Deep Sea Coral Research 

and Technology Program

2016 Report to Congress 
About This Report

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology 

Program (Program) was established under the authority of Section 408 of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery 

Conservation and Management Act (MSA), as reauthorized in 2007. This MSA-required biennial report to 

Congress and the public summarizes the steps taken by NOAA to identify, monitor, and protect deep-sea coral 

areas, including the Program’s research activities and results. The Program consults with the nation’s eight 

Regional Fishery Management Councils and collaborates on research with other federal agencies, international 

partners, and non-governmental and academic scientists.

The Program collaborates with other NOAA programs and offices, such as National Marine Sanctuaries, Ocean 

Exploration and Research, Fisheries Science Centers, Fisheries Regional Offices, National Centers for Coastal 

Ocean Science, and National Centers for Environmental Information. These programs and offices support 

exploration, research, and management activities critical to understanding and managing deep-sea corals and 

other ocean resources. The Program actively works to leverage their expertise. 

This report describes the 2014 and 2015 research activities partially or fully funded by the Program to meet 

NOAA’s mandate to identify, study, and monitor deep-sea coral areas. The report is supplemented by details of 

these activities available at https://deepseacoraldata.noaa.gov/. The report also briefly describes progress during 

this period in MSA-related management actions that contribute to protecting deep-sea coral areas. 

A subset of deep-sea coral research activities funded and carried out by NOAA programs and offices other than 

the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program are briefly acknowledged in the report but not specifically 

discussed as they are outside the scope of this report.

2016. All photos from NOAA, except as noted. 

COVER PHOTOS: Top photos are from NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer’s Hohonu Moana expedition in 2015. 

Left: Squat lobster on undescribed genus of bamboo coral (family Isididae, discovered in 2007 in the 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument). Middle: NOAA’s Deep Discoverer remotely operated 

vehicle surveys seafloor in Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Right: Brittle stars entwined in a gorgonian 

coral, on a ridge that had been completely unexplored. Bottom: Red bubblegum coral (Paragorgia sp.) 

and pale Lophelia pertusa corals provide habitat at 300 meters (nearly 1,000 feet) deep in 

Southern California’s Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary.

Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 

National Marine Fisheries Service 
Contents

Executive Summary 2

About Deep-Sea Corals 4

Northeast Research Connects with Habitat Conservation 6

Alaska Research Explores Ecologically Rich Deep-Sea Coral Habitats 14

Pacific Islands Research Discovers Deep-Sea Coral Communities 20

Deep-Sea Coral Science Informs West Coast Fisheries and Sanctuary Management 24

NOAA Gears Up for Southeast Regional Fieldwork Initiative 26

National Database for Deep-Sea Corals and Sponges Goes Online 27

NOAA and Partners Develop Management Actions to Protect Deep-Sea Coral Habitat 28

Looking Forward 33

Appendix 1: Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program Investments 34

Appendix 2: Maps of Deep-Sea Corals and Sponges by Region 36

Appendix 3: Deep-Sea Coral Areas with Potential for Interaction with Fishing Gear 44

Starfish and abandoned fishing net with Primnoa 

coral at Outer Schoodic Ridges, Gulf of Maine

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 1
Coral colony at East Salmon Bank, more than 2,100 

meters (6,890 feet) deep in the Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument, as observed on the 2015 

Hohonu Moana expedition.

In every U.S. region, near and far from 

the shoreline, deep-sea corals grow slowly 

in the darkness and sustain an array of 

marine life. These complex habitats are 

areas of high biodiversity and activity 

for commercial fish and other marine 

species. In 2014 and 2015, six of the 

eight U.S. Regional Fishery Management 

Councils worked to improve the 

management of deep-sea coral habitats. 

To inform these Council actions, NOAA’s 

Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology 

Program supports essential science and 

provides distinctive information to guide 

management of these unique ecosystems. 

With an investment averaging only $2.48 

million per year and through its extensive 

partnerships, this Program is creating the 

foundation to understand deep-sea coral 

distribution, biology and ecology.

The Program completed fieldwork in 

two regions in this 2-year period. The 

Northeast Fieldwork Initiative visually 

surveyed 31 submarine canyons between 

Maine and Virginia and discovered coral 

gardens just 25 miles off the coast of 

Maine. Secondly, the Alaska Fieldwork 

Initiative systematically took images of 

the seafloor at more than 200 stations 

throughout the 1,200-mile Aleutian 

Islands chain, confirming widespread 

corals and commercially important fish 

using the coral areas. These initiatives 

tell us about many deep-sea coral 

communities that no humans had seen 

before. The involved scientists shared 

their findings and enabled the respective 

Councils to act on the newest data.

The Program is a central partner for new 

research in the Pacific Islands region that 

began in 2015 and will continue until 

2017. This research is also discovering 

deep-sea coral communities, and likely 

new species, in places never before 

surveyed. These observations support 

the region’s national marine sanctuaries 

and extensive new marine national 

monuments, many of which are remote 

and rarely studied.

Executive Summary

2 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress
continue to support the Councils as they 

develop habitat management measures for 

deep-sea coral areas around the nation.

We are only just starting to understand 

the basics of where and how deep-sea 

corals grow. Further studies will help us 

better understand how they contribute 

to resilient ecosystems and sustainable 

fisheries. In the coming years, the 

Program plans to explore the Pacific 

Islands’ deep-sea coral communities 

further, investigate priority areas in 

the Southeast, and support continuing 

research in other regions of the United 

States. 

The Program’s Deep-Sea Coral Data Portal 

(https://deepseacoraldata.noaa.gov), 

launched in 2015, includes a library, photo 

gallery, and searchable map displaying 

the distribution of more than 300,000 

deep-sea corals and sponges. Maintained 

by the Program, the portal presents the 

most comprehensive collection of deepsea coral and sponge information for U.S. 

waters.

None of these accomplishments would 

be possible without the extensive 

contributions from our collaborators 

within and outside of NOAA. The 

elements needed to make this program 

such a success—from ship time, 

predictive habitat suitability models, 

underwater survey tools, lab analyses, 

to the data management processes—are 

a result of multiple partners pooling 

resources together for a shared mission. 

This cooperation exemplifies NOAA’s 

commitment to building partnerships 

internally and externally to deliver highquality research in a cost-effective manner.

Our collaborations are translating rapidly 

into better management and conservation, 

and 2015 saw the development of the first 

proposed deep-sea coral zone under the 

Regional Fishery Management Councils’ 

discretionary authority to protect corals 

from fishing gear impacts. The MidAtlantic Fishery Management Council has 

proposed the designation of the Frank R. 

Lautenberg Deep-Sea Coral Protection 

Area in honor of the late senator from 

New Jersey who advocated for deepsea coral conservation. Encompassing 

more than 38,000 square miles, this 

area would be about the size of Virginia. 

Much of the area is based on the results of 

various studies conducted by NOAA and 

communicated to the Council through 

frequent engagements. The Program will 

A deep-sea red crab clings to bubblegum coral in a northeastern canyon.

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 3
4 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Deep-sea corals can live for hundreds or 

thousands of years, creating remarkably 

complex communities in the depths of 

the oceans. Their habitat in the deep 

sea ranges from where the light is 

dim (around 150-foot depth) to more 

than 10,000 feet down. Deep-sea coral 

habitats have been discovered in all 

Deep-sea stony corals range from small individual 

cup corals to large, branching species, like this 

Lophelia pertusa colony off Eastern Florida, that 

form extensive deep-water reefs. 

