PL IV), comprising a low, flat portion of the till plain 

south of Markleville, in the southeast corner of the county, there are 

a dozen or more flowing wells, all from gas borings. The water 

comes from the "Niagara," and the surface in this area is low enough 

to permit the water to flow.

A number of flowing wells are reported from an area between 

Ingalls and Lapel. (PL IV, No. 61.) These differ from the flowing
MADISON COUNTY. 169

wells described above in that the water is obtained from gravel in 

the till and the rock is not penetrated. Some of the wells flow in 

good volume, which shows no signs of diminishing.

There are several flowing wells in the neighborhood of Lapel 

(PL IV, No. 62), the flows being obtained from the "Niagara" limestone. One is estimated to yield 48 gallons per minute and another 

(No. 21, p. 174), attached to a hydraulic ram, pumps sufficient water 

for a house and barn. The least depth at which flowing waters have 

been reached is 55 feet, at the north edge of Lapel. The limestone 

was here reached at 35 feet below the surface.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Anderson. The city of Anderson owns its own water supply, and 

the water is taken from White River, which flows through the city. 

Although no sewage enters the river for 3 or 4 miles above the waterworks, large quantities of it enter the river at Muncie, about 20 miles 

above, as well as at Winchester and at half a dozen villages between. 

Daily bacteria counts are made by the local health officer, and the 

number ranges from 800 to 400,000 per cubic centimeter in the raw 

river water. The number increases greatly after a rain. Within 

recent years a system for the filtration of the water has been installed, 

and is now being operated very successfully. The water is pumped 

from the river into coagulating basins, and to it are added from li 

to 2 grains of sulphate of alumina to each gallon of water. This acts 

as a coagulant. The water is then run by gravity into filter tanks. 

The filter consists of 4 feet of fine sand overlying 1 foot of gravel. 

From the filter beds the water is run into a clear tank holding 500,000 

gallons, and from this it is pumped by direct pressure into the mains. 

There are now in use 32£ miles of mains from 20 to 4 inches in diameter, and 2,200 taps are supplied. About one-third of the people use 

the city water, and the average daily pump is 1,500,000 gallons. 

Bacterial counts of the filtered and unfiltered waters show that the 

present process removes 96 to 98? per cent of the bacteria, and the 

appearance is changed from that of a very muddy and unpleasant to 

a clear and sparkling water.

Many privately owned wells are still in use at Anderson, and 

almost all the drinking water is obtained from them. The water 

wells are dug, driven, and drilled and range in depth from 18 to 350 

feet. In the city the rock is commonly reached about 120 feet 

below the surface. Wells shallower than this get water from gravel 

beds, and these are the most common, while rock wells are few in 

number. There are good springs along the sides of the river valley. 

A deep gas boring at Anderson gave the following section: a

a Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 236.
UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Log-of gas well at Anderson.

Feet.

Drift............................................................ 114

Niagara limestone and shale...................................... 186

Clinton(?)...................................................... 20

Hudson River and Utica......................................... 494

Trenton limestone................................................ 24

838

Elwood. The public supply of Elwood, owned by the Elwood 

Water Company, a private concern, is drawn from 14 drilled wells, 

located near the pumping station. Of these, 10 are 150 feet deep 

and 4 are 400 feet deep, all are 8 inches in diameter, and all obtain 

their water from the "Niagara" limestone. The water rises within 

20 feet of the surface that is, 40 feet above the limestone. The 

water is pumped directly from the wells into the mains.

There are two surface reservoirs which together hold 1,500,000 

gallons for a reserve supply in case of fire, but otherwise these are 

not used. There are 14 miles of mains and 1,100 taps, and on an 

average 650,000 gallons per day are needed to supply about 40 per 

cent of the population. An analysis of this water is No. 16 in the 

table on page 175.

Most of the private wells in Elwood are dug, and range from 15 to 

20 feet in depth. The water is found in clay or sand, but is too near 

the surface to be safe from pollution, especially where the wells are 

located among dwellings, barns, and other buildings. The water 

from the deeper wells or city supply is much safer. Some drilled wells 

have found abundant water in limestone at 60 to 150 feet below the 

surface, and this supply is highly recommended.

Alexandria. The town of Alexandria owns a public supply obtained 

from seven drilled wells. Of these five were drilled for water and are 

located at the pumping station. They are 10 inches in diameter and 

350 feet deep, all except the upper 15 or 20 feet being in the "Niagara" 

limestone. The chief water supply was reached at a depth of 110 

feet. The pumps are also connected with two old gas borings, one 

500 and the "other 1,800 feet south of the pumping station. The 

water is pumped to a standpipe 100 feet high and holding 235,000 

gallons, and is distributed by gravity. There are 10 miles of mains 

and 500 taps in use, and somewhat over 50 per cent of the people are 

supplied. About 300,000 gallons of water are used each day. Mineral 

analyses of the city water are Nos. 4 and 5 in the table on page 175.

Most of the private wells in Alexandria are drilled, and water from 

both the gravels and the underlying rock is used. Most of the wells 

that are 60 to 70 feet deep obtain an unfailing supply of water from 

the rock, although the head is said to be 25 feet lower than it was ten
MADISON COUNTY. 171

years ago. The geologic section at Alexandria, as shown by a gas 

boring, is as follows:"

Log of gas well at Alexandria.

Feet.

Drift............................................................ 20

Niagara limestone............................................... 261

Hudson River and Utica shale................................... 611

Trenton limestone..:............................................. 5

897

i

Frankton. The Frankton public supply was installed in 1899 and 

is owned by the town. The water is drawn from a dug well 20 feet 

deep and 20 feet in diameter". This well is located 30 feet from Pipe 

Creek and only 10 feet above it, and in flood times the creek water 

can run into the top of the well. During even the normal stages of 

the creek the water is poor, though clear, and is used largely for 

sprinkling. There are 4 miles of mains and the water is used by 

about 40 per cent of the people. About 25,000 gallons per. day are 

consumed.

Nearly every family in Frankton owns a well, most of the wells being 

dug and from 15 to 20 feet deep. In the south and east parts of the 

town are some drilled wells that go into limestone at a depth of about 

130 feet. The shallow wells are in great danger of pollution by the 

penetration downward, from the surface and from dug cesspools, 

of sewage and organic matter of various sorts. Where it is possible 

the deeper drilled wells should be used, as they are much safer.

Summitville.^-The Summitville water system, which is owned by 

the town and was installed in 1902, is supplied by a single drilled 

well 8 inches in diameter and 347^ feet deep. The well was drilled 

through the bottom of the "Niagara" limestone, which is here 100 

feet below the surface. No reservoir is used, and the pressure is 

maintained directly from the pumps. There are 1\ miles of 8 and 4 

inch mains and 130 taps, by which somewhat less than half the people 

are supplied. The well furnishes sufficient water for the ordinary 

city demand, but the pumping works are connected with a pond 

from which water can be drawn in case of fire.

In Summitville the private wells are dug, driven, or drilled, the 

dug wells 13 to 30 feet, and the driven wells 60 to 100 feet deep. 

The common depth to which wells are sunk is 60 feet, and gravel 

beds supply most of the water. Mineral analyses of wells of the 

dug type and of drilled wells in the limestone are Nos. 29, 30, and 

31 in the table on page 176.

a Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 235.
172 TJNDEftGBOtJND WATEKS OF NOBTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

The geologic section at Summitville is given below, as determined 

by a gas-well boring.

Log of gas well at Summitville .a

Feet.

Drift............................................................ 100

Niagara limestone............................................... 236

Hudson River limestone and shale................................. 300

Utica shale..................................................... 292

Trenton limestone................................................ 50

978

Pendleton. Pendleton is on the banks of Fall Creek, the valley of 

which is h*ere cut 50 feet below the till plain. The "Niagara" limestone outcrops along the creek above and below town, and the drift 

in the lowlands is nowhere more than 18 feet thick. All the wells 

are drilled into rock and .range in depth from 28 to 140 feet, the 

common depth being about 35 feet. The water is plentiful and 

excellent, and rises within 9 to 25 feet of the surface. There are 

some good springs along the valley sides. Flowing waters are 

found deep in the limestone by gas borings, but the ordinary water 

wells do not reach sufficient depths to procure water from this source.

Lapel. Lapel, situated on Stony Creek near the west edge of the 

county, has a few shallow wells which obtain water from the till, 

but most of them are drilled into the limestone. The drift is here 

30 to 70 feet deep, and the limestone waters are pure and in little 

danger of pollution. The common rock wells are only 30 to 59 

feet deep. A few of the deeper limestone wells have obtained flowing 

waters, described above as in artesian area 62 (p. 169), but most of 

the wells do not flow.

Orestes. Orestes has no waterworks system, and the supply is all 

from private wells. Most of the wells are dug and penetrate only 

15 to 25 feet into the surface deposits, in which plenty of water is 

found; but this water is very easily polluted and is a source of great 

danger where used. Many drilled wells go into limestone, which is 

here within 50 to 60 feet of the surface, and the waters obtained are 

both abundant and pure. The drilled wells average about 70 feet in 

depth.

Ingalls. Ingalls lies between Lick and Fall creeks in the southwest 

corner of the county and has a few dug wells, though the driven and 

drilled wells are more in favor. There are, perhaps, a dozen wells 

which reach the limestone, which is found at depths of 80 to 100 

feet. The rock here seems to be unusually free from openings, 

and some of the rock wells can be pumped dry, though many yield 

large volumes of water. A few old gas wells have obtained flowing 

waters from the limestone. Driven wells 40 feet in average depth

o Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 260.
MADISON COUNTY. 173

are most used, and the water, which comes from a gravel bed in the 

till, is plentiful and good.

Other communities. The following table contains a list of other 

villages in Madison County, with particulars regarding their water 

supply:

Other village supplies in Madison County.

Town.

Chesterfield ......

Fishersbursr

Markleville.......

Perkinsville. .....

Population 

(1900).

164 

175 

61 

250 

98

400 

100

100 

225

318

Source.

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, driven and 

drilled. 

Wells, drilled and 

dug. 

Wells, driven and 

dug. 

Wells, drilled and 

driven. 

Wells, driven and 

dug.

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

driven. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled; springs. 

Wells, drilled and 

driven.

Depth to rock.

Least.

Feet. 

26

20 

18 

12 

35 

25

13

20

18 

14 

32 

20

Greatest.

Feet. 

130

400 

100 

80 

140 

65

60 

55

89 

115 

120 

130

Common.

Feet. 

26

22 

75 

60 

75 

35

45 

25

25 

20 

33

Depth 

to 

rock.

Feet.

110 

18-50 

110 

30-70

64 

25

100 

140 

80-100

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet.

0-30 

10-20 

10-30

10 

9

3

Character of 

water beds.

Gravel.

Gravel and limestone. 

Do.

Gravel.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel.

Do.

Limestone o r 

gravel. 

Gravel.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel,

Gravel and limestone.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables contain detailed information regarding 

typical wells in Madison County and analyses of their waters. The 

last column in each table gives numbers referring to identical wells 

in the other table
Records of typical wells in Madison Cou

No.

1

3

5

6

7

S

10

11

12

13

14

15

Ifi

17

18

19

30

m,

24 *25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

Owner.

Hill Machine Co.. .........................

J. B. Hook................................

Elwood Water Co. ........................

.....do.....................................

Charles T. Gooding.... ....................

Odd Fellows ..............................

J. W. Higgs. ..............................

Louis R. R. 

Earl Woodward. ..........................

Robert Wilson ............................

E. S. Plackard....... ......................

William Revis. ...........................

F. W. Egelus. ............................

R. B.Carll.......... ......................

Location.

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

2i miles NE. of Frankton. . .....

2 miles NE. of Frankton. .......

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

.....do...........................

Depth.

Feet.

42

98

1 8fl

32

60

93

150

400

350

180

365

45

90

107

50

900

900

107

18

140

30

130

347

30

60

Type.

Drilled. . . .

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

Drilled. . . .

...do.......

...do......

...do.......

...do.......

...do......

...do......

...do......

...do......

Drilled.. . .

...do.......

...do.......

...do......

...do.......

...<}o.......

...do......

Dug.......

Drilled....

...do......

...do.......

...do......

Dug.......

Drilled. . . .

Diameter.

Inches. 

10

3

8

6

3

8

4

8

3

8

2

2

8

2

8

31

4

3

8
P '"I tnifiCobo i-"O«o"db^iO3 wto *. S> 5> -S;. 

Tin American Plate Co.Elwood Water

Co. City supply...

.....do......... P. Frankton. .... 3

^ ^ H « : t>o 

g * W^,, B'S. 1 l-9COgg 

?D B ^PB i "" P.B 

^p. ; CO frj^p. 

B I B B 

G y 5< OG y W y 5l 

cr a. 2..D- a re g-p^H. 0-5. era. 2. Jg 

0!

O

H. ESmith.. E. HBarnard

' CD 

\ f 

: £ 

o 

p.

o

j

to

rf» O 

c H 

£L* £L ' " 1 f ^ £L 2L* ^~. . ^ , n^ . ^t2 

^ "to to ! ^^ ^ io 

 <! Oi O ft) 00 Lrt 

P ^ 5 »-j 

' " P* " PJ 

P.

3

S

c.

o y : m 

a -1 ! f 

i i j I 

' '' > : E$ 

i i p § 

p. p. <! S a 

p p ; «». o 

, ' ' O 

. : : B 

l-O C7I (-» -» 

' 01 too 

. CO OS ~^ 

; ; *. oo 

' 1 ' I * h- 

-J CJi O <!*». tO 00 

Oi Oi hfck -JO (-* IO 

i4^.C"i*>. Ol^ W*-JW 

O

s~* p> jt*« CO Oi 

' ^^ 1 I- to <! CO 

. GO ^ , , . . 

b & 

a « 

^?^

CD vfe. 

oo to 

City supply... 

....do ........

p. & 

p O 

': >-d 

b §' 

o O 

: 3 

Dearborn and DrugChemical Co. 

.....do........

H. E.Barnard 

.do.....

O 

2. Pf* 0 

e

CK!

1 i| 

. Limestone 

.do.....

ii

in. 8 

X

1 t- ; 

p.!S o 

O ' 

B .' 

^ E : 

Cn MxtO £ 

i-> O O 

Oi 

2- 

o

o-

<3

i

CO

S

1

^ ? 

§ td 

f 1 

. Alexandria. 

.....do.........

 3 

; to 

' 5' 

and LakeErie Western R. 

.....do.........

0 

<!

1

co to 

Cn Oi 

Oi k^. 00 tO --1 ' H- tO ./J 

tO to CO Cl !- CO tO *. 

to coo oo to coco o 

to

0.

CD

O

01

o' 

B

CO 

g

P

f

1

j|

). 2 (SiO Silica 

(Fe). Iron 

(Al). Aluminum 

(Ca). Calcium 

(Mg). Magnesium 

(Na). Sodium 

(K). Potassium j 

tO tO ' t * 1 tO > ' h- 1 H- ' 1 * 1 tO 

O OiJ^OOOi Oi CO -^l OS <! » 1 

l-i GO Oi O OO CTI . O p W O QD CO 

O O O O O 

 05 oo ' to 'co 

O' 

co!-- 

 rfxCO- -^Ji i ( « 

 Cn tO C-O Oi Oi 

rf*. Oi O 00 tO OO Ol O^ JOOitOO 

H-* tO O i*». ' h- t-i tO 1 I 1 I fcO 

 <! ^ 1 bOfcO-^rf^fcO OOJ CO*^CDOi 

-1 C© 

to

o Cn 

O

O

g

to

Oi Ctf to . 

Q S <=> S : g : : 

O

1 1 . : i I ! 

fco' o ! o I 

J

i

;

^4

^1

^

UJ

11 11 1 g § 2 11 1 1 1 

M 1 W tO Oi O '«O Oi ^. CO

O5 Qi 

X)

-

e 1 c i rad Carbonate 

). 3 (C0

radicle Bicarbonate 

). 3 (HC0

radicle Sulphate 

(SO,).

(Cl). Chlorine 

radicle Nitrate 

). 3 (N0

radicle Nitrite 

). 2 (N0

Color. | 

solids, Total 

of record In No, 

wells.
Mineral analyses of waters in Madison County* C

No,

19

21

m

23

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

Owner.

J. W.Higgs...

Chicago and

St. Louis

R. R. '

F. Detraz. ....

F. W. Egelus..

R. B.Carll....

Howard.

Location.

bus.

.....do.........

Perkinsville. . .

Summitville. .

.....do.........

.....do.........

Source.

Drilled well, 90ft. . Well, 40 ft. by 1J in.

Drilled well, 50 ft.

by 2 in.

by 3J in.

Open well, 18ft...

Drilled well, 140 ft.

by 4 in.

Drilled well, 30 ft.

by 4 in.

Drilled well, 130 ft.

by 3 in.

Drilled well, 347 ft.

by 8 in.

Open well, 30ft...

Drilled well, 60 ft..

Analyst.

H.E.Barnard

.....do.........

.....do........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

Drug and

Chemical Co.

H. E. Barnard

.....do.........

Date.

Oct., 1907

...do.... ..

Opt 1 Q07

...do.......

...do.......

Sept., 1907

Oct., 1907

...do.......

Sept., 1907

Mar., 1903

Oct., 1907

...do.......

Material in

which water

occurs.

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

x,

0

02

1 

03

17

05

frn

d

0 8

1 2

.01

10

80

1.00

00

0

.0

14

3 9

.0

1.4

 j

5-

q

6

3
TJNDERGBOTJND WATEES OF NOBTH-CENTBAL INDIANA. 177

MARION COUNTY. 

SUEFACE FEATUEES AND DRAINAGE.

Marion County is at the south edge of the area here under discussion, and'in the middle north-south tier of counties. It has a total 

area of 400 square miles and is about 20 miles in each dimension, 

the only irregularity in outline being a slight eastward projection of 

the northeast corner. Indianapolis, the county seat, is also the state 

capital, and is by far the largest city in Indiana.

The surface of the county is a dissected plateau with the highest 

portions in the northwest and southwest corners. The range of elevation is from about 660 feet, at the lowest point in the White River 

valley, to somewhat more than 850 feet at Lawrence, and at the point 

where Marion, Hamilton, and Boone counties meet. (See PL I.)

White River crosses the county from north to south, and with its 

tributaries drains almost its entire area. The depth of the valley 

varies in different parts of the county as the elevations of the adjacent 

uplands vary, but is generally deeper in its lower course. At Riverside Park the morainic bluffs rise about 75 feet above the stream. 

The flood plain is broad, though generally less than a mile in width, 

but 10 to 25 feet above it there is along the entire river course within 

the county a broad gravel terrace, at many points 2 or 3 miles wide, 

though narrower at some places. Indianapolis lies on this terrace.

The largest tributary of White River is Fall Creek, joining it from 

the northeast. In this county the courses of these two streams are 

roughly parallel. Eagle Creek, which comes in from the northwest 

and joins the White below Indianapolis, has throughout its course a 

well-developed flood plain and valley. Near Traders Point the stream 

flows more than 50 feet below the uplands.

Buck Creek flows south along the southeast edge of the county and 

drains about 45 square miles of surface into East Fork of White 

River. All these streams have many small tributaries which drain 

the surface very thoroughly. There are no natural lakes worthy of 

mention.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

TTNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Alluvial materials occupy the bottoms of all the larger valleys, and 

vary in importance with the size of the streams. Another class of 

alluvial beds of much importance in this county comprises the 

stratified gravels which lie above the present flood plain of White 

River and form the great flat terrace, averaging perhaps 2 miles in 

width, 0 upon which Indianapolis is situated. The alluvial beds

oLeverett, Frank, Wells of southern Indiana: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 26, p. 26. 

46448° WSP 254 10 12
178 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

furnish enormous quantities of water to wells wherever they occur. 

It has been estimated that in Indianapolis alone there are 25,000 

wells, and all but a small part of this number are in the alluvium. 

The wells yield sufficient water for domestic uses, and many of the 

gravel wells produce large quantities ofxwater for industrial purposes. 

Open gravel beds may be encountered at various depths, but those 

near the. surface should be avoided as much as possible unless the 

wells are situated at some distance from possible sources of pollution.

As shown in PlateJ, about half the surface of the county is covered 

with glacial moraine, occurring in three separate areas. East of 

White River the moraine surface is characteristic, consisting of low 

undulating hills, which, however, in few places stand more than 50 

feet above their surroundings. West of this river the morainic character of the surface is less strongly shown, though in many places it 

is unmistakable. The conditions for obtaining wells in the moraines 

are very irregular, and the depth of wells at any given place depends 

to a great extent upon the amount and thickness of the gravel beds 

in the drift. For driven or drilled wells, gravels or sands must be 

penetrated, and the depth ranges from 10 or 15 to 200 feet, depths of 

50 or 60 feet being common. Open or dug wells are used to a considerable extent, and these are supplied by seep waters from the 

clayey drift.

The relative area of surface covered by till is less important here 

than in any other county of this region south of Wabash River 

(PI. I). Nevertheless, the till has been encountered by all borings 

that have gone through the surface deposits, and is probably continuous, over the rock, throughout the county. As in the moraines, dug 

wells supplied by the slow-moving waters of the clay are very common. Within recent years it has become generally understood that 

drilled wells are almost certain to find gravel beds from which more 

plentiful and better water can be had, and most new wells are of this 

type. The water table in the till fluctuates noticeably with the seasons, and for unfailing open wells it is necessary to dig below the permanent water level. Deep drilled or driven wells are unaffected by 

dry spells.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The "Niagara" limestone in Marion County is everywhere overlain by younger rocks. Deep borings and our general knowledge 

of the structure of the rocks indicate that it extends continuously 

below the entire county and is 200 to 275 feet thick. It is of much 

the same character as it is farther to the north and east where surface 

outcrops occur. AH wells in the "Niagara" encounter abundant 

waters which enter from well-defined openings. In Indianapolis 

many wells are supplied by these waters, but there the "Niagara" 

is overlain by the Devonian limestones and the wells are cased only
Wm. A\ L^mb

MARION COUNTY. 179

to the top of the Devonian. Consequently, the waters obtained represent a mixture from the two formations, and it was difficult to get 

unmixed samples from either horizon.

East of Indianapolis the Devonian limestones are the youngest 

rocks. The records of drillers commonly class all limestones above 

the "Niagara" as "Corniferous," and this term will be used in the 

well logs. The limestone, from 40 to 50 feet thick, is very porous 

and open, and is sometimes spoken of as "honeycomb limestone."

The Devonian limestones yield good supplies of water, but they are 

drilled easily, and most drilled wells go through them to procure additional waters from the underlying "Niagara." No unmixed samples 

of water from these rocks could be obtained, but a number of analyses 

of waters from both the "Niagara" and "Corniferous" are given in 

the table on pages 185-186.

The New Albany shale underlies the drift in most of the south and 

west portions of the county. The shale is a very poor water producer, and wells which reach it have little chance of obtaining good 

water supplies unless the boring is continued through to the limestone 

below. At Bridgeport, near the top of this formation, the shale is 

124 feet thick.

The "Knobstone" group, consisting of shales and sandstones, is 

thought to underlie the extreme southwest corner of the county. 

No wells were found which have penetrated these beds.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

There is a single district in Marion County in which flowing wells 

have been procured. This area lies west of Traders Point, along the 

creek bottom and on the slopes near by. (PL IV, No. 63.) Although 

a number of flowing wells have been obtained, one, much better than 

the others (No. 20 in the table on p. 184), is 87 feet deep and penetrated a gravel bed in the moraine. The water will rise 16 feet 

above the surface, and the flow at 2 feet above the surface is about 8 

gallons per minute.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Indianapolis. The Indianapolis water supply system, owned by 

the Indianapolis Water Company, a private corporation, was installed 

in 1870, a part of the water being taken from White River, and part 

from deep drilled wells. The river water is drawn from the lake 

formed by a dam at Broad Ripple Park, and carried by canal to 

filter beds near the Riverside pumping station. The filtration 

removes most of the matter in suspension, and materially reduces 

the number of bacteria present. About 60 per cent of the city water
180 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

is supplied from the river. The remainder is obtained from wells at 

the Riverside pumping station, where the company owns 254 acres 

of carefully guarded land, on which the sanitary conditions are 

excellent. There are 33 drilled wells, most of which are situated 

along two lines, though a few of them are scattered. All are drilled 

into limestone, which is entered at 60 to 90 feet below the surface, 

and the depths range from 273 to 364 feet. The wells will yield 

about 16,000,000 gallons per day. When first drilled, in 1896, the 

water in the wells stood 8 feet above the low-water level of the river, 

but has now dropped to 32 feet below low-water level.

In August, 1898, a number of the wells were tested, and 25 delivered 

a normal yield of 18,694,583 gallons daily. In the same month, of 

three wells tested with a 90-foot air lift, No. 1 yielded 1,297,344 

gallons per day, No. 2 yielded 1,323,195 gallons, and No. 3 yielded 

1,263,805 gallons. The water from all the wells is pumped by air 

lift to the surface, but both the well and the filtered water is pumped 

by direct pressure into the mains. There are 282 miles of mains 

from 4 to 36 inches in diameter, and 18,863 services are in use, with 

2,291 fire hydrants. About 140,000 people are supplied, and the 

average daily pump of both well and river water is 17,883,800 gallons.

Altogether the supply is a very satisfactory one. The health of 

the city is good, and there has been much less trouble with typhoid 

fever than there was when private wells furnished the supply.

Indianapolis has long been known as a city especially favored by 

the abundance of the underground water supply. Before the installation of the public water system every family owned a private 

well, and it is estimated that there are still 25,000 wells in use. 

Most of these are drilled or driven and obtain water from gravel 

beds which occur at various depths, all being good water bearers. 

In that part of the city which lies east of the river there are two 

distinct water zones in gravel, the upper, at 45 to 60 feet in depth, 

called the first gravel, and another at 70 to 80 feet, known as the 

second gravel. In the flat west of the river the first-gravel water 

is found at 12 to 20 feet below the surface, and the second gravel 

at about 50 feet. In almost all wells the first-gravel waters are 

polluted, for in all thickly settled areas it is inevitable that much 

organic matter and sewage should enter the ground, and some of 

this enters the shallow wells. A great deal of sickness is without 

question due to the use of wells of this class. The second-gravel 

waters are much safer, as they are protected above by a layer of 

clayey till, but many sanitary analyses indicate that even these wells 

contain organic matter. Many of them, however, supply an abundance of good water. The following is the log of a second-gravel 

well, the analysis of whose water is No, 8 in the table on page 185,
MARION COUNTY. 181

Log of Parry Manufacturing Company's well at Indianapolis.

Feet. 

Gravel......................................................... 60

Blue clay...................................................... 4

Gravel.................................:....................... 11

75

A number of other well logs are given by Leverett a in his report 

on the wells of southern Indiana.

Another and much superior class of water is that supplied by 

deep-drilled wells from the limestone. In Indianapolis the rock 

lies from 80 to 120 feet below the surface, and does not outcrop 

at the surface within many miles of the city. It is protected from 

contamination from above by a considerable thickness of till, and 

the chances of pollution from the surface are remote. There are, 

perhaps, 300 rock wells in the city, most of them used by manufacturing establishments or by office buildings. Two rock divisions 

may be entered, the " Corniferous " limestone, to a thickness of about 

50 feet, and next below it the "Niagara" limestone. A number of 

analyses of rock waters in Indianapolis are given in the table on pages 

185-186. These waters are all drawn from both formations, as the 

wells are cased only to the surface of the "Corniferous," while the 

borings go into the "Niagara." A well at the Deaf and Dumb 

Asylum is reported to have penetrated the following materials:

Log of well at the Deaf and Dumb Asylum.

Depth of dry well........................................... 20 10

Gravel, clay, etc........................................... 78 8

Shale....................................................... 3 6

Limestone.................................................. 172

Porous blue rock (water).................................... 35 10

Hard rock.................................................. 3 ..

313 10

The analysis of this water is to be found on page 185, No. 13.

No records of strata in deep borings at Indianapolis could be 

obtained, but the following logs are from gas borings at Broad 

Ripple, 7 miles north of the statehouse, and at Bridgeport, 9 miles 

southwest:

Section of well at Broad Ripple J>

Feet.

Drift.......................................................... 55

Corniferous limestone. .......................................... 48

Niagara limestone............................................... 257

Hudson River and Utica......................................... 504

Trenton limestone.............................................. 24

Op. cit., p. 28. & Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 237.
182 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Section of well at Bridgeport.0

Feet.

Drift. ....................................................... 140

Devonian shale.............................................. 124

Corniferous limestone.......................................... 40

Niagara limestone............................................. 200

Hudson River limestone and shale............................. 475

Trenton limestone............................................ 74

1,108

BrigJitwood. Brightwood is a part of Indianapolis, but is supplied 

by a separate water system, owned by the city. The water is 

obtained from two drilled wells 130 feet deep, and one well 380 

feet deep, and is pumped to an underground reservoir holding 

40,000 gallons. Direct pressure is used, and the system has 31,500 

feet of mains. There are 400 consumers and about 93,000 gallons 

per day are used. The present supply is adequate for ordinary 

uses, but it gives insufficient fire protection.

Fort Benjamin Harrison. Fort Benjamin Harrison, situated a few 

miles northeast of Indianapolis, was completed in 1907, and has its 

own water system. In 1907 there were four deep wells, of which 

three were drilled for water, and the fourth was an old gas well, 

plugged at 318 feet. The rock here lies at a depth of 195 feet, and 

the water is all taken from the limestone. Elaborate tests of the 

capacity of these wells have been made, and the four pumped together 

will yield about 120 gallons per minute. The log of one well is as 

follows:

Log of well at Fort Benjamin Harrison.

£ 661.

Soil. .......................................................... 20

Hard gray sandy clay .......................................... 40

Same with some gravel.......................................... 40

Hardpan....................................................... 40

White quartz sand (water-bearing).........................'....... 35

Quicksand...................................................... 3

Brown limestone (?)............................................. 7

Gray gravel, sand, and clay..................................... 10

Disintegrated limestone (water-bearing).......................... 15

Brown sandy limestone ......................................... 45

Gray limestone (plentiful water)................................. 120

Shale........................................................... 20

Hard limestone................................................ 7

417

The water is pumped to two standpipes, and distributed by 

gravity, and the supply is expected to be sufficient for the demands 

of the fort.

a Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 237.
MARION COUNTY. 

OTHER COMMUNITIES.

183

The following table contains a list of other villages in Marion 

County, with the conditions of their water supply:

Village supplies in Marion County.

Town.

Howland Station...

Traders' Point..... 

Valley Mills........

.

I £ 

* 

3

2

PW

460

100 

375

487

199 

276 

310

27

52 

100 

385 

215

70 

300 

285

50

145 

300

Source.

Wells, dug and 

driven. 

/Wells, dug and 

\ drilled. 

Wells, dug, driven, 

and drilled. 

Wells, drilled and 

dug. 

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

Wells, dug and 

driven. 

.....do.............

Wells, drilled and 

dug. 

Wells, driven, 

drilled, and dug. 

Wells, driven and 

dug. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

driven. 

/Wells, dug and 

\ drilled. 

.....do........... .. 

.....do.............

Depth of wells.

S

Feet. 

22

> 15 

10

20

6 

14 

15

15

30 

25 

10 

14

20 

12 

11 

10

j 20

15 

15

Greatest.

Feet. 

40

125 

80

150

112 

200 

240

50

60 

50 

30 

110

118 

100 

150 

40

87

135 

215

Common.

Feet. 

35

1 20 

\ 100 

60

60

20 

20 

140

30

50 

40 

20 

90

60 

95 

20. 

35

25

20 

55

Depth rock. to 

Feet.

}.......

40-90

240

200

80 

160

184

Head above )(+below )(or 

surface.

Feet.

- 8 

-15

- 3

__ g

/ +16 

\ -5

Character of 

water beds.

Gravel.

Sand and gravel. 

Do.

Sand, gravel, and 

limestone. 

Gravel. 

Do. 

Sand, gravel, and 

limestone. 

Sand and gravel.

Gravel. 

Do. 

Gravel and till. 

Gravel.

Do.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel.

Sand and gravel.

| Do.

Gravel. 

Do.
184 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The following tables give detailed information regarding typical 

wells in Marion County and analyses of their waters. The last 

column in each table gives the numbers of identical wells in the other

table.

Records of typical wells in Marion County.

No.

1 

2 

3 

4

5 

6 

7

8 

9

10 

11

12 

13 

14 

15

16 

17

.18

19 

20

Owner.

C. W. Heady & Son.. 

N. Morris Simons .... 

W.C.Rush..........

Deaf and Dumb Asylum. 

National Starch Co... 

Indiana Abattoir Co. 

Majestic Office Building. 

Pope Motor Car Co. . . Western Cold Storage 

and Ice Co. 

Home Brewing Co ... 

Indianapolis Brewing 

Co. 

N o e 1 k e-R i c h a rds 

Iron Works. 

Indian a polis Cold 

Storage Co. 

Indianapolis Light 

and Heat Co. 

Interior Hard wood 

Co.

Advance Veneer and 

Lumber Co. 

Soldiers and Sailors 

Monument. 

Augustus Bowen.. . . .

Location.

Broad Ripple. . . 

Carmel .........

Indianapolis. . . .

.....do.......... 

.....do.......... 

.....do..........

.....do.......... 

.....do..........

.....do.......... 

.....do..........

.....do..........

.....do.......... 

.....do..........

.....do.......... 

.....do..........

.....do..........

.....do..........

Nora ...........

Traders Point . .

a 

a 

ft

Feet. 

43 

156 

32 

313

380 

300 

217

80 

354

365 

300

300 

376 

350 

405

400 

303

270, 160

77 

87

&

H

Drilled. . 

...do..... 

Driven. . 

Drilled. .

...do..... 

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do..... 

...do...-.

...do..... 

...do... .

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

Diameter.

In. 

3 

2

8

8

8

4

8

8 

6

8 

10

10 

4

6 

6

8

3 

2

bed. Depth to water

Ft. 

42 

150 

32 

310

370

200

80 

190

230

325 

370

110 

185

70

87

Head be-above (+) or

low (surface. ) 

Ft. 

- 8 

-40

-30

-18 

-15

-45

-16 

-30

-60 

-70

-70 

-4fi

-20 

-18

-19 

-60

-4?

-28 

+ 16

Water-bearing materials.

Limestone .

Limestone . 

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

Limestone .

.....do...... 

.....do.... .

.....do......

.....do...... 

.....do......

.....do.......

Depth rock. to 

Ft. 

43

120

99

98

100

100

100

100

85

minute. Flow per 

Gall.

......

8

Analysis No.

1

2 

13

12

15

14

7 

16

6

23 

25

24
Mineral analyses of waters in Marion C

[Parts per million.]

No.

2

3

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

Owner.

C. W. Heady &

Son. 

W. C. Rush.......

L. S. Ayres&Co..

caustic Tile Co.

and Heat Co.

Iron Works.

turing Co. 

State Life Building.

ing Co.

Co.

Asylum. 

Western Cold

Storage and Ice 

Co.

Building.

Location.

Flackville

Indianapolis . .

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

Source.

Drilled well, 43

ft. by 3 in.

ft. 

Well, 300ft..... 

Well, 60ft. by

6 in.

Well, 274 ft. bv

10 in. 

Dr'lled well,

300 ft. by 8 

in.« 

Drilled well,

365 ft. by 8 in. 

Well, 75 ft. by

Sin. 

Drilled well,

188ft. 

Drilled wells,

205ft. 

Drilled well,

240 ft. by 8 in. 

Drilled well,

380 ft. by 8 in. 

Drilled well,

313 ft. by 8 in. 

Drilled well,

354 ft. by 8 

in. 6

217 ft. by 8 in.

Analyst.

.....do.........

T. W. Smith..

Drug and 

C h e m i c al 

Co. 

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

C. S. Miner....

Date.

Sept., 1907

Sept., 1906

Tan 1QOS

Apr., 1906

1905.

April, 1907

Feb., 1905.

Material 

in which 

water 

occurs.

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

Silica (Si02).

22

7 ?:

13

3?

1?

11

10

15

1.4

7.4

19

7.2

Iron (Fe)

0.

.

2.

1.

118

7.

2.

2.

.

3

2.

T

11

32

o Water from 230 feet. 6 
Mineral analyses of waters in Marion County 

No.

16

17

18

19

?fl

21

W,

23

24

«5

26

Owner.

Brewing Co.

serve Co.

Do............

Capital Rattan Co .

Soldiers and Sailors' Monument.

and Lumber Co.

Location.

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

Source.

Drilled well,

175 ft. by 6 in.

.....do.6.. ......

White River c . .

City drilled

wells.

Well, 315ft.....

Well, 180ft.....

Drilled well,

400 ft .4

Drilled wells,

270 and 160 ft.

303 ft. by 6

in.e

Well, 143ft.....

Analyst.

and Michigan Southern R. R.

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

No Scale Co. . .

.....do.........

Chase Palmer.

.....do.........

.....do.........

Date.

1906.

Feb., 1904.

Dec., 1907.

July, 1907.

.....do.....

.....do.....

Sept., 1907

Material

in which 

water

occurs.

Limestone .

.....do......

.....do......

O

§

 i

OQ

28

9.6

14

14

18

16

o>

a

oM

14

O

2

3.4

2.2

.3

Tr.

.2

.00

<* Average of four analyses. & High stage. c Normal stage. d W
UNDEBGKOtJND WATERS OP NORTS-CENTfiAL INDIANA. 187 

MARSHALL COTTNTY.

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE. «

Marshall County lies along the west edge of the area here under 

discussion and is in the second tier of counties south of the MichiganIndiana line. It measures about 22 miles from east to west and 21 

miles from north to south, and is therefore almost square. The total 

area is 440 square miles, and as the population in 1900 was 25,119, 

there were 57 inhabitants to the square mile. Plymouth, the county 

seat, is 108 miles north of Indianapolis and 75 miles southeast of 

Chicago.

The county is essentially plateau-like, The total range in elevation 

is but little more than 100 feet. The lowest point is in the Tippecanoe Valley in the southeast corner; several points on the west 

and north edge are more than 850 feet above sea level (PI. I). The 

east half of the county is a monotonous plain, varied only by a few 

small areas of low moraine; the west half is largely occupied by the 

Maxinkuckee moraine, which extends southward from St. Joseph River 

through St. Joseph and Marshall counties and into Fulton County. 

This moraine, though of characteristic topography, is not of great 

relief, and in few places stands more than 50 feet above the bordering 

plains.

Along the west edge of the county is an irregular belt of flat surface, which is part of the bed of the glacial Lake Kankakee, and 

this abandoned basin is now a sandy plain.

Yellow River enters the county near its northeast corner and flows 

southwest in a zigzag course, draining almost three-fourths of the 

surface. In its course across the Maxinkuckee moraine the valley is 

in some places 40 to 50 feet below the bordering uplands, but in the 

till plain near Bremen it is much shallower. The flood plain does not 

generally exceed one-fourth mile in width.

Tippecanoe River crosses the southwest corner of the county 

through the till plain, and is fed by a number of small tributaries with 

shallow valleys.

A branch of Kankakee River heads in the moraine in the northwest 

corner of the county, and with its tributaries drains an area of about 

40 square miles. The stream valleys are all small and shallow.

There are many lakes in Marshall County, all of which occupy 

basins in the moraine itself or in bordering areas where, the drainage 

has been obstructed by the moraines. Most of the lakes are small, 

but the largest, Lake Maxinkuckee, in the southwest corner of the 

county, is about 2 square miles in area, and has a maximum depth 

of 76 feet. The lake, which is fed by springs and the drainage 

from a small area of the surrounding hilly moraine, has become popular as a summer resort, on account of its excellent boating, bathing,
188 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES OP NOETH-CENTEAL INDIANA.

and fishing, and, besides the villages of Culver and Maxinkuckee, a 

considerable part of the shore line is occupied by residences and hotels. 

The other lakes are all much smaller, and most of them are shallow. 

The northeast portion of the county was originally very poorly 

drained and largely occupied by marshes, and although there is still 

some_ wet ground, surface ditches and tiling have helped to bring 

mucl^of the land under cultivation. Locally there are small marshes 

in poorly drained depressions in the moraine.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Valley alluvium occurs to some extent along the banks of Yellow 

and Tippecanoe rivers. In the Yellow River valley the deposits range 

in width from one-fourth mile to almost nothing in the vicinity of 

Bremen. Along the west edge of the county there is a sand plain 

which was' formerly the bed of a lake. Locally small dunes of windblown sand occur in the moraine near the old lake bed, and the sand 

in some places is still moving.

The surface of the entire eastern half of the county has more or less 

stratified gravel and sand. This covers the till and is so intermingled 

with it that the area has been classified by Mr. Leverett (PL I) as 

gravelly till and will be described under this heading.

All the types of alluvium mentione'd are found either on flat plains 

of incomplete or sluggish drainage or in the valley lowlands. In 

either situation wells are easily obtained. Driven wells, 10 to 25 feet 

deep, are common, and the yield is abundant for ordinary domestic or 

farm uses. Such a well can often be sunk in a few hours and at a very 

small cost.

Morainal drift covers much of the west half of the county, and small 

areas in the east half. For successful driven or drilled wells in the 

moraine it is necessary to sink to open beds of gravel or coarse sand, 

and as these occur irregularly, they may be near the surface or considerably below it. As a rule the water table in the moraine is 

farther from the surface than on the plains, owing to the greater 

relief, and thus requires wells of greater depths. Where open beds 

are struck, however, the waters are abundant and pure. Artesian 

wells occur at many points in the moraine and are described below.

The till plains are found in the east half and the northwest corner 

of the county. A few deep borings have shown over 200 feet of till, 

and this is probably about the average thickness, exclusive of the 

overlying deposits. The till extends uninterruptedly below the 

moraines and the alluvial beds. Near the surface an unusual amoun^ 

of gravel and sand is incorporated with and overlies the till, and this 

condition holds throughout the county.
MARSHALL COUNTY. 189

The till plains of this county are particularly favored by the abundance and availability of their underground waters. Wells* range 

from 15 to 40 feet in depth and generally pass through thifirlayers 

of sand and till into gravel. Driven wells are commonly ustW and 

are very satisfactory, affording good protection from surface pollution.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

Area 64 (PL IV) includes the valley of Yellow River for some distance above and below Plymouth, and although the valley is here 

scarcely more than one-eighth of a mile in width, twenty or thirty 

flowing wells have been obtained in it. All the flowing waters have 

been reached in gravels, but below the valley alluvium, for it is necessary to go through till to reach artesian waters. Flows have been 

obtained at various depths. At the old grist mill a gravel bed at a 

depth of only 28 feet yields strong flows. The wells at the waterworks procured artesian waters at depths of 50 to 60 feet and between 

125 and 200 feet, and the volume of flow varies greatly from season to 

season. The head of the waters is from the surrounding moraine and 

the source can not be more than a few miles from the wells. Analyses 

of the waters from several wells in Plymouth are given in the table on 

pages 194-195.

Area 65 (PI. IV) forms a narrow belt along the north and east shores 

of Lake Maxinkuckee. The flows all occur along the lowlands not 

more than 25 feet above the level of the lake, and as the moraine rises 

rather abruptly from the shores, the artesian belt is of small extent. 

Perhaps the best flows have been obtained at Culver Military Academy, just north of the town of Culver. There are about a dozen flowing 

wells on the grounds, each of which discharges 10 to 50 gallons or more 

per minute. The wells are 10 to 50 feet deep and the head is about 6 

feet above the surface. The artesian waters are obtained in gravel 

underlying clayey drift.

In other places within this artesian area the flows are obtained at 

depths of 15 to 200 feet, and all have about the same head. The 

gravel beds in which the waters are under pressure probably come to 

the surface somewhere in the higher parts of the moraine, and the 

water that enters there acquires sufficient head in moving downward 

toward the lake to flow from wells that penetrate to it. No flows can 

be expected on ground more than 20 to 25 feet above lake level.

Area 66 (PL IV) includes a narrow belt of land running south and 

east from Donaldson along the foot of the moraine area. Several 

flowing wells have been obtained in gravel below pebbly clay at depths 

of 30 to 75 feet. The flows are rather weak, and yield only a few 

gallons per minute.

Area 67 (PL IV) has a situation similar to that of area 66, and 

these two may prove to be continuous. The conditions of flow are
J.90 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

furnished by gravel beds in the moraine, which dip to the west 

below impervious clay beds. In the vicinity of Teegarden these 

gravel beds extend out beneath the gravelly plain, and nearly every 

household in that village has a flowing well. The head is commonly 

only a foot or two above ground, and some wells will flow only 

in the cellars below the level of the surface. The strongest well in the 

village (No. 19 in the table, p. 193) has a head 8 feet above ground 

and flows about 6 gallons per minute at that height. The common 

depth for wells is 30 to 50 feet, although some are deeper. A continuation of this flowing-well area extends westward from Teegarden along 

Yellowbank Creek, and along this valley flows have been obtained 

from gravel below till, at depths of 50 to 100 feet.

The valley of Yellow River near Bremen and for several miles below 

it (PI. IV, No. 68) has furnished a number of flowing wells. At Bremen 

the water in a few wells rises to the surface and flows a little in 

wet seasons, and other wells to the southwest flow constantly, though 

none yield a large volume. The water is found in gravel below 

glacial clay at depths of 50 to 75 feet.

Several flowing wells are reported from the lowlands between Argos 

and Tippecanoe (PI. IV, No. 69), the water being obtained from 

gravel beds beneath till. It is probable that the head of the waters is 

from the moraine to the east. The pressure is sufficient to cause 

flows only in favored localities.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Plymouth, The city of Plymouth owns its excellent water supply, taken from flowing wells. The first three wells were drilled about 

1888, and are still in use, and in 1895 nine additional wells were 

drilled. The water from all these is flowing for at least a part of the 

year, and in wet seasons the natural yield is sufficient to supply the 

demands. In dry seasons the yield is less and the requirements are 

greater, so the wells are then pumped by air lift. The early wells 

were from 126 to 196 feet deep, but wells of the later series are all less 

than 60 feet deep. In 1907 it was decided to put in an additional 

deep well, which was sunk in August of that year. It was learned 

at a later date that this well had entered shale, into which it was 

bored for some distance. No adequate supply of water was obtained 

from this material. At the time the town was visited (August 16, 

1907) this well was reported to have penetrated the following materials :

Log of well at city waterworks, Plymouth.

Feet.

Clay........................................................... 9

Sand and gravel................................................. 180

Clay........................................................... 23

Limestone...................................................... 2

Shale........................................................... 107

Limestone.
Wm. J \'i-wfc

MARSHALL COUNTY. 191

From the wells the water flows or is pumped by air lift to an underground reservoir 24 feet in diameter and 14 feet deep. From this it 

is pumped by direct pressure into 8, 6, and 4 inch mains, of which 

7f miles are now in use. There are about 430 service taps and 52 fire 

hydrants, and almost half of the people avail themselves of this supply. 

Records of the city wells are Nos. 15 and 16 in the table on page 193, 

and analyses of the waters are Nos. 16, 17, and 18 in the table on 

pages 194-195.

There are very few dug wells in Plymouth. Most of the private 

wells are drilled or driven, and 50 feet is the usual depth. Along the 

river valley there are many flowing wells, already described as in area 

64 (p. 189). In the higher parts of town the same waters may be 

obtained, and they are also under artesian pressure, the water standing at about the same level as that to which it will rise in the flowing 

wells. The gravel waters are protected above by the impervious 

clay bed, and the supply is excellent.

Bremen. At Bremen the waterworks, built by the city in 1893, 

are supplied by five driven wells, 4 and 6 inches in diameter, which 

obtain water from a depth of 60 feet. The water is obtained from 

gravel after sand, clay, and hardpan have been penetrated, and rises 

to about the level of the ground. One well was drilled to shale at 

180 feet, but less water was found at that depth than at the 60-foot 

gravel horizon. The water is forced into a standpipe 104 feet high 

and holding 1,000 barrels, and from this it is distributed by gravity. 

There are about 7 miles of 6, 4, and 2 inch mains and 320 taps. It is 

estimated that 600,000 gallons a day are used to supply about 75 

per cent of the population.

Most of the private wells in Bremen are driven, and range from 15 

to 110 feet in depth, with 50 feet as the common depth. In some of 

these the water flows at the surface (area 68, p. 190), while in most 

it stands a short distance below ground. All the water is drawn 

from gravel below clay, and the supply of the deeper wells is protected 

from pollution.

Argos. The Argos water system is owned by the city and was 

built in 1897. A single well, 120 feet deep and 6 inches in diameter, 

furnishes the entire supply, which is obtained from a gravel bed beneath 

glacial clay. The principal water-bearing bed was found at a depth of 

80 feet, the water rising within 20 feet of the surface. The water is 

pumped to an 800-barrel underground reservoir, and from this by 

direct pressure into the mains. About 86 taps and 27 fire plugs are 

supplied by 18,800 feet of 6 and 4 inch mains, and 800 barrels of 

water are used per day. Only one-fifth of the people of the town 

use this supply.

About 80 per cent of the population of Argos use private wells, 

almost all of which are driven and from 20 to 100 feet deep, though
192 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

most of them strike abundant water in gravel at 30 feet, and this water 

rises within 20 feet of the surface. The driven wells are very satisfactory and never fail unless obstructed in some way.

Bourbon. The Bourbon waterworks are owned by the Union 

Water, Light, and Power Company and were installed in 1897. 

The water is obtained from two drilled wells, 8 inches in diameter and 

150 feet deep, which reach a gravel bed after penetrating alternating 

layers of sand, till, and gravel. Deep-well pumps are used to lift the 

water into a standpipe 100 feet high and holding 2,100 barrels, and 

the water is distributed from this by gravity. Connections are so 

made that direct pressure can be used in case of fire. Only 70 services 

are supplied by this company, which furnishes water to about oneseventh of the people of the town. The average amount pumped daily 

is 1,500 barrels.

In Bourbon there are a great many private wells, and practically 

all are driven from 16 to 60 feet deep, averaging about 20 feet. 

The head of the water is from 3 to 30 feet below ground.

Culver. The town of Culver, on Lake Maxinkuckee, installed a 

public water system in 1907. The stock of the company is owned by 

the town and by individuals, with the understanding that the town is 

to buy all of the stock. Three 4-inch wells have been drilled, and 

the contract has been let for a 6-inch well. The water is obtained 

from a gravel bed 70 feet below ground and rises within 12 feet of 

the surface. A pneumatic pressure tank is used and the water is 

distributed by the expansion of the compressed air in the tank, into 

which the water is forced by a 20-horsepower gasoline engine. Only 

5 taps and 15 fire hydrants had been, installed at the time of visit 

(September 23, 1907).

Drilled wells are the prevailing type in Culver. They are 10 to 

135 feet deep, the average depth being about 70 feet. A few wells in 

the lowlands flow, but most of the town lies on the moraine considerably 

above the lake level, and the waters in few wells rise nearer than 12 

feet to the surface. The waters come from gravel beds in the moraine 

and are good.

Other communities. The following table contains a list of other 

villages in Marshall County, with particulars in regard to their water 

supply:
MARSHALL COUNTY. 

Other village supplies in Marshall County.

193

Town.

Ayr..............

Maxinkuckee. ....

Tyner. ...........

Walnut. .........

Population 

(1900).

86 

200 

110

279 

311 

105 

64 

150 

304 

167 

141

Source.

.....do......................

.....do......................

.....do......................

.....do......................

.....do......................

.....do......................

.....do......................

.....do......................

.....do... ...................

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

40 

30 

15 

15 

12 

40 

80 

20 

35 

20 

17 

15

Greatest.

Feet. 

100 

90 

80 

30 

85 

50 

140 

50 

50 

40 

145 

20

Common.

Feet. 

60 

50 

60 

20 

25 

40 

100 

25 

40 

30 

30 

15

Head 

above (+) 

or 

below ( ) 

surface.

Feet.

Oto -15

-10 to -2"1 

-10 to -15 

+ 8 to - 3 

-10 to -15 

-10 to -15 

- 4 to -10

Character 

of water 

beds.

Gravel. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables give detailed information regarding 

typical wells in Marshall County and analyses of their waters. The 

last column in each table gives numbers referring to identical wells 

in the other table.

Records of type wells in Marshall County.

No.

1

?,

3

4

5

fi

7

8 

g

10

11

1?

1 1

14

Ifi

18

19

20

Owner.

.....do............

C. E. Hayes......

Academy. 

Charles Johnston.

D T Warnacut

H. Y. Shirk......

J W Wilson

works. 

.....do............

works. 

Location.

.....do...........

.....do...........

Donaldson ......

Donaldson. 

Hibbard. .......

ty Infirmary.

.....do...........

.....do...........

Depth.

Feet.

150

60

60

70

18

30- 50

en

A\

on

45

86

128

50- 60

28

49

4C

4c

Type.

Drilled.

...do....

...do....

Drilled.

...do....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Drilled..

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Drilled..

Diameter.

In. 

6

8

4 and 6

2

4

11

2

"""2"

U

U

11

4

2

6

2 and 4

12

H

U

H

bed. Depth water to

Ft. 

80

150

60

fiO

70

18

en

45

30

45

50

28

Afi

45

i* 

O oj

~r*C

0) w

JT 9*

 33

25 *

X*

Ft. 

-20

-36

0

-50

-1?

+ 0

+

i O

0

-28

-20

0

+ 4

-10

-1- *

-10

Water-bearing materials.

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do.. 

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

...do..

rock. Depth to 

Ft.

213

minute. Flow per 

Oalls.

80-100

2

300

6

Temperature.

°F.

51

Analysis No.

1

?,

4

5

7

8

6

9

10

11

12

13

14

17

18

15

19

20

46448° wsp 254 10 13
Mineral analyses of waters in Marshall Cou

[Parts per million.]

No.

1

9,

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

}?,

13

14

IS

16

Owner.

Public supply. ........

.....do.................

J. W. Brougher .......

Amos Friend..........

Culver Military Academy.

C. E. Hayes..... ......

Charles Johnston. .....

Andreas Bros. ........

D. T. Warnacut.......

H. Y. Shirk...........

Marshall County ......

J. W. Wilson..........

Wm. Zehner. .........

Location.

.....do...............

Burr Oak...........

.....do...............

.....do...............

Hibbard. ...........

firmary.

Plymouth. ..........

.....do...............

Source.

Drilled well, 120ft. by

6 in.

Drilled well, 150 ft. by

Sin.

Driven well, 65 ft. by

2 in.

6 in.

2 in.

2 in.

4 in.

liin.

Driven well

IJinIJin11 in.

Drilled well, 86 ft. by

4 in.

2 in.

Drilled well, 28 ft. by

12 in.

Drilled wells, 40 to 200

ft.

Analyst.

H. E. Barnard

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

and Michigan Southern R. R.

Date.

1907

1907

1907

1Qfi7

1907

1007

1QH7

1907

1907

1Qft7

1QH7

1907

ion?

1907

1QO4

Material

in which 

water

occurs.

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do......

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

'

^

0 

02

<s o

02
MARSHALL COUNTY. 195

) CO C5

8 I

i 8 I 18

; 0 05 M

: 8.

a 10 o

5 IN

5 50

i CO OO 

SIM 0> 

CO CO

5 O O

88

>o

00 CO

IN i-l

COIN

Kg

CO1*

OO

* .

 i t*-

J S 5

S

F « < GO i 

5 O O3 i 

r« GO O

CO

c

5 SS :

; 0 0 o c

i O Q C

 ' 'S 

: ! S

> : § 

i * w

5 S ^ 

I « -"

S "5 r - * 

: S _r > ' & "3 

= ^ ^

^'2 § ^

5 fi Q

.....do............... Teegarden. ..........

.....do.................

Jacob Hildebrand. .

OO O5

c T:c

0)C>c

£. O

8oo 01

ci 0

Open well, 14 ft.......

"s c1

A. Nellans............

ss
196 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

MIAMI COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Miami County occupies the geographic center of the area discussed 

in this report. It is 30 miles long from north to south, and 12 wide, 

except in the southern portion, where a projection extends 4 miles 

to the east. The area is 375 square miles, and the population in 1900 

was 28,344, or 75 to the square mile. Peru, the county seat, is 68 

miles north of Indianapolis.

All of the area which does not lie in the valleys of the larger streams 

is classed as uplands, though the large streams and their branching 

tributaries have done much to dissect the plain. The surface slopes 

from both the north and south portions of the county toward Wabash 

River, which, at the west county line, is about 640 feet above s.ea 

level. The highest point is at the north edge, with an elevation of 

about 880 feet, making a total range in the county of about 250 feet.

Wabash River, which, with its tributaries, receives all the surface 

drainage from the county, crosses it centrally from east to west, and 

has a deep, broad valley, with a wide flood plain. At Peru the valley 

floor is 1^ miles broad and is more than 100 feet below the divide 

between Wabash and Eel rivers. There are rock outcrops along the 

lower valley on the south side of the river, but most of the deepening has been in the unconsolidated deposits.

Eel River, which joins the Wabash at Logansport, crosses the north 

half of Miami County in a northeast-southwest direction. Its valley 

is well developed but is neither so deep nor so broad as that of the 

Wabash.

Mississinewa River enters from the east to join the Wabash above 

Peru. The valley is narrow and canyon-like, 100 feet deep in places, 

and rock outcrops along the sides show that the stream has cut its 

channel 30 feet into the limestone.

Big Pipe Creek and Deer Creek cross the south portion of the 

county, and, with their tributaries, afford good drainage to the plateau. The valleys are much shallower than those of the three rivers 

mentioned above.

Miami County is almost devoid of natural lakes or marshes. 

This is rather remarkable when account is taken of the fact that its 

north end lies on a great moraine ridge which in the counties farther 

north and east is dotted with lakes. The well-developed drainage 

of this moraine by Eel River and its tributaries is, in part, the cause 

of this absence of poorly drained areas.
MIAMI COUNTY. 197

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

TTNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The deposits of valley alluvium are of considerable importance, 

especially along the Wabash Valley. Here the gravels form not only 

the present flood plain of the river, but the extensive terraces above 

it. The city of Peru lies on the lowest terrace, and there are remnants 

of another terrace 30 feet above this one. On the flood plain at Peru 

the alluvium is from 15 to 25 feet thick; on the higher terrace it is 

much deeper, because of both the greater elevation above the stream 

and the sloping rock surface, which here dips to the north. Wells in 

the valley east and west of Peru have penetrated 40 to 60 feet of 

gravel. There are alluvial beds of some importance along the valleys 

of Eel and Mississinewa rivers and Big Pipe Creek, but they are all 

of smaller area and in general are thinner than the deposits of the 

Wabash Valley. The alluvium everywhere yields abundant water, 

and hundreds of wells are supplied by it. In sparsely settled districts 

these wells may be good, but in towns the waters from alluvium 

are liable to pollution, as surface drainage readily enters the porous 

material. Peru has a great many wells in alluvium, the shallow 

wells being particularly dangerous. Large numbers of cesspools 

drain into the gravel, and liquid matter from them finds its way to 

shallow wells.

That portion of the county which lies north of Eel River is almost 

entirely occupied by a broad moraine belt (PL I). There is also a 

small strip of this moraine between Wabash and Eel rivers, and 

another belt extends into the west and southwest part of the county. 

The topography of the main moraine belt is characteristic, the surface consisting of irregular knolls of sandy or gravelly drift or of the 

typical pebbly clay. The outlying moraine areas are similar but of 

a milder type. In the moraines water-bearing gravels or coarse sands 

are usually encountered at depths of 30 to 60 feet, although in some 

wells it is necessary to go deeper. The presence of impervious clay 

above the water-bearing bed is a guaranty against the commoner 

forms of contamination, and the waters, though hard, are always cool 

and palatable. Some dug wells obtain less desirable supplies by seepage from the clays near the surface.

The two principal till-plain areas, one of which lies between Wabash 

and Eel rivers and the other in the east and southeast parts of the 

county (PL I), were continuous before Wabash River cut its valley 

through them. The till is everywhere less than 100 feet thick south of 

the Wabash Valley, but is deeper to the north. Many wells 200 feet 

deep have failed to reach rock, and one well pierced over 300 feet of 

unconsolidated material.
198 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Most wells in the till are dug and supply small quantities of water. 

Drilled wells that penetrate to considerable depths are becoming more 

and more common, and these are sunk to beds of gravel; and in the 

south half of the county many wells go through the till into the rock 

below.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Throughout this entire county the surface deposits are immediately 

underlain by limestones of Silurian age. The term " Niagara" is 

commonly applied to all these limestones, though undoubtedly the 

younger limestone, the Kokomo ("water lime"), which outcrops at 

Kokomo, is present in part of the area. Well drillers do not distinguish between the two formations. There are many rock wells south 

of Peru and a few north of that city, all of which furnish abundant 

water obtained in the fractured upper portion of the formation or in 

openings in the body of the rock. Some of the openings are several 

inches in diameter, as shown by the way in which the drill will drop 

when openings are struck. Analyses of rock waters from various 

localities are given in the table on pages 203-204.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

Artesian area 70 (PL IV) includes a belt in the north part of Peru, 

the first terrace above the Wabash River flood plain, where several 

wells flow in small volume. At the factory of the Peru Canning Company are five drilled wells 67 feet deep, the water bed being a stratum 

of gravel. The wells flow at the surface when not pumped, but when 

in use the head of these wells and of all others in the neighborhood is 

lowered below the surface.

Flowing wells occur along Wabash River a few miles west of Peru. 

(PL IV, No. 71.) The largest of these wells, on the farm of G. M. 

Tillett, generally known as the "Flowing Well farm/' was drilled 

for gas. The important flow of water is from the " Niagara" limestone and was reached 90 feet below the surface. When drilled 

the well was cased through this limestone, and salt water from the 

"Trenton" limestone rose within 4 feet of the well mouth. The 

casing was later pulled, and an analysis of the water (No. 20, p. 204) 

shows that the "Trenton" water does not enter into the present flow 

to a noticeable extent. This well was capped down to li inches, from 

which opening the water rises 22 feet above the surface. The force of 

the water lifted the pipe 14 inches out of the ground in two years, but 

when the cap was removed, the pipe settled back in two days. It 

now flows 600 gallons per minute. The drive pipe is 44 feet long and 

reaches to the limestone. The following materials were penetrated 

by this well:
MIAMI COUNTY. 199

Log of flowing well on farm ofG. M. Tillett, near Peru.

Feet. 

Clay and gravel................................................. 44

Limestone...................................................... 420

Shale........................................................... 425

Trenton limestone.............................................. 12

901

There are several other flowing wells within a few miles, but none 

of them approaches this one in volume of flow.

Area 72 (PL IV) includes the lowlands in the vicinity of Deedsville. 

Here there are a few wells that flow continuously and several more 

that flow only in wet seasons. All the flows have been obtained from 

gravel beds in the moraine at depths of 30 to 60 feet. An analysis 

of the water from one of these wells is given in the table on page 203.

Area 73 (PI. IV) includes the valley of a small creek west of Bunker 

Hill. The artesian waters come from the limestone, which here lies 

comparatively close to the surface, and the wells are drilled into the 

rock. One well flows at 8 feet above ground and yields about 4 

gallons per minute. An analysis of the water is No. 1 in the table on 

page 203.

Flowing wells occur along the valley of Deer Creek and one of its 

tributaries. (PI. IV, No. 74.) At Miami the limestone from which 

the artesian waters come is reached at a depth of 35 to 40 feet but is 

somewhat deeper in the valley to the east. The best wells are about 

100 feet deep, and the water, of good quality, has everywhere a temperature of about 52° F. The Wells flow somewhat more copiously in 

wet seasons than at other times.

Driven wells in the Qreek bottom south of Santa Fe have obtained 

flows at shallow depths (PI. IV, No. 75) from gravel in the till. The 

yield is small and the conditions for flows are very local.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Peru. The public water system of Peru is owned by the city and 

was installed in 1878, the water being drawn in part from wells and 

in part from Wabash River. Fourteen wells, situated on the south 

side of the river and above the city, are in use; they are 8 inches in 

diameter and about 350 feet in average depth. The water is drawn 

from the "Niagara" limestone and is good, though rather high in salt 

from the intrusion of the salty "Trenton" rock waters from poorly 

plugged gas wells. The wells furnish about 75 per cent of the water 

used, the remainder being pumped directly from Wabash River. 

The river receives sewage from Wabash, Huntington, and other 

towns above, and this impure water is mixed with the well water and 

contaminates the whole supply. At the time the city was visited 

it was having another well drilled, and enough wells are to be sunk 

in the near future to furnish all the water.
200 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

The water from the wells and the river is pumped to a reservoir 93 

feet higher than the pumping station and having a capacity of 

1,200,000 gallons. It is distributed by gravity to 24 miles of mains 

and 1,765 taps. About 1,300,000 gallons daily are needed to supply 65 

per cent of the inhabitants. For fire protection the river water is 

pumped by direct pressure into the mains.

Large numbers of private wells, mostly driven or drilled, are in 

use in Peru. The depth to limestone ranges from 0 to 100 feet, and 

the wells obtain water from either the rock or the alluvial gravels. 