Gold corals, some of which have been harvested 

for jewelry, are unique in that they grow on the 

skeletons of other deep-sea corals and can live for 

thousands of years. 

Gorgonians, like this fan-shaped colony of red 

coral (Corallium sp.) on Davidson Seamount, are 

among the most diverse deep-sea corals.

Black corals often resemble bushes or trees. 

Some black corals may be the world’s oldest living 

marine organisms. This black coral off Hawaii was 

estimated to be more than 4,000 years old.

About Deep-Sea Corals

U.S. regions on continental shelves and 

slopes, canyons, and seamounts. Their 

full geographic extent is still unknown, 

because most areas have yet to be 

adequately surveyed. 

A few deep-sea coral species form reefs 

that, over millennia, can grow more than 

100 meters (300 feet) tall. Many other 

coral species are shaped like bushes or 

trees and can form assemblages similar to 

groves or forests on the seafloor. 

Nationwide, these complex structures 

provide habitat for many fish and 

invertebrate species, including certain 

commercially important ones such as 

grouper, snapper, sea bass, rockfish, 

shrimp, and crab. Moreover, organisms 

that live in deep-sea coral habitats 

produce chemicals having great potential 

for biomedical uses, and some deep-sea 

coral species have commercial value as 

jewelry and art objects.

Most deep-sea corals grow extremely 

slowly. Once damaged, the corals and 

the communities they support may take 

centuries to recover—if they recover at 

all. Deep-sea corals are vulnerable to 

disturbance caused by fishing gear such 

as bottom trawls that contact the seafloor. 

They can also be damaged by activities 

associated with energy exploration and 

development, cable deployment, and 

other actions that disturb their habitat. 

In addition, ocean acidification—a result 

of the ocean absorbing increased carbon 

dioxide—can adversely affect corals’ ability 

to grow or maintain their structures.

Lace corals, like these off California, are actually 

hydroids and only distantly related to other corals.

Sea pens are related to gorgonians. But unlike 

most other deep-sea corals they live in soft 

sediments where they can form large fields. 
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 5

MSA Section 408: 

Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program

(a) IN GENERAL—The Secretary, in consultation with appropriate regional fishery management 

Councils and in coordination with other Federal agencies and educational institutions, shall, 

subject to the availability of appropriations, establish a program--

(1) to identify existing research on, and known locations of, deep-sea corals and submit 

such information to the appropriate Councils;

(2) to locate and map locations of deep-sea corals and submit such information to the 

Councils;

(3) to monitor activity in locations where deep-sea corals are known or likely to occur, 

based on best scientific information available, including through underwater or remote 

sensing technologies and submit such information to the appropriate Councils;

(4) to conduct research, including cooperative research with fishing industry participants, 

on deep-sea corals and related species, and on survey methods;

(5) to develop technologies or methods designed to assist fishing industry participants in 

reducing interactions between fishing gear and deep-sea corals; and

(6) to prioritize program activities in areas where deep-sea corals are known to occur, and 

in areas where scientific modeling or other methods predict deep-sea corals are likely 

to be present.

(b) REPORTING — Beginning 1 year after the date of enactment of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery 

Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006, the Secretary, in consultation with 

the Councils, shall submit biennial reports to Congress and the public on steps taken by the 

Secretary to identify, monitor, and protect deep-sea coral areas, including summaries of the 

results of mapping, research, and data collection performed under the program.

NOAA is celebrating... 

40 years of the nation’s main fishery management law, the MagnusonStevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA). The year 

2016 also marks 20 years since the addition of Essential Fish Habitat

provisions. Ten years ago, in 2006, Congress passed the Magnuson-Stevens 

Reauthorization Act, which created the Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program (see MSA Section 408 above), and added new 

deep-sea coral discretionary authorities, which were first applied in 2015 by 

the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council. The Deep Sea Coral Research 

and Technology Program continues to advance the MSA’s record of sound 

science in support of habitat conservation and sustainable fisheries. 

Deep-sea coral habitats are oases of high biological diversity in the deep sea 

and provide habitat for a number of fisheries species. Their conservation and 

management contributes to the health of our nation’s marine ecosystems and fisheries. 
6 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

The Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program sponsored 

a Northeast Fieldwork Initiative 

from 2013 to 2015 with the primary 

objective to locate and characterize 

deep-sea coral communities in the 

region, which extends from offshore of 

Maine to Virginia. NOAA scientists, in 

collaboration with university researchers 

and other partners, implemented the 

initiative. Leveraging expertise and 

funding with other partners within and 

outside of NOAA and employing a wide 

range of research tools, the initiative 

advanced the science of deep-sea corals 

in the region’s submarine canyons, 

seamounts, and coral gardens.

Canyons and Seamounts

Under the initiative, teams of scientists 

conducted surveys throughout the 

Northeast region using either a towed 

Large bubblegum 

coral colonies in 

Heezen Canyon. 

Northeast Research Connects 

with Habitat Conservation

Northeast Fieldwork Initiative 

BY THE NUMBERS

$2,379,000 contribution from the Program, 

over 3 years (2013-2015)

9 cruises completed

300,000 images collected

470 hours of video recorded

147 camera tows 

31 canyons visually surveyed

3 presentations to the Mid-Atlantic Fishery 

Management Council and its advisory bodies

3,271 meters (10,732 feet), deepest observation 

during the initiative
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 7

camera system or a remotely operated 

vehicle (ROV) deployed from NOAA 

ships. Each summer, several major 

and minor canyons and inter-canyon 

areas were investigated. Many of these 

canyons had never been surveyed 

previously; for other canyons, only 

limited, historical data were available. 

Canyons were prioritized and selected 

for survey in consultation with the 

New England and Mid-Atlantic Fishery 

Management Councils, along with input 

from other state and local partners. 

Given the management interest in 

locating deep-sea coral habitats, it was 

extremely important to target surveys at 

those areas most likely to support coral 

growth. Using high-quality multibeam 

sonar maps and results of a regional 

habitat suitability model to guide their 

sampling, scientists collected videos 

and photos from almost all the major 

canyons, several minor canyons, and one 

previously unexplored seamount in the 

region. 

Overall 24 canyons were investigated 

using a towed camera.1 The 86 camera 

tows resulted in more than 168,000 

images revealing steep canyon walls, 

sedimented slopes, and isolated 

boulders. Stony corals, black corals, 

most gorgonian and soft corals, and the 

majority of sponges observed were on 

From canyons and other sites (shown as black crosses) surveyed by NOAA and partners in 2012–2015 

using a towed camera system, more than 168,000 images were gathered. Also shown are sites sites 

surveyed by ROVs in the 2014 Remotely Operated Platform for Ocean Science (ROPOS) cruise and the 

2013 Okeanos Explorer cruise.

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Legend

Deep-Sea Coral Surveys

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Atlantic Canyons

U.S. EEZ

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1 Investigations included three research cruises 

during the 2013–2015 initiative, and a cruise in 

2012 to validate the habitat suitability model to 

prepare for the initiative.
8 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

hard substrates, whereas sea pens and red 

crabs were common on soft sediments. 

Canyon morphology, the degree of 

sedimentation, depth, and currents 

appear to play a role in the biodiversity 

of corals, sponges, and fishes observed in 

each canyon. Scientists observed corals in 

every canyon; however, abundance and 

diversity of corals varied dramatically. 

For example, only a few colonies of 

widely dispersed corals were observed 

in Washington Canyon (off Virginia) 

whereas a “coral forest” of bubblegum 

corals was observed in Heezen Canyon 

(off Maine). 

Several large species of gorgonian corals 

were distributed throughout the canyon 

system. The sea fan, Paramuricea sp., 

was commonly observed in Munson, 

Powell, Gilbert, and Veatch canyons. 

Overall, stony corals were not especially 

abundant or diverse. A solitary, small cup 

coral was the most often observed stony 

coral, usually seen on canyon walls and 

in dense aggregations along ledges or 

overhangs. Other highlights from these 

cruises included the first observations 

of black corals in some of the northern 

canyons (e.g., Gilbert Canyon), discovery 

of a biodiversity hotspot in the relatively 

shallow (300–500 meters, or 980–

1,640 feet) Wilmington Canyon, and 

observations of corals in minor canyons. 

Each canyon appears to have its own 

biological and geological signature.

 Scientists are currently analyzing nearly 

170,000 images from the towed camera 

to describe and quantify the corals, 

sponges, fishes, and other invertebrates 

observed at these locations. Additionally, 

locations of corals and sponges will 

be added to NOAA’s Deep-Sea Coral 

and Sponge Database and available for 

download on the Deep-Sea Coral Data 

Portal. Scientists will summarize each 

of the 86 camera tows and publish site 

characterization reports. 

High diversity of 

corals, including 

black corals and 

several species 

of gorgonian 

corals, all living 

together to form a 

community. 
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 9

Crew on the 

NOAA Ship Henry 

Bigelow prepare 

for a dive with the 

Canadian ROPOS 

remotely operated 

vehicle.

In 2013, the Program partnered with 

the Office of Ocean Exploration and 

Research and others to conduct the 

Northeast U.S. Canyons Expedition 

in 2013 aboard NOAA ship Okeanos 

Explorer. During 31 ROV dives, scientists 

surveyed eight major canyons, three 

minor canyons, areas on the continental 

slope, and Mytilus seamount. They 

observed at least 58 taxa of deep-sea 

corals representing 20 families.2

 At least 

24 species had never been documented 

in previous faunal lists for this region; 

geographic range extensions are likely for 

several additional species after all images 

are reviewed. Results also show that the 

fish and crustacean species observed in 

and around coral habitat are correlated 

with coral species richness. It is possible 

that corals increase local diversity of 

associated species, since some species use 

corals as a hiding place, forage ground, 

or spawning habitat. For example, several 

species of squat lobsters and brittle stars 

are closely associated with deep-sea 

corals. 

This expedition also had a major public 

outreach component. Interest in deepsea corals grew as many tuned in to the 

expedition’s website to see firsthand 

what these deep-sea habitats looked like. 

Traffic to the live video feeds, web pages, 

and social media hit all-time highs for 

Okeanos Explorer expeditions, and more 

than 660,000 views were recorded. 

The discovery of new deep-sea 

communities and documentation of 

many rarely seen organisms represent 

only a glimpse of what these canyon 

habitats have to offer. The scientific 

2 Quattrini AM, Nizinski MS, Chaytor JD, Demopoulos 

AWJ, Roark EB, France SC, et al. (2015) Exploration of the 

Canyon-Incised Continental Margin of the Northeastern 

United States Reveals Dynamic Habitats and Diverse 

Communities. PLoS ONE 10(10): e0139904. doi:10.1371/

journal. pone.0139904
10 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

sampling method of using transects, 

ranging in length between 300 and 2,200 

meters (984–7,218 feet), covers only a 

small portion of the diverse habitats in 

canyons that can be miles long and deep. 

To further study coral habitats in 

the canyons, the Northeast Initiative 

established a successful partnership 

between Canada and the United States. 

In 2014, NOAA scientists, Canadian and 

U.S. academic partners, and Fisheries 

and Oceans Canada collaborated to 

characterize coral communities in 

the cross-boundary Gulf of Maine 

region—one of the most biologically 

productive ecosystems in the world. 

Using a Canadian ROV and a NOAA 

vessel, the project team collected videos, 

photos, and coral samples from Nygren 

and Heezen canyons in U.S. waters, 

and Corsair Canyon and the Northeast 

Channel Coral Conservation Area in 

Canada. Highlights of this mission 

included surveys in poorly known 

canyons, discovery of extraordinary 

deep-sea coral communities in 

Corsair Canyon, and collection of 

physical samples. These samples 

will be used for taxonomic 

identifications and inform ongoing 

research on coral population 

genetics, reproductive studies, and 

aging analyses.

Coral Gardens in the 

Gulf of Maine 

NOAA scientists partnered with 

researchers from the University of 

Connecticut to conduct 3 years of 

surveys, resulting in the discovery 

of spectacular “coral gardens” 

approximately 25 miles off the 

coast of Maine (see map). Using an 

ROV and a towed camera system, 

they found dense and extensive 

coral cover in western Jordan 

Basin, Outer Schoodic Ridge, 

and near Mount Desert Rock, 

Locations of deep-sea coral communities 

observed in the Gulf of Maine. 
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 11

especially in areas of high vertical relief.3

Based on preliminary analyses of images 

taken in 2013, these areas had some of 

the highest densities (8.6–15.7 colonies 

per square meter) of corals observed 

in the region. Colonies were so densely 

packed in some coral gardens in Outer 

Schoodic Ridge that it was challenging 

for scientists to obtain an accurate count. 

Central Jordan Basin and Georges Basin 

also contained coral communities, but 

those colonies were more patchy, less 

dense, and in lower relief environments 

than the aforementioned areas. 

A few species of gorgonian corals 

dominate these Gulf of Maine sites. 

Corals on the steep vertical walls and 

cliffs of Outer Schoodic Ridge and Mount 

Desert Rock were primarily Primnoa 

resedaeformis, with lower abundances of 

Paramuricea placomus. Conversely, the 

major coral species found in western and 

central Jordan Basin and Georges Basin 

was Paramuricea placomus, with lower 

abundances of Primnoa resedaeformis

and Acanthogorgia cf. armata.

A number of commercially important 

fish and shellfish species were observed at 

the coral sites, including Acadian redfish, 

haddock, pollock, cusk, monkfish, cod 

(both juveniles and adults), silver hake, 

spiny dogfish, and lobster. The fish were 

observed searching for and catching prey 

(e.g., shrimp, amphipods, krill, and other 

small fish) that were also found among 

the coral. 

Within sites in Western and Central 

Jordan Basin, Outer Schoodic Ridge, 

and Georges Basin, coral communities 

exhibited evidence of damage, likely 

from recent fishing activities with bottom 

trawls or the setting and recovery of 

traps. In some steep areas, tracks left by 

fishing gear were denuded of corals and 

associated fauna. In other coral patches, 

large but still living colonies appeared 

Abundant Acadian 

redfish and 

Primnoa corals 

were observed at 

Outer Schoodic 

Ridge in 2014. 

3 Auster PJ, et al. (2014) Imaging Surveys of 

Select Areas in the Northern Gulf of Maine for 

Deep-sea Corals and Sponges during 2013-

2014. Report to the New England Fishery 

Management Council - 1 December 2014.
12 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

damaged. The difference in coral sizes 

observed in some patches suggests 

previous impacts followed by recovery 

as evidenced by settlement and growth 

of young corals. In areas such as Georges 

Basin, Paramuricea and associated 

species were often small; virtually all 

colonies occurred in rocky refuges out of 

the reach of fishing gear.