Near the river rock wells are common, but the rock surface becomes 

lower to the north, and the thicker gravels furnish driven wells with 

plentiful water. The rock waters are good, as are those from the deep 

gravels, but shallow gravel wells are dangerous and should be abandoned. A deep boring for oil just south of the city limits gives the

following section: °

Log of deep boring at Peru.

Feet.

Drift. ......................................................... 10

Water lime and Niagara limestone............................... 455

Clinton (?) limestone............................................ 15

Hudson River and Utica......................................... 449

Trenton limestone .............................................. 27

956

Converse. The town of Converse owns its own public water system, 

which is supplied by a drilled well 8 inches in diameter and 240 feet 

deep. The well penetrated 192 feet into the limestone, and the water 

rises within 10 feet of the surface. An analysis of this water is No. 3 

in the table on page 203. From the well the water is pumped by 

steam to a tank 72 feet high and holding 1,000 barrels, from which it 

is distributed by gravity. There are about 2 miles of 8, 6, and 4 

inch mains, and 60 per cent of the people require 200,000 gallons per 

day. The water is pure and wholesome.

The private wells of Converse are dug, driven, and drilled, and 

range from 10 to 200 feet deep, though 60 feet is the average depth. 

The water stands about 10 feet below the surface, and the wells 

never fail. Limestone is entered at depths of 45 to 50 feet, and 

much of the water is obtained from the rock.

Denver. Denver has no public water supply, and each family has 

a private well. These are almost all driven wells, from 10 to 60 feet 

deep, and though the average depth is only about 25 feet the supply 

is abundant. The driven wells penetrate gravel beds in the glacial 

deposits, and the limestone that is encountered at 45 to 100 feet below 

ground has always furnished plentiful supplies of water to the drilled 

wells that have gone into it.

a Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 254.
MIAMI COUNTY. 201

Bunker Hill. Bunker Hill lies on a belt of low morainal drift. 

The wells are driven, drilled, or dug, and the common source of supply 

is the limestone, which is here encountered at 65 to 83 feet below the 

surface. The driven wells obtain gravel waters from shallow depths 

and are in constant danger of pollution from the cesspools of the town. 

The gravel wells are comparatively safe, but the rock wells are best 

protected from contamination, and the water is of excellent quality.

Other communities. The following table contains a list of other 

villages in Miami County, with particulars in regard to their water 

supply:

Other village supplies in Miami County.

Town.

Bennetts Switch. 

Chili.... .........

McGrawsville ....

North Grove .....

Pettysville.......

Santa Fe. ........

Wawpekong. .... 

West Peru.......

Population 

(1900).

402 

133

245

112

30 

314

40 

244

21

316 

86

47 

95

92 

105

205

Source.

Wells, drilled 

and dug. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, drilled 

and dug.

Wells, driven, 

drilled, and 

dug. 

Wells, drilled 

and dug. 

Wells, drilled, 

driven, and 

dug. 

Wells, drilled 

and dug. 

Wells, driven, 

dug, and 

drilled. 

Wells, bored, 

drilled, and 

dug. 

Wells, drilled... 

Wel Is, driven, 

dug, and 

drilled. 

Wells , driven . . Wells, drilled 

and dug; and 

springs. 

Wells, drilled 

and dug. 

Wells, drilled, 

driven, and 

dug. 

Wells, drilled... 

Wells, driven 

and drilled.

Depth to rock.

Least.

Feet. 

20

15 

18

20 

10

20 

20

20

8

20

80 

20

40 

20

14 

15

100 

10

Greatest.

Feet. 

45

96 

80

110 

65

120 

230

110 

105

105

100 

156

75 

205

110 

170

130 

130

Common.

Feet. 

25

20

Co

80 

30

100 

110

100 

10

85 

50

60 

100

100 

100

110 

12

Depth 

to 

rock.

Feet. 

14-45

72

80

36 

85 

70

0-60 

70-80

79-95 

20

Head 

above (+) 

or below (-) 

surface.

Feet.

- 8

-15 to -25

+ 2 to 

-20 to 30 

-20 to -40

-18 

- 8

- 8

-30

-14

Character of 

water beds.

Limestone.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel.

Do. 

Do.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel.

Gravel and limestone. 

Do.

Do.

Limestone. 

Gravel.

Do.

Limestone.

Gravel and limestone. 

Sand and gravel.

Limestone. 

Gravel and limestone.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables contain detailed information regarding 

typical wells in Miami County and analyses of their waters. The 

numbers in the last column of each table refer to identical wells in 

the other table.
Records of typical wells in Miami Co

No.

1

5

6

7

g

10

11

1?

T?

14

IS

Ifi

18

19

20

21m

Owner.

J.E.Milliron. ..............

F.M.Tracy... ..............

B.Herrell.... ...............

G. M.Tillett.. ..............

J. O. Cole............. .....

F.K.Baber. ...............

Location.

Bunker Hill. ...............

f mile NW. of Bunker Hill. .

.....do....-......-...---....

Nead .......................

Peru........................

.....do. .....................

Peru........................

Depth.

Feet. 

172

140

240

34

35

230

75

130

105

10

105

82

56

156

67

214-300

901

12

74

110

170

500

Type.

Drilled. ...........

.....do............

.....do............

Drilled. ...........

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

Dug..............

Drilled............

.....do............

Drilled............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do. ...........

.....do............

Drilled............

.....do............

.....do............

Diameter.

Inches. 

4

8

li

H

2

2

4

4

2

2

4

5

8

11

2

2

8

Dept

' to 

wate

bed.

Feet. 

15

3

23

6

90

1

5

170
Mineral analyses of waters in Miami Cou

[ijarts per million.]

No.

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10

11 

12

13 

14

15 

16

Owner.

A. L. Weckler. . . 

Clem Graves..... 

Public supply.... 

Oscar Moody..... 

J. E. Milliron....

Mrs.S. A. Morgan 

F. F. Morris.. ... 

F. M. Tracy.....

B. Herrell........

J. W.Eltzroth... 

C. A. Rannells...

Public supply....

Location.

Bunker Hill.....

3J miles W. of 

Bunker Hill. 

Converse. .......

Deedsville. ..... 

Denver .........

Cloud's store, 

Macy.

Nead. ..........

.....do..........

North Grove .... 

Perrysburg ..... 

Peru ............

.....do..........

.....do..........

Source.

Drilled well, 172 

ft. by 4 in. .....

Drilled well, 140 

ft. by 4 in. 

Drilled well, 240 

ft. by 8 in. 

Driven well, 34 

ft. by 1J in. 

Dug and driven 

well, 35 ft. 

Drilled well, 75 

ft. by 2 in. 

Drilled well, 230 

ft. by 2 in. 

Drilled well, 105 

ft. by 4 in. 

Drilled well, 47 

ft. by 4 in. 

Drilled well, 105 

ft. by 4 in. 

Open well, 10 ft . .

Drilled well, 82 

ft. by 2 in. 

Driven well, 56 

ft. by 2 in. 

Wabash River"..

Drilled well, 500 

ft. by 8 in.

Analyst.

H. E. Barnard 

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do........ 

.....do. ....... 

.....do........ 

.....do........ 

.....do........ 

.....do........ 

.....do........ 

.....do........

.....do. .......

.....do........

Lake Shore 

and Michigan Southern. 

.....do........

.....do........

Date.

1907.......

1907....... 

Oct., 1907.

Nov., 1907. 

Sept.,1907. 

...do...... 

...do...... 

1907....... 

Sept.,1907. 

Nov., 1907. 

...do......

Oct., 1907. 

Sept.,1907. 

Mar., 1#07.

Mar., 1907.

Material in 

which 

water 

occurs.

Limestone . 

.....do..... 

.....do.....

Gravel ..... 

.....do..... 

.....do..... 

.....do..... 

.....do..... 

.....do..... 

.....do..... 

.....do.....

Limestone . 

Gravel.....

Silica (Si02).

...

Iron (Fe).

3.2 

.01 

.40

2.0 

.0 

4.0 

3.2 

.01 

.04 

.10 

.0

1.6 

.12

3.

o

a High stage. & Averag
Mineral analyses of waters in Miami County C

No.

17

18

19

20

21

22

83

Owner.

Storage Co.

J. O.Cole........

G. M. Tillett.....

F. K. Baber.....

Location.

.....do..........

5 miles W. of

Peru.

Pettysville......

Source.

Drilled well, 67

ft. by 5 in.

to 300 ft.

ft. by li in.

Drilled well, 90

ft.o

ft. by 2 in.

ft.

Drilled well, 170

ft. by 2 in.

Analyst.

R. B. Dole....

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........

Date.

Aug., 1907.

...do......

1907.......

1907.......

Sept., 1907.

IQfiT

Sept., 1907.

Material in

which 

water

occurs.

O

02

S3 

O

02

23

18

OJ

a

o

h 1

2 8

1 4

fi

1

4 0

X

<

O

Water at 90 feet.
UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 205

ST. JOSEPH COUNTY.

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

St. Joseph County is in the extreme northwest corner of the area 

under consideration, its north boundary being formed by the IndianaMichigan state line. It has an area of 460 square miles, and had in 

1900 a population of 58,881, more than half of which was in South 

Bend, the county seat. The average population per square mile 

was 128.

The county has a topography of great diversity, and the uplands, 

which in most counties include the greater part of the area, are here 

of small extent as compared with the lowlands, which occupy almost 

half of the surface. The uplands include only those areas mapped 

as moraine or till (PI. I), and are confined to the southeast corner of 

the county and to scattered areas along the north edge. The small 

moraine-covered districts north of Kankak^ee River and easfe^f the 

St. Joseph and the district extending south ^,nd east from South Bend 

have the rolling, somewhat irregular surface characteristic of moraines, 

though the till-covered portions are flat. The lower valleys of St. 

Joseph and Kankakee rivers are less than 700 feet above sea level, 

but the till plain in the southeast corner risks to more than 850 feet, 

giving a range in elevation in the county of over 150 feet.

There is a low flat area west of South Bend, on both sides of Kankakee River, that was once the bed of a l^ke. Much of the former 

lake bed is marsh, and although artificial drainage has resulted in the 

reclamation of a part of it, there is still an extensive marsh north of 

Kankakee River. The valley of St. Joseph River is also a broad 

belt of lowlands several miles wide.

St. Joseph River, the most important stream of the county, enters 

from the east, and flowing west to South Bend there turns sharply 

north into Michigan. The valley is several miles wide, and during 

the retreat of the last glacier was filled w|th alluvial gravels. The 

stream now occupies a narrow valley which it has cut into the 

gravels. The river has no important tributaries in this county.

Kankakee River heads in the Kankakee marsh within a few miles 

of the St. Joseph, and the divide between the two drainage systems 

is a low inconspicuous gravel flat. Kankakee River has a low 

gradient through its marshy basin.

The plain east of the Maxinkuckee moraine is drained by small 

streams which are tributary to Yellow River.

In the west half of the county are many small lakes of two distinct types. Those of one type, in the old Lake Kankakee bed, are 

shallow and bordered by marshes, and the basins were formed by 

the unequal accumulation of organic deposits in the marsh; those of 

the other type, in kettles or depressions in tfye moraine, are surrounded 

by low hills of glacial drift and are less marshy.
206 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

TTNCONSOIJDATED MATERIALS.

An important belt of alluvium, 2 miles or more in width, lies along 

the St. Joseph Kiver valley. The valley is filled with this material 

to a great depth, and the river has now intrenched itself in its own 

deposits which lie as broad terraces on either side. The lake-bed 

deposits of the Kankakee marsh are sands and gravels, but are finer 

and more perfectly stratified than the stream-laid materials and 

the sands form a larger proportion of their entire thickness. A 

third class of alluvium, found as outwash aprons beyond the edges 

of some of the moraines (PL I), overlies till plains or alluvial beds 

of river origin and is thickest near the moraines and thins out away 

from them.

All the alluvial beds are good water bearers. Shallow driven 

wells are much used, and the water, though in places of doubtful 

sanitary quality, is abundant and well suited for industrial purposes. 

The wells are easily polluted by drainage from cesspools or from the 

surface, as there is rarely a protecting bed of clay above.

The distribution of the moraines in the county is shown in Plate I, 

and the topography is of the irregular hill and hollow type characteristic of such deposits, though the relief is not great. The 

moraines were deposited on top of till, and their thickness is determined in few places, as well drillers fail to recognize the transition 

from moraine to the underlying glacial deposits. Many shallow dug 

wells are in use in the moraines, water being obtained from the clayey 

drift. Other drilled and driven wells penetrate to water-bearing 

gravel beds, which are found as deep as 100 feet below the surface. 

These wells are free from surface drainage and furnish excellent 

water, but the shallow wells are undesirable on account of the 

likelihood of contamination.

The till plain which occupies southeastern St. Joseph County is 

level and featureless. The till is continuous between the other 

surface deposits and the rock throughout the county, though it 

covers only one-fourth of the surface. Its thickness has been determined at only a few points, but probably averages about 200 feet. 

Many dug wells get small supplies of water from the till itself or 

enter gravel in the till at depths of 30 feet or less. If gravels are 

found the supply is plentiful, though as readily subject to pollution 

as the water from other open wells. Deeper gravels can as a rule 

be found by sinking tubular wells, which shut out the objectionable 

surface waters. These gravels afford the best available source of 

water in the till areas.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

Artesian area 76 (PL IV) includes the lowlands near St. Joseph 

River in South Bend and somewhat north of that city. The waters 

in a wider belt are under artesian pressure, but flows occur only on
ST. JOSEPH COUNTTf, 207

the low ground close to the stream. The best known of the flowing 

wells are at the two city pumping stations. The central station has 

35 wells, all from 112 to 116 feet deep, and the flowing water comes 

from a gravel bed below till; at the noiith station there are 34 

flowing wells, the water in which is doubtless from a continuation of 

the same gravel bed that supplies the wells at the central station, 

but this bed is only 87 feet below ground. The head of the wells at 

both stations is sufficient to cause flows when the pumps are idle, 

but when they are in operation the water stands considerably below 

the well mouth. At the central station the heavier pumping reduces 

the head of the waters for some distance in all directions, as shown 

by other wells supplied from the same gravel bed. The new wells 

at the plant of the Indiana and Michigan Electric Company, 200 

yards from the pumping station and across the river from it, are 

influenced by the pumping of the city wells, and the head of the 

waters in them varies from +2 to 2 feet, according to the amount 

pumped from the wells across the river. Tihe effect on surrounding 

wells is less marked at the north station, as the natural head of the 

waters is greater. A well in the park less than 100 yards from the 

city wells flowed 150 gallons per minute at a height of 8 feet above 

the ground at a time when the city pumps were at work. Flows 

have been obtained in the river valley as far north as St. Mary's 

Academy.

Area 67 (PL IV), described in part for Marshall County (p. 189), 

contains many flowing wells east and southeast of North Liberty. 

Eight flows are reported from a single farm. The wells are all on 

low ground, and the flowing waters come from a gravel bed at a 

depth of 60 to 80 feet, the head being from the moraine to the east.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

South Bend. The city of South Bend owrns and operates its public waterworks, the water being drawn from about 70 drilled wells 

(area 76). There are two pumping stations, one of which, the central station, is on the river bank near the center of the city. The 

wells here are 112 to 116 feet deep and 4 to 10 inches in diameter. 

The pumping at this station is done either by water power from St. 

Joseph River or by steam. The north station, near the river at the 

north edge of the city, is supplied by about 34 drilled wells 6 to 10 

inches in diameter and 87 feet deep. These wells also flow when the 

pumps are not running. Steam pumps are used at this station.

The water from both sets of wells is forced into a standpipe 225 

feet high and holding 33,000 gallons. It is distributed from this 

standpipe by gravity. There are 80 miles of mains 4 to 24 inches in 

diameter, and 7,000 taps supply about 75 per cent of the people of 

the city. The.average daily pump of the central station is 2,500,000 

gallons, and of the north station 2,820,000 gallons. The capacity
208 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

of the two stations is 14,000,000 gallons per day, but the wells 

will not furnish this amount of water, and new wells were being 

drilled at the central station in the fall of 1907. The city has also 

purchased 5 acres of land near the river, one-half mile below the 

north station, and it is planned to install an additional pumping 

station at this place. Analyses of water from the city wells are 

Nos. 12, 17, and 18 in the table on pages 213-214.

A great many private wells are in use in South Bend, both for 

domestic and industrial purposes. The town is located on a broad 

alluvial flat, and abundant water can everywhere be obtained by 

dug or driven wells at shallow depths. Most wells for family use 

are driven, averaging about 30 feet deep, and in these the water is 

abundant, but all analyses show much organic matter, and the presence of sewage in the upper-gravel waters is almost inevitable, as 

there is no protective covering of clay. The waters should never be 

used for domestic purposes. For manufacturing uses the waters are 

very satisfactory, although rather hard. Large quantities are obtained 

by building large, loosely curbed dug wells. A much safer water 

may usually be obtained from gravel at depths of 60 to 80 feet, 

beneath a layer of clay. A combination dug and drilled well at 

the Studebaker plant gave the following section:

Section of combination well at Studebaker plant, South Bend.

Feet.

Sand and gravel................................................. 32

Coarse gravelly sand.............................................. 8

Coarse sand, finer than that above. ................................. 12

Rather fine angular sand ........................................ 5

Coarse gravelly sand.............................................. 4

Fine sand...................................................... 4

Sandy blue clay................................................ 11

Fine blue clay.................................................. 14

Fine quicksand.................................................. 4

Sandy gravel................................................... 9

103

A deep gas well near that given above penetrated the following

materials:

Section of deep gas well, South Bend.a

Feet.

Drift. ....................................................... 160

Subcarboniferous and Hamilton shale .......................... 220

Corniferous limestone......................................... 60

Lower Helderberg limestone................................... 40

Niagara limestone............................................. 640

Clinton (?) limestone.......................................... 60

Hudson River and Utica...................................... 420

Trenton limestone. ........................................... 427

2,027

a Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 260.
ST. JOSEPH COUNTY. 209

Mishawaka. Mishawaka lies on the gravel terrace above St. 

Joseph River, about 4 miles east of South Bend. The waterworks 

are owned by the city, and the supply taken from St. Joseph River 

is pumped by direct pressure into 17 miles of mains and 1,550* service 

taps. About two-thirds of the people use this water and require an 

average of 2,000,000 gallons per day.

The river water is very badly polluted, and few people use it for 

drinking. It receives all the sewage from Elkhart, Goshen, and 

other towns, besides much local pollution, and in its raw state is unfit 

for a city supply. The water could be greatly improved by the 

installation of a filter system such as is used at Indianapolis, Anderson, 

and other cities in this State.

There has been some discussion in Mishawaka as to the possibility 

of obtaining an artesian water supply such as is used in South Bend. 

Independent investigations of the underground water resources of 

this city were undertaken in 1906 by George C. Matson, of this 

Survey, and by the writer, and the same conclusions were reached by 

both. It is apparent that the coarse gravel bed which furnishes the 

water at South Bend becomes more and more sandy to the east, and 

beneath the terrace south of Mishawaka it is replaced by fine sand. 

The water in this sand is under sufficient artesian pressure to carry it 

within 15 or 20 feet of the surface, but the fineness of the material 

prevents its ready flow into the well, and the yield of wells in it will 

be small.

A well which was drilled at the brewery of Kamm & Schellinger in 

1906 reached a depth of 723 feet without getting a good water supply. 

Some sulphur water was obtained near the bottom of the well, but 

this was not satisfactory and the well was abandoned. The following 

materials were penetrated:

Section of drilled well at Kamm & Schellinger brewery, Mishawaka.

Feet. 

Sand, gravel, and clay; little water, but some at 125 feet........... 13,0

Blue shale; no water............................................ 240

Limestone; some sulphur water near bottom. ..................... 353

723

This company also drilled three test wells in the marsh one-half 

mile south of the brewery, but obtained little water. South and 

east of this town deep wells have been more successful. At the 

Dodge Manufacturing Company's plant there are five 6-inch wells, 

45 to 60 feet deep, in a coarse gravel, which will yield 250 gallons 

per minute each. At the National Veneer Products Company's 

factory a single 6-inch well, 67 feet deep, will yield 500 gallons per 

minute. Analyses of both of these waters are Nos. 2 and 4 in the 

table on page 213.

46448° WSP 254 10 14
210 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

The best available source of supply for Mishawaka, therefore, is 

from wells drilled south and east of the town. A large tract of land 

could be obtained around the wells, and proper precautions taken to 

prevent contamination of the water from sewage. If enough wells 

were drilled and they were placed as far apart as possible, there is 

every reason to believe that an adequate and desirable supply of 

well water could be obtained for the city.

The private wells of Mishawaka, from which the entire supply of 

drinking water is drawn, are almost all driven wells, which range in 

depth from 10 to 90 feet, and most of which end in gravel at a depth 

of 40 feet. The water rises within 2 to 20 feet of the surface. The 

wells furnish a somewhat safer and certainly a more palatable water 

than that furnished by the city system. The shallow wells, however, 

are almost certain to be more or less polluted when located in a thickly 

settled district. There is no protective bed of clay above the waterbearing gravel, and objectionable liquid matter of all kinds enters the 

ground in large quantities and becomes a part of the underground 

water supply. The deeper-driven wells are much safer than the 

shallow ones.

Walkerton. The town of Walkerton built a public water system 

in 1897, and four drilled wells, 30 feet deep and 6 inches in diameter, 

furnish the supply. The wells enter gravel at 15 feet, arid the yield 

is sufficient for present demands. A steam pump forces the water to 

a tank, which is 105 feet above ground and holds 1,700 barrels. 

Ordinarily the water is distributed by gravity, but in case of fire a 

higher pressure is obtained by pumping directly into the mains. 

There are about 3 miles of 6 and 4 inch mains and about half the 

people use the water, of which 3,000 barrels per day is pumped.

For private supplies driven wells are used in Walkerton to the 

exclusion of other types. These range in depth from 18 to 45 feet, 

the most common depth being 30 feet. The wells are in gravel, and 

the water stands at 15 to 25 feet below the surface. The waters are 

abundant, but all sewage of the town goes into the ground and the 

shallow wells are naturally the most easily polluted. It can be said 

that, in a general way, the deeper a well is the less likely it is to 

receive sewage from above. There are no impervious clay beds to 

protect the upper gravel waters.

New Carlisle. The New Carlisle public water supply is owned by 

the town, and the water is taken from four drilled wells 118 feet 

deep and 5 inches in diameter. The town lies on the slopes of a 

moraine ridge and on the edge of the alluvial plain below, and the 

wells are near the base of the moraine slope. They penetrate to a 

gravel bed below blue clay and obtain abundant water of fine 

quality. A shallow dug well, 20 feet in diameter and 29 feet deep,
ST. JOSEPH COUNTY. 211

has been built for use in emergencies, but the deep wells have 

so far supplied enough water for all purposes. The water is pumped 

to a tank located 85 feet above the pumps and holding 33,000 gallons, 

and is distributed by gravity to 2f miles of mains. Almost every 

family south of the railroad uses this water, though no mains have 

been laid north of it. Analyses of the city water are Nos. 5 and 6 

in the table on page 213.

The few private wells in town, almost all of which are in the gravel 

plain north of the railroad, are of the driven type, and 20 feet is a 

usual depth. The water is from gravel and is plentiful, but because 

of the openness of the gravels and the abundance of private cesspools and other possible sources of contamination the sanitary 

conditions are unsafe.

North Liberty. North Liberty has no public supply. The town 

lies on an alluvial plain, and each family owns a driven well, usually 

from 35 to 60 feet in depth, in which the water stands within 12 to 15 

feet of the surface. The wells enter a gravel bed, and overlying clay 

beds are thin or altogether wanting. The supply is plentiful, and 

the deeper wells are good, especially when clay is penetrated above 

the water-bearing bed. Otherwise sewage is likely to enter, and the 

shallow wells in this town are not safe.

Other communities. The following table contains a list of other 

villages in St. Joseph County, with particulars regarding their water 

supply:

Other village supplies in St. Joseph County.

Town.

Crumstown ....

Lydick.........

Walnut Grove. 

Woodland......

Wyatt. ........

Population 

(1900).

100

67

350 

100 

177

90 

170

Source.

Wells, driven..... 

..'...do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do............. 

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

Wells, driven and 

dug.

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

10 

25 

10 

30 

20 

25 

10 

10 

90 

20

18

Greatest.

Feet. 

25 

50 

30 

85 

75 

30 

22 

30 

113 

110

120

Common.

Feet. 

20 

28 

18 

50 

40 

27 

18 

18 

100 

100

100

Depth 

to rock.

Feet. 

133

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet. 

6-10 

25

10-20

22 

6

80

4-20

Character of 

water beds.

Gravel. 

Do. 

Gravel and sand. 

Gravel. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Gravel and sand. 

Gravel. 

Do.

Do.
212 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables give detailed information regarding typical wells in St. Joseph County, and analyses of their waters. The 

numbers in the last column of each table refer to identical wells in 

the other table.

Records of typical wells in St. Joseph County.

^0.

1

4

5

6

7

8

10

11

12

14

15

16

17

18

19

Owner.

turing Co.

linger.

Woolen Manufacturing Co.

Products Co.

University.

emy. 

L. S.Crull......

Do..........

turing Co.

igan Electric 

Co. 

Oliver Chilled

Plow Works.

J. H. Lydick....

Location.

.....do.........

corner Main 

and Second 

streets.

.....do.........

North Liberty

.....do.........

South Bend

(central station).

(north station).

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

Walnut Grove

43

1 

ft

Feet. 

50

45-60

791?

35

176

67

118

38

150

100

27

112-116

ft7

112

30

90

30

113

Type.

Drilled. .

Drilled..

Drilled..

Drilled..

...do.....

Drilled. .

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Dug.....

Drilled..

...do.....

Diameter.

Inches. 

2

6

It

6

6

5

It

8,6

It

 4-10

6-10

4

10

6

2

J-l 1is

5-5 . 5 -°

"ft

V

ft

Feet. 

50

45-60

125

35

55

118

38

140

100

25

112

85

40-100

30

on

113

Head above 

(+) or below (-) 

surface.

Feet. 15

-10

- 3

-28

-12

-25

-22

+ 2

I Q

-12

__ Ql

-15

-80

Waterbearing 

materials.

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Depth rock. to 

Ft.

IBS

49

Analysis No.

1

3

3

4

5,6

7

8

9

17

18

14

1fi

15

30,31
Mineral analyses of waters in St. Joseph Co

[Parts per million.]

No.

1 

2 

3

4 

5

6 

7 

8 

9 

10

11 

12

13 

14

15 

16

Owner.

Dodge Manufacturing 

Co. 

Public well............

National Veneer Products Co.

.....do.................

Notre Dame University. 

L.S.Crull. ...........

Lake Shore and Michigan Southern E. E.

Chicago, Indiana and 

Southern E. E.

Studebaker Bros ...... 

Singer Manufacturing 

Co. 

Oliver Plow Company.

Indiana and Michigan 

Electric Co.

Location.

Mishawaka. . . .

Main and Second streets, 

Mishawaka. 

Mishawaka....

New Carlisle . . 

.....do.........

North Liberty 

Notre Dame . .

South Bend. . . 

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do......... 

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

Source.

Driven well, 50 ft. 

by 2 in. 

Driven wells, 45 to 

60 ft. by 6 in. 

Driven well, 35 ft. 

by 1£ in.

Driven well, 67 ft. 

by 6 in. 

Drilled well, 118 ft. 

by 5 in.

Drilled well, 118 ft. 

by 5 in. 

Driven well, 38 ft. 

by li in. 

Drilled well, 150 ft. 

by 8 in. 

Driven well, 27 ft. 

by 11 in. 

Well, 32 ft. by 20 ft.

Well, 25 ft. by 3 in. .

Drilled wells, 87-116 

ft. by 6 in. 

Well 35 ft. by 20 ft.. 

Open well, 35ft.....

Open well, 30 ft: by 

30 ft. 

Drilled well, 112 ft. 

by 8 in.

Analyst.

H. E. Barnard....

.....do............

Lake Shore and 

Michigan Southern E. E. 

H. E. Barnard....

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

Lake Shore and 

Michigan Southern E. E. 

.....do.............

.....do.............

.....do.............

Dearborn Chemical Co. 

H. E. Barnard....

.....do.............

Date.

1907. ......

1907.......

1907....... 

Sept., 1905

1907.......

1907.......

1907.......

1907.......

May, 1907 

...do.......

Jan., 1905

Dec., 1903

1907....... 

1907.......

Material 

in which 

water 

occurs.

Gravel.. 

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

S(S

"
Mineral analyses of waters in St. Joseph County 

No.

17

18 

19

20 

21

Owner.

City supply (central 

station). 

City supply (north station). 

D. M. Barton.........

.....do.................

Location.

South Bend... 

.....do.........

Terre Coupe...

Walkerton .... 

.....do.........

Source.

Drilled wells, 112 to 

116 ft. 

Drilled wells, 87ft...

Well, 14ft. by IJinDrilled wells, 30-40 

ft. by 6 ia.

Analyst.

Chase Palmer..... 

.....do.............

Lake Shore and 

Michigan Southern R. R. 

.....do.............

Date.

Oct., 1907 

.....do..... 

Sept., 1905

Feb., 1904 

1907. ......

Material 

in which 

water 

occurs.

Gravel . . 

...do.....

...do.....

Si(S
UNDERGROUND WATEES OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 215

TIPTON COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Tipton County lies in the middle north-south tier of counties in the 

area under discussion and in the third tier from the south edge. Tipton, the county seat, is 36 miles north of Indianapolis. The county, 

which is rectangular in outline, is 20 miles long and 13 wide, and has 

an area of 260 square miles. The population in 1900 was 19,116, or 

73 inhabitants to the square mile.

The county, a typical upland area, lies on the divide between White 

and Wabash rivers, although the watershed is a flat, featureless plain. 

About three-fourths of the surface lies between 850 and 900 feet above 

sea level. Only the valley of Duck Creek, in the southwest corner, 

falls below 850 feet, and in the southwest edge the surface rises somewhat above 900 feet, the total range in elevation being not more than 

75 feet.

All of the surface except a small area bordering on Boone and 

Hamilton counties consists of a flat plain with an entire absence of 

hills or of deep valleys. In some places, however, it shows slight 

wavelike undulations, with the crests only 5 or 6 feet above the 

troughs. The morainic areas (PL I) have somewhat greater relief, 

with low knolls and depressions and scattered bowlders, but even 

there the crests of knolls are not many feet above the plain.

Tipton County includes a portion of the, divide between the White 

River and the Wabash drainage systems. Cicero Creek, the most 

important of the tributaries of the White, drains the south-central 

and southwest portions, and at Atlanta lies 20 to 30 feet below the 

general level and has a narrow flood plain, but the valley becomes 

shallower to the north and west until the creek is only a few feet 

below the plain. Polliwog Creek, another tributary of White River, 

drains the southeast corner of the county.

North of Tipton the drainage belongs to the Wabash system. 

Most of the surface water is carried northeast into Howard County 

by Turkey and Mud creeks, tributaries of Wild Cat Creek, which in 

turn flows westward into Wabash River. All the valleys of the 

county are shallow and narrow.

Although the surface everywhere is flat, the drainage is well 

developed and there are no lakes and marshes. Still, in the districts 

where the slope is very slight, it has been found advisable to assist 

the natural drainage by ditches and by underground tilling. As a 

result, the land is nowhere too wet to permit cultivation.
216 UNDERGROUND WATEES OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

Alluvial deposits are of as little extent here as in any other county 

in the area. They occur only as narrow and shallow flood-plain 

deposits along the larger streams, and since only the headwaters of 

even these larger streams are found in the county, it follows that 

there has been but little stream deposition and that the alluvium is 

generally unimportant as a source of water. The only valley in which 

the stream deposits have been penetrated by many wells is that of 

Cicero Creek, where some driven wells have found plenty of water at 

shallow depths in the open gravels along the valley floor.

The moraines of the county are all at its western edge. The larger 

area (PI. I) is the north end of the long, low ridge that extends northward from the vicinity of Indianapolis. It is here not a very important 

topographic feature, but has a little more relief and is slightly more 

rolling than the till plain. There is also a small area of moraine that 

lies mostly in Howard County but extends into the extreme northwest 

corner of Tipton County. It is of the same general topographic 

character as that farther south.

For a long time shallow dug wells only were used to obtain water 

from the moraine areas, and these were supplied by slow seepage from 

the clay beds. Of late years the tide of public sentiment has turned 

strongly toward deep-driven or drilled wells, which are gradually 

replacing open wells. Many of them penetrate 100 to 200 feet of 

surface materials, and waters are almost everywhere obtained from 

layers of gravel interbedded with the clayey drift.