A highlight among the findings from 

this research is that the high-density 

coral areas were discovered only 25 

miles from the coast in relatively shallow 

waters (200–250 meters, or 656-820 feet). 

Coral habitat here encompasses an area 

much larger than previously thought. 

The proximity of these habitats to shore, 

their associations with commercially 

important fish and shellfish species, and 

the evidence of fishing gear impacts 

increase the likelihood that they function 

as key habitat for managed fish species. 

Detailed analyses of images to determine 

coral and sponge distributions in relation 

to geology, associated species, and coral 

size structure are ongoing. Specimens, 

primarily of the dominant corals Primnoa 

and Paramuricea, were collected during 

ROV dives in Outer Schoodic Ridge and 

Western and Central Jordan Basin, and 

these specimens will be incorporated into 

studies on taxonomy, reproduction, age 

and growth, and genetics.

The 2014 Gulf of Maine cruise in 

collaboration with Canadian partners, 

as described in the previous section, also 

surveyed Jordan Basin on both sides 

of the international boundary. Data 

collected during this mission extended 

the known distribution of deep-sea coral 

habitats in the western North Atlantic 

and expanded U.S. investigations to 

encompass the entire Gulf of Maine 

ecosystem. This project also opened lines 

of communication across borders to 

manage and protect marine resources. 

U.S. scientists gained valuable experience 

by working with Canadian colleagues 

who have conducted deep-sea coral 

research in the region for a longer period 

and who have enacted a variety of 

conservation initiatives to protect deepsea coral habitats. These collaborations 

and data lay the foundation for future 

conservation efforts in U.S. waters and 

across the border.

Control room for the 

Canadian ROPOS 

remotely operated 

vehicle.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 13

Our Northeast Fieldwork Initiative has 

exponentially increased knowledge of 

deep-sea coral habitats in the submarine 

canyons and Gulf of Maine, and revealed 

that much remains to be explored. Deepsea research requires expensive and 

specialized ships and survey equipment, 

and the Program benefited from assets 

and expertise from numerous partners, 

thus allowing the completion of nine 

major expeditions. 

Details on these and other projects under 

the Northeast Fieldwork Initiative are 

available at NOAA’s Deep-Sea Coral 

Data Portal: https://deepseacoraldata.

noaa.gov/fieldwork-studies/ne-fieldworkfy13-15. Above, octocorals, cup corals, and anemones share a rock at 1,459 meters 

(4,800 feet) in Hendrickson Canyon. Bottom, coral colonies in Heezen Canyon. 
14 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Deep-sea corals have been observed 

throughout the Alaska region, ranging 

from a single species of small soft coral in 

the Arctic Ocean, to large communities 

in the Gulf of Alaska. In the Aleutian 

Islands, scientists found 137 coral and 

150 sponge species, of which 85 or more 

may exist nowhere else in the world. 

Deep-sea coral abundance, size, and 

diversity in some communities in Alaska 

are among the highest on Earth.4

Previous information on the distribution 

of these corals came from decades of 

trawl and longline surveys for fisheries 

stock assessments, bycatch records 

from commercial fisheries, and limited 

underwater visual surveys primarily 

in 2002-2004 and 2010 targeting coral 

communities. In this reporting period, the 

Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology 

Program’s Alaska Fieldwork Initiative 

concluded 3 years of extensive at-sea 

research and filled many knowledge gaps 

with undersea observations, coral habitat 

models, and a suite of studies on coral 

biology and ecology.

Aluetian Islands habitat models and surveys 

A key project in this three-year initiative 

was building new habitat models to 

predict the location, abundance, and 

diversity of deep-sea corals and sponges 

in three parts of Alaska: Aleutian 

Islands, eastern Bering Sea, and Gulf 

of Alaska. The Aleutian Islands are an 

active area of volcanic activity and much 

of the seafloor is comprised of exposed 

rocks and boulders. The model predicts 

4 Stone R P (2014) The ecology of deep-sea coral and sponge 

habitats of the central Aleutian Islands of Alaska. NOAA 

Professional Paper NMFS 16.

Alaska Research Explores Ecologically 

Rich Deep-Sea Coral Habitats

Alaska Fieldwork Initiative 

BY THE NUMBERS

$2,608,811 support from the Deep Sea Coral 

Research and Technology Program, over 3 years 

(2012-2014)

11 projects

6 research cruises to visually locate and 

characterize coral habitats 

5 research cruises to examine rockfish habitat use 

in the central Gulf of Alaska

216 camera transects in the Aleutian Islands; 68 

percent observed corals and 82 percent observed 

sponges

250 camera transects in the eastern Bering Sea

21,910 in-situ measurements of height for corals 

and sponges

500,000 photos taken

853 records of coral locations from visual surveys 

added to NOAA’s Deep-Sea Coral Database

corals to occur in various parts of the 

island chain, and sponges are expected 

to be ubiquitous (see figures).5

 Their 

distribution seems to be influenced 

by the currents, probably because the 

currents sweep the seafloor clear of 

sediment, creating surfaces for these 

animals to live on, and because the 

currents deliver more food particles 

to them. In the Gulf of Alaska, corals 

5 Rooper CN, Zimmermann M, Prescott MM, Hermann AJ 

(2014) Predictive models of coral and sponge distribution, 

abundance and diversity in bottom trawl surveys of the 

Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series 

503:157-176.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 15

Habitat model predicting the 

probability of presence of 

sponges and corals in the 

Aleutian Islands.
16 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Throughout the Aleutian 

Islands, 216 locations 

were visually surveyed. 

The 2012 survey locations 

are shown in green, and 

the 2014 ones in red.

and sponges are expected to occur in a 

number of distinct hotspots where depth 

and currents are suitable. 

Scientists deployed a camera system 

to survey the seafloor and verify the 

accuracy of the model. Among 216 

randomly selected stations throughout 

the Aleutian Islands, about 68 percent 

had corals and 82 percent had sponges. 

Comparing the undersea observations 

with the model predictions, researchers 

found that the model performed well in 

predicting coral presence, and coral and 

sponge densities.

Most Aleutian corals and sponges 

measured between 10 and 60 centimeters 

(4–24 inches) tall, and the tallest coral 

exceeded 1 meter (3.3 feet). Their average 

density was 0.5 colonies per square 

meter for both corals and sponges, but 

in coral gardens the density can exceed 

10 colonies per square meter. Many 

commercially important fish species 

were observed among coral and sponge 

communities in the Aleutian Islands. Atka 

mackerel and yellow Irish lord (a sculpin 

species) were both observed guarding egg 

nests in sponge beds. Various rockfishes 

were commonly observed using corals 

and sponges as habitat.

In response to a request from the North 

Pacific Fishery Management Council, 

the Program also supported a team of 

scientists to survey seafloor communities 

at 250 stations in and around the Bering 

Sea canyons to validate a separate 

coral and sponge habitat model. Corals 

were found at 32 of 250 randomly 

selected stations. Their densities were 

The deep-sea coral and sponge gardens in the 

Aleutian Islands are among the most dense and 

diverse deep-sea habitats in U.S. waters.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 17

“... sites 

with large 

structures, 

either 

boulders 

or corals, 

host more 

rockfish 

than bare 

seafloor ...”

generally highest in Pribilof Canyon, 

and corals were largest in the slope area 

to the northwest of Pribilof Canyon. 