The till occupies the surface over a large proportion of the county 

and varies in thickness from 40 to 75 feet along the north and east 

edge to 200 or 300 feet at the south and west edges. The material is 

similar to that of the till wherever found in this area. Dug wells 

still predominate in the till, especially in the places where it is exceptionally thick, and many receive their entire supply from the closegrained clay. Such supplies are unsatisfactory, both in regard to 

quantity and quality, and the proportion of drilled wells is increasing. 

If the drilled wells fail to find sufficient water in the till they may be 

continued into the limestone, in which plentiful waters of good quality 

are to be found.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

As shown on Plate III, rocks of two periods underlie the surface 

deposits of Tipton County. The Silurian outcrops are all limestones 

and consist of the "Niagara" formation and the Kokomo limestone 

("water lime 1 ')- Above them, and outcropping in the west edge of 

the county, are the lower Devonian beds. The beds all dip at low 

angles to the west and have been worn away by erosion to give the
TIPTON COUNTY. 217

present distribution of outcrops below the drift. No rocks appear 

at the surface in this county.

As stated above, the Kokomo and "Niagara" beds are limestones, 

the former somewhat less massive than the latter. The Silurian 

limestones have been penetrated by wells at a number of points at 

Tipton and eastward. All of these rock wells show large quantities of 

water, and no record was found of wells which failed to get plenty 

of water when the rock was entered.

The Devonian limestones occur only in the area of very heavy 

drift and have been little exploited for their water. Deep gas 

borings have found good supplies, but these go into the Silurian as 

well as the Devonian rocks. It is probable, however, that the 

Devonian limestones are water bearing here as well as in other places 

where they have been tested, and wells of sufficient depth should be 

successful in these rocks.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

In contrast to the numerous artesian areas in the counties to the 

north and south, there are only two areas in Tipton County in which 

flowing wells are known to occur. This is explained by the position 

of the county on a high level plain and by the shallowness of the 

stream valleys. The head of the flowing waters in the neighboring 

counties is rarely more than 2 or 3 feet above the surface, even in the 

deeper valleys, and the absence of deep valleys in this county leaves 

few areas where, the surface is below the level to which the artesian 

waters will rise.

In the valley of Cicero Creek near Tipton and to the south there 

are a number of flowing wells. (PI. IV, No. 77.) All are old gas 

wells which are cased down to rock, so that the flowing waters must 

come from the Kokomo limestone ("water lime") or the "Niagara" 

formation. The flows are all small, and some wells which once flowed 

have now failed. The head of the water- is but little above the 

surface, and seems gradually to be decreasing.

Flowing wells occur along the valley of Mud Creek within a few 

miles of Sharpsville. (PL IV, No. 78.) All are from old gas borings, 

and the water comes from the Silurian limestones. The strongest of 

these, on the farm of Mrs. Hannah Davenport, flows in a l|-inch 

stream.

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES.

Tipton. The Tipton waterworks are the property of the city, and 

the supply is drawn from fifteen wells, of which five are gravel wells 68 

to 114 feet deep. The water-bearing gravels are well protected from 

pollution from above by a heavy coating of impervious till. The 

rock wells, 10 in number, are 8 inches in diameter, and the gravel 

wells 4 and 6 inches. The water from the wells is forced by air lift
218 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

to an underground cistern, and from this is pumped by direct pressure 

into the' mains. There are 13 miles of mains, 4 to 12 inches in 

diameter, and 900 consumers are supplied. The daily consumption 

of water ranges from 300,000 to 400,000 gallons.

Many families in Tipton are still supplied from private wells, 

nearly all of which are driven into gravel, which is found at 30 to 60 

feet below the surface. A common depth for them is 55 feet. The 

gravel waters are plentiful, and the deeper wells yield an abundance 

of pure and wholesome water. There are a few water wells that enter 

the limestone, which here lies 165 feet below the surface. Analyses 

of these waters are Nos. 1 to 8 in the table on page 220.

Windfall. Windfall has no public water supply. Each family 

owns a private well and the town relies upon these wells for its water. 

There are many dug wells which are sunk 20 to 30 feet into the till, 

and these are certain to be more or less contaminated, as there is no 

sewerage system in the town and the open privy vaults are as numerous 

as the wells. All the liquid sewage enters the ground and some of it 

ultimately finds its way to the open wells and becomes mixed with 

the water which the people drink. The objectionable features of the 

dug wells are avoided by deep drilled or driven wells, which go 

through clayey till before entering water-bearing gravels or limestone. The till acts as a covering to prevent pollution of the deeper 

waters by organic matter from above. In Windfall the limestone is 

reached at a depth of 60 feet, and the pure and abundant rock waters 

furnish the best well supplies.

SharpsviUe. Sharpsville lies on the till plain near the shallow 

valley of Mud Creek. It has no public waterworks. The private 

wells are dug, drilled, or driven, and range in depth from 12 to 100 feet. 

The shallow dug wells in the clayey till are dangerous for the same 

reasons as those given for the dug wells at Windfall, and they should 

be abandoned as rapidly as possible. Driven wells, to be safe, should 

be sunk through a considerable depth of clay to keep out drainage 

from the surface. The rock wells furnish a fine quality of water and 

give the largest supplies. Limestone is entered at depths of 68 to 

80 feet, and no wells in this rock have been failures.

Eempton. The town of Kempton is situated at the west edge of 

the county on the border of a region of low moraine. The limestone 

is here 265 feet below the surface and its depth has prevented the 

utilization of limestone waters as a source of supply for the wells of the 

town, which are all driven or drilled, and enter gravel beneath pebbly 

clay. Most of them reach a gravel bed at a depth of about 34 feet. 

The record of a typical well of this sort is No. 5 in the table on page 219. 

Other wells enter gravel at 80 feet, and a still deeper gravel bed has 

been reached at a depth of 200 feet. The coating of till above even 

the first gravel protects the waters, and all the wells are good.
TIPTOET COUNTY. 219

Other communities. The following table gives a list of other villages 

in Tipton County, with particulars regarding their water supply:

Other village supplies in Tipton County.

Town.

Curtisville.....

Ekin.. .........

Goldsmith.....

Grooms-voile. . . - 

Hobbs. ........

New Lancaster. 

Normanda.....

Population 

(1900).

123 

100

227

""222" 

72 

70 

100 

114

Source.

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, driven and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, drilled..... 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

Wells, dug and 

driven. 

Wells, dug and 

drilled. 

.....do............

Wells, drilled and 

dug. 

.....do............

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

20

20 

15

25 

13

18 

12 

20 

12 

20

Greatest.

Feet. 

90

60 

120

50 

65

160 

130 

60 

280 

125

Common.

Feet. 

25

25 

80 

40

22 

80 

50 

175 

100

Depth 

to 

rock.

Feet. 

90

240

120 

180

90 

40-60 

50 

300 

190

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet. 

15

8

10 

10 

8-15 

8

Character of 

water beds.

Gravel and lime 

stone. 

Gravel.

Do.

Do. 

Do.

Gravel and limestone. 

Do.

Limestone and 

gravel. 

Gravel.

Do.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables give detailed information regarding 

typical wells in Tipton County and analyses of their waters. The 

numbers in the last column of each table refer to identical wells in 

the other table.

Records of typical wells in Tipton County.

No.

1

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

1?!

13

14

Owner.

R. B. Barr........

Public well.......

MikeHoffman....

.....do............

J. N. Russell......

Public well.......

Windfall Canning

Co.

Location.

Goldsmith.

Hobbs............

.....do............

Sharps ville.

.....do............

.....do............

Windfall..........

.....do............

a

ft

ft

Feet.

120

80

171

68

33

132

84

105

122

280

62

212

217

Type.

Drilled. .

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

Drilled..

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

%

1

ft

In.

4

5

2

4

4

4

4

4

6

8

6

2

4

;*

3

£ .

*» o> f}£>

$

ft

Feet.

120

80

171

68

33

132

82

120

97 f;

62

200

£ 

o

~G> §

*!a <°

o> B

Feet.

15

11

10

15

14

8

7

15

6-15

Water-bearing materials.

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

Gravel......

.....do......

.....do......

%

ft

ft

ft

Ft.

70

68

73

70

IQQ

120

60

60

d

fc'£

 3 >>

 "<g

1

9
Mineral analyses of waters in Tipton Coun

[Parts per million.]

No.

1 

2 

3

4 

5

6 

7 

8 

9

Owner.

City waterworks ..... 

Do...............

Lake Erie and Western Railroad.

Do...............

Do...............

Do...............

Location.

Tipton.... 

...do......

...do...... 

...do......

...do......

...do...... 

...do......

...do......

Windfall..

Source.

Drilled well, 

280 ft. 

Drilled well, 

62ft. 

Well, 184ft....

Well, 225ft....

Well, 56ft.....

Well, 168ft.... 

Well..........

.....do........

.....do........

Analyst.

R. B. Dole....

.....do........

Lake Erie and 

Western 

Railroad. 

.....do........

.....do........

.....do........ 

H. E. Barnard 

.....do........

.....do:.......

Date.

1907.......

1907....... 

Nov., 1903

Aug., 1904

Sept.,1903 

Oct. 1907 

...do......

...do......

Material in 

which water 

occurs.

Limestone . . 

Gravel ......

Silica (Si02>

25 

26

Iron(Fe).

1.7 

4.3 

9.

2

fi

.6

~

Aluminum

8

0

1.0,....
UNDEEGBOUND WATEES OF NOETH-CENTEAL INDIANA. 221

WABASH COUNTY. 

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Wabash County is situated on the east edge of the area treated 

in this report and half way between its north and south borders. 

The county is 27 miles long and 16 wide, and is regular in outline 

with the exception of a notch in the northeast corner formed by the 

corner of Whitley County. It has an area of 418 square miles and 

in 1900 the population was 28,235, or 68 to the square mile. Wabash, 

the county seat, lies 70 miles north and 18 miles east of Indianapolis.

The county is a broad, rather level plateau, across which Wabash 

River has cut a deep, broad valley medially from east to west. Two 

of its principal tributaries have cut valleys diagonally across the 

county, Eel River from the northeast and Mississinewa River from 

tKe southeast. The upland surface is a till plain, overlain in part 

by morainal deposits. Northwest of Eel River is an area of moraine, 

a^d east of the Wabash is another north and south moraine belt 

(PJ. I). These moraines occupy the highest portions of the surface. 

TJ|e extreme northwest corner reaches an elevation of 900 feet 

above tide, and the surface of the Mississinewa moraine is generally 

between 800 and 850 feet in elevation. The lowest point in the 

Wabash Valley, at the west edge of the county, is about 665 feet 

above sea level, giving a total range in elevation of about 235 feet.

Wabash River and its tributaries receive all the drainage, its valley 

being about 100 feet below the surface of the till plain and 150 feet 

or more lower than the crest of the Mississinewa moraine, through 

which it has cut its way. The valley is less than 1 mile wide above 

Wabash, but becomes gradually wider toward the west, and is cut 

in part into the surface deposits, and in part into the "Niagara" 

limestone.

Mississinewa River enters from Grant County and crosses the west 

border to join the Wabash above Peru. At Redbridge its valley is 

about 100 feet deep and is cut through the surface deposits to the 

rock, so that occasional outcrops of limestone show at the surface. 

Its drainage basin includes only a narrow belt at the south edge of the 

county.

Eel River, crossing the northwest corner of the county, follows 

roughly the southeast border of a great moraine, and with its tributaries drains nearly half of the surface. The stream valley is not 

more than 50 feet below the level of the till plain to the south, but 

the ridgelike crest of the moraine to the northwest reaches heights 

of nearly 200 feet above the river.

Lakes are found only in the morainic region northwest of Eel 

River and are of the same origin as those farther north, in Kosciusko 

County. They occupy basins in the irregular depressions of the 

moraine surface, which the agencies of erosion have so far failed to
222 UNDERGROUND WATBES OF NOETH-CBNTEAL INDIANA.

drain or fill. The Mississinewa moraine, while of greater area here 

than in Grant County, is of a more even character and lacks depressions in which the surface waters can collect. There are no marshes 

worthy of note.

GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER. 

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

The only important alluvial deposits, along the bottom of the 

Wabash Valley, average less than a mile in width, though they are 

somewhat wider locally. Their thickness varies from place to place, 

but at Wabash, where they have been most often penetrated, they 

range up to 60 feet in thickness. Other areas of much smaller extent 

occur along the valley floors of Eel and Mississinewa rivers, where 

flood-plain deposits of gravel and sand are of local importance as 

water bearers. All the valley deposits are found to carry abundant 

waters, which are easily and cheaply obtained and which rise in the 

wells nearly to the surface. The water is well adapted for boiler 

and other industrial uses. For domestic purposes the shallow gravel 

wells should be avoided unless they are located in the country and 

well removed from dwellings, outhouses, or barns. The porous 

nature of the beds permits any sewage at the surface to penetrate 

readily into the ground, and in the absence of impervious clay beds 

above the water-bearing gravel the chances of pollution are many.

The distribution of the moraines of Wabash County is shown on 

Plate I. That area which lies northwest of Eel River is of strong 

morainic topography with irregular knolls, ridges, and undrained 

kettles, with many of the larger depressions occupied by lakes. 

The morainic material is unusually thick, doubtless 100 to 200 feet 

in the higher portions. The Mississinewa moraine stretches to the 

northeast and southeast of Wabash River east of Wabash. Its relief 

is much less than that of the heavy moraine farther northwest, and 

although the highest points of its surface stand scarcely 50 feet above 

the bordering till plain, the topography is distinctive and in sharp 

contrast to the level till-plain surface. There are no large lakes in its 

depressions.

The underground waters of the moraines must be obtained from 

the till or from the inclosed gravel or sand beds, and dug wells have 

been most commonly used to secure supplies from the clayey portions 

of the moraine. If gravel beds are encountered the supply is more 

abundant. Within the past ten years it has become generally known 

that drilled or driven wells are almost certain to strike gravel beds at 

depths of less than 100 feet, and almost all new wells are of one of 

these types, the water obtained being more plentiful and much safer 

than that obtained from dug wells.

Till plains occupy about two-thirds of the surface of Wabash 

County (PL I). The depth of the drift varies from a thin edge at
WABASH COUNTY. . 223

points along the sides of the Wabash and Mississinewa valleys to 200, 

300, and even 400 feet in the thickest portions. The surface deposits 

south of the Wabash are not generally of exceptional thickness, as 

wells commonly enter limestone at less than 100 feet. The rock surface is irregular, however, and contains deep (drift-filled valleys. A 

boring at La Fontaine penetrated 400 feet of drift, and this old 

valley has been traced southeast through Grant County and beyond. 

Its extension northwest of La Fontaine is reported by a well driller, 

but can as yet be mapped only approximately. North of the 

Wabash the rock surface dips northward, and at North Manchester in 

the Eel River valley the drift is 274 feet thick. It is probable that 

this material is 400 feet thick in the moraine to the northwest. The 

compact till supplies water by seepage to a large number of dug wells, 

although many dug wells also enter gravel beds below till at depths 

of 20 to 40 feet and obtain an abundant supply. South of Wabash 

some drilled wells find good gravel beds in the till, but many have 

penetrated the underlying limestone before obtaining sufficient water. 

North of the Wabash, in the area of very thick drift, water-bearing 

gravels are found from 20 to 150 feet below the surface.

CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS.

All deep borings which have gone through the drift have next 

entered the "Niagara" limestone. This limestone, which outcrops 

at certain points along the deeper valleys, is very uniform in character throughout all the observed localities, and wells are universally 

successful if drilled deeply into it. South of Wabash River rock wells 

are common, and water can be obtained almost anywhere at depths 

of less than 100 feet. North of this river very few wells reach the 

limestone.

ARTESIAN AREAS.

The best known flowing well area in the county is that from which 

the city water supply of Wabash is obtained (PI. IV, No. 79), in the 

valley of Treaty Creek, three-fourths of a mile from Wabash River 

and about 60 feet above it. There are now nine flowing wells in use 

and four more have been abandoned. At this point the drift is 

gravelly, and the artesian waters were obtained at depths of 40 to 60 

feet and at 120 feet, and the nine wells yield, without pumping, 

about 1,500,000 gallons a day. The record of the materials penetrated by one of these wells is as follows:

Record of flowing well for city supply, Wabash.

Feet.

Soil............................................................. 2

Sand........................................................... 3

Clay... 1....................................................... 33

White gravel (water-bearing)..................................... 60

Clay........................................................... 19

Gravel (water-bearing)........................................... 8

125
224 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Area 80 (PI. IV) is in the valley of Treaty Creek about 3 miles above 

area 79, and has a single flowing well at White Institute. This well 

was drilled for gas about 1890, and still yields approximately 50 

gallons of water per minute. The water is from the "Niagara" 

limestone and rises 3 feet above the surface.

Area 81 (PI. IV) includes the-valley of a small tributary of Mississinewa River at Somerset. The wells are all drilled into the "Niagara" limestone, and the artesian waters come from this formation. 

There are four flowing wells and they are dependent on the same 

source, as the later wells have reduced the flow of the earlier ones. 

The water has a temperature of 53£° F. The record of one of these 

wells is No. 12 in the table on page 228, and an analysis of the water 

is No. 10 in the table on page 229.

In the lowlands of the Eel River valley at North Manchester there 

are many flowing wells from 55 to 100 feet deep (PI. IV, No. 82), the 

artesian waters being procured from gravel beds covered .above by 

tough, impervious till. The water for the city supply is from flowing 

wells. The artesian pressure was formerly much stronger than it is 

now, but the wells have been left uncapped, and the continuous 

drainage of the gravel waters through many openings has greatly 

endangered this valuable supply. The wells are closely related to one 

another, and those situated on lower ground have seriously affected 

other wells higher up on the slope. Some which once flowed copiously have ceased to flow when other wells below have been put in, 

and neighborhood quarrels have arisen on this account. The remedy 

for this condition of affairs is obvious. A town ordinance should be 

passed requiring all flowing wells to be capped and faucets to be put 

in, so that only such water as is needed shall be drawn. This would 

restore the head to some extent and the flows of all the wells would 

be improved and the artesian head preserved. The present rapid 

diminution of the flows points to a total loss of the artesian head at 

no remote date.

In the Eel River valley near Liberty Mills there are about half a 

dozen flowing wells (PI. IV, No. 83), all in gravel below till and 30 

to 70 feet deep. The head is sufficient to raise the water 6 to 8 

feet above the surface, and one well that flows about 35 gallons per 

minute is made to run a small water wheel, which pumps water 

throughout the dwelling house. The temperature of the wells 

that were measured was 52° F. The head seems to have been 

affected by the opening of a drainage ditch in the flat 3 miles east of 

the town.

Flowing wells are reported to occur at intervals along the Mississinewa Valley west of La Fontaine. All are rock wells, and belong 

to artesian area 27 (PI. IV), described under Grant County (p. 120).
WABASH COUNTY. 225 

CITY AND VILLAGE SUPPLIES,

Wabash. The Wabash public supply is owned by the Wabash 

Electric Light and Water Works, a private corporation. The water 

is from nine flowing wells in the valley of Treaty Creek, described 

above as in artesian area 79. No water from Wabash River is 

used. From the wells the water flows by gravity to a covered reservoir at the pumping station, and from this it is forced to a standpipe on the hill, the pressure on the mains being maintained by 

gravity from the reservoir. There are 26 miles of mains from 6 to 

12 inches in diameter, 1,790 taps are used to supply about 75 per 

cent of the people in Wabash, and 243 fire hydrants are installed 

for fire protection. About 1,300,000 gallons per day are pumped.

This is a most excellent water supply and is open to criticism 

only from the fact that sometimes the water becomes slightly turbid 

from the loosening of growths of iron-stained algae, which accumulate at the well mouths and in the mains. This trouble could be 

lessened by proper care in removing this material from the boxes at 

the wells and by frequently flushing the mains.

Wabash is situated partly on a terrace above Wabash River and 

partly on the river bluff 70 feet above the terrace. In the lowlands 

the gravel deposits are in places as much as 60 feet thick and the 

water is abundant for drilled or driven wells. Many wells are 

owned by private individuals.

On the edge of the bluff the drift is only 10 to 20 feet thick, its' 

depth increasing to the north, and the water table is very low near 

the edge of the bluff, so that almost everyone in the higher parts of 

town uses the public supply. A deep boring at Wabash gave the 

following section:"

Section of deep-well boring at Wabash.

Feet. 

Drift.......................................................... 28

Niagara limestone and shale. . .................................... 525

Hudson River and Utica......................................... 325

Trenton limestone.............................................. 54

932

North Manchester. The North Manchester public water system is 

owned by the city, and the water is obtained from 12 flowing wells, 

described above as in artesian area 82. The record of the wells is 

No. 7 in the table on page 228. The water from six of the wells 

flows into a large cistern, and that from the other six is pumped into it. 

From the cistern the water is pumped to a standpipe 110 feet high 

and said to hold 160,000 gallons, and is distributed by gravity from

a Sixteenth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 265, 

46448° WSP 254 10 15
226 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

this standpipe. There are about 9 miles of mains and 250 service 

taps, and the people who use this supply (about one-third) require 

130,000 gallons each day.

The privately owned wells of North Manchester are numerous, 

and are almost all driven or drilled. Fortunately most of the 

dug wells have been abandoned. The wells range in depth from 

25 to 140 feet, with 65 feet as the common depth. The head of the 

water varies in different wells from several feet above the surface 

to 20 feet below it. All wells obtain water from gravel, and the supply 

from the deeper wells is good and pure. An analysis of this water is 

No. 8 in the table on page 229.

The geologic section in this town, as shown by a deep well drilled 

for gas, is as follows: a

Geologic section at North Manchester, as shown by deep-well record.

Feet. 

Drift........................................................ 274

Niagara limestone and shale.................................... 300

Hudson River limestone and shale. ............................ 250

sUtica shale................................................... 306

Trenton limestone............................................ 50

1,180

Roann. Roann has no public waterworks, and privately owned 

driven and dug wells furnish the water supply. The-wells are from 

30 to 85 feet deep, the greater number being supplied by a gravel 

bed at 40 feet below the surface. The deeper gravel waters, where 

protected above by clays, are likely to be pure, but dug wells, especially in towns which have no sewage system, are very dangerous, 

as they are sure to become polluted to some extent. All dug wells 

in town should be filled up and replaced by deeper drilled or driven

wells.

La Fontaine. La Fontaine is supplied by privately owned wells, 

which are driven or drilled and are 14 to 100 feet deep. The water 

is found in gravel beds at various depths in the'drift. The town is 

located over a great preglacial valley, which extends toward the southeast and northwest. Gas-well drillings have found as much as 442 feet 

of drift, while both to the east and west the limestone outcrops at the 

surface. This valley is a continuation of the same valley that J. A. 

Bownocker b has traced into Grant County from the southeast. The 

rock in this town is too far below the surface to have been used as a 

source for well supplies.

Laketon. Laketon lies on a rolling till plain near Eel River, and the 

water supply is all obtained from private wells, there being no public 

supply. Most of the wells are drilled, but a few are dug, and all

a Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Hist., p. 263. 

6 Ohio State Acad- Sei.-, Special Paper No. 3, pp. 32-46.
WABASH COUNTY. 227

obtain water from gravel, no well here having penetrated to rock. 

The wells are from 14 to 65 feet deep, the greatest number entering 

gravel at 35 feet below the surface. The water generally rises 

within 10 feet of the well mouth. There are no springs of importance 

in the neighborhood.

Other communities. The following table contains a list of other 

villages in Wabash County, with particulars regarding their water 

supply:

Other village supplies in Wabash County.

Town.

Liberty Mills. 

Lincolnville. .

Mailtrace..... 

'New Holland.

Redbridge . . . 

Rich Valley.. 

Rose Hill....

Somerset. ....

Urbana......

Population 

(1900).

102 

456

275

3072"

30 

132

89

288

320

147 

239

Source.

Wells, driven and 

drilled; springs.

Wolla rlrillort

Wells, drilled, driven, 

and dug.

Wells, drilled and dug...

.....do...................

Wells, driven, drilled, 

and dug. 

Wells, dug and drilled.. 

Wells, drilled, driven, 

and dug. 

Wells, dug and drilled. .

Wells, drilled...........

.....do...................

Wells, drilled and dug. . 

.....do...................

Depth of wells.

Least.

Feet. 

30

40 

25

20

20 

15

10 

18

12 

20

11

70 

30 

20

14

Greatest.

Feet. 

120

100 

100

170

186 

44

120 

30

125 

100

110

90 

70 

120

120

Common.

Feet. 

80

70 

30

25,70

140 

30

100 

25

80 

40

20

80 

60 

70

20

Depth 

to 

rock.

Feet. 0-90

3+

60-70

0-30 

0-60

65

101 

80

Head 

below 

surface.

Feet.

10-30 

25

10-30

15-20

15

10-35

Character of 

water beds.

Limestone and 

gravel. 

Limestone. 

Gravel and sand.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel. 

Gravel and limestone. 

Limestone and 

gravel. 

Sand and gravel.

Gravel. 

Do.

Gravel and limestone. 

Gravel. 

Do. 

Gravel and limestone. 

Do.
228 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

TYPICAL WELLS AND ANALYSES.

The two following tables contain detailed information regarding 

typical wells in Wabash County and analyses of their waters. The 

numbers in the last column of each table refer to identical wells in 

the other table.

Records of typical wells in Wabash County.

No.

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7

8 

9

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16

17 

18 

19 

20

Owner.

Dr. R. L. Banister. 

Public well........ 

.....do.............

Wm. Iholtz........ 

Edw. Rittenhouse. 

E. A. Kanower. . . . 

Public supply .....

North Manchester 

Creamery. 

Joseph Overman...

Geo. O. Miller..... 

Daniel E. Spiker . .

Dr. H. Adee.......

Wabash Electric 

Light and Water 

Works. 

.....do.............

.....do.............

Pioneer Hat Works 

White Institute....

Location.

La Fontaine .... 

Lagro ...........

Liberty Mills....

North Manchester. 

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do...........

.....do............

4 miles SE. of 

Wabash.

fli

0

Feet. 

38 

72 

37 

30 

68 

132 

80-100

56

75

125 

40 

120 

131 

80 

120 

45-65

390 

126 

169

900

Type.

Driven. . 

Drilled. . 

...do..... 

...do..... 

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

Dug.....

Drilled.. 

...do.....

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

...do..... 

...do..... 

...do.....

...do.....

1 <£

ft

In. 

li 

6 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2

2 

2

4

3J

4 

2 

f,

8,6

..6 

6 

6

8

bed. Depth to water

Ft.

"72 

37

"65 

130

98 

75

"38 

120 

65 

80

i20

L* 0 ,5$

if

O> M

%« 5

§ O> K*

Ft. 

-20 

- 6 

-16 

+ 6 

+ 8 -40 

+ 3

+ 3 

+ 5

-70 

-35 

+ 0

- 8

-13

+ 12

+ 0 

+20 

-50 

+ 3

Waterbearing 

materials.

Limestone .

.....do...... 

.....do......

.....do......

.....do......

.....do...... 

.....do...'...

Limestone .

Limestone . 

.....do......

Gravel..... 

Limestone .

Limestone .

Limestone . 

.....do......

Depth rock. to 

Ft.

6

60

60 

101 ""so

100

60

Flow minute. per 

Galls.

!!"§5

6 

20

......

325

50

Analysis.

1

2 

4

""5

7 

8

9 

10 

12 

11

15

14,16
Mineral analyses of waters in Wabash Coun

[Parts per million.]

No.

1 

2

3

4

5 

6

7 

8

9 

10

11 

12 

13

14 

15

16

Owner.

Dr. R.L. Banister..

Edw. Rittenhouse.

Isaac Lowrey ......

Public well.........

Daniel E. Spiker... 

Geo. O. Miller......

Wabash Electric 

Light and Water 

Works.

.....do.............. 

.....do..............

Location.

LaFontaine.

Laketon..... 

.....do.......

Liberty Mills 

North Manchester.

.....do.......

.....do.......

Somerset. . . . 

Urbana..... 

.....do.......

.....do.......

.....do....... 

.....do.......

Source.

Driven well, 38 ft. by 

14 in. 

Drilled well, 72 ft. by 

6 in.

Drilled well, 37 ft. by 

2 in. 

Well, 68 ft. by 2 in. ...

Eel River... ..........

Drilled wells, 80 to 100 

ft. by 2 in. 

Drilled well, 55 ft. by 

2 in. 

Open well, 40 ft ....... 

Drilled well, 120 ft. by 

3| in. 

Drilled well, 80 ft. by 

2 in. 

Drilled well, 131 ft. by 

4 in. 

Well, 13ft.............

Drilled well, 126 ft. by 

6 in.

Wells, 45 to 390 feet....

Drilled well, 126 ft. by 

6 in.

Analyst.

H. E. Barnard 

.....do.........

W. B. Landon 

H. E. Barnard

.....do.........

Cleveland, Cincinnati, 

1 Chicago and 

St. Louis 

Ry. 

R. B. Dole....

H. E. Barnard

.....do......... 

.....do.........

.....do.........

.....do.........

Dearborn Drug 

& Chemical 

Co. 

H. E. Barnard

Cleveland,Cincinnati, Chicago and St. 

Louis Ry. 

R. B. Dole....

Date.

Nov., 1907 

1907

May, 1906 

Sept.,1907

....do.....

Sept., 1907 

....do.....

....do.....

1907

Sept.,1907 

....do.....

1907

Sept., 1907

Material 

in 

which 

water 

occurs.

Limestone . .

Gravel ......

Gravel ...... 

.....do.......

.....do....... 

Limestone . .

Limestone . .

Gravel......

O

03

33

2.1

11 

21

 --

11

19

22

Iron

1 

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

5.

1

.
CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF THE WATERS OF NORTHCENTRAL INDIANA.

By R. B. DOLE.

INTRODUCTION.

Information regarding the characteristics of individual waters in 

north-central Indiana is of so local interest and can be so readily 

obtained from the tables of analyses in the main part of the report 

that it does not merit space here. The purpose of this paper is rather 

to suggest standards that may assist intelligent study of the analytical data and may show the broad general relations with respect to 

quality between the wells and other sources of supply in this and in 

other regions. The methods of testing the waters are, therefore, 

briefly outlined, the chief uses of water are reviewed, and the qualities 

peculiar to each class of waters are discussed. In conclusion some 

assays giving further information are presented.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS.

Many analyses quoted in the preceding pages were made by industrial chemists chiefly to determine the value of the waters as sources 

of railroad supply. Such estimates are usually made in accordance 

with accepted procedure for industrial work and the results are sufficiently accurate for most purposes. These analyses, originally stated 

in hypothetical combinations in grains per gallon, have been recomputed to ionic form in parts per million in order that they may be 

compared with analyses from other sources. Though it is probable 

that normal carbonates are actually present in only a few of these 

waters, it was impossible to determine this certainly from the hypothetical statements, and therefore it has been necessary to compute 

combined carbonic acid to the carbonate radicle (CO3 ) in nearly all 

these analyses.

The analyses by Dole, Palmer, and Van Winkle were made in special

laboratories of the United States Geological Survey in accordance

with the methods outlined in Water-Supply Paper 236, pages 9

to 26, inclusive. The probable accuracy of the methods and their

230
METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 231

sources of error are discussed in the same publication. The samples 

oif water for these tests were collected in 1-gallon glass-stoppered 

bottles supplied to the field force from the laboratories, and the 

waters were examined as soon as practicable after collection.

One-pint samples also were collected by the field men and shipped 

to Indianapolis, where Dr. H. E. Barnard, chief chemist of the 

Indiana state board of health, examined them for total solids, iron, 

calcium, magnesium, carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, nitrates, 

and chlorides. As only a small amount of water was available special 

procedures had to be used. One hundred cubic centimeters of the 

sample was titrated with fiftieth normal sulphuric acid in the presence 

of phenolphthalein indicator to estimate carbonates, after which 

methyl orange was added and titration with fiftieth normal sulphuric 

acid was continued until the end point indicated by methyl orange 

appeared, in order to determine the amount of bicarbonates. To the 

residue from the bicarbonate determination 5 cubic centimeters of 

a saturated solution of ammonium chloride was added with sufficient 

ammonia to make the solution alkaline. After the solution was 

heated to boiling 1-0 cubic centimeters of a saturated solution of 

ammonium oxalate was added and the solution was allowed to cool. 

The precipitate was removed by filtration, washed with hot water, 

ignited, and weighed as calcium oxide. To the filtrate from the 

determination of calcium 10 cubic centimeters of ammonia and 10 

cubic centimeters of a saturated solution of sodium ammonium phosphate were added, after which the contents of the dish were stirred 

vigorously three or four minutes and then allowed to stand three 

hours. The precipitate removed by filtration was washed with 

ammonia water (1 to 3) and ignited slowly at first, but with gradually increasing temperature until a white ash was obtained, when the 

magnesium was weighed as magnesium pyrophosphate. For the 

determination of chlorine 10 cubic centimeters of the sample was 

titrated with a solution of silver nitrate containing 4.789 grams 

AgNO3 in 1 liter of distilled water. For the determination of sulphates 100 cubic centimeters of the sample was acidified with hydrochloric acid, heated to boiling, and the sulphates precipitated with 

10 cubic centimeters of a saturated solution of barium chloride. The 

precipitate, after being removed by filtration in hot solution, was 

washed with hot water, dried, ignited, and weighed as barium sulphate, from which the amount of the sulphate radicle (SO4 ) was 

computed. For total solids 50 cubic centimeters of the sample was 

evaporated in a platinum dish on the water bath and the residue 

weighed. The residue from the determination of total solids was 

dissolved in 15 cubic centimeters of dilute hydrochloric acid, transferred to a beaker, 3 or 4 drops of nitric acid were added, and the 

solution was heated for ten minutes on the water bath. It was then
232 UNDEEGBOUND WATEES OF NOBTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

transferred to a Nessler tube and 5 cubic centimeters of a 5 per cent 

solution of potassium sulphocyanide was added. The color developed was compared with that in iron standards prepared from ferrous 

ammonium sulphate. Nitrates were estimated in a 10 cubic centimeter sample by the phenol-sulphonic acid method.

Field assays made during a short field study of the quality of boiler 

waters in Wabash Valley are reported in a table at the end of this 

paper. They were performed in accordance with the methods outlined in Water-Supply Paper 151, and though only a few estimates 

were made for each water the information throws some additional 

light on the quality of the waters. The figures in the column headed 

"probable incrustants" are obtained by adding to bicarbonates computed to CaCO3 the sulphates computed to CaSO4 and finding the average between this sum and the figure representing total hardness, in 

accordance with the following formula. This computation is necessarily arbitrary and the result is only roughly approximate.

Probable incrustants^Ag00^ 1 - 42 Sp. + t«fl hardness,.

£

EXPRESSION OF ANALYTICAL RESULTS.

The results of the analyses in this paper are stated in parts per 

million, and though the amounts of water for examination were 

measured by volume the mineral content is usually so low that the 

figures may be considered to represent parts per million by weight. 

Simplicity of computations, avoidance of fractions, and certainty of 

the basic unit make this decimal system especially satisfactory for 

practical purposes. Expression of the results of water analyses in 

parts per million has been generally adopted by sanitary and research 

chemists and by many technical chemists, and the exclusive employment of this unit industrially is delayed only by more or less objectionable precedent.

For the convenience of those who may desire to transform the results 

to other forms of expression it may be stated that multiplying the 

number of parts per million by 0.058 gives the equivalent in grains 

per United States gallon of 231 cubic inches, multiplying it by 0.07 

gives the equivalent in grains per imperial gallon, and multiplying it 

by 0.00833 gives the equivalent in pounds per thousand gallons.

The analytical methods commonly employed in the examination 

of water permit the estimation of the elements and radicles that are 

present; they also permit the determination of the total amount of 

mineral matter in solution and more or less approximate separation 

of the incrusting from the nonincrusting constituents. Besides these 

data, however, ordinary chemical tests give little knowledge regarding the chemical composition of mineral waters, and consequently
MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF WATER. 233

the exact amounts of the different salts hi solution are largely matter 

for conjecture. Though such salts as sodium chloride, potassium 

carbonate, and magnesium sulphate are probably present, they are 

not determined as such, and their exact amounts can not be computed from the analytical data. The ionic form of stating the analyses that is, statement of the radicles present has been adopted in 

this report because it gives fact and not opinion. The form is entirely 

practical and presents the actual results for the consideration and 

criticism of persons other than those making the tests.

STANDARDS FOR CLASSIFICATION.

MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF WATER.

All natural waters contain, dissolved or suspended in them, more 

or less of all materials with which they have come in contact. Such 

materials are taken up in amounts determined principally by their 

chemical composition and physical structure, temperature and pressure, the duration of contact, and the condition of substances that 

have previously been incorporated in the water. To designate such 

suspended or dissolved matter as "impurities" is hardly correct, 

because they are introduced normally in strict accordance with 

natural conditions and not necessarily by human agency. It has 

become customary, however, to call such substances impurities when 

they are detrimental or injurious in some proposed use of a water 

supply. For purposes of examination the substances that may be 

present are classified as suspended matter, such as particles of clay or 

leaves;, dissolved matter, either of mineral or organic origin; microscopic animals or plants; and bacteria. The presence or absence of 

very small animals and plants likely to affect the quality of waters is 

determined by microscopic examination, and the chance of contracting disease by drinking the water is ascertained by bacteriological 

processes. The mineral substances in the well waters of north-central Indiana are the most important, however, and consideration is 

therefore given in the present study chiefly to the suspended and the 

dissolved mineral matter. The amount and nature of the mineral 

ingredients are most commonly determined by estimates of total suspended matter, total dissolved matter, total hardness, total alkalinity, silica, iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, nitrates, chlorides, free 

carbonic acid, and free hydrogen sulphide. These estimates are 

measure of the materials most commonly present and most likely to 

affect the value of the waters. Articles describing the methods 

employed in making these estimates have already been cited under 

the heading "Methods of analysis" (p. 230).
234 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

USES OF WATER.

In judging the value of a water from the data afforded by analysis 

it is necessary to consider the supply both in relation to the use to 

which it is to be put and in relation to other available supplies. 

Besides being used for drinking and for general domestic purposes, 

water is essential in steam making, paper making, starch manufacture, and many other industrial processes. The medicinal properties 

of the dissolved minerals are supposed to give many waters special 

significance. For each of these purposes the relative amounts of 

certain ingredients in a water determine its value and assist in its 

classification. For example, considerable iron in a water may be 

harmful in one industrial process and harmless in another. The 

value of a water for another process may be directly measurable by 

the amount of suspended matter present, the amount of dissolved 

matter not being significant. Furthermore, many waters that are 

considered of great medicinal value are unfit for boiler use.

To catalogue waters as good or bad, hard or soft, pure or impure, 

is indefinite and frequently misleading. Absolutely pure water (H2O) 

does not exist in nature, and, as stated before, a water should not be 

called impure when it contains only substances derived by natural 

means from" natural sources. The arithmetical values of terms ordinarily employed to describe the quality of water, like those of many 

other words, are variable and largely dependent on local usage. In 

New England, for instance, water to be considered soft must have 

much less than 100 parts per million of total hardness, and water 

containing 30 or 40 parts of sulphates would not be used. In northern 

Indiana, however, it would be difficult to find a well water with total 

hardness less than 100 parts per million, yet many well waters in 

that region are called soft, and waters containing 30 to 40 parts of 

sulphates are often used in boilers without occasioning much comment. This example illustrates the uncertain significance of general 

descriptive words in classifying waters and emphasizes the advisability of knowing the intended use of a water and the composition of 

other available supplies before pronouncing judgment on its quality.

WATER FOB DOMESTIC PURPOSES.

CONDITIONS IN NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

The flat topography of north-central Indiana makes highland conserved supplies impossible, and the comparatively few meandering 

streams of this prairie land are often so turbid or so evidently polluted that the prospect of using them as sources of domestic supply 

without purification is not inviting. Consequently wells furnish 

most of the water for drinking and for general domestic purposes.
WATEB FOB DOMESTIC PUKPOSES. 235

Of 54 cities and villages having municipal supplies, 48 obtain all or 

part of their water from underground sources and 44 use well water 

exclusively. (See pp. 53-54.)

PHYSICAL, QUALITIES.

To be entirely acceptable as a domestic supply, water should be 

free from suspended matter, color, and odor, and fairly cool when it 

reaches the consumer; it should be free from disease-bearing germs, 

and it should be low in dissolved mineral ingredients. The nearer a 

water approaches these conditions the more satisfactory it is for 

general use. Suspended mineral matter clogs pipes, valves, and faucets, and growths of microscopic plants suspended in water frequently 

cause stains in clothes and bad odors. The red or reddish-brown 

masses of suspended matter sometimes occurring in well waters of 

this region are usually-growths of Crenoihrix, which is described by 

Whipple a as a small filamentous plant having a gelatinous sheath 

colored by a deposit of ferric oxide. It grows especially in ground 

waters containing considerable iron, forming tufts or layers in water 

pipes and well casings and sometimes clogging them. Particles 

becoming detached escape through faucets, giving the water an 

unsightly appearance and causing rusty stains on clothes washed in 

the water. So far as is known, Crenofhrix in drinking water does 

not cause disease. Color is usually due to dissolved vegetable matter 

and is a cause of serious objection only when it exceeds 20 or 30 

parts per million. In general the well waters of this area are satisfactory in respect to suspended mineral matter and color. Sometimes finely divided material from quicksands enters driven wells, 

but such trouble is not nearly so serious here as in other parts of 

the country. A few of the waters, especially those containing iron, 

develop a turbidity of 10 to 30 parts per million on exposure to the 

air, due to precipitation of dissolved matter, and such a condition 

gives rise to an apparent though not a real color. Most of the color 

recorded in analyses of these well waters is due to this cause, and true 

colors are so low as to be insignificant. Odors may be caused by 

various conditions. An odor like that of rotten eggs, encountered 

in many waters in the oil belt, is due to free hydrogen sulphide (H2S). 

Growths of microscopic organisms in tanks and water mains often 

have unpleasant odors that make the water objectionable.

BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITIES.

Before a water is used for domestic purposes there should be reasonable certainty that it is free from disease-bearing organisms. 

Yet present bacteriological technique does not permit positive

o Whipple, G. C., The microscopy of drinking water, New York, 1899, p. 144.
236 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

statement regarding the presence or absence of such organisms, and 

it is advisable, therefore, to guard supplies against all chances of 

infection. The disease germs most commonly carried by water are 

those of typhoid fever. The bacilli enter the supply from some spot 

infected by the discharges of a person sick with this disease, and, 

though the germs are comparatively short lived in water, they persist in fecal deposits for remarkable lengths of time and retain their 

power to infect water. Consequently, wells should be so located 

that their waters are guarded against the entrance of filth of any 

kind, either over the top or by infiltration, and pumps and piping in 

the system should also be protected. The types of rural water supplies with reference to pollution in a central-western section of the 

United States have been discussed by Kellerman and Whittaker.0 

Considered as to bacteriological purity, the well waters of northcentral Indiana in general are good. Water from a carefully cased 

well over 20 or 30 feet deep is acceptable if the well is located after 

the exercise of reasonable judgment in regard to privies, cesspools, and 

other sources of pollution. Open dug wells and the pits often constructed as reservoirs around the tops of casings are frequently exposed 

to fecal contamination from above or through cracks in poorly built 

side walls. Care should be taken that the casings of deep wells do 

not become leaky near the surface of the ground so as to allow pollution to enter. As a matter of ordinary precaution the ground should 

be kept clean and water should not be allowed to become foul or 

stagnant near any well, no matter how deep it is. If shallow dug 

wells are necessary, they should be constructed with water-tight 

casings extending down into the well as far as practicable and also a 

short distance above ground. The floor, or curbing, should be 

water-tight, and pumps should be used in preference to buckets for 

raising the water. Every possible precaution should be taken to 

prevent feet scrapings and similar dirt from getting into the water 

by way of the top of the well. Underground water is not only less, 

likely to become contaminated if protected from surface washings, 

air, and light, but it keeps better and is less likely to develop microscopic plants that give it a bad taste.

CHEMICAL QUALITIES.

Amounts of dissolved substances permissible in a domestic supply 

depend much on their nature. No more than traces of barium, 

copper, zinc, or lead should be present, because these substances are 

poisonous. The occurrence of these elements in measurable amounts 

in ordinary well waters is so rare that tests for them are not usually 

made. Any constituent present in sufficient amount to be clearly peroKellerman, K. F. and Whittaker, H. A., Farm water supplies of Minnesota: Bull. Bur. Plant Industry No. 154, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1909.
WATEE FOB DOMESTIC PURPOSES. 237

ceptible to the taste is objectionable. Two parts per million of iron is 

unpalatable to many people, and even this small amount can cause 

trouble by discoloring washbowls and tubs and fey producing rusty 

stains on clothes. Tea or coffee can not be made satisfactorily with 

water containing much iron, because an inky black compound is 

formed. Four or five parts of hydrogen sulphide are unpleasant to the 

taste, and this dissolved gas is objectionable also because it corrodes 

well strainers and other metal fittings. Many well waters in this area 

contain so much free hydrogen sulphide that they are unfit for use. 

The amounts of silica and aluminum ordinarily present in well waters 

have no special significance in relation to domestic supply. The alkalies, sodium and potassium, are high in most Indiana waters in which 

chlorides are high.

Approximately 250 parts of chlorides make a water taste "salty," 

and much less than that amount causes corrosion. In regions 

where the chloride content runs as low as 5 or 10 parts in normal 

waters unaffected by animal pollution the amount of chlorides is 

frequently taken as a measure of contamination. But such practice 

in north-central Indiana is out of the question for two reasons: 

First, the normal chloride content in most of the well waters is so 

high that the small changes possibly caused by animal pollution are 

insignificant; second, wells near together and free from contamination may differ 200 or 300 per cent in their content of chlorides, 

owing to difference in the composition of the materials from which 

they draw their respective supplies. Therefore the establishment of 

isochlors,-or lines of equal chlorine, in this area would be of no sanitary value whatever.

Calcium and magnesium are chiefly responsible for what is known 

as the hardness of water. This undesirable quality is indicated by 

increased soap consumption and by deposition on kettles of scale 

composed almost entirely of calcium, magnesium, carbonates, and 

sulphates. Calcium and magnesium unite with soap, forming insoluble curdy compounds with no. cleansing value and preventing 

the formation of a lather until all of these two basic radicles has been 

precipitated. Hardness is measured by the soap-consuming capacity 

of a water expressed as an equivalent of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ), 

and it can be computed from the amounts of calcium and magnesium 

in a water or can be determined by actual testing with standard 

soap solution. If, as Whipple states,0 1 pound of ordinary soap will 

soften only about 24 gallons of water having a total hardness of 200 

parts per million, it can readily be seen that housekeepers and owners 

of laundries in north-central Indiana are intimately concerned in 

the hardness of water, which ranges in this region from 150 to 500

» Wbipple, G. C., The value of pure water, New York, 1907, p. 26.
238 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL. INDIANA.

parts per million and does not in many samples fall below 200 parts. 

The use of soda ash (sodium carbonate) to "break" such waters, or 

to precipitate the calcium and magnesium, is common and effects 

saving in the cost of soap. Some large cities in other States have 

found it advisable to soften their public water supplies instead of 

leaving that task to the individual consumer.

WATER FOB BOILER USE. 

IMPORTANCE OF MINERAL, CONTENT.

The amount of mineral matter in the waters of north-central 

Indiana is so considerable that the selection of proper supplies for 

boiler use depends largely on the chemical composition of available 

waters, and the quantity of water required for locomotives by the 

network of railroads in this section is so enormous that its quality 

is a matter of high importance in industrial economy. The chief 

troubles in boiler-room practice caused by the mineral constituents 

of natural waters are formation of scale, corrosion, and priming.

FORMATION OF SCALE.

, The most common trouble is formation of scale, or deposition of 

mineral matter within the boiler shell. When water is heated under 

pressure and concentrated by evaporation, as in a steam boiler, certain substances are thrown out of solution and solidify on the flues 

and crown sheets or within the,tubes. These deposits cause increased 

fuel consumption because they are poor conductors of heat and 

increased cost of boiler repairs and attendance because they have 

to be removed. If the amount of scale is very great or if it is allowed 

to accumulate the boiler capacity is decreased and disastrous explosions are likely to take place. In two years the inspectors for 

one insurance company ° found over 86,000 boilers, or nearly onefifth of all those examined, to be defective on account of sediment, 

incrustation, and scale.

The importance of scale formation and of means of reducing or 

preventing it may be judged by considering the effect of a water 

such as is shown on page 265 by the average composition of the waters 

in the fresh-water limestones. If such water were used in a system 

without condensers under ordinary conditions it would form about 

2.6 pounds of scale to 1,000 gallons of water; besides the increased 

fuel consumption and increased depreciation of the plant caused by 

this deposit, the scale itself in a 1,000-horsepower system would 

amount to a ton every seven working days, and this mass would have 

to be shoveled, scraped, and hammered from the inside of the boiler,

oThe Locomotive (Hartford), new ser., vol. 21, 1900, p. 29; vol. 22, 1901, p. 21.
WATEE FOR BOILER USE. 239

In one boiler room in Indianapolis SI60 a month has been saved in 

maintenance charges by treating the water supply.0

The scale or incrustation consists of the substances that are insoluble in the feed water or become so within the boiler under conditions 

of ordinary operation. It includes practically all the suspended 

matter, or mud; the silica, probably precipitated as silica (SiO2); 

the iron and aluminum, appearing in the scale as oxides or hydrated 

oxides; the calcium, precipitated principally in the form of carbonate and sulphate; and the magnesium, found in the deposits 

principally as the oxide but partly as the carbonate. The scale conconstituted by these substances is therefore a mixture of compounds, 

which varies in amount, density, hardness, and composition with 

different conditions of water supply, steam pressure, type of boiler, 

and other circumstances. Calcium and magnesium are the principal basic substances in the scale, over 90 per cent of which usually 

is calcium, magnesium, carbonates, and sulphates. If much organic 

matter is present part of it is precipitated with the mineral scale, as 

the organic matter is decomposed by heat or by reaction with other 

substances. If magnesium and sulphates are comparatively low or 

if suspended matter is comparatively high the scale is soft and bulky 

and may be in the form of sludge that can be blown or washed 

from the boiler. On the other hand, a clear water relatively high in 

magnesium and sulphates may produce a hard, compact scale that 

is nearly as dense as porcelain, clings to the tubes, and offers great 

resistance to the transmission of heat. Therefore the value of a 

water for boiler use depends not only on the quantity of scale produced by it but also on the physical structure of the scale.

CORROSION.

Corrosion or "pitting" is caused chiefly by the solvent action of 

acids on the iron of the boiler. Free acids capable of dissolving iron 

occur in some natural waters, especially in the drainage from coal 

mines, which usually contains free sulphuric acid. Many ground 

waters contain free hydrogen sulphide, a gas that readily attacks 

boilers; dissolved oxygen and free carbon dioxide also are corrosive 

in their action. Organic matter is probably a source of acids, for 

it is well known that waters high in organic matter and low in calcium 

and magnesium are corrosive, though the exact nature and action 

of the organic bodies are not understoodJ Acids freed in the boiler 

during the steam-making process by the deposition of basic radicles 

as hydrates are the most important cause iof corrosive action. Iron, 

aluminum, and magnesium are precipitated as hydrates that are later 

partly or completely converted into oxides. According to the chemical composition of the water the acid radicles that were in equilibaBoardinan, A. J., Proper treatment of boiler feed water: Power, and Engineer, vol. 30,1909, p. 552^
240 UNDEEGEOUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

rium with these bases may do one or all of three things: They may 

pass into equilibrium with other bases, displacing equivalent proportions of carbonates and bicarbonates; or they may decompose carbonates that have been precipitated as scale; or they may combine 

with the iron of the boiler, thus causing corrosion. If these acids 

exceed the amount required to decompose the carbonate and bicarbonate radicles present the iron of the boiler is attacked, and the 

results are pits or tuberculations of the interior surface, leaks, particularly around rivets, and consequent deterioration of the boiler.

FOAMING.

Foaming is the formation of masses of bubbles on the surface' of 

the water in the boiler and in the steam space above the water, 

and it is intimately connected with priming, which is the passage 

of water mixed with steam from the boiler. Foaming results when 

anything prevents the free escape of steam from the water. It 

may be due to particles of suspended matter, but usually the 

principal cause is an excess of dissolved substances that increases 

the surface tension of the liquid, and thereby reduces the readiness 

with which the steam bubbles break. Therefore the tendency of a 

water to foam varies inversely with the concentration it will undergo 

before developing an excessive surface tension. As the sodium and" 

potassium salts remain dissolved in the boiler water while the greater 

portion of the other substances is precipitated, the foaming tendency 

is commonly measured by the degree of concentration of the alkaline salts in solution, because this figure considered in connection with 

the type of boiler determines the length of time that a boiler may 

run without danger of foaming.

REMEDIES FOE BOILER TROUBLES.

The best remedy for troubles caused by substances in feed waters 

is treatment of supplies before they enter boilers; this subject is 

considered under " Purification of water" (p. 251). Whensuch treatment can not be given there are various ways of reducing potential 

injury. Low-pressure, large-flue boilers are frequently used in 

stationary plants in the Central States with hard waters, and it is 

said that the scale formed in them is softer and more flocculent and 

can therefore be more readily removed than that in high-pressure 

boilers. Blowing off is about the only practical means of preventing 

foaming, because this trouble is due principally to concentration of 

soluble salts in the residual water of the boilers. Accumulated 

sludge, or soft scale, can be removed by blowing, particularly in 

locomotive practice. In condensing systems much of the trouble due 

to mineral matter in the feed water is obviated because the quantity 

of raw water supplied is proportionately small. The problem is not
WATER FOE BOILEB USB. 241

completely solved in such systems, because the incrusting or corrosive action is transferred from the boiler to the condenser, which 

requires more or less cleaning and repairing in proportion to the 

undesirable qualities of the water supply.

BOILER COMPOUNDS.

Boiler compounds are widely used in regions where hard waters 

abound, but treatment within the boiler should be given only when it 

is impossible to purify the supply before it enters the boiler. If previous purification is not practicable the feed water frequently can be 

improved by judicious addition of chemicals. Many substances, 

ranging from flour, oatmeal, and sliced potatoes to barium and chromium salts, have been recommended for such use, but only two or 

three have proved to be truly economical. Gary® has classified these 

substances according to their action within the boiler. Those that 

attack chemically the scaling and corroding constituents precipitate 

the incrusting matter and neutralize acids. Soda ash, the commercial 

form of sodium carbonate, containing about 95 per cent Na^COg, is the 

most valuable substance of this character, because it is comparatively 

cheap and its use is attended with the least objectionable results. 

Tannin and tannin compounds are also frequently used for the same 

purpose. Palmer 6 mentions the use of limewater to prevent corrosion 

and to obviate foaming, and it is probable that lime used with waters 

high in organic matter and very low in incrustants would improve 

them. The chemical reactions occurring when soda ash is used to 

remove the mineral constituents of water have been discussed at 

length in previous publications,0 and it is not necessary to enter 

into details here. The proper amount to be used is a question to 

be decided for each water from its chemical composition and the style 

of boiler. The use of soda ash results in neutralizing of acids, precipitating the incrusting ingredients in a softer, more flocculent form, which 

is more easily removed from the boiler, and increasing the foaming 

tendency of the water by increasing its content of dissolved matter. 

Gary's second class of boiler compounds comprises those that act 

mechanically on the precipitated crystals of scale-making matter soon

a Gary, A. A., The use of boiler compounds: Am. Machinist, vol. 22, pt. 2,1899, p. 1153.

6 Palmer, Chase, Quality of the underground waters in the Blue Grass region of Kentucky: In WaterSupply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 233,1909, p. 187.

c Stabler, Herman, The mineral analysis of water for industrial purposes and its interpretation by the 

engineer: Eng. News, vol. 60,1908, p. 355.

Gary, A. A., The use of boiler compounds: Am. Machinist, vol. 22, pt. 2,1899, p. 1153.

Handy, J. O., Water-softening: Eng. News, May 26, 1904, p. 499.

Davidson, G. M.,The C. & N. W. method of water treatment: Proe. Western Ry. Club, vol. 15, No. 6, 

Feb. 17,1903.

Booth, W, H., Water softening and treatment, London, 1906.

Collett, Harold, Water softening and purification, London, 1896.

Christie, W. W., Boiler waters, New York, 1906.

46448° WSP 254 10 16
242 UNDEEGEOUND WATERS OF NOETH-CENTEAL INDIANA.

after they are formed, surrounding them and robbing them of their 

cement-like action. Glutinous, starchy, and oily substances belong 

to this class, but they are not now used to any considerable extent 

because they frequently thicken and foul the water more than they 

prevent the formation of hard scale. The third class comprises those 

that act mechanically, like those of the second class, and also partly 

dissolve deposited scale, thus loosening it and aiding in its ready 

removal. Kerosene is the most effective of such materials.

Many boiler compounds possessing or supposed to possess one or 

more of the functions just described are on the market, and the sale of 

them is very great. Some are effective and some are positively injurious. Most of them depend for their chief action on soda ash, petroleum, or a vegetable extract, but all are costly compared with lime 

and soda ash. Every engineer should bear in mind that a steam 

boiler is an expensive piece of apparatus and that fuel and boiler 

repairs are also expensive. Therefore he should hesitate to add substances to his feed water without competent advice regarding their 

effect. It is far more economical to have the water supply analyzed 

and to treat it effectively by certain well-known chemicals in proper 

proportion, either within or without the boiler, than to experiment 

with compounds of unknown composition.

NUMERICAL STANDARDS.

Stabler a in his excellent mathematical discussion of the quality 

of waters with reference to industrial uses gives several formulas by 

which waters may be classified. His methods of calculating the 

amount and the character of scale likely to result from use of a 

water are given as follows:

A = .008338m + .008330m + .0107Fe + .0157A1 + .0138Mg + .0246Ca.

B = Sm + Cm + 1.3Fe + 1.9Al+1.66Mg + 2.95Ca.

A represents pounds of scale per 1,000 gallons of water and B 

(computed from the preceding formula) represents parts per million 

of scale. Sm, Cm, Fe, Al, Mg, and Ca represent, respectively, the 

amounts in parts per million of suspended matter, colloidal matter 

(silica plus oxides of iron and alumium), iron, aluminum, magnesium, 

and calcium in the water. In this formula Ca should not exceed 

.668CO3 + .328HCO3 + .417SO4 , in which CO3 , HCO3 , and SO4 represent, 

respectively, the amounts in parts per million of the carbonate, 

bicarbonate, and sulphate radicles present in the water. It is sometimes uncertain whether iron and aluminum are in solution or in 

colloidal state, but in applying these formulas to Indiana ground 

waters little error is introduced by assuming that Cm equals silica 

only. If it is desired to compute tlie scale-forming ingredients of 

waters whose analyses in this report give no values for silica, iron,

a Eng. News, vol. 60, 1908, p. 355.
WATER FOE BOILER USE. 243

or aluminum, Cm may be taken as 20 and Fe and Al as zero, without introducing great error. In clear waters Sm would of course 

be zero; consequently for most Indiana ground waters the amount 

of scale may be estimated practically from the figures representing 

silica, calcium, and magnesium.

In the following Stabler formula C represents the amount of hard 

scale in pounds per 1,000 gallons of water and D the same in parts 

per million recomputed from the C formula; SiO2 , Mg, Cl, SO4 , Na, 

and K represent the respective amounts in parts per million of 

silica, magnesium, chlorides, sulphates, sodium, and potassium. If 

the alkalies are not separated, the figure representing sodium and 

potassium together and computed as sodium may be used with the 

Na coefficient in place of the last two terms of these formulas.

C=. 00833 SiO2 + .0138 Mg+ (.01601 + .0118 SO4 -.0246Na-.0145 

K). 

D = SiO2 +1.66Mg+(1.92Cl + 1.42SO4 -2.95Na-1.74K),

The ratio (b) between the amount of hard scale and the total 

amount of scale is an index of the probable hardness of the scale, 

expressed thus:

C D

If b is not more than 0.25 the scale may be classified as soft; if 

between 0.25 and 0.5, as medium; and if more than 0.5, as hard. 

For other formulas and comments on those quoted the original 

article should be consulted.

The committee on water service of the American Railway Engineers and Maintenance of Way Association have offered a a classification of waters in their raw state that may be employed for approximate purposes, but, as the report states, "it is difficult to define by 

analysis sharply the line between good and bad water for steammaking purposes." The following table gives this classification with 

the amounts transformed to parts per million. In many Indiana 

waters the total incrusting and corrosive constituents are equivalent 

approximately to total solids.

Approximate classification of waters for boiler use according to proportion of incrusting

and corroding constituents.

Parts per million.

More 

than 

90 

200 

430 

680

Not more 

than 

90 

200 

430 

680

Classification.

Good. 

Fair. 

Poor. 

Bad. 

Very bad.

o Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way vol. 5,1904, p. 595,
244 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL 'INDIANA.

These limits must be interpreted liberally in practice, because they 

are modified by the comparative hardness of the incrustation and the 

different extent of corrosion effected by waters of the same mineral 

content but of different chemical composition. Waters of the worst 

class may be improved by treatment in softening plants. The question how ba'd a water may be used without treatment can be decided 

by comparing the cost of artificially softening the water with the 

saving effected by the use of softened water. A report a of the committee on water service, just quoted, describes the principles on which 

such calculations should be based. In general, it is economical in locomotive service to treat waters containing 250 to 850 parts per million 

of incrustants and those containing less than the lower amount if the 

scale formed contains much sulphates. 6 As the incrusting solids 

may commonly be reduced to 80 or 90 parts per million, the economy 

of treating boiler waters deserves consideration in a region where 

most of the supplies contain 300 to 500 parts per million of incrusting 

and corrosive matter. The amount of mineral matter that makes a 

water unfit for boiler use depends on the combined effect in boilers of 

the softening reagents used with such waters and of the constituents 

not removed by softening. Substances added to a supply to remove 

incrustants or to prevent corrosion increase the foaming tendency, 

and this increase may be great enough to render a water useless for 

steaming purposes. It is not of much benefit to soften a water containing more than 850 parts per million of nonincrusting material and 

much incrusting sulphates. 6 Waters containing over 400 parts per 

million of alkali salts may be classed as bad for boiler use. c Though 

waters containing as high as 1,700 parts per million of foaming constituents have been used, it is usually more economical to incur considerable expense in replacing such supplies by better ones.

WATER FOB OTHER INDUSTRIAL USES. 

GENERAL STATEMENT.

The manufacture of many articles is affected by the ingredients of 

natural waters. The quality of water for boiler service has already 

been discussed; with reference to factories it need only be added that 

increase of boiler efficiency often justifies purification of bad water 

when increased value of the manufactured product alone may not be 

considered to do so. This observation applies particularly to paper, 

pulp, and strawboard mills, laundries, and other establishments 

where large quantities of water are evaporated to furnish steam for 

drying, and to ice factories and similar plants where distilled water is

o Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way Assoc., vol. 8,1907, p. 601. 

6 Idem, vol. 6,1905, p. 610. 

c Idem, vol. 9,1908, p. 134.
WATEE FOE OTHER INDUSTRIAL USES. 245

produced. But besides its use for steam making water plays a specific 

part in many manufacturing processes. In paper mills, strawboard 

mills, bleacheries, dye works, canning factories, pickle factories, creameries, slaughterhouses, packing houses, nitroglycerin factories, distilleries, breweries, woolen mills, starch works, sugar works, canneries, glue 

factories, soap factories, and chemical works water becomes a part of 

the product or is essential in its manufacture. As the principal function of water in most of these establishments is that of a cleansing 

agent or a vehicle for other substances, a supply free from color, odor, 

suspended matter, microscopic organisms, and especially bacteria of 

fecal origin, and fairly low in dissolved substances, especially iron, 

generally is satisfactory; but there are some exceptions. Water 

hygienically acceptable is necessary where it comes in contact with 

or forms part of food materials, as in the making of beverages, starch, 

and dairy or meat products. As all these ideal conditions are infrequently encountered in natural supplies, the manufacturer is confronted with the problems of ascertaining what degree of freedom 

from these substances is necessary to prevent injury to his machinery 

or to his output and whether the cost of obtaining such purity is counterbalanced by decreased cost of production and increased value of 

product. Competitive business methods and increased facilities of 

transportation have standardized the values of manufactured articles 

so thoroughly that makers are now obliged to scrutinize carefully 

every item of production cost in order to obtain reasonable profits. 

Therefore any appreciable saving effected by improvement of the 

water supply is one of the easiest sources of profit for the manufacturer.

The effects in some industries of the substances most commonly 

found in water are here outlined. The treatment is not exhaustive, 

the object being to offer approximate standards to aid in classification.

EFFECT OF FREE ACIDS.