For sponges, densities and heights were 

highest surrounding Pribilof Canyon, 

north of Bering Canyon, and in some 

locations in Zhemchug Canyon. Both 

corals and sponges were far less dense 

and diverse than in the Aleutian Islands.

Aside from efforts to develop and 

groundtruth habitat suitability models, 

scientists in this fieldwork initiative accomplished many other projects:

Red tree coral habitat areas in the Gulf 

of Alaska: Red tree corals (Primnoa 

pacifica) can grow exceptionally large, 

up to 5 meters (16 feet) tall and 7 

meters (23 feet) wide,6

 and form dense 

thickets that provide rich habitat for 

fish and invertebrate species. Fisheries 

stock assessment surveys in previous 

years indicated presence of red tree 

coral in four sites in the Gulf of Alaska. 

Researchers in Alaska’s 3-year initiative 

conducted ROV surveys at these sites 

to determine the presence and habitat 

preferences of red tree coral colonies and 

other coral species. They collected coral 

samples for age, growth, and genetic 

6 Waller RG, Stone RP, Johnstone J, Mondragon J (2014) 

Sexual Reproduction and Seasonality of the Alaskan Red 

Tree Coral, Primnoa pacifica. PLOS ONE 9(4): e90893. 

doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090893

Rockfish and sea 

urchins congregate 

around a large red 

tree coral (Primnoa 

pacifica) in the Gulf 

of Alaska.

analyses, and deployed and retrieved 

settlement plates on the seafloor to study 

how coral populations grow and how 

often young corals enter the population. 

Large red tree coral colonies were found 

at three of the four sites studied, and the 

preliminary results have indicated that 

young corals are rare.

Commercially important fish species in coral 

and sponge ecosystems: Many fish species 

targeted by commercial fishing have been 

observed in coral and sponge ecosystems 

in Alaska, but whether and how corals 

and sponges support fisheries had not 

been fully studied. In this fieldwork 

initiative, scientists repeatedly observed 

six sites off of Kodiak—two with corals, 

two with boulders and no corals, and 

two more consisting of mostly flat 

sandy seafloor—to see if their rockfish 

populations differ. To date, the results 

show that the sites with large structures, 

either boulders or corals, host more 

rockfish than bare seafloor, and those fish 

have a higher fat content, indicating they 

are in better condition. Fish in sites with 

large structures also appear to be in better 

reproductive health and may produce 

more young fish. Ongoing analysis of 

the diet of the fish collected will help to 

illustrate the productivity of fish stocks 

within coral and sponge habitats.
18 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Effects of longline fishing gear: Bottom 

longlines contact the seafloor and 

potentially can entangle organisms on 

the seafloor other than the intended 

groundfish. To understand whether 

and how longlines might disturb coral 

and sponge habitats, scientists attached 

measurement devices and an underwater 

camera to the longline to observe the 

gear’s movement. The results indicated 

very little movement of the longline 

gear when it is left on the seafloor 

catching fish, but during gear retrieval 

there is more movement of the gear 

along the seafloor, with the potential 

to damage coral and sponge habitats. 

Further analysis of these data is currently 

underway.

Understanding how oceanographic 

conditions and geology influence coral 

and sponge distributions: The Program 

supported annual monitoring efforts 

to measure oxygen, pH, and other 

oceanographic conditions during 

fisheries stock assessment surveys in 

the Aleutian Islands, Gulf of Alaska, 

and eastern Bering Sea slope. These 

datasets will enable fishery scientists 

and managers to understand existing 

conditions and detect evidence of climate 

change in deeper waters that may affect 

deep-sea corals. The datasets have already 

shown that there are naturally occurring 

differences in oceanographic conditions 

at very predictable locations, such as 

areas east of Samalga Pass in the Aleutian 

Islands as compared to areas to the west. 

Most coral and sponge species require 

rocky bottoms to settle and grow. The 

Program helped to compile and map data 

on bathymetry, sediment, and substrate 

types in the Aleutian Islands and Gulf 

of Alaska between 50 and 1,500 meters 

(164–4,921 feet) deep. The data have been 

used in habitat models for Alaska, and 

both the oceanographic information and 

maps of substrate type will inform future 

efforts to study areas of high probability 

of coral and sponge communities. 

Additional studies: The information 

and samples collected by the Program 

are being studied by NOAA’s partners 

for taxonomic identifications, coral 

population connectivity, and compounds 

with biomedical applications.

The projects undertaken during the 

Alaska Fieldwork Initiative are already 

yielding results that can inform habitat 

and fisheries management in the 

Alaska region. The models of coral 

and sponge distribution are being used 

in evaluations of the effectiveness of 

existing closed areas and to address the 

effects of fishing on essential fish habitat. 

Red tree coral research can provide 

information to evaluate how removal 

by fishing may affect their populations 

and the ecosystem services they provide. 

Research on the role of coral habitat 

in rockfish productivity is relevant 

to a number of habitat-related issues 

currently under consideration by both 

the North Pacific and the Pacific Fishery 

Management Councils. By providing 

completely new data and understanding, 

the research projects in Alaska promise 

to move the management of coral and 

sponge habitat forward dramatically. 

Details on the initiative can be found 

in NOAA’s Deep-Sea Coral Data Portal 

at https://deepseacoraldata.noaa.gov/

fieldwork-studies/ak-fieldwork-fy12-14. 
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 19

Large bubblegum coral in Alaska.
20 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

The U.S. Pacific Islands Region 

encompasses more than 50 oceanic 

islands, including the Hawaiian 

Archipelago; the Commonwealth of 

the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI); 

the territories of Guam and American 

Samoa; Rose Atoll; and the Pacific 

Remote Islands (Kingman Reef; Palmyra 

Atoll; Jarvis Island; Howland and Baker 

Islands; Johnston Atoll; and Wake 

Island). They include the nation’s four 

Marine National Monuments, which 

feature some of the world’s most pristine 

marine ecosystems. 

Except for Hawaii, the region’s deep-sea 

environment is virtually unexplored. 

To address this major knowledge gap, 

NOAA initiated CAPSTONE: the 

Campaign to Address Pacific monument 

Science, Technology, and Ocean Needs. 

Over a three-year period, the Deep Sea 

Coral Research and Technology Program 

is participating in CAPSTONE to create 

foundational science for deepwater 

habitats in U.S. waters of the central 

and western Pacific. The campaign, 

led by the Office of Ocean Exploration 

and Research, is providing reliable and 

authoritative science to support decisionmaking by discovering and describing 

deep-sea habitats for the first time.

The first year (2015) of this campaign 

began with a 65-day expedition aboard 

NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer to 

survey the Hawaiian Archipelago and 

Johnston Atoll. The expedition Hohonu 

Moana, meaning “deep ocean” in the 

Hawaiian language, mapped 79,333 

square kilometers (30,631 square miles) 

of seafloor and conducted 37 remotely 

Pacific Islands Research Discovers 

Deep-Sea Coral Communities

A specimen of 

precious coral 

being collected 

during the Hohonu 

Moana expedition, 

including the first 

scientific sample 

collections with 

the Okeanos 

Explorer’s ROV. 
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 21

operated vehicle (ROV) dives ranging 

from 323 to 4,829 meters (1,060–15,843 

feet) deep. It discovered six previously 

unknown high-density deep coral 

communities. Seventy biological samples 

were collected during the cruise on the 

premise that they represent undescribed 

species or new records for the region. 

Although analysis is continuing, a 

definite result will be a substantial 

number of new records for the Central 

Pacific from this first year of collections. 

The ROV also collected rock samples so 

that scientists can learn about the origin 

and age of seamounts and other geologic 

features in the region. 

The expedition also retrieved 

instruments that had been deployed to 

the seafloor in and near precious coral 

areas in Hawaii in previous years to 

record the temperature, direction, speed, 

and particle load of currents. Analysis 

of these records will help scientists 

determine the environmental factors that 

support coral growth. These instruments 

were in various states of disrepair after 

their long resident times on the seafloor, 

but scientists hope to retrieve current and 

temperature readings from at least a few 

of the instruments in 2016. 

In addition, the expedition examined 

host corals marked in 2007 when 

they were in the early stages of being 

colonized by gold coral (Kulamanamana 

haumeaae), a species that can live for 

thousands of years. Scientists on the 

expedition imaged them with lasers to 

obtain data on their rates of growth since 

being marked. This analysis is ongoing.

The expedition also surveyed areas that 

were covered by lava flows at different 

times in history and examined how 

coral communities differ in these places. 

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Ü N

2015 Hohonu Moana: Exploring Deep Waters off Hawaiʻi

0 80 160 320

Nautical Miles

Map created by NOAA OER. Background data layer sources: Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus DS, USDA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the

GIS User Community

Bathymetry and ROV dive locations from four NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer cruises

R/V Falkor Data Coverage

5 NOAA EX1504 Leg 2 ROV Dives

5 NOAA EX1504 Leg 3 ROV Dives

5 NOAA EX1504 Leg 4 ROV Dives

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument

United States Exclusive Economic Zone

NOAA Okeanos Explorer Data Coverage

2015 Hohonu Moana: Exploring Deep Waters off Hawai‘i

Bathymetry and ROV dive locations from four NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer cruises
22 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Primnoa coral 

with a commensal 

crinoid (sea lily, 

left) and ophiuroid 

(brittlestar) 

observed on 

Kanehunamoku 

Seamount.

This will tell us how corals colonize a 

fresh lava field and the rate at which 

the populations recover after being 

destroyed by lava or other disturbances. 

Scientists conducted an ROV dive on the 

western branch of the 1868 lava flow in 

order to compare findings with surveys 

conducted in 2011. Data are currently 

being analyzed to determine species 

richness, diversity, abundance, maximum 

size of species, and size class frequency 

of pink coral (Coralliidae). In addition, 

scientists are examining the seafloor 

terrain characteristics—such as substrate 

hardness, slope and curvature—along the 

survey track to determine whether there 

was an association between high coral 

abundance and specific characteristics 

of the seafloor terrain. Rock samples are 

being analyzed to confirm the age of the 

substrate as originating from the 1868 

lava flow. 

Parallel to the CAPSTONE Hohonu 

Moana expedition, scientists are working 

on several other projects under a 3-year 

fieldwork initiative sponsored by the 

Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology 

Program. Actions completed include the 

following:

• Documented the locations and 

characteristics of deep-sea corals 

and sponges by reviewing seafloor 

images taken from previous research 

cruises. The video annotation process 

will continue through 2016. 

• Examined the population structure, 

and determined the species and 

colony densities in black coral 

beds off Maui. Data previously 

collected in 2004, 2008 and 2010 were 

reviewed in order to select sites for 

new surveys and plan for upcoming 

fieldwork activities. New fieldwork 

activities are planned for summer 

2016 to re-survey five areas that were 

studied between 2004 and 2010, and 

to survey several additional sites in 

order to measure species abundances 

across a wide bathymetric gradient. 

• Surveyed black corals at depths 

between 50 and 90 meters (164-

295 feet) off American Samoa to 

determine their distribution and 

species. A review of 60 scientific 

articles was conducted to determine 

what species have been reported 

from American Samoa. Based on 

this review, only two black corals 

are known from American Samoa, 

and these were only known to genus 

level (Antipathes and Cirrhipathes). 

In April 2015, scientists conducted 

four dives to a maximum depth of 

91 meters (299 feet) using mixed-gas 

technical diving off Tutuila Island 

in American Samoa. During these 

dives, 18 black coral specimens 

were collected. These specimens 

are currently being processed using 

scanning electron microscopy in 

order to identify them taxonomically. 

Follow-up fieldwork is planned 

in American Samoa to survey 10 

additional sites in this depth range in 

2016.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 23

High-density coral 

community on 

the ridge crest 

of Swordfish 

Seamount, south 

of Oahu, at 

approximately 

1,000 meters 

(3,280 feet) deep.

• Conducted multibeam mapping 

of the seafloor shallower than 500 

meters (1,640 feet) around American 

Samoa, the Pacific Remote Islands, 

and the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands. Multibeam mapping was 

conducted using the NOAA ship 

Hi’ialakai around the remote U.S. 

Pacific Islands of Howland, Baker, 

Jarvis, Palmyra and Kingman. 

• Developed a model intended to 

guide deep-sea coral surveys. 

The hypothesis that high-density 

coral communities can be 

found predominantly on ridges 

was supported by underwater 

observations. However, not every 

ridge has dense coral communities. 

During the 2015 dives, coral 

communities were found where 

stable substrate, such as bedrock or 

large boulders, was present. They 

were absent from debris slopes and 

other unconsolidated sediments. 

Depth also appears to be important, 

as no high-density communities were 

observed below 2,700 meters (8,858 

feet). Next year, additional dives will 

be conducted to examine the role of 

ridge orientation, which may be a 

factor as well.

During the next 2 years, the fieldwork 

initiative’s scientists will continue to 

participate in CAPSTONE, which 

plans to extend ROV surveys to CNMI, 

Wake Island, American Samoa, and 

Pacific Remote Islands where almost 

nothing is known about the coral and 

sponge communities. The Pacific Islands 

fieldwork initiative will also continue the 

other studies. 

Although several national marine 

sanctuaries and marine national 

monuments have been established 

to protect the region’s unparalleled 

ecosystems, scientific knowledge 

is limited about the marine species 

and habitats that lie in the depths of 

these protected areas. The Program’s 

comprehensive effort to study the deepsea communities will help fill missing 

knowledge for the managers and users of 

these sites.

Additional details on the 10 projects 

under the 3-year Pacific Islands fieldwork 

initiative are available online: https://

deepseacoraldata.noaa.gov/fieldworkstudies/pi-fieldwork-fy15-17. 
24 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Key accomplishments in deep-sea coral 

science in the West Coast region in this 

reporting period include visual surveys 

of corals and sponges off California, and 

a gathering of scientists across the nation 

to identify the relationship between 

valuable fish species and deep-sea corals 

and sponges.