Free mineral acids, such as sulphuric acid in drainage from coal 

mines or hydrochloric acid in the eflluents of some industrial establishments, are especially injurious and nearry always necessitate 

purification. In paper mills, cotton mills, bleacheries, and dye 

works acids decompose chemicals and streak the fabrics, besides 

rotting them. They also corrode metal work, rapidly destroying 

screens, strainers, and pipes. Such effects are likely to follow the use 

of water that contains a measurable amount of free mineral acid.

EFFECT OF SUSPENDED MATTER.

Suspended matter in surface waters may be of vegetable, mineral, 

or animal origin, as it consists of particles of sewage, bits of leaves, 

sawdust, sticks, or sand and clay. The sillt so common in rivers of the
246 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

West is largely derived from sand and clay. Few well waters contain 

suspended animal or vegetable matter, but many carry finely divided 

sand and clay, and they frequently become turbid by precipitation of 

dissolved ingredients. Suspended matter is objectionable in all processes in which water is used for washing or comes into contact with 

food materials, because it is likely to stain or spot the product. 

For this reason even a small amount of suspended matter due to 

precipitated iron is especially injurious. Small amounts (10 to 20 

parts per million) of suspended vegetable or animal matter liable to 

decomposition or to partial solution are much more objectionable 

than equal quantities of mineral matter. For these reasons water 

should be freed from suspended matter before being used for laundering, bleaching, wool scouring, paper making, dyeing, starch and 

sugar making, brewing, distilling, and similar processes. In making 

the coarser grades of paper, such as strawboard, a small amount of 

suspended matter is not especially injurious, but for the finer white 

and colored varieties clear water is essential.

EFFECT OF COLOR.

Color in water is due principally to solution of vegetable matter, 

and materials bleached, washed, or dyed with light shades in colored 

water are likely to become tinged. Highly colored waters can be 

used in making wrapping or dark-tinted papers, but not the white 

grades, and paper manufacturers are put to great expense for water 

purification on that account. The lower waters are in color, therefore, the more desirable they are for use in bleacheries, dye works; 

paper mills, and other factories where fabrics are likely to acquire 

undesirable brown tints.

EFFECT OF IRON.

Iron is the most undesirable dissolved constituent and its presence 

in comparatively small quantities necessitates purification. Many 

ground waters contain 1 to 20 parts per million of iron, which may be 

precipitated by exposure to the air and by release of hydrostatic pressure, causing the waters to become turbid; such waters often develop 

growths of Crenothrix (see p. 235) that interfere in many industrial 

operations. In all cleansing processes, especially if soap or alkali 

is used, precipitated iron is likely to cause rusty or dull spots. In 

contact with materials containing tannin compounds iron forms 

greenish or black substances that discolor the product. Therefore 

many waters containing amounts even as small as 1 or 2 parts per 

million of iron have to be purified before they can be used industrially. In water for dye works iron is especially objectionable and 

it commonly prevents the use of the water without purification,0

a Sadtler, S. P., A handbook of industrial organic chemistry, Philadelphia, 1900, p. 483.
WATEE FOE OTHER INDUSTRIAL USES. 247

Iron in the water supply of paper mills may be precipitated on the 

pulp, giving it a brown color, or during sizing or tinting, giving spotty 

effects. Water containing much iron can not be used in bleaching 

fabrics, because salts that spot the goods are formed. The darkcolored compounds that iron forms with tannin discolor hides in 

tanning and barley in malting, and also give beer bad color, odor, 

and taste.0

EFFECT OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM.

Calcium and magnesium are similar in their industrial effects and 

they usually .vary together in amount, waters carrying 10 to 50 per 

cent a^ much magnesium as calcium. In most Indiana waters calcium *a:|nd magnesium are the predominating bases. In boiling processes s^»me calcium and magnesium are precipitated on whatever is 

boiled in the water, and this deposit may interfere with later operations because it covers the material. As these two basic substances 

decompose equivalent amounts of many chemicals employed in technical operations they are a cause of waste, and the alkaline-earth compounds, thus formed on fabrics also interfere with later treatment. 

This is the chief trouble with calcareous waters and the greatest argument in favor of preliminary softening. Some of the chemicals used 

to disintegrate the fibers in making pulp are consumed by the calcium 

and magnesium in the water supply, but the loss from this source is 

not nearly so great as that occurring later when the resin soap used 

in sizing the paper is decomposed by the calcium and magnesium. 

The insoluble soaps thus created do not fix themselves on the fibers, 

but forin clots and streaks. Similar decomposition of valuable cleansing materials and subsequent deposition of insoluble compounds 

take place in laundering, wool scouring, and similar processes. In 

the manufacture of soap calcium and magnesium form with the fatty 

acids curdy precipitates that are insoluble in water and therefore have 

no cleansing value. Many dyeing operations are interfered with by 

calciurii and magnesium, which neutralize chemicals and change the 

reaction of the baths, besides forming insoluble compounds with many 

dyes. Highly calcareous waters can not be used for boiling the grain 

in distilleries because proper action is hindered by deposition of 

alkaline-earth salts on the particles of grain, nor for diluting spirits 

because they cause turbidity.6 Very soft water, on the other hand, 

is said to be undesirable in paper mills for loading papers with any 

form of calcium sulphate because such waters dissolve part of the 

loading materials.0 Probably waters high in chlorides would also be 

bad for this purpose because chlorides increase the solubility of calcium sulphate.

aJDe la Coux, M. A. J., L'eau dans 1'industrie, Paris^ 1900, pp. 187 and 232.

6 Idem, p. 251.

cbross, C. F., and Bevan, E. J., A text-book of paper making, New York, 1900, p. 294.
248 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA. 

EFFECT OF CAEBONATES.

The effects of carbonates and bicarbonates in waters used in industrial processes are not differentiated in this paragraph. It is not uncommon to estimate the combined carbonic acid and to state it as the 

carbonate (CO3 ) without distinguishing between the carbonate (CO3) 

and bicarbonate (HCO3 ), though in many natural waters the carbonate radicle is absent, the combined carbonic acid being present in the 

form of bicarbonates. If hard waters proportionately high in carbonates and low in sulphates are boiled the bicarbonate radicle is decomposed, free carbonic acid is given off, and the greater part of the 

calcium and magnesium is precipitated. For this reason waters of 

that character are generally more desirable for industrial operations 

than waters high in sulphates and low in carbonates, as boiling does 

not greatly reduce the amount of the hardening constituents under 

the latter conditions. In beer making waters high in carbonates are 

said to produce dark-colored beers with a pronounced malt flavor because the carbonates increase the solubility of the nitrogenous bodies, 

whereas waters high in sulphates yield pale beers with a definite hop 

flavor because the sulphates reduce the solubility of the malt and the 

coloring matters.0

EFFECT OF SULPHATES.

The influence of sulphates in beer making has been noted. Hard 

waters with sulphates predominating are desirable in tanning heavy 

hides because they swell the skins, exposing more surface for the action 

of the tan liquors. b Sulphates interfere with crystallization in sugar 

making so that the amount of sugar retained in the mother liquor is 

increased.

EFFECT OF CHLOEIDES.

High chlorides in most Indiana waters are accompanied by high 

alkalies. Appreciable amounts of chlorides are injurious in many 

industrial processes. Beverages and food products, of course, can 

not be treated with waters very high in chlorides without becoming 

salty. In tanning, chlorides cause the hides to become thin and 

flabby.6 Animal charcoal used in clarifying sugar is robbed of its 

bleaching power by absorption of salt, and chloride-bearing waters 

also affect the quality of sugars because saline salts are incorporated 

in the crystals.0 In the preparation of alcoholic beverages chlorides 

in large amount prevent the growth of the yeast and interfere with the 

germination of the grain. The only way of removing chlorides from 

water that has been commercially developed is by distillation. The

a Brewing water, its defects and'remedies, New York, 1909, p. 19. Also De la Coux, op cit., p. 169. 

6 Parker, H. N., Stream pollution [in Potomac River basin]: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Suivey No. 

192,1907, p. 194. 

« De la Coux, op. cit., p. 162.
WATER FOB MEDICINAL USE. 249

cost of this process has been greatly reduced by use of multipleeffect evaporators, and this method of purification is worth consideration where chloride-bearing waters mi|ist be used.

EFFECT OF OKGANIC MATTEE.

Organic matter of fecal origin is of course dangerous in any water 

supply that comes into contact with food products, and water so 

polluted should be purified before being used. Care in this respect 

is particularly necessary in creameries, slaughterhouses, canneries, 

pickle factories, distilleries, breweries, sugar factories, and starch 

works. Organic matter not necessarily capable of producing disease 

is undesirable in industrial supplies because it induces decomposition 

in other organic materials like cloth, yarn, sugar, starch, meat, or 

paper rotting and discoloring them.

EFFECT OF HYDEOGEN SULPHIDE.

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a gas with an odor like that of rotten 

eggs, and it occurs dissolved in some underground waters. It is 

corrosive even in small quantities, and it also injures materials by 

discoloring and rotting them. This substance is associated with so 

much dissolved salts in many waters thai they are unfit for industrial 

use for reasons other than their gaseous content.

EFFECT OF OTHER SUBSTANCES.

Silica and aluminum are usually not present in sufficient quantity 

to have any appreciable effect in industrial processes, except when 

water i|s evaporated. Large quantities of sodium and potassium, by 

adding to the amount of dissolved matter, are objectionable in some 

manufacturing operations. Phosphates, nitrates, and some other 

substances not noted in this outline interfere with industrial chemical 

reactions, but they are seldom present in natural waters in sufficient 

quantity to have noticeable effect.

WATER FOR MEDICINAL USE.

The relation between the constituents of natural waters and their 

physiologic action has been discussed at length in the works of 

Cohen,P Crook, 6 and others. An excellent article by Hessler c 

refers especially to the mineral waters of Indiana. Blatchley d has

a Cohen, 

6 Crook,

S. S., System of physiologic therapeutics, vol. 9, ijhiladelphia, 1902.

J. K., The mineral waters of the United States and their therapeutic uses, New York, 1899.

cHessler, Robert, The medicinal properties and uses of Indiana waters: Twenty-sixth Ann. Kept., 

Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Res., 1903, p. 159; also The ipineral waters of Indiana, with indications 

for their therapeutic application: Trans. Indiana State Med. Ste., 1902.

<* Blatehjey, W. S., The mineral waters of Indiana: Twenty-dixth Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology 

and Nat. Res., 1903, p. 11.
250 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL, INDIANA.

described 16 mineral waters in the 19 counties included in this report. 

To note a few features that are often forgotten or disregarded in considering the application of mineral waters may not be out of place.

The term "mineral" may reasonably be applied to all natural 

waters, as all contain dissolved mineral matter, but in general practice 

it is restricted to those that are exploited on accpunt of their supposedly specific physiologic action. The term "medicinal" is sometimes used to distinguish highly mineralized waters from those that 

are low in mineral constituents and are especially acceptable as table 

waters by reason of their physical characteristics. The most logical 

classification of waters for discussing their chemical constituents in 

relation to therapeutics is that of Peale a as modified by Haywood6 for 

the ionic form of stating analyses of water, though Haywood's system is somewhat misleading in a few minor details. It is a strictly 

chemical classification, by which waters are grouped according to 

their reaction and their predominating basic and acid radicles, so that 

the name conveys a statementjof the principal active substances.

The therapeutic application of water, or its use for the correction 

of diseased conditions of the human body, has always been recognized 

in scientific writings, and the continued and increasing patronage of 

mineral-spring resorts and the undoubted improvement of many 

patients treated there clearly indicate that natural waters have 

curative properties. Yet the frequent claims of miraculous recovery 

by the use of mineral waters, together with the extravagant statements regarding the waters, can but rouse skepticism as investigation 

reveals how meagerly such claims are supported by evidence. Statement of analyses in hypothetical combination adds to the confusion, 

because the identity and the number of the compounds calculated 

depend on the judgment of the analyst and not on his laboratory 

data. Therefore comparison of the analyses of different waters is 

rendered difficult and misleading. Lithium, for instance, is said to 

be a particularly valuable ingredient; yet many analysts report 

lithium carbonate, sulphate, or chloride in waters in spite of the fact 

that the physiologic action is due mainly to the lithium itself and not 

to lithium carbonate in distinction from the chloride or the sulphate 

or, in other words, that the action takes place only when the salt 

is dissociated. If different lithium compounds are reported, it is 

impossible to measure the effect of the lithium, unless it is recognized 

that 5.3 parts per million of lithium carbonate, 6.1 parts of lithium 

chloride, 7.9 of the sulphate, and 9.7 of the bicarbonate contain

o Peale, A. C., The natural mineral waters of the United States: Fourteenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1894, pt. 2, p. 53; also, The classification of American mineral waters: Trans. Am. Climatological 

Assoc., May 31,1907; also, introductory chapter on the classification of mineral waters in Cohen's System 

of physiologic therapeutics, vol. 9,1902, p. 299.

& Haywood, J. K., and Smith, B. H., Mineral waters of the United States: U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chemistry, Bull. 91,1905, p. 9.
PURIFICATION OF ^ATEE. 251

each exactly 1 part of lithium. The curative properties of some 

waters are attributed to minor ingredients that are present in comparatively insignificant quantities, and many waters containing much 

less than 1 part per million of lithium are widely advertised as lithia 

waters. Though it is true that many drugs are as efficient when 

given in very small but frequent doses as when given in one large 

dose, tjhe therapeutic value of 1 part per million of lithium may well 

be questioned, because a physician would have to prescribe 200 tumblerful^ of the water in order to administer an ordinary minimum 

dose of lithium. The physiologic effect of these minor ingredients is 

usually overshadowed by that of other substances present in much 

larger quantities. Many strong brines^ for example, contain considerable amounts of lithium, but, as Hessler states," the effect of 

10 parts of lithium in the presence of 1,000 or more parts of 

chlorides would probably be insignificant as compared with the 

effect pf the saline constituents. Many mineral springs are found to 

possess radioactivity, and this characteristic has been advanced 

as explaining their curative qualities. So far as the writer is 

informed, however, no acceptable proof of this theory has been 

advanced. On the other hand, the beneficial effect on the human 

body of water itself, both hot and cold, used internally or externally, | is thoroughly recognized in therapeutics, and the curative 

qualities of waters not containing appreciable amounts of physiologically active substances may be attributed as reasonably to the 

action of water itself, combined with a normal regimen of diet, 

exercise, and other hygienic restrictions, as to some mysterious 

quality or substance yet undiscovered.

!

PURIFICATION OF WATER. 

GENERAL DISCUSSION.

Purification of water is removal or reduction in amount of substances that render waters in their raw state unsuitable for use. It 

is practiced on a large scale with one or more of three objects in 

view: First, to render a supply safejind unobjectionable for drinking; 

second, to reduce the amount of the mineral ingredients injurious to 

boilerd; third, to remove substances injurious to the machinery or to 

the manufactured product in industrial processes. The largest 

purification plants in this country have been constructed in order to 

produce potable waters without special attention to other possible 

uses, ajnd some waters need no further treatment before being suitable 

for steaming and for general industrial purposes. But many other 

waters; are hard, and increased appreciation of the value of good 

water has resulted in demand for the removal of the hardening conr, Robert, The mineral waters of Indiana, with indications for their therapeutic application: 

Trans. Indiana State Med. Soc., 1902.
252 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

stituents also. An excellent example of the result of such insistence 

is the recently installed plant at New Orleans, where hard, colored, 

turbid, sewage-polluted river water is brought up^to practically all 

industrial and domestic standards of purity.

Removal of bacteria, especially those causing disease, and removal 

of turbidity, odor, taste, and iron are the principal requirements in 

purification of a municipal supply, elimination of bacteria and suspended matter being the most important. The most common 

methods of effecting such purification are slow filtration through 

sand and rapid filtration after coagulation, both methods usually 

being combined with sedimentation. The first process is known as 

slow sand filtration and the second as mechanical filtration. The 

efficiency of such filters is measured primarily by the ratio between 

the number of bacteria in the applied water and the number in the 

effluent. This figure, stated in percentage of removal, should be as 

high as 98 and often reaches 99.8 per cent with a filter of either kind 

operated carefully under normal conditions.

Removal of scale-forming and neutralization of corrosive constituents are the chief aims in preparing water for steam making. 

Two general methods are employed, namely, cold chemical precipitation followed by sedimentation, and application of heat with or 

without chemicals, usually followed by rapid filtration. The first 

process is carried on in cold-water softening plants and the second in 

feed-water heaters.

The requirements of the water supplies for industries are so varied 

that classification of purification methods is difficult. Water properly prepared for domestic and for boiler use is suitable for most 

industrial establishments, and it is more economical for small manufacturers in large cities to buy such water from water companies than 

to maintain private supplies and purification apparatus. It is 

usually cheaper, however, for large factories to be supplied from 

separate sources, not only because of saving in actual cost of water 

but also because of the opportunity thus afforded of procuring water 

specially adapted to the needs of the factory. The common methods 

of industrial water purification are those already mentioned, or 

combinations of them, modified to meet particular needs. In a few 

industrial processes, notably the manufacture of ice by the can 

system, water practically free from all dissolved and suspended substances is necessary, and distilled water must be manufactured. 

Distillation is expensive, though the employment of multiple-effect 

evaporators has greatly reduced the cost of operation.

Besides the four common systems of purification many minor processes are used, sometimes alone but more frequently as adjuncts to 

filters or softeners. Surface waters are screened through wooden or

iron grids or through revolving wire screens to remove sticks and
SLOW SAND FILTRATION. . 253

le&res before other treatment. Coarse suspended matter ean be 

removed by rapid filtration through ground quartz or similar material 

iff unit|3 of convenient size provided with, arrangements for washing 

thte filtering medium, similar to those used in mechanical filters. 

Very turbid river waters are first allowed to stand in large sedimentation basins to reduce the cost of operating the filters. Supplies 

objectionable only because of their iron content are aerated by being 

sprayed into the air or by being allowed to trickle over rocks, or by 

other methods causing evaporation of carbonic acid and absorption 

of oxygen. Such a process precipitates and oxidizes the iron in 

solution so that it can readily be removed by rapid filtration. Similar 

aeration is often employed to evaporate and oxidize dissolved gases 

that cause objectionable tastes and odors.

Disinfection by ozone, copper sulphate, calcium hypochlorite, and 

many other substances kills organisms that may cause disease or 

impart bad odors and tastes. Purification of this character must be 

done with substances that will destroy the objectionable organisms 

without making the water poisonous to animals. Such treatment is 

especially adapted for sewage 05 but it is also employed in connection 

with filtration of municipal supplies. Natural purification of water 

is accomplished largely through the biological processes mentioned by 

Hazenj6 in which the organic matter is oxidized by serving as food 

for bacteria and objectionable organisms are destroyed by the production of conditions unfavorable to their existence. Action of this 

kind takes place in reservoirs and lakes, and it is also relied upon in 

many processes for the artificial purification of sewage.6

SLOW SAND FILTBATION.

.... Slow^ sand filtration consists in causing the water to pass slowly

downward through a layer of sand of such thickness and fineness that 

the requisite removal of suspended substances is accomplished. The 

filter is also called the continuous and the English filter. On the 

bottom of a water-tight basin commonly constructed of concrete perforated tiles or pipes laid in the form of a grid are covered with a foot 

of gravel graded in size from 25 to 3 millimeters in diameter from 

bottom to top, and a layer of fine sand 3 to 4 feet in depth is put over 

the gravel, which serves only to support the sand. When water is 

applied on the surface it passes through the sand and the gravel and 

flows away through the underdrain. The suspended materials, 

including bacteria, are removed by the sand, the action of which is 

rendered more efficient by the rapid formation of a mat of finely

oPhelpg, E. B., The disinfection of sewage and sewage filter effluents; Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 

Survey No. 229,1909.

6 Hazen^ Alien, Clean water and how to get it, New York, 1907, p. 83.

« Winslo/w, C.-E. A., and Phelps, E. B., Investigations on the purification of Boston sewage, with a history 

of the sewfege-disposal problem: Water-Supply Paper U. S. G£ol. Survey No. 185,1906,
254 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

divided sediment on the surface. When this film has become so 

thick that filtration is unduly retarded, the water is allowed to subside below the surface and about half an inch of sand is removed, after 

which filtration is resumed. The sand thus taken off is washed to 

free it from the collected impurities, and it is replaced on the beds 

after they have been reduced by successive scrapings to a thickness of 

about 20 inches. As cleaning necessitates temporary withdrawal of 

filters from service, they are divided into units of convenient size, 

usually half an acre each, so that the operation of the system may not 

be interrupted. Filters may be roofed and sodded; this facilitates 

cleaning by preventing the formation of ice, permits work on the 

filter beds in all kinds of weather, and inhibits algae growths.

The foregoing are the essential features of a slow sand filter, but 

several adjuncts render this system more efficient. A clear-water 

basin for the filtered supply, covered to prevent deterioration of the 

water, is provided in order that the varying rate of consumption may 

not affect the rate of filtration. Clarification of turbid water is 

rendered more economical by allowing it to stand for one to three 

days, during which a large portion of the suspended matter is deposited, 

so that the time between sand scrapings is lengthened. Another 

form of pretreatment is passage through roughing, or preliminary, 

filters consisting of beds of slag, sponge, or stone, the water flowing at 

15 to 20 times the rate in sand filters. A very large proportion of the 

suspended matter is thus removed. Objectionable odors and tastes 

may be obviated by aeration before or after filtration. Killing the 

bacteria before filtration by use of ozone or other germicides has also 

been proposed.

Slow sand filtration removes practically all the suspended matter 

and the bacteria. Color is only slightly reduced, and the hardness 

is not changed. The process is especially adapted to waters low in 

color, suspended matter, and animal pollution. Very small particles 

of clay are not removed by these filters and for waters containing 

them only for limited periods the addition of a coagulant before 

filtration has been proposed.0 It can readily be seen that the efficiency of this kind of filter depends largely on the character of the 

sand, as the ability to prevent the passage of suspended matter is 

governed by the size of the spaces between the sand particles. The 

rate of filtration depends on the average size of the sand particles, 

the thickness of the sand bed, the head of water, and the turbidity. 

Under ordinary conditions of operation in the United States the rate 

in slow sand filters preceded by sedimentation is 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 

gallons per acre per day.

a Report of Bering, Fuller, and Hazen on the methods of purifying the water supply of the District of 

Columbia: Senate Rept. 2380,56th Cong., 2d sess.
UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTHMECHANICAL PILTEATION.

the

niim 

tnke

The distinctive features of the mechani 

a coagulant and the high rate of filtration, 

is applied because of the contrivances 

mediuni; the filter is also known as the 

water during its entrance into the 

smaller than that used with slow sand filt 

nite proportion of some coagulant, which 

a gelatinous precipitute that unites and in< 

rial, including the bacteria, and absorbs 

This cojnbined action destroys color and 

larger and therefore more readily removable 

phate, the coagulant most commonly used 

hydrat0 is precipitated and the sulphate 

replacing an equivalent amount of 

droxyl Radicles. The natural alkalinity o 

to effect this reaction. According to Haze a 

dinary aluminum sulphate should be 

expressed as CaCO3 to insure complete de 

Unity is not high enough, part of the alu 

solution and good coagulation does not 

or soda ash is added if the alkalinity is too 

of ,aluminum sulphate to be used is 

color, organic matter, and suspended mat 

the suspended matter, and it is best 

tation with the water to be purified, 

used instead of aluminum sulphate; lime 

it in order to bring about proper coagulat

The water with the coagulant is allowed 

in the sedimentation basin, where a large 

tides is deposited. It is then passed ra; 

ground stone to remove the rest of the 

filters nk)w in use are built of wood or iron i 

feet in diameter, and some are designed so 

tened by pressure. The sand, 30 to 50 met es 

floor containing perforations large enough 

water but small enough to prevent 

^ the filter has become clogged the flow of water 

ter being forced upward through the sand 

the impurities, which pass over the top of 

water. A revolving rake with long prong: 

the sarid mixes it during washing and 

graded into spots of coarse or fine particle

passage

CENTRAL INDIANA. 255

cal process are the use of 

The term "mechanical" 

for washing the filtering 

American filter. The raw 

entation basin, which is 

rs, is treated with a defilorms by its decomposition 

loses the suspended mateorganic coloring matter, 

nakes suspended particles 

When aluminum sulis decomposed aluminum 

radicle remains in solution, 

carbcnate, bicarbonate, or hymany waters is sufficient 

a 1 part per million of orallowed 0.6 part of alkalinity 

omposition. If the alkaum sulphate remains in 

place. Therefore lime 

low. The proper amount 

determined by the amounts of 

er, and by the fineness of 

ascertained by direct experimenFer:*ous sulphate is sometimes 

riust always be added with 

on.

o stand three or four hours 

proportion of suspended par- 

,pidly through beds of sand or 

luspended matter. Many 

n cylindrical form 10 to 20 

that filtration can be hasdeep, rests on a metallic 

to allow ready issue of the 

of sand grains. When 

is reversed, filtered wato wash it and to remove 

the filter with the wasted 

projecting downward into 

prevents it from becoming 

In recently constructed

iHazen, Alien, Report of filtration commission of the city of Pittsburg, 1899, p. 57.
256 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES OF NOBTH-CENTEAL INDIANA.

works rectangular filters 300 to 1,300 square feet in area have been 

built, and compressed air forced through the sand at intervals is used 

instead of a revolving rake for agitating the sand during washing. 

Larger orifices in the strainers are also being used and the introduction 

of sand is prevented by fine gravel over the strainer pipes. The rate 

of filtration is from 80,000,000, to 180,000,000 gallons per acre per day.1 

The time between washings is six to twelve hours, depending principally on the turbidity of the water applied to the filter, and 4 to 8 per 

cent of the water filtered is consumed in washing.

Mechanical filtration removes practically all suspended matter, 

reduces the color to an amount that is unobjectionable, and part of 

the dissolved iron is removed under some conditions. The permanent hardness of the water is increased in proportion to the amount of 

sulphate radicle added as aluminum sulphate, and if only enough 

lime to decompose the coagulant is added, the total hardness is 

increased. If larger amounts of lime are added, however, the hardness is reduced. If soda ash is used in place of lime the foaming constituents of the water are increased. The chemicals are always added in 

solution. As this method of filtration is used almost entirely for 

river waters, with fluctuating contents of suspended and dissolved 

matter, proper operation requires constant and intelligent attention.

COLD-WATER SOFTENING.

The principal object of water softening is to remove the substances 

that cause incrustations in boilers, particularly calcium and magnesium, and to neutralize those that cause corrosion. Chemicals of 

known strength properly dissolved in water are added to the raw supply in such proportion as to precipitate all the dissolved constituents 

that can be economically removed by such treatment. The water is 

then allowed to stand long enough to permit the precipitate to settle, 

after which the clear effluent is drawn off; or, if more rapid operation 

is desired, filters of the rapid type may be used after sedimentation. 

The water softeners on the market differ only in the precipitant, in the 

filtering medium if one is used, and in the mechanism regulating the 

incorporation of the chemicals with the water.

Among the substances that have been proposed as precipitants are 

sodium carbonate, silicate, hydrate, fluoride, and phosphate, barium 

carbonate, oxide, and hydrate, and calcium oxide, but of these substances lime and soda ash are almost exclusively used on account of 

their excellent action and comparative cheapness. When soda ash 

(Na2CO3 ) and lime dissolved in water to form a solution of calcium 

hydrate [Ca(OH) 2] are added to a water in proper proportion, free 

acids are neutralized, free carbon dioxide is removed, the bicarbonate 

radicle is decomposed, and iron, aluminum, and magnesium hydrates
FEED-WATEB HEATOfG.

and calcium carbonate are precipitatec 

stances are removed to the extent of the sc 

in water, and the calcium added as lime 

sodium from the soda ash remains in soli 

The precipitate in settling takes down w 

the suspended matter. The filters are 

excelsior, wool, or similar material, through 

at a very rapid rate to remove particles th 

tanks.

Such treatment with lime and soda ash 

of the iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesiun 

and free carbon dioxide and suspended m 

and the organic matter; in other words, 

are removed. Sodium, potassium, sulph 

in solution, and the alkalies are increased 

tity of soda ash that is added; that is-, 

increased, and this fixes the maximum 

can be treated. The minimum amount 

water is determined by the solubility of 

and by the completeness of the reaction b 

and the dissolved matter. It is about 

sulphate radicle can be removed by using 

precipitate barium sulphate, but the pois 

amounts of barium is a great objection to 

not changed in amount by water softeni] 

be very thoroughly mixed with the saw 

should be allowed for complete reaction 

slowly, for otherwise precipitation will oc 

boilers.

FEED-WATER HE A

the

Water heaters are designed primarily t 

tionary boiler plants by raising the tern 

and thereby lessening the work of the b 

their primary function, but some purificat 

and many heaters have been specially con 

of that effect. The heat is derived from 

gases, and the heaters utilizing steam 

operated at atmospheric pressure or clo; 

boiler pressure. In accordance with the 

result in distinct purifying effects, feed-wa 

open or closed or economizers, the last b 

Open heaters are best adapted for removi 

forming material. In most forms the si

46448° WSP 254 10 17

257

These four basic -sububility of these compounds

also precipitated, but the 

ion in the softened water. 

;h it a large proportion of 

lin beds of coke, sponge,

which the water is passed 

it have not subsided in the

emoves a large percentage 

, carbonates, bicarbonates, 

tter, and part of the silica 

he incrusting constituents 

tes, and chlorides are left 

in proportion to the quanfoaming constituents are 

amount of incrustants that 

f incrustants in a treated

precipitated substances 

tween the added chemicals 

parts per million. The 

Darium compounds, which 

onous effect of even small 

its use. The chlorides are 

g. The chemicals should 

water and sufficient time

which proceeds rather 

ur later in pipe lines or in

ING.

utilize waste heat in staerature of the feed water 

ilers themselves. This is 

on of water occurs in them 

tructed to take advantage 

xhaust steam or from flue 

are either open that is, 

d and operated at or near 

e three conditions, which 

:er heaters are classified as 

ing those using flue gases, 

g large quantities of scalesam enters at the bottom
258 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

and the water at the top, and intimate contact between the two is 

obtained by spraying the water or by allowing it to trickle over or to 

splash against plates. In this manner the water is quickly heated 

nearly to boiling temperature. Dissolved gases are expelled, the 

bicarbonate radicle is decomposed, and iron, aluminum, part of the 

magnesium, and calcium equivalent to the carbonates after decomposition of the bicarbonates are precipitated as hydrates, oxides, or 

carbonates under varying conditions of temperature, pressure, and 

time. The precipitate agglomerates the particles of suspended 

matter and makes them more readily removable by sedimentation 

and filtration. The slowness with which the reactions take place 

and the presence of acid radicles other than carbonates to hold the 

bases in solution prevent complete removal of calcium and magnesium. The addition of soda ash in proper proportion, however, 

effects fairly complete precipitation of the alkaline earths, and apparatus for constant introduction of this chemical in solution may be 

provided. After the precipitate has been formed the water passes 

through filters of burlap, excelsior, straw, hay, wool, coke, or similar 

material, arranged in units that can be readily cleaned. Open heaters operated without a chemical precipitant remove substances that 

are soft and bulky and leave in the water the constituents that form 

hard scale; therefore scale from water treated in such heaters is not 

so great in amount but is harder than that formed by the raw water.

In closed heaters the water is passed either through metal tubes 

surrounded by steam or around steam pipes, and manholes or other 

openings are provided for cleaning the scale from the tubes. As the 

water is heated under pressure some precipitation takes place, but 

closed heaters are not nearly so efficient in this respect as open heaters 

because there is no provision for the escape of the gases liberated from 

the water.

Economizers consist essentially of water tubes set in the flues leading from the furnaces. Facilities are provided for cleaning scale from 

the inside and soot from the outside of the tubes. As economizers 

are heated by flue gases, the water in the tubes under boiler pressure 

can be heated to a much higher temperature than in open or closed 

heaters, and boiler conditions as described on pages 238-244 are 

approximated. The precipitation of incrustants varies greatly with 

the normally fluctuating temperature of the flue gases.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE WATERS.

WATER FROM THE TJNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS.

In the tables in the body of the report 169 analyses are given of 

waters from wells drawing their supplies from the unconsolidated 

deposits of sand, clay, gravel, and alluvium overlying the solid rock.
QUALITY OF WATEKS.

are

The sources of water range in depth from 

not be differentiated, except in respect 

geographic position, not only because it 

information regarding the depth and 

strata of each well, but chiefly because mo 

mixed waters from two or more beds, 

between the different water-bearing sands 

esting, would hardly be profitable, on 

nature of the unconsolidated deposits and 

of such detailed study in comparison with 

ing the chemical composition of the water:

The quality of the waters from the 

indicated by averaging all the analyses, 

following table. Many of the analyses 

alkalies were not determined; and the fig 

sium is therefore the one most likely to be 

In order to ascertain whether drift waters 

region are similar it was divided into fou 

lines and the analyses for each part were 

figures in lines B, C, D, and E represent 

waters from the unconsolidated deposits 

south middle, and south tiers of 

bonates, sulphates, and total solids 

north to south; the other figures are either 

account of the small number of quant it 

mineral content the average for wells in 

lower and in the south tier 108 parts high 

in line A; yet inspection of the individual 

proves that waters from wells in differen 

ship may diverge from one another far 

acteristics than waters from different tiers 

in the northern part of the region carry 

solids and many in the southern part less 

it must be concluded that the quality of 

dated deposits has no relation to geograpi 

except that possibly the waters in the sou 

more highly mineralized than those in the

10 to 230 feet. They can 

o depth of the well and 

was impossible to procure 

character of the water-bearing 

t of the deeper wells yield 

Indeed, sharp distinction 

and gravels, though interace Dunt of the heterogeneous 

the extremely local value 

its importance in revealn i

COUE ties 

show

259

unconsolidated deposits, as 

s shown in line A of the 

incomplete, because the 

are for sodium and potaserror in all the averages, 

from different parts of the 

r parts by east and west 

averaged as a group. The 

he average quality of the 

the north, north middle, 

respectively. Bicardefinite increase from 

similar or inconclusive on 

ies averaged. In total 

the north tier is 72 parts 

r than the average for all 

analyses in each group 

parts of the same townwidely in essential charcounties. Many waters 

than 600 parts of total 

than 400 parts. Therefore 

water from the unconsolilic position in this region, 

hern part may be slightly 

northern part.

more

more
260 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

Quality of waters from the unconsolidated deposits. 

[Parts per million except as otherwise stated.]

A. . 

B. . 

C.. . 

D. .

E. . 

F. .

G....

Number of analyses.

169

71 

37 

37 

24 

45

Silica 

(SiOi).

18 

17 

21 

24 

17

4.1

Iron

(Fe).

0.8 

.7 

1.0 

.8 

.9

a.3

Calcium 

(Ca).

91 

83 

95 

98 

96 

110

20 9

Magnesium 

(Mg).

31 

29 

29 

33 

35 

afi

7.1

Sodium 

and 

potassium 

(Na+K).

18 

13 

11 

9 

44 

21

4.1

Carbonate 

radicle 

(C03 ).

0.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0

Bicarbonate 

radicle 

(HC03).

306 

290 

292 

319 

359 

310

Sulphate 

radicle 

(S04 ).

76 

57 

76 

98 

100 

136

17.5

Nitrate 

radicle 

(N03).

2.8 

3.7 

2.0 

2.2 

2.5

.6

Chlorine

(Cl).

47 

76 

18 

23 

45 

50

10.8

Total 

solids.

467 

395 

464 

520 

575 

619

a Fe2O3 .

A. Average of all analyses of water from unconsolidated deposits.

Bj C, D, and E. Average of all analyses arranged in four groups from north to south geographically.

F. Average of analyses_ of water from wells less than 30 feet deep. Na+K calculated.

G. Percentage composition of anhydrous residue computed from A.

Consideration of quality in reference to depth reveals no striking 

relation except that many shallow wells are more highly mineralized 

than deeper ones. Forty-five of the 169 waters are from wells less 

than 30 feet deep, and the average of their analyses is given in line F 

of the' foregoing table, the alkali figure being computed from the 

other estimates. All the constituents are higher than in line A, and 

calcium and sulphates are especially high. The difference is more 

marked in the southern than in the northern half of the territory, for 

the total solids of all waters from shallow wells reported from the 

two southern tiers of counties exceed 1,000 parts. The small number of analyses available for discussion, however, makes it uncertain 

whether this difference is general, and it is therefore unwise to indulge 

in speculation on this topic.

Though the individual waters in the drift differ from each other in 

their concentration and to a less extent in the relative amounts of 

mineral matter that they contain, they are all of the same general 

type. They contain from 250 to 1,000 parts per million of total 

solids and they range from fair to bad for boiler use. Some of them 

contain so much iron that they are undesirable for laundry use, and 

most of them carry calcium and magnesium enough to make it necessary to soften them with chemicals before using them for washing. 

Generally the waters are acceptable for drinking. The average total 

hardness expressed as CaCO3 is 360 parts per million, and the average 

total incrustants are 340 parts per million, or 2.82 pounds per 1,000 

gallons. The average chemical composition of the anhydrous residue, given in line G, indicates that the waters are of the alkaline 

class, with bicarbonates largely predominating and with sulphates, 

chlorides, and alkalies usually present only in nominal amounts. 

The ratio of calcium to magnesium averages 3 and ranges normally 

from 2 to 5.
QUALITY OF WATER!3.

WATER FROM THE BOCK.

261

Two distinct types of water are contained in the formations underlying the drift in this area, and the relative position of the rocks that 

bear them can readily be understood from the generalized section 

on page 36. The lower limestones and sandstones yield hard, salt 

waters, generally carrying hydrogen sulphide; the upper limestones 

yield waters that are hard but not salty and are not impregnated with 

hydrogen sulphide except by intrusion frorr. below. In the tables in 

the body of this report 88 analyses are given of waters coming wholly 

or mainly from the rock, and five of the analyses evidently represent 

the supply from the lower formations. Though these five waters 

differ considerably from each other in concentration, their average,

as shown in lines A and B of the following 

their character:

table, gives a fair idea of

Quality of waters from the rocks. 

[Parts per million except as otherwise stated.]

A. .. 

B. .. 

C. .. 

D. .. 

E. .. 

F. ..

Number of analyses.

5 

5 

83 

169 

83 

169

Silica 

(810,).

14 

.4 

18 

18 

4.4 

4.1

Iron 

(Fe).

0.7 

o.O 

1.8 

.8 

o.4 

o.3

Calcium 

(Ca).

205 

6.7 

82 

91 

19.6 

20.9

Magnesium 

(Mg).

104 

3.4 

31 

31

7.4 

7.1

Sodium 

and potassium 

(Na+K).

820 

26.6 

27 

18 

6.5 

4.1

Carbonate 

radicle 

(COt).

0.0

6.4 

.0 

.0 

40.2 

34.6

B 

be

ra( 

(B

icarnate 

iicle 

COt).

400

341 306-

Sulphate 

radicle 

(S04 ).

170 

5.5 

70 

76 

16.8 

17.5

Nitrate 

radicle 

(N03 >

6.6

1.0 

2.8 

.2 

.6

Chlorine

(01).

1,570 

51.0 

19 

47 

4.5 

10.8

Total 

solids.

3,890

466 

467

A. Average of analyses of water from lower limestones.

B. Percentage composition of anhydrous residue, computed from A.

C. Average of analyses of water from upper, or fresh-water, limes ;ones.

D. Average of analyses of water from unconsolidated deposits.

E. Percentage composition of anhydrous residue, computed fro ,.

F. Percentage composition of anhydrous residue, computed from D.

The waters from the lower formations are very high in mineral 

content, and especially in chlorides, sulphates, alkalies, and calcium,

being unfit for domestic or industrial use.

strongly polluted by them can readily be recognized by their chemical

composition. The total solids exceed 700, the chlorides exceed 100,

generally being 400 or 500, and there is commonly an odor of hydrogen sulphide. The large amount of magnesium in proportion to 

calcium is also distinctive. Such waters are encountered in drilling 

for gas and oil. The mixture of petroleum and salt water pumped

from oil wells is run into tanks and allowed

water is drawn off and wasted, as a very highly mineralized liquid 

containing some petroleum and having a yellow to black color and 

an odor like a mixture of kerosene and rotten eggs. Part of it soaks

into the ground near the pumping station, 

supplies, and part runs into the streams, 

composition. The problem of disposing of

These and other waters

to settle, after which the

polluting the fresh-water 

materially altering their 

these oil-well wastes has
262 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

been discussed by Bowman,® and it resolves itself into the practical 

question whether the ground waters or the streams shall be polluted. 

When wells drilled for oil are unproductive or when they cease to 

yield paying quantities of oil, the casings are often drawn out. 

Sometimes the casings are plugged above the salt water and split 

or partly withdrawn to permit entrance of water from the freshwater limestones, so that the wells may yield potable supplies. In 

either case unless the well holes are carefully plugged above the 

"Trenton" limestone the salt water rises, mixes with the fresh water 

in the upper strata, and destroys sources of good supply, not only at 

that point, but also over an extensive area by infiltration. The 

danger of polluting fresh waters in this manner has repeatedly been 

referred to in the annual reports of the Indiana natural gas inspector, 

and state laws require proper plugging of abandoned holes.6

The mean composition of the water from the upper limestones, as 

computed from 83 analyses, is given in lines C and E of the foregoing 

table. Comparison with lines D and F draws attention to the great 

similarity between these waters and those of the drift. The limestone waters average lower in chlorides and higher in bicarbonates, a 

feature that makes them better for boiler use; many carry large 

amounts of iron, and the average iron content is more than twice 

that of the drift waters. Inspection of the individual analyses 

shows that the waters .of the upper limestones differ locally from one 

another as much as the drift waters do, but that there is no tendency 

to increased mineral content toward the south. All these facts indicate that no general distinctions can be made between the quality of 

the waters from the drift and the quality of those from the freshwater limestones, but that marked local differences may occur.

SURFACE WATER.

From August, 1906, to September, 1907, daily samples of water 

were collected from streams in or near the region under discussion 

and united in sets of ten consecutive samples, and analyses of the 

composites thus obtained permit computation of maximum, minimum, and average conditions. The results in detail have been published in Water-Supply Paper 236. c Samples of water from Wabash 

River at Logansport were collected by Mr. John Bender in midstream 

above the entrance of Eel River; lines A, B, and C in the following 

table give the mean, maximum, and minimum values, respectively, 

of the estimates. Wabash River was examined also at Vincennes, 

where Mr. L. J. Weisenberger collected samples from the waterworks

o Bowman, Isaiah, Disposal of oil-well wastes at Marion, Ind.: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey 

No. 113,1905, p. 36.

6 Thirty-second Ann. Kept. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Res., 1907, pp. 590 et seq.

c Dole, R. B., The quality of surface waters in the United States, pt. 1: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 

Survey No. 236,1910.
QUALITY OF WATERS.

intake. The mean, maximum, and mininum values for the water

at Vincennes are given in lines D, E, and 

pies of water from West Fork of White

263

F. At Indianapolis samRiver were taken in midstream under the direction of Mr. H. E. Jordan. Lines G, H, and I 

show the mean and the limits during tho year for White River at 

Indianapolis. East Fork of White River 

samples were collected by Mr. L. E. Davis, and the summarized 

results are reported in lines J, K, and L. For comparison the average 

quality of the water of Lake Huron is given in line M, as computejd 

from analyses of 12 monthly samples taken at Port Huron, Mich. 

The percentage composition of the anhydrous residues, computed 

from the mean quality of the same wateni, is reported in lines N, O, 

P, Q, and R thus: Line N, percentage coriposition of the anhydrous

residue of water from Wabash River at L(

from Wabash River at Vincennes; P, West Fork of White River at 

Indianapolis; Q, East Fork of White Rive:' at Azalia; R, Lake Huron 

at Port Huron, Mich.

Quality of the surface waters. 

[Parts per million, except as otherwise stated.]

A.......

B.......

C.......

D.......

E.......

F.......

G.......

H...... 

I.......

J. ......

K...... 

L.......

M......

Turbidity.

132 

900 

Tr. 

172 

625 

15 

39 

235 

Tr. 

52 

245 

3 

Tr.

Suspended matter.

117 

802 

Tr. 

193 

656 

18 

38 

124 

Tr. 

48 

240 

Tr. 

Tr.

Silica (SiOs).

14 

38 

5.0 

13 

36 

3.0 

14 

27 

8.4 

15 

29 

6.6 

12

(Fe). Iron 

0.23 

1.2 

Tr. 

.24 

1.8 

Tr. 

.15 

.8 

Tr. 

.14 

1.2 

Tr. 

.04

(Ca). Calcium 

82 

133 

43 

61 

75 

45 

74 

95 

48 

61 

70 

42 

24

i

C3

a

35 

77 

15 

22 

30 

15 

29 

43 

17 

23 

29 

15 

7.Q

1 

a«i|

SB.5 3 g-s

OQ

142 

478 

22 

25 

60 

8.1 

48 

138 

14 

9.5 

16 

5.2 

4.4

Carbonate radicle

1

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE Al

N.......

O.......

P.......

Q

R.......

1.8 

3.9 

3.1

5

0

11.1

a.O 

a.l 

a.O 

a. 1 

a.O

10.7 

18.4 

16.4 

21.5 

22.3

4.6 

6.6 

6.4 

8.1 

6.5

18.5 

7.5 

10.7 

3.3 

4.1

]

1

4 

4

0 O

D.O r.9

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

6.5 

.0 

.0 

2 

.0 

1.8

Bicarbonate radicle 

(HC0 ).3

234 

317 

116 

230 

264 

147 

291 

353 

205 

276 

320 

176 

100

Sulphate radicle 

(S0 ).4

79 

138 

42 

55 

73 

37 

58 

125 

36 

30 

40 

18 

6.2

radicle Nitrare (N0 ). 3-

5.9 

18 

.0 

6.4 

18 

1.1 

6.1 

14 

.5 

5.6 

12 

.5 

.4

(Cl). Chlorine 

292 

960 

35 

36 

104 

8.3 

78 

262 

13 

3.1 

8.0 

1.3 

2.6

solids. Total 

807 

1,940 

309 

336 

504 

209 

450 

798 

245 

279 

334 

196 

108

fHYDROUS RESIDUES.

5.1 

4.1 

1.8 

8.0 

7.4

....... 10.3

12.9

10.6

5.8

.8 

2.0

1.4

2.0 

.4

38.2

17.3

1.1 

2.4

.......

gansport; line O, the same

a Fe2O3 .

A. B, C. Wabash River at Logansport; analyses by W. M.

Winkle.

D, E, F. Wabash River at Vincennes; analyses by W. M. Barr, 

G, H, I. West Fork of White River at Indianapolis; analyses by W

Van Winkle. 

J, K. L. East Fork of White River at Azalia; analyses by W.

Wmkle.R. B. Dole, Chase Palmer, and W. D. Collins. 

M. Lake Huron at Port Huron, Mich.; analyses by R. B. Dole 

N, O, P, Q, R. Percentage composition of the anhydrous resii

respectively

Barr, H. S. Spaulding, and Walton Van

. S. Spaulding, and Walton Van Winkle. 

"". M. Barr, H. S. Spaulding, and Walton

M. Barr, H. S. Spaulding, Walton Van

ind M. G. Roberts.

computed from A, D, G, J, and M,
264 UNDERGEOUND WATEKS OF NORTH-CENTRAL INDIANA.

The most noticeable feature in the foregoing table is the unusually 

high mineral content of Wabash River at Logansport, which averages 

807 parts per million, as compared with 466 and 467 for the ground 

waters of the same region; another noticeable feature is the great 

fluctuation in mineral content, which ranges from 309 to 1,940 parts 

per million. From line N it can be seen that the water is particularly 

high in alkalies and chlorides, and inspection of the individual 

analyses shows that high chlorides and alkalies are always coincident 

with high total solids. The chief reason for these phenomena is 

undoubtedly varying pollution by salt water from oil wells, as noted 

on page 261, because surface waters from regions similar to this in 

rainfall and rock formations have not this peculiar compostion. 

Wabash River and its southern tributaries above Logansport, the 

Mississinewa and the Salamonie (see PI. I), receive a large amount 

of drainage from the oil belt, and physical evidence of this pollution, 

such as oil-stained and blackened vegetation, is encountered in the 

beds of streams. The scale formed in boilers using such water would 

be hard, and the water would also foam and corrode the boilers; at 

times of highest mineralization the water is unfit for boiler use. 

Though Vincennes is not in the region under discussion, analyses of 

the river water at that city have been introduced in order to show 

the improvement effected by dilution. The great change in concentration can be appreciated by comparing lines A and D. West 

Fork of White River at Indianapolis gives evidence of some oil-well 

drainage, but not to so great extent as Wabash River. (See lines 

G, H, and I.) The mean quality of this water is strikingly similar 

to that of the underground water. It differs principally in being 

higher in chlorides and alkalies and correspondingly lower in bicarbonates. As a source of industrial supply it is far superior to Wabash 

River at Logansport. East Fork of White River, sampled at Azalia, 

is not contaminated by oil wells, and its water is more or less typical 

of what the other rivers would be in their normal or unpolluted state 

and of streams in this section that do not receive oil-well drainage.

SUMMARY.

Figures representing the average chemical composition of the 

principal sources of water supply in this region are given in the following table. Line A shows the average of five analyses of waters 

from the lower limestones; line B, the average of 83 analyses of 

waters from the upper limestones; line C, the average of 169 analyses 

of waters from the unconsolidated deposits. The average mineral 

contents of the waters of the Wabash at Logansport and the White 

at Indianapolis are given in lines D and E, respectively.
FIELD ASSAYS.

Average quality of waters in north-central Indiana. 

[Parts per million.]

A.......

B. ......

C.. ......

D. ......

E. ......

Silica 

(SiOs).

14 

18 

18 

14 

14

Iron

(Fe).

0.7

1.8 

.8 

.2 

.2

Calcium 

(Ca).

205

82 

91

82

74

Magnesium 

(Mg).

104 

31 

31 

35 

29

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K).

820 

27 

18 

 142

48

Carbonate 

radicle 

(CO,).

0.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0

I 

i

(

icarnate 

dicle 

CO.).

400 

341 

306 

234 

291

Sulphate 

radicle 

(SO,).

170 

70

76 

79 

58

Nitrate 

radicle 

(N03 ).

1.0 

2.8 

5.9 

6.1

Chlorine 

(Cl).

1,570 

19

47 

292

78

Total 

solids.

3,890 

466 

467 

807 

450

J.

265

The chief points of interest in this table 

of the waters from the lower limestones 

the great similarity in composition of tl 

limestones, the drift, and White River, 

paragraphs, however, it should be rec 

fluctuate a great deal in composition an 

wells differ greatly from one another.

are the high mineralization 

and from Wabash River and

e waters from the upper 

As stated in the previous 

ognized that the river waters 

that the waters of local

FIELD ASSAYS

The following table gives some field ass 

during a survey of industrial water conditions 

valley. The methods of assay and computation 

pages 230 et seq. The tests at Greenfie 

Stabler; the others were made by R. B. D 

necessarily cruder and less reliable than 

to amplify and to corroborate the statem 

in the preceding pages and indicate a fi 

for assays of this nature.

ys of water made in 1904 

in Wabash River 

are outlined on 

d were made by Herman 

le. These results, though 

laboratory analyses, serve 

nts and conclusions noted 

Id of practical usefulness
Field assays of waters in north-central Indi

[Parts per million.] 

SURFACE WATERS.

No. Location.

Date 

(1904).

Apr. 15

July 2

June 29

...do....

July 3

July 2

July 1

July 7

Color.

60

25

40

40

25

56

96

25

56

40

40

40

60

60

56

56

Odor.

3v

2v

2v

3v

2v

4v

2M+2o

3M

3M

2v

9 o

2e

4 v

3 6

4e+2M

2v

Turbidity.

o!2

a 10

06

a 10

o!4

o20

50

0

0

o20

80

55

rfi

°.Qft

05

GROUND WATERS. 

1 

3

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14

Delphi................................................................

.....do. ...............................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

July 1 

...do... .

...do....

July 2 

Apr. 15

...do....

July 7

...do....

July 8

June 29 

June 30

0 

0 

40

0

0 

0

ooooo

0 

0 

5 H2S 

+ 5o 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2e 

5 H2S 

0 

2e 

2e 

2H2S 

5HsS

000 OOOOOOOOOOO o e
15

16

17

1 ft

1Q

?o

01

99

?3

?4

OR

9fi

97

?s

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

R ich Valley ..........................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

.....do................................................................

June 23

...do....

...do....

July 21

July 24

. . .do. . . .

July 21

...do... .

...do....

...do....

...do....

July 17

...do... .

July 18

0

0

0

40

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2o

0

0

1H2S

0

0

0

0

0

0

3H2S

0

0

0

a20

0

0

»5

0

0

a5

0

a 10

0

a5

a Estimated.

1. Springs 3 miles from city used for city supply; water from gravel.

2. Well of Matthew Julius in North street. Dug and bored 54 feet deep; water from 

gravel.

3. Flowing well in rock about 900 feet deep at city pumping station; chlorine high.

4. Well of Mr. Swigman, 16 feet deep in gravel.

5. City water supply from deep wells in gravel.

6. Well at corner of East Main and North Pratt streets, 14 feet deep in gravel.

7. Well at corner of East Main and North Pratt streets, 22 feet deep in gravel.

8. One of city wells in limestone about 130 feet deep.

9. Flowing well in the city park; water from the rock.

10. Well in city park, penetrating limestone.

11. Gravel well 48 feet deep in Crown Point cemetery.

i? weii of T.. TC. Collier near city limits; 89 feet deep: water from limestone._______

17. Well at plant of 

18. Large dug well 

understood tha

19. Well on Pearl s

gravel.

20. Well 405 feet dee

21. One of city well

22. Well 11 feet deep 

and St. Louis 

23. Wells sunk 24 to 

Paper Compa

24. Well in rock abo

25. Dug well in grav

26. W ell in sand 46 

27. Flowing well in 

28. Well in rock on 

13. Gravel well in Spencer Park; 35 feet deep.

14. Well about 600 feet deep at city waterworks and electric-ligh tplant.

15. City well No. 17; water from limestone.

16. Spring in edge of blafi at plant of Peru Brewing Company.
INDEX.

A. Page.

Acids in water, effect of...................... 245

Acknowledgments to those aiding............ 16-17

Acton, water supply at...................... 183

Adamsboro, water supply at................ 93

Advance, water supply at................... 75

well at, data on.......................... 76

water of, analysis of................. 77

Akron, water supply at...................... 114

wells at.................................. 115

water of, analyses of................. 116

Alexandria, public supply at........... 68,170-171

wells at and near..................... 168,174

record of............................. 171

water of, analyses of................. 175

Alhambra Park, wells at.................... 96

Alliance, water supply at.................... 173

Alluvium, character and distribution of..... 32-33

flowing wells in.......................... 59

figures showing...................... 59

water in............................:.... 33

Amboy, water supply at.................... 201

American Railway Engineers and Maintenance of Way Association, cited......... 243-244

Amo, water supply at.............. v........ 148

wellat.................................. 148

Analysis, methods of...................... 230-232

results of, expression of................ 232-233

Anderson, public supply at.......... 63,68,169-170

wells near............................. 168,174

record of............................. 170

water of, analyses of................. 175

Anoka, water supply at..................... 93

wells at, data on......................... 93

water of, analysis of................. 94

Arcadia, water supply at.................... 134

wells at and near...................... 132,136

water of, analysis of................. 137

Arcana, water supply at..................... 124

wells at....................... 1.......... 126

water of, analysis of................. 127

Argos, public supply at................. 68,191-192

wells at and near...................... 189,193

water of, analysis of................. 194

Aroma, water supply at..................... 135

wells at and near...................... 132,136

Artesian areas, map of....................... 58

See also particular counties. 

Ashley, O. H., work of...................... 15

Assays, field, results of.................... 266-267

Athens, water supply at..................... 115

Atlanta, water supply at.................. 134-135

wells at................................ 136,219

water of, analysis of................. 137

Barnarc

Blatchl

wel

Page. 

Atwood, water supply at.................... 163

Availab e water, definition of................ 52-53

Ayr, ws ter supply at........................ 193

Azalia, water at, analysis of................. 263

B.

Bacteris i, presence of, in water.............. 235-236

Bakers 3orners, water supply at............. 135

, H. E., work of.................... 15,231

Beard, vater supply at...................... 100

Beddinj; planes, description of............... 50-51

ement of water along......... 47-48,51,119.

figures showing .................... 48,118

Bellevil e, water supply at................... 148

Ben Da vis, water supply at................. 183

Bennetl s Switch, water supply at........... 201

Bigspring, water supply at.................. 75

y, W. S., work of................ 14,15,55

Blue Grass, water supply at................. 115

Blue River, drainage of...................... 138

jr of, analysis of. ............... 266

>mpounds, character and use of.... 241-242

corrosion of....................... 239-240

irfor. 238-244

wal

Boiler c

Boilers, 

wat

Boone C ounty, artesian areas in............. 72-73

geo >gy and ground water of............. 70-73

mui licipal supplies in.................... 73-79

top( graphy of........................... 70

sin, data on. 76

water of, analyses of................. 77

Bored wells, description of.................. 56

Boston, water supply at..................... 108

Bourbon, public supply at................. 68,192

wellat.................................. 193

water of, analysis of................. 194

Bowlder clay. See Till.

Bownocker, J. A., cited..................... 119

Boxley, water supply at..................... 135

Boyleston, water supply at.................. 100

wells near.........................:..... 100

water of, analysis of................. 101

Brandywine Creek, water of, analysis of..... 266

wells on................................. 140

Bremen, water supply at................... 68,191

wells at and near...................... 189,193

water of, analyses of................. 194

Bridgeport, water supply at................. 183

well at, record of.................:...... 182

Brightwood, public supply at.............. 68,182

Bringhurst, waber supply at................. 84

wells at, data on........................ 85

Bristol, water supply at..................... 107

well: at................................. 108

269
270 INDEX.

Page. 

Broad Ripple, water supply at.............. 183

wells at................................. 184

record of............................ 181

water of,"analysis of................. 185

Brownsburg, water supply at............... 147

wells at................................. 148

water of, analysis of................. 149

Brace Lake, water supply at................ 115

Bucket, water lifting by..................... 62

Bunker Hill, water supply at............... 201

wells at and near...................... 199,202

water of, analyses of................. 203

Burket, water supply at..................... 163

wells near............................. 161,164

water of, analysis of................. 165

Burlington, water supply at................. 83

wells near....................... 81,85,153,156

water of, analysis of................ 86,153

Burr Oak, water supply at.................. 193

well at.................................. 193

water of, analysis of................. 194

Burrows, water supply at................... 84

wells near............................... 81,85

C. 

Calcium in water, presence of...... 237-238,239,247

Camden, public supply at................... 68,83

wells at, data on........................ 85

water of, analysis of................. 86

Capps, S. R., on occurrence of Indiana waters............................ 13-229

Carbonates in water, effects of............... 248

Carboniferous rocks, description of........... 36,44

water in................................. 36

See also particular formations. 

Carmel, water supply at..................... 135

wells at and near...................... 136,184

Carroll, wells at and near................... 85,153

water of, analysis of................. 86

Carroll County, artesian areas in............. 80-81

geology and ground water of............. 78-81

municipal supplies in................... 81-86

topography of........................... 78

wells in, data on........................ 85

water of, analyses of................. 86

Cartersburg, water supply at................ 148

wells at................................. 148

Gary, A. A., cited........................... 241

Cass County, artesian areas in......:........ 89-90

geology and ground water of............. 87-90

municipal supplies in................... 90-93

topography of........................... 87

wells in, data on........................ 93

water of, analyses of................. 94

Cassville, water supply at................... 155

wells near............................... 156

Castleton, water supply at.................. 183

Center, watersupply at..................... 155

wells at and near........................ 156

water of, analysis of................. 157

Center Lake, water of, analysis of........... 266

Charlottesville, water supply at............. 141

Chemical qualities of water, discussion of.. 236-238 

Chemicals, purification by............. 252,255-258

Chesterfield, water supply at................ 173

Chili, water supply at....................... 201

Page. 

Chlorine in water, effect of............ 237,248-249

Cincinnatian series, character and distribu-

(tion of........................... 40

water in................................. 40-41

Clapp, F. G.,workof........................ 15

Cicero, water supply at...................... 134

wells at and near...................... 131,136

water of, analysis of.................. 137

Cicero Creek, wells on....................... 217

Clarksville, water supply at................. 135

Clay, water in............................... 53

Claypool, water supply at................... 163

wells near............................. 161,164

water of, analysis of................. 165

Clayton, water supply at.................... 148

wells at and near........................ 148

water of, analysis of................. 149

Clermont, water supply at................... 183

Cleveland, water supply at.................. 142

Climate, character of......................... 19-21

Clinton County, artesian areas in............ 96-97

geology and ground water of............. 95-97

municipal supplies in................... 97-100

topography of........................... 95

wells in, data on......................... 100

water of, analyses of................. 101

Clinton shales, character and distribution of.. 41 

Clunette, water supply at................... 163

Clymers, water supply at.................... 93

Coats ville, water supply at.................. 147

wells at.................................. 148

Colfax, water supply at...................... 98-99

wells at and near....................... 72-100

water of, analysis of.............:... 101

Color in water, effect of.................... 235,246

Columbia City, water at, analysis of......... 266

Combination wells, description of............ 57

Converse, public supply at................. 68,200

well at................................... 202

water of, analysis of................. 203

Corrosion of boilers, cause of............... 239-240

Courter> water supply at..................... 201

Crenothrix, presence of, in water........... 235,246

Crops, character of........................... 23

Crumstown, water supply at................ 211

Culver, water supply at.................... 68,192

wells at and near...................... 189,193

water of, analyses of................. 194

Cumberland, water supply at................ 183

Curtisville, water supply at.................. 219

well at................................... 219

Cutler, water supply at...................... 84

wells at.................................. 79

D.

Danville, public supply at.................. 68,146

wells at and near...................... 145,148

record of................'............. 145

view of................ i-:.';........... 168

water of, analysis of................. 149

Darwin, water supply at.................... 84

Deacon, watersupply at..................... 93

Deedsville, water supply at.................. 201

wells at and near.............^,.:..... 199,202

water of, analysis of ...i k ^., .-*-....... 203
INDEX. 271

Deep waters, movements of.................. 48-49

source of................................. 49

Deer Creek, water of, analysis of............. 266

wells on................... 81,85,89-90,153,199

section at, figure showing............ 90

Deer Creek (city), water supply at........... 84

well at, water of, analysis of............. 86

Delong, water supply at..................... 115

wells at.................................. 115

water of, analysis of................. 116

Delphi, public supply at............... 65,68,81-82

springs near............................. 82

water at, analyses of..................... 266

wells at................................. 79-81

record of............................. 80

water of, analysis of.................. 86

Deming, watersupply at.................... 135

Denver, water supply at..............'....... 200

well at................................... 202

water of, analysis of................. 203

Devonian rocks, character and distribution of. 36,

44,80,89,96,131,140,151,178-179,217

water in........................ 36,44,80,89,140

See also particular for motions. 

Disko, water supply at...................... 115

well at, water of, analysis of............. 116

Dole, R. B., on chemical character of Indiana

waters......................... 230-267

work of.................................. 265

Domestic purposes, water for.............. 254-258

Donaldson, wells at or near................ 189,193

wells at or near, water of, analysis of..... 194

Dora, water supply at....................... 227

Dover, water supply at-..................... 75

Drainage, description of..................... 17-19

Drift, character and distribution of.......... 27-32

deposition of..-......................... 24-25

flowing wells from....................... 58-59

figure showing....................... 59

springs in................................ 53-54

figure showing....................... 54

water in............. 15-16,28-29,31,32,258-260

movement of........................ 47-48

figure showing.,................. 48

See also Till; Moraine; Outwash. 

Drilled wells, description of.................. 56,57

Driven wells, description of.................. 56-57

Duck Creek, wells on........................ 132

'Dundee, water supply at.................... 173

well near................................ 174

Dunkirk, wells at, data on................... 93

wells at, water of, analysis of............ 94

Dunlaps, water supply at.................... 108

Durbin, water supply at..................... 135

E. 

Eagle Creek, wells on........................ 73

Eagletown, water supply at.................' 135

Eden, water supply at....................... 142

Edna Mills, water supply at................. 100

Eel River, water of, analysis of.............. 266

Ekin, water supply at...................... 219

Elkhart, public supply at.............. 68,108-105

wells at and near...................... 104,108

record of .......................... 105

water of, analyses of 109

Page. 

Elkhart County, artesian areas in............ 104

geology and ground water of............. 103

municipal supplies in.................. 104-108

topography of........................... 102

wells in, data on......................... 108

water of, analyses of................. 109

Elkwood, public supply at.................. 68

wells near............................... 174

water of, analyses of................. 175

Emporia, water supply at................... 173

Erosion, progress of.......................... 25

Etna Green, water supply at................ 163

wells near............................. 161,164

water of, analyses of................. 165

F.