Investigating areas of locally 

high coral bycatch

Damage from fishing gear is the major 

threat to deep-sea coral habitats off the 

West Coast, and coral bycatch in trawls 

is often the best measure we have on 

where such 

damage takes 

place. NOAA 

scientists 

and partners 

completed 

a research 

cruise in 2014 

to visually 

survey an area 

off northern 

California 

where deep-sea corals had been caught 

during annual bottom trawl surveys for 

fisheries stock assessments and as bycatch 

in commercial fisheries. The seafloor in 

this area, about 50 kilometers (30 miles) 

off the coast between Crescent City and 

Mendocino, had never been explored 

with cameras before. Although trawl 

surveys indicated the presence of deepsea corals in the general area, information 

was lacking on their specific locations, 

abundance, and associated species. The 

2014 cruise, sponsored by the Deep Sea 

Coral Research and Technology Program, 

served to fill this information gap. 

Researchers completed 15 dives using a 

towed camera sled and an autonomous 

underwater vehicle, spending more than 

42 hours underwater photographing 

organisms on undersea ridges at depths 

of 600 to 1,200 meters (1,969–2,625 

feet). With perfect sea conditions and 

fair skies in an area notorious for foul 

weather, the researchers recorded more 

than 60,000 images of corals, sponges, 

fishes, and other marine life with paired 

digital cameras. Nearly 48,000 corals 

from at least 23 taxa were observed, 

including black corals, bamboo corals, 

and gorgonians—some of which may 

be hundreds if not thousands of years 

old. Densities of corals were among the 

highest that have been observed off the 

West Coast. Sponges occurred on most of 

the dives, with a total of 5,200 individuals 

representing 13 taxa. Relatively few 

fishes (mostly thornyheads) and little 

marine debris was observed. The ship’s 

echosounder was used to map the 

seafloor and geologic features each 

night; water conductivity, temperature, 

dissolved oxygen, and depth were 

measured at each station. These data will 

help characterize seafloor habitat types 

associated with the corals and sponges.

Fishermen have long known that corals 

occur in this area off northern California, 

having retrieved parts of corals in their 

fishing nets along with the harvested 

fishes. Relatively high numbers of corals 

also have been recorded in bottom trawl 

surveys for groundfish stock assessment. 

From the exploration of these sites with 

cameras, we can now determine the 

extent of these coral colonies for the first 

Deep-Sea Coral Science Informs West Coast 

Fisheries and Sanctuary Management

Bright white 

lightbulb sponge 

(Hexactinella 

spp.), red sea 

fan (Plexauridae

and Swiftia

spp.), white sea 

fan (Paragorgia 

sp.), and 

mushroom coral 

(Heteropolypus 

ritteri) at 743 

meters (2,438 

feet) deep near 

the OregonCalifornia border.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 25

time. The highlight of the cruise was 

discovering forests of corals on rocky 

ridges adjacent to trawling grounds. 

With the elimination of large rollers on 

trawl nets, these areas of rough terrain 

likely have received less fishing pressure 

in recent years. Further analyses of the 

images and resultant data will improve 

our understanding of the influence of 

fishing on coral communities and will 

inform decisions to protect and conserve 

these sensitive habitats.

Exploring sanctuary waters

The Program provided partial support 

to a 2015 research cruise in the Channel 

Islands National Marine Sanctuary.7

During the cruise, 212 square kilometers 

(82 square miles) of the sanctuary 

previously uncharacterized were 

mapped using high-resolution sonar. 

The map identified potential deep-sea 

coral habitats, which were then visually 

surveyed with a remotely operated 

vehicle. As a result, the coral Lophelia 

pertusa was observed for the first time 

on the north side of the sanctuary near 

San Miguel Island at 75-meter (246-

foot) depth. An extensive “coral garden” 

with many rockfish was discovered at 

60 to 80-meter (196 to 262-foot) depth, 

also on the north side of the sanctuary, 

near Santa Rosa Island. Gorgonian 

corals Eugorgia rubens, Adelogorgia 

phyllosclera, and Leptogorgia chilensis 

were documented in high abundance. 

Samples of eight sea fans and four stony 

corals were collected from 50 to 300 

meter (164–984 foot) depth for species 

identification, age and growth studies, 

and lab experiments to test the effects of 

ocean acidification. 

Understanding associations of 

commercially-important fishes with 

deep-sea corals and sponges 

Many managed fisheries species cooccur with deep-sea corals and sponges 

in complex rocky areas, but the degree 

to which these fishes rely on corals 

and sponges as habitat during any 

developmental life stage has been 

difficult to quantify. In response, 

the Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program sponsored 

a workshop in 2015 that brought 

together 13 academic and NOAA 

experts to articulate the role of deepsea corals and sponges as habitat for 

valuable groundfish species in the West 

Coast and Alaska regions. The workshop 

participants concluded that, from Alaska 

to southern California, the degree to 

which these fishes associate with corals 

and sponges is highest in the north and 

decreases to the south. Density of corals 

and sponges also generally declines 

from north to south. In parts of Alaska, 

high levels of association between corals 

and juvenile rockfishes may indicate 

functional roles of corals as shelter and/

or nursery grounds, but there is no 

significant evidence of this in California. 

Workshop participants noted that the 

West Coast region has experienced 

greater fishing pressure over a longer 

time period than Alaska, which has 

resulted in altered seafloor communities 

dominated by small rockfishes. The 

absence of large predators could be one 

factor to explain why the role of corals as 

shelter is not evident off the West Coast 

as compared to Alaska. 

More information on these and other 

studies funded by the Program on the 

West Coast can be found at https://deepseacoraldata.noaa.gov/browse-other.

NOAA Ship Bell M. 

Shimada

7 Caldow C, Etnoyer PJ, Kracker L (2015) Cruise Report for 

‘Patterns in Deep-Sea Corals’ Expedition: NOAA Ship Bell 

M. Shimada SH-15-03. NOAA Technical Memorandum 

NOS NCCOS 200. 15 pp. Silver Spring, MD.
26 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

The Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program supported a 

research priority scoping workshop 

in November 2015 in Florida. The 

workshop generated recommendations 

for science priorities for a 4-year (2016–

2019) deep-sea coral fieldwork initiative 

in the Southeast. The participants 

included representatives from the 

South Atlantic, Caribbean, and Gulf of 

Mexico Fishery Management Councils; 

collaborating federal agencies (Bureau 

of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) 

and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)); 

academia; and three NOAA line offices. 

The workshop discussions led to many 

ideas for partnerships, identification of 

data gaps, articulation of management 

needs, and numerous suggested research 

activities. A workshop report is expected 

in 2016. NOAA is organizing a team to 

develop and implement a fieldwork plan 

for the 4-year initiative, which will likely 

include activities in the South Atlantic 

Bight, U.S. Caribbean, and Gulf of 

Mexico. 

NOAA Gears Up for Southeast Regional 

Fieldwork Initiative

A squat lobster resides on an 

octorcoral in the Gulf of Mexico.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 27

The most comprehensive collection of deep-sea coral and sponge records 

and information for U.S. waters is available publicly in NOAA’s Deep-Sea 

Coral Data Portal. The portal is designed to serve the data needs of Regional 

Fishery Management Councils, other ocean resource managers, and 

scientists. It includes a digital map displaying more than 300,000 records 

from the National Database for Deep-Sea Corals and Sponges. The new 

portal is maintained by NOAA’s Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program.

In addition to showing the locations of corals and sponges, 

the fully searchable map also provides access to: 

• Underwater photos of the organisms. 

• Extensive associated data for download about the corals 

and sponges, including record provenance, details about 

where and how they were observed or collected, and, 

where available, ecologically important information, 

such as their density, size, and habitat.

• Reports that characterize the deep-sea coral and 

sponge habitats surveyed over the past decade by 

scientists from NOAA, other agencies, and universities. 

The National Database for Deep-Sea Corals and Sponges 

is continually expanding, incorporating new records from 

recent fieldwork observations and historic archives. These 

records will be added quarterly to the Data Portal map, and 

additional software tools for data exploration and analysis 

are under development.

The Portal also offers information about all 60 studies 

funded by the Deep Sea Coral Program since 2009 and a 

growing library of NOAA publications on deep-sea corals and 

sponges. 

National Database for Deep-Sea 

Corals and Sponges Goes Online

https://deepseacoraldata.noaa.gov
28 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

As the findings from Program-funded 

studies become available, and with the 

help of our partners’ research, most 

regions in the United States are making 

progress in developing management 

actions for deep-sea coral habitats. 

Resource managers increasingly 

recognize that deep-sea corals are fragile 

and slow-growing organisms that serve 

an important role in unique and diverse 

deep-sea ecosystems.

Mid-Atlantic

For the first time, protective zones for 

deep-sea corals have been proposed by 

a regional fishery management council 

under the MSA Section 303(b)(2)(B) 

discretionary authority. In June 2015, 

the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management 

Council approved a suite of management 

measures to designate areas where deepsea corals are protected from physical 

damage caused by fishing gear. These 

zones are named the Frank R. Lautenberg 

Deep-Sea Coral Protection Area in honor 

of the late senator from New Jersey who 

contributed tremendously to ocean—and 

deep-sea coral—conservation. This action 

was also the first time that predictive coral 

habitat models were used to help define 

major deep-sea coral protective measures. 

The Council approved the designation 

of 15 discrete coral zones: areas in and 

around submarine canyons that have 

either confirmed occurrences of deepsea corals or habitats suitable for corals 

as predicted by mathematical models. 

The Council also voted to establish a 

broad coral zone that extends from 

approximately the 450-meter (1,476-foot) 

depth contour to the Exclusive Economic 

Zone (EEZ) boundaries of the Council’s 

management region, as a precautionary 

step to protect deeper habitats that 

generally have not yet been fished. The 

combined coral zones encompass an area 

larger than 38,000 square miles, or about 

the size of Virginia.

The Council submitted the deep-sea coral 

amendment to the Secretary of Commerce 

for review in early 2016. If approved, the 

use of all bottom fishing gear, including 

both mobile and stationary gear types, 

would be prohibited in the deep-sea coral 

zones. The red crab trap fishery would be 

exempted from these restrictions, at least 

for the first 2 years, and a provision would 

allow for vessel transit with stowed fishing 

gear. The amendment would also require 

the use of Vessel Monitoring Systems for 

all Illex squid vessels. The management 

measures approved by the Mid-Atlantic 

Council do not apply to gear used in the 

state-managed lobster fishery.

This deep-sea coral amendment follows 

approaches recommended in NOAA’s 

Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and 

Sponge Ecosystems and is based on a 

growing body of scientific knowledge 

originating from the Program and its 

partners. Through multiple meetings 

and presentations, the scientists involved 

in the Program’s Northeast Fieldwork 

Initiative (see above) provided the MidAtlantic Council and its advisory groups 

the latest observations of corals and the 

best predictions of likely coral locations. 

This engagement demonstrates our 

Program’s proactive approach to present 

results in a timely manner and help 

resource managers make decisions.

NOAA and Partners Develop Management 

Actions to Protect Deep-Sea Coral Habitat
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 29

Discrete and broad deep-sea coral protection zones (more than 38,000 square miles combined) in 

the Frank R. Lautenberg Deep Sea Coral Protection Area proposed by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery 

Management Council in 2015. Data source: MAFMC.
30 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

New England

A priority of the New England Fishery 

Management Council in 2016 is to 

develop an omnibus deep-sea coral 

amendment, which would establish 

coral management measures applicable 

to multiple fisheries. This effort will 

incorporate the new observations and 

model predictions of coral locations 

resulting from the Program’s Northeast 

Fieldwork Initiative, as well as the MidAtlantic Council’s approach described 

above. It builds upon a draft amendment 

from 2012, when NOAA had helped 

the New England Council compile a 

large body of existing deep-sea coral 

information. The draft amendment 

included options to designate discrete 

protection zones around canyons and 

seamounts, and in portions of the Gulf 

of Maine. It also included a broad zone 

that covers the region’s deep waters off 

the continental shelf. During 2016, the 

Council will be updating the earlier 

proposals to reflect the most recent data 

on the distribution of deep-sea corals and 

their habitats.

In keeping with a Memorandum of 

Understanding signed by the chairs of the 

three Atlantic coast fishery management 

councils in 2013, management measures 

for New England will be developed in 

coordination with the Mid-Atlantic 

Council to make them as consistent as 

possible throughout the Greater Atlantic 

region.

South Atlantic 

The largest distribution of deep-sea coral 

reef ecosystems in the United States 

occurs in this region. In 2010, NOAA 

implemented a South Atlantic Fishery 

Management Council action to prioritize 

sensitive reefs as deepwater Coral 

Habitat Areas of Particular Concern 

(CHAPCs), covering more than 60,000 

square kilometers (23,000 square miles). 

In August 2015, NOAA implemented 

a further action to expand two of these 

CHAPCs (Stetson-Miami Terrace and 

Cape Lookout) as well as the Oculina 

Bank Habitat Area of Particular Concern 

(HAPC), protecting more than 850 square 

miles containing additional deep-sea 

coral habitat. The South Atlantic Council 

developed this management measure 

largely based on the Program’s 2009–2011 

fieldwork initiative, which documented 

the presence of deep-sea corals outside 

the existing protected habitats. 

In all these protected areas, the use of 

bottom fishing gear and anchoring is 

prohibited. Fishing vessels are allowed to 

transit through the Oculina Bank HAPC 

with rock shrimp onboard when fishing 

gear is appropriately stowed, and royal 

red shrimp vessels are allowed to haul 

back fishing gear in an expanded shrimp 

access area adjacent to the Stetson-Miami 

Terrace CHAPC. 

Gulf of Mexico

In June 2015 the Gulf of Mexico Fishery 

Management Council considered 

recommendations from its coral advisory 

bodies to evaluate 47 sites for HAPC 

designations and to protect them from 

fishing gear impacts. These sites are 

distributed throughout the Gulf of 

Mexico from Texas to Florida, and all 

have confirmed presence of multiple 

deep-sea coral taxa. The Council plans 

to seek further input from the fishing 

community on this proposal before 

officially starting a process to amend 

the Fishery Management Plan for 

Coral and Coral Reefs with new HAPC 

designations.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 31

The Flower Garden Banks National 

Marine Sanctuary is evaluating proposed 

changes to its boundaries. These changes 

could expand the sanctuary to include 

Horseshoe Bank, McGrail Bank, Geyer 

Bank, Bright Bank, Sonnier Bank, 

Alderdice Bank, MacNeil Bank, Rankin 

Bank, and 28 Fathom Bank. All of these 

banks have confirmed presence of deepsea corals. The current boundaries of the 

sanctuary, which encompass East and 

West Flower Garden Banks and Stetson 

Bank, would also be modified. The 

sanctuary is preparing an environmental 

impact statement to consider the effects of 

the expansion. If approved, the expansion 

would provide more long-term protection 

and research for these deep-sea coral 

habitats. The sanctuary has participated in 

the Fishery Management