Fairfield, water supply at................... 155

wells near............................... 152

Fairmount, public supply at............... 68,122

wells at.................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 127

Farrville, water supply of................... 124

Field work, extent of........................ 15

Filtration, mechanical, processes of.... 252,255-256

Filtration, sand, processes of........... 252,253-254

Fishersburg, water supply at................ 173

Fisher's Switch, water supply at............ 135

wells at and near........................ 136

Flackville, water supply at.................. 183

wells at.................................. 184

water of, analysis of................. 185

Fletcner, water supply at.................... 115

Flora, public supply at...................... 68,82

wells at, data on......................... 85

water of, analysis of................. 86

Florida, water supply at..................... 173

Flowing wells, conditions for................ 58

conditions for, figures showing. ........... 59

location of............................... 61-62

Foaming, cause and prevention of........... 240

Foraker, water supply at.................... 108

Forest, wells at and near................... 97,100

Forests, effect of, on water supply........... 22

Fort Benjamin Harrison, public supply at . 68,

182-183

wells at, record of........................ 182

Fortville, water supply at................... 141

wells at.................................. 142

water of, analysis of................. 143

Fowlertown, water supply at................. 126

wells at.................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 127

Frankfort, public supply at............... 68,97-98

wells at.................................. 100

record of-........................... 98

waterof, analysisof.............!... 101

Franktown, water supply at................. 171

wells near............................... 174

water of, analysis of................. 175

Friendswood, water supply at............... 148

Fulton, water supply at.............. .'I...'. - - 114

wells at.................................. 115

Fulton County, artesian areas in ............ 112

geology and ground water of...."....... 111-112

municipal supplies in.................. 112-115

topography of.......................L... 110
£72 IKDEX.

Page. 

Fulton County, wells in, data on............ 115

wells in, water of, analyses of............ 116

G.

Gadsden, water supply at................... 75

Galveston, public supply at................. 68,92

wells at.................................. 90,93

water of, analysis of................. 94

Gas, occurrence of........................... 39

output of................................ 23

Gas City, public supply at.................. 68,122

wells at.................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 127

Gem, water supply at....................... 142

Geography, description of................... 17-24

Geologic history, outline of.................. 24-25

Geologic map of north-central Indiana....... 36

Geology, description of...................... 24-45

relation of, to ground water .......... 25,50-52

Georgetown, water supply at................ 93

Germany, watersupply at................... 115

Gilman, watersupply at..................... 173

well at................................... 174

water of, analysis of................. 175

Glacial drift. See Drift.

Glacial lakes, character and location of....... 34

Glacial till. See Till.

Glaciation, effect of, on topography.......... 26-27

Glens Valley, water supply at............... 183

Goldsmith, water supply at................. 219

well near................................ 219

Goshen, public supply at................ 63,68,106

wells at.................................. 108

record of............................. 106

water of, analyses of................. 109

Granger, watersupply at.................. . 211

Grant County, artesian areas in ........... 120-121

geology and ground water of .......... 118-121

municipal supplies in.................. 121-125

topography of........................... 117

wells in, data on....................... 125-126

water of, analyses of............... 127-128

Grass Creek, water supply at................ 115

wells near............................. 112,115

Gravelton, water supply at.................. 163

Greenfield, public supply at................ 68,141

water at, analyses of..................... 266

wells at and near...................... 140,142

water of, analysis of................. 143

Greenoak, watersupply at................... 115

Greentown, public supply at............... 68,154

wells at............................ 152-153,156

Greetingsville, water supply at.............. 100

Groomsville, water supply at................ 219

Ground water, fluctuations of................ 21,47

mineral matter in........................ 53

movement of......................... 33,47-49

figures showing...................... 46,48

occurrence of............................ 50-52

relation of, to geology................. 25,50-52

to topography....................... 50

figureshowing................... 50

sources of............................. 45-47,49

volume of....................... r ....... 52-53

,Seestf,so Deep waters.

H.

»

Hackleman, watersupply at................. 124

Hadley, water supply at..................... 148

wells at.................................. 148

Hamilton, water supply at.................. 211

Hamilton County, artesian areas in ....... 131-132

geology and ground water of........... 129-132

municipal supplies in.................. 132-135

topography of........................... 129

wells in, data on......................... 136

water of, analyses of................. 137

Hancock County, artesian areas in .......... 140

geology and ground water of........... 138-140

municipal supplies in.................. 141-142

topography of........................... 138

wells in, data on......................... 142

water of, analysis of................. 143

Hanfleld, water supply at................... 124

wells at................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 127

Hardness, causes of........................ 237-238

Harris Station, water supply at............. 193

Hastings, water supply at ................... 163

Hazelrig, water supply at................... 75

wells near............................... 72,76

water of, analysis of................. 77

Hazelwood, water supply at................. 148

Hazen, Alien, cited.......................... 253

Heating, purification by................... 252,257

Hemlock, water supply at................... 155

well at.................................. 156

water of, analysis of................. 157

Hendricks County, artesian areas in....... 145-146

geology and ground water of........... 144-146

municipal supplies in.................. 146-148

topography of......................... 143-144

wells in, data on......................... 148

water of, analyses of................. 149

Herbst, water supply at..................... 124

wells at................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 127

Hibbard, well at............................ 193

water of, analysis of..................... 194

Hillisburg, water supply at.................. 100

wells at, water of, analysis of............ 101

Hobbs, water supply at..................... 219

well at.................................. 219

Hoover, watersupply at.................... 93

Hopedale, watersupply at.................. 84

Hopkins, T. C., work of..................... 15

Horton, watersupply at..................... 135

Howard County, artesian areas in......... 151-153

geology and ground water of........... 150-153

municipal supplies in.................. 153-155

topography of........................... 150

wells in, data on....................... 155-156

water of, analyses of................. 157

Howland Station, water supply at........... 183

Hydraulic rams, description of.............. 62-63

Hydrogen sulphide in water, effect of...... 237,249

I.

Ice sheet, movements of..................... 26

Indianapolis, public supply at....... 63,68,179-182

water at, analysis of..................... 263

wells at........................... ,, 178
INDEX. 273

Indianapolis, wells at, records ot.......... 181,184

wells at, water of, analyses of.......... 185-186

Industrial uses, water for.................. 244-249

Ingalls, water supply at................... 172-173

wells at and near...................... 168,174

water of, analyses of................. 176

Inhabitants, statistics of..................... 24

Inwood, water supply at.................... 193

well at.................................. 193

water of, analysis of.........'........ 194

Iron in water, effect of................. 237,246-247

J.

Jackson, water supply at.................... 219

Jadden, water supply at..................... 124

Jalapa, water supply at..................... 124

wells at................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 127

Jamestown (Boone County), water supply at. 75 

wells at................................. 148

water of, analysis of................. 149

Jamestown (Elkhart County), water supply

at............................... 108

wells at................................. 108

Jefferson, water supply at................... 100

wells at................................. 100

water of, analysis of............. .'... 101

Jeffersonville limestone, character and distribution of.................. 36,44,72

water in................................. 36,44

Jerome, water supply at..................... 155

Joints, description of........................ 48,51

Jolietville, water supply at.................. 135

Jonesboro, public supply at............. 68,122-123

wells at................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 127

Joppa, water supply at...................... 148

K.

Kalorama, water supply at.................. 163

wells at................................. 160

Kankakee River, system of.................. 18

Kappa, water supply at..................... 155

Kempton, water supply at.................. 218

well at.................................. 219

Kewanna, public supply at............ 69,113-114

wells at................................. 115

water of, analysis of................. 116

KInzie, water supply at.................. 163

Kirkland, well at, data on................... 76

Kirklin, water supply at................... 99

wells at and near....................... 97,100

water of, analysis of................. 101

Knobstone group, character and distribution

of.............. 36,44,51,71,96,144,179

water in............................ 36,45,51,71

Kokomo, public supply at.............. 69,153-154

section at, figures showing............... 90

water at, analysesof..................... 266

wells at and near............... 90,150,152,156

record of............................ 154

water of, analyses of................. 157

Kokomo limestone, character and distribution of.......... 36,112,151,198,216-217

Kosciusko County, artesian areas in........ 160-161

geology and ground water of.......... 159-161

46448° WSP 254 10 18

Page.

Kosciusko County, municipal supplies in.. 161-163 

topography of........................... 158

wells in, data on....................... 163-164

water of, analyses of................. 165

L.

La Fontaine, water supply at............... 226

wells at and near...................... 224,228

water of, analysis of................. 229

Lagro, water at, analysis of................... 266

water supply at......................... 227

well at.................................. 228

water of, analysis of................ 229

Lake Cicott, water supply at................ 93

wells at................................. 93

water of, analysis of................ 94

Lake Huron, water of, analysis of............ 263

Lake Kankakee, glacial, description of....... 34

Lake Manitou, wells near.................... 112

Lakes, distribution and character of........ 18-19

water supplies from..................... 64

Lakes, Great, no connection between wells

and............................. 45

Laketon, water supply at................. 226-227

well at.................................. 228

water of, analysis of................ 229

Lakeville, water supply at.................. 211

well at.................................. 212

water of, analysis of................. 213

Landess, water supply at.................... 125

wells at................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 127

Lapaz, water supply at...................... 193

well at.................................. 193

water of, analysis of................ 194

Lapel, water supply at...................... 172

wells at and near.................. 168-169,174

water of, analysis of................. 176

Laurence, water supply at.................. 4 183

Lebanon, public supply at............... 69,73-74

wells at and near..................... 72,73,76

record of............................ 73

water of, analyses of................. 77

Leesburg, water supply at................... 163

well at.................................. 164

water of, analysis of................. 165

Leisure, water supply at.................... 173

well at................................!. 174

water of, analysis of................. 176

Leiters Ford, water supply at............... 115

Leverett, Frank, work of................. 13-14,15

Liberty Mills, water supply at............... 229

wells at and near...................... 224,228

water of, analyses of................. 229

Limestones,beddingplanesin,waterin. 47-48,51,119 

bedding in, figures showing............. 48,118

character and distribution of............ 37

flowing wells from....................... 61

figures showing...................... 59,61

solution channels in, view of........... 58,168

water in.............................. 37,52,83

quality of........................... 261

Lincoln, water supply at.................... 93

wells at................................. 93

Lincolnville, water supply at................ 227

Linwood, water supply at................... 173
274 INDEX.

Page. 

Little Wild Cat Creek, wells on.............. 152

Lizton, water supply at..................... 148

Location of region........................... 13

map showing............................ 14

Locke, water supply at...................... 108

Lockport, water supply at.................. 84

Logansport, public supply at.......... 63,69,90-91

water at, analyses of................... 263,266

wells near............................... 90,93

water of, analysis of................. 94

Longcliff, wells at........................... 89,93

wells at, water of, analysis of.......... 94

Loree, water supply at...................... 201

Lorraine formation, character and distribution of........................... 40

Lucerne, water supply at.................... 93

wells at.................................. 93

water of, analysis of................. 94

Lydick, water supply at.................... 211

M.

McCordsville, water supply at............... 142

wells at and near........................ K2

McGrawsville, water supply at.............. 201

Macy, water supply at....................... 201

wells at.................................. 202

water of, analyses of................. 203

Madison County, artesian areas in......... 168-169

geology and ground water of........... 166-169

municipal supplies in.................. 169-173

topography of........................... 166

wells in, data on....................... 173-174

water of, analyses of............... 175-176

Magnesium in water, presence of... 237-238,239,247 

Mailtrace, water supply at................... 227

well at..................... ............. 228

Manitou Lake, water of, analysis of.......... 266

Manson, water supply at.................... 100

wells near.............................. 97,100

Map of artesian areas......................... 58

of surface deposits....................... 16,26

Map, geologic, of north-central Indiana....... 36

Map, index, showing area discussed.......... 14

Maplewood, water supply at................. K8

Markleville, water supply at................. 173

wells near............................... 168

Marion, water supply at................ 69,121-122

wells at and near...................... 120,126

record of............................. 121

water of, analyses of............... 127-128

Marion County, artesian areas in............. 179

geology and ground water of........... 177-179

municipal supplies in.................. 179-183

topography of........................... 177

wells in, data on......................... 184

water of, analyses of................ 185-186

Marshall County, artesian areas in......... 189-190

geology and ground water of........... 188-190

municipal supplies in.................. 190-193

topography of......................... 187-188

wells in, data on......................... 193

water of, analysis of............... 194-195

Marshall County Infirmary, well at.......... 193

well at, water of, analysis of............. 196

Marshes, distribution and character of....... 19

Matter Park, wells at and near.............. 120

wells at and near, views of........... 120

Page. 

Matthews, water supply at.................. 124

wells at.................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 128

Max, water supply at.-....................... 75

Maxinkuckee, water supply at............... 193

wells at and near...................... 189,193

water of, analysis of................. 194

Maxwell, water supply at.................... 142

wells at and near........................ 142

Medicinal use, water for................... 249-251

Melners Corners, water supply at............ 1'2

wells near............................. KO, 142

Menoquet, water supply at.................. 163

Menton, water supply at.................... 163

well at, water of, analysis of............. 165

Metea, water supply at...................... 93

Mexico, well at.............................. 202

water of, analysis of................. 203

Miami, water supply at...................... 201

wells at and near...................... 199,202

water of, analyses of................. 203

Miami County, artesian areas in........... 198-199

geology and ground water of..... .^.... 197-199

municipal supplies in.................. 199-201

topography of........................... 196

wells in, data on....................... 201-202

water of, analysis of................ 203-204

Michigantown, water supply at.............. 100

wells at and near....................... 97,100

Middleburg, water supply at................ 107

wells at.................................. 108

Middlefork, water supply at................. 100

wells at.................................. 100

water of, analysis of................. 101

Mier, water supply at........................ 125

wells near............................... 120

Milford, public supply at................... 69,162

well at.................................. 164

water of, analysis of................. 165

Milford Junction, water supply at........... 163

Millersburg, water supply at................. 107

wells at.................................. 108

water of, analysis of................. 109

Minerals, presence of, in water............. 233,238

Mineral water, character of......... 53,233,249-251

Mishawaka, public supply at........ 63,69,209-210

wells at.................................. 212

record of............................. 209

water of, analyses of................. 213

Mississinewa River, drainage of............. 117

water of, analysis of..................... 266

Mississippian rocks, character and distribution of........................... 36,44

water in................................. 36

See also particular formations. 

Mohawk, water supply at................... 142

Monticello, water at, analysis of............. 266

Moraines, character and distribution of...... 29-30

construction of.......................... 97

form of.................................. 30

topography of........................... 30

water in................................. 31

See also particular counties. 

Moran, water supply at..................... 100

wells at and near....................... 97,100

Mounds Park, well at, water of, analysis of... 176 

Mount Glair, water supply at................ 148
INDEX. 275

Page.

Mount Comfort, water supply at............. 142

wells near............................... 142

Mud Creek, wells on......................... 217

Mulberry, water supply at.................. 99

wells at................................. 100

water of, analysis of................. 101

Municipal supplies. See Public supplies.

N.

Nappanee, public supply at................ 69,107

wells at................................. 108

water of, analysis of................. 109

National Military Home, public supply at... 69,124 

Nead, water supply at....................... 201

well at.................................. 202

water of, analysis of................. 203

Nevada, water supply at.................... 219

well at.................................. 219

New Albany shale, character and distribution Of... 36,44,71-72,79,96,131,144,174 

water in..................... 36,44,71-72,79-80

New Augusta, water supply at.............. 183

well at, water of, analysis of............. 186

New Bethel, water supply at................ 183

New Brighton, water supply at.............. 135

New Brunswick, water supply at............ 75

New Carlisle, public supply at.......... 69,210-211

wells at................................. 212

water of, analyses of................. 213

New Columbus, water supply at ........... 173

well at.................................. 174

water of, analysis of................. 176

New Holland, water supply at.............. 227

New Lancaster, water supply at ............ 219

New London, water supply at............... 155

well at.................................. 156

water of, analysis of................. 157

New Orleans, water purification at.......... 252

New Palestine, public supply at............ 69,141

wells at............................... 140,142

New Paris, water supply at................. 108

wells at................................. 108

water of, analysis of.......... ...... 109

New Waverly, water supply at.............. 93

wells at................................. 93

water of, analysis of................. 94

New Winchester, water supply at........... 148

wells near............................... 146

Niagara limestone, character and distribution

Of............. 36,41-42,89,119,130-131,

139-140,151,167,178,198,216-217,223 

solution channels in, view of............ 58

water in........ 42,49,52,60-61,119-120,131-132

Noblesville, public supply at........... 69,133-134

wells at and near........................ 136

records of............................ 133

water of, analyses of................. 137

Nora, water supply at....................... 183

wells at................................. 184

Normal, water supply at.................... 125

Normanda, water supply at................. 219

North Grove, water supply at............... 201

well at.................................. 202

water of, analysis of................. 203

Page.

North Liberty, water supply at............. 211

wells at and near...................... 207,212

water of, analysis of................. 213

North Manchester, public supply at.... 69,225-226

section at................................ 226

wells at and near...................... 224,228

water of, analyses of................. 229

North Salem, water supply at............... 14t

wells near............................. 146,148

water of, analysis of................. 149

North Webster, water supply at............. 163

Notre Dame, wells at........................ 212

water of, analysis of..................... 213

O.

Oaklandon, water supply at................. 183

wells near............................... 142

Ockley, watersupply at..................... 84

Odor, cause of, in water..................... 235

Oil, output of............................... 23

occurrence of...........................I; 39

Oil wells, pollution from.................... 39,264

Omega, water supply at..................... 135

Onward, water supply at.................... 93

wells at................................. 93

water of, analysis of................. 94

Ordovician rocks, character and distribution

Of............................ 36,37-41

See also particular formations.

Orestes, water supply at...................'. 172

wells at................................. 176

water of, analysis of................. 176

Organic matter in water, effect of........... 249

Osceola, water supply at.................... 211

wells at................................. 212

water of, analysis of................. 213

Oswego, water supply at.................... 163

Outwash, character and distribution of...... 31

water in................................. 32

wells in................................. 32

Outwash plains, construction of............. 27

flowing wells in......................... 59

figure showing...................... 59

Owasco, water supply at.................... 84

Packerton, water supply at................. 163

Palestine, water supply at................... 163

Patton, water supply at..................... 84

wells at, data on......... .............. 85

Pecksburg, water supply at................. 148

Pendleton, water supply at................. 172

wells at and near...................... 168,174

water of, analyses of................ 176

Pendleton sandstone, character and distribution of........................... 36,44

water in................................. 36,44

Perkinsville, water supply at................ 173

well at..................t............... 174

water of, analysis of................. . 176

Perrysburg, water supply at................ 201

well at.................................. 202

water of, analysis of................. 203
276 INDEX.

Page. 

Peru, public supply at.............. 63,69,199-200

water at, analyses of.................. 266,267

wells at and near...................... 198,202

record of.......................... 199,201

water of, analyses of............... 203-204

Pettysvllle, water supply at................. 201

well at.................................. 202

water of, analysis of................. 204

Philadelphia, water supply at............... 142

Phlox, water supply at..................... 155

Pickard, water supply at.................... 100

Pierceton, public supply at............ 69,162-163

well at.................................. 164

water of, analysis of................. 165

Pike, water supply at....................... 75

Pipe Creek, wells on.................. 120-121,163

Pittsboro, water supply at.................. 147

wells near............................... 148

water of, analysis of................. 149

Pittsburg, water supply at.................. 83

wells at, water of, analysis of............ 86

Plainfleld, water supply at................ 146-147

wells at, record of................... 147

Plains, structure of.......................... 27

Plevna, water supply at..................... 155

Plymouth, water supply at............ 69,190-191

wells at and near...................... 189,193

record of............................ 190

water of, analysis of............... 194-195

Point Isabel, writer supply at............... 125

wells at................................. ' 126

water of, analysis of................. 128

Polan Town, water supply at............... 211

Population, distribution of.................. 24

Pores, water in.............................. 50

Port Huron, Mich., water at, analysis of..... 263

Prairie Creek, wells on..........'............ 72

Precipitation, records of..................... 20-21

relation of, to ground water............. 47

Public supplies, care of...................... 65-66

data on................................. 68

ownership of............................ 66-67

pollution of............................. 65-66

sources of............................... 63

relative merits of.................... 63-65

See also particular cities, towns, etc. 

Puckett, water supply at.................... 125

Pumps, water lifting by..................... 62

Pyrmont, water supply at................... 84

wells near, data on...................... 85

QQuaternary rocks, description of............. 36

water in................................. 36

See also Alluvium; Drift; etc.

R. 

Radley, water supply at..................... 125

Radnor, water supply at. ................'.*, 84

wells near............................... 81,85

water of, analysis of................. 86

Rainfall. See Precipitation.

Raintown, water supply at.................. 148

Redbridge, water supply at.................. 227

well at.................................. 228

Reese, water supply at...................... 75

Relief, description of......................... 17

See also Topography.

Page.

Reno, water supply at....................... 148

Reserve, water supply at................. .. 201

well at................................... 202

water of, analysis of................. 204

Richland Center, .water supply at............ 115

wells at.................................. 115

water of, analysis of................. 116

Richmond formation, character and distribution of...................................... 40

Rich Valley, water at, analysis of........... 267

water supply at......................... 227

Ridgeway, water supply at.................. 155

Rigdon, water supply at..................... 125

Rivers, water supply from................... 63

Roann, water supply at..................... 226

well at................................... 227

water of, analysis of................. 229

Rochester, public supply at......... 64,69,112-113

section at................................ 113

water at, analyses of................... 266,267

wells at................................ 112,115

water of, analyses of................. 116

Rockfleld, wells in, data on.................. 80,85

water of, analysis of..................... 86

Rock formations, character of, relation of, to

ground water.............. 25,37,51-52

Rock formations, description of.............. 35-45

flowing wells from....................... 59-61

figure showing....................... 59

springs from............................. 54-55

figure showing....................... 54

table of.................................. 36

waters in, analyses of.................... 261

quality of.......................... 261-262

sources of............................ 49,60

Roseburg, water supply at................... 125

Rosehill, water supply at.................... 223

Rosstown, water supply at.................. 75

Rossville, water supply at................... 99

wells at.................................. ICO

water of, analysis of................. 101

Royal Center, public supply at........... 69,91-92

wells at.................................. 93

water of, analysis of................. 94

Royalton, water supply at................... 75

Russiaville, public supply at............... 69,154

wells near............................. 152,156

water of, analyses of................. 157

Rutland, water supply at.................... 193

well at................................'... 193

S. 

St. Joseph County, artesian areas in....... 206-207

geology and ground water of........... 206-207

municipal supplies in.................. 207-211

topography of........................... 205

wells in, data on......................... 212

water of, analyses of............... 213-214

St. Joseph River, system of.................. . 18

St. Peter sandstone, character and distribution of.................................. 37-38,51

water in.............................. 38,49,51

Salamonie River, water of, analysis of........ 266

Sand, character and distribution of.......... 33

water in................................. 33,53

Sandstones, character and distribution of.... 37

water in.............................. 37,51,53

Santa Fe, water supply at................... 201
INDEX. 277

Page. 

Scale, formation of......................... 238-23?

prevention of.......................... 241-242

Scircleville, water supply at................. 100

wells at.................................. 100

water of, analysis of................. 101

Sedalia, water supply at..................... 100

wells at.................................. 100

Sellersburg limestone, character and distribution of............................... 36,44,72

water in.................................. 36,44

Servia, water supply at...................... 227

Sevastopol, water supply at................. 163

well at................................... 164

water of, analysis of................. 165

Shales, character and distribution of......... 37

water in................................. 37,52

Shannondale, well at, data on............... 76

Sharpville, water supply at.................. 218

wells at and near...................... 217,219

Sheridan, public supply at.................. 69

wells at................................ 134,136

water of, analysis of................. 137

Shirley, water supply at.................... 142

wells at.................................. 142

Showley, water supply at................... 115

Sidney, water supply at..................... 163

wells at.................................. 164

water of, analysis of................. 165

Silurian rocks, character and distribution

Of..................... 36,41-43,89,112

water in........................ 42-43,52,59-61

See also particular formations. 

Silverlake, well at........................... 164

well at, water of, analysis of............. 165

Sims, water supply at....................... 125

wells at.................................. 126

Siphon, water lifting by..................... 62

Sleeth,; water supply at...................... 84

Soda ash, use of in boilers................. 241-242

Softening, processes of..................... 252,256

Soils, description of.......................... 22-23

Somerset, water supply at................... 227

wells at................................ 224,228

water of, analysis of................. 229

South Bend, public supply at.......... 69,207-208

wells at and near.................. 206-207,212

records of............................ 208

water of, analyses of............... 213-214

Southport, water supply at.................. 183

Southwest, water supply at................. 108

Spiker, water supply at..................... 227

Springs, water supplies from................. 65

See also Drift springs; Rock springs. 

Stabler, H., cited.......................... 242-243

work of.................................. 265

Steaming, water for....................... 238-244

Stilesville, water supply at.................. 148

Stony Creek, wells on....................... 132

Stratigraphy, description of................. 35-45

Strawtown, water supply at................. 135

wells at................................ 132,136

water of, analysis of................. 137

Streams, description of...................... 17-19

Structure, relation of, to ground water....... 50-51

Sugar Creek, wells on....................... 81,140

Sulphur in water, effect of................. 237,248

Page. 

Summary of results.......................... 15-16

Summitville, water supply at.......... 69,171-172

well at.................................. 174

record of............................. 172

water of, analysis of................. 176

Surface deposits, character and distribution of 27-34 

maps of................................. 16,26

waters from........................... 258-260

analyses of........................... 260

Surface waters, analyses of................... 263

public supply from...................... 63-64

quality of.............................. 262-264

relation of, to wells...................... 46

figure showing....................... 46

Suspended matter in water, character and

effect of....................... 245-246

Swayzee, water supply at................... 124

wells at.................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 128

Sweetsers, watersupply at.................. 125

wells at.................................. 126

water of, analysis of................. 128

Sycamore, watersupply at.................. 155

well at.................................. 156

Syracuse, public supply at............... 64,69,162

wells at.................................. 164

water of, analysis of................. 165

T.

Talena, water supply at..................... 115

wells at................................ 112,115

water of, analysis of................. 116

Teegarden, water supply at................. 193

wells at and near....................... 189,193

water of, analysis of................. 195

Temperature, records of..................... 19,20

Terre Coupe, watersupply at................. 211

well at, water of, analysis of............. 214

Tetersburg, water supply at................. 219

Thorntown, water supply at................. 74

wells in and near........................ 72,76

record of............................ 74

water of, analysis of................. 77

Tilden, water supply at..................... 148

wells near............................. 146,148

Till, character and distribution of........... 27-28

topography of........................... 28

water in................................. 28-29

wells in................................. 29

See also particular counties. 

Till plains, construction of................... 27

Timber, extent of........................... 21-22

Tiosa, watersupply at...................... 114

wells at and near........................ 115

water of, analysis of................. 116

Tippecanoe, water supply at................ 193

wells, near.............................. 189

Tippeeanoe River, drainage of............. 110,158

water of, analysis of..................... 266

Tipton, public supply at.............. 69,217-218

wells at and near...................... 217,219

water of, analyses of................. 220

Tipton County, artesian areas in............ 217

geology and ground water of........... 216-217

municipal supplies in.................. 217-219

topography of........................... 215
278 INDEX.

Page. 

Tipton County, wells in, data on............. 219

wells in, water of, analyses of............ 220

Topography, description of.................. 17

effect of glaciation on.................... 26-27

relation of, to ground water.............. 47,50

figure showing....................... 50

See also Till; Moraines. 

Traders Point, water supply at.............. 183

wells near............................. 179,184

Transportation, network of.................. 23

Treaty, water supply at..................... 227

Treaty Creek, wells on.................... 223-224

Trenton limestone, character and distribution of........................... 38-39

oil and gas in............................ 38

water in................................. 39-40

dangers from........................ 40

Twelve Mile, water supply at............... 93

wells at................................. 93

water of, analysis of................. 94

Tyner, water supply at...................... 193

well at.................................. 193

water of, analysis of................. 195

U.

Underground water. See Ground water. 

Upland, public supply at.................. 69,123

wells at................................. 126

Urbana, water supply at.................... 227

wells at................................. 228

water of, analyses of................. 229

Utica shale, character and distribution of.... 40

V. 

Valley Mills, water supply at................ 183

Valleys, buried, character and location of.... 26

Vanburen, public supply at................ 69,123

wellsat................................. 126

water of, analyses of................. 128

Vawters Park, water supply at.............. 163

Vegetation, character of..................... 21-22

Vermont, water supply at................... 155

well at.................................. 156

Vernon, water supply at.................... 227

well at.................................. 228

Vincennes, water at, analysis of............. 263

Vistula, water supply at.................... 108

W. 

Wabash, public supply at.................. 69,225

wells at and near...................... 223,228

record of.......................... 223,225

water of, analyses of................. 229

Wabash County, artesian areas in......... 223-224

geology and ground water of.......... 222-224

municipal supplies in.................. 225-227

topography of......................... 221-222

wells in, data on........................ 228

water of, analyses of................. 229

Wabash River, system of.................... 17-18

water of, analyses of................... 263,266

Wagoner, water supply at................. 115,201

well at.................................. 202

water of, analysisof................. 204

Wakarusa, water supply at.................. 107

wells at and near...................... 104,108

water of, analysisof................. 109

Page. 

Walker, water supply at..................... 84

wells at, data on........................ 86

Walkerton, public supply at............... 69,210

well at.................................. 212

water of, analyses of................. 214

Walnut, water supply at.................... 193

well at, water of, analysis of............. 195

Walnut Grove, water supply at............. 211

wjell at.................................. 212

Walton, water supply at.................... 92

wellsat................................. 93

water of, analysis of................. 94

Warrington, water supply at................ 142

wells at................................. 142

Warsaw, water at, analyses of............. 266,267

public supply at.................... 64,69,161

wells at............................... 160,164

record of............................ 162

water of, analyses of................. 165

Water, analysis of......................... 230-233

bacteriological qualities of............. 235-236

chemical composition of............... 258-267

chemical qualities of................... 236-238

classification of........................ 233-251

standards for.................... 242-244

field assays of......................... 265-267

mineral constituents of.................. 233

physical qualities of..................... 235

purification of......................... 251-258

See also Filtration; Softening; Heating, 

uses of.................................. 234

See also particular uses. 

Water, underground. See Ground water. 

Waterford, water supply at................. 108

Water lifts, description of................... 62-63

Water supplies. See Public supplies.

Wausas Lake, well near..................... 160

Wawasee, water supply at.................. 163

Wawpekong, water supply at............... 201

Wells, abundance of......................... 16

construction of.......................... 55-57

drilling of, rig for, view of............... 58

plugging of.............................. 40

pollution of............................. 55

types of.............................. 29,55-57

description of....................... 55-57

water in, fluctuations of................. 21

source of............................ 45

supply from......................... 64-65

Wells, flowing. See Flowing wells.

Westfleld, water supply at.................. 135

wellsat................................. 132

West Liberty, water supply at.............. 155

wells near............................... 156

water of, analysis of................. 157

West Middleton, water supply at............ 155

wells at and near...................... 152,156

water of, analysis of................. 157

West Nevjton, water supply at.............. 183

West Peru, water supply at................. 201

wells at and near........................ 202

water of, analysis of................. 204

Wheeling, water supply at.................. 84

W hippie, G. C., cited..................... 235,237

White Institute, well at..................... 224
INDEX. 279

Page. 

Whitelick, water supply at.................. 75

wells near.................!............. 72-73

White River, system of..................... 18

water of, analyses of..................... 263

Whitestown, water supply at............... 74-75

Wild Cat Creek, water of, analysis of........ 266

wells on................................. 81,97

Wilkinson, water supply at................. 142

wells at................................. 142

Williams Creek, wellson.................... 131

Willow, water supply at.................... 142

wells at................................. 142

Winamac, water at, analysis of.............. 266

Winchester, wells near...................... 148

Windfall, water supply at................... 218

wells at................................. 219

water of, analysis of................. 220

Winona Lake, water of, analysis of.......... 266

Page.

Winona Lake, water supply at ............. 1C3

wells at................................. 1C4

water of, analysis of................. 165

Woodland, water supply at................. 211

Wooster, water supply at................... 163

wells near............................... 160

Wyatt, water supply at..................... 211

Y.

Yoeman, water supply at................... £4

Young America, water supply at............ fi2

wells at................................. 93

water of, analysis of................ 94

Z.

Zionsville, water supply at.................. 75

wells near........................... 73,76,136

water of, analysis of................. 77

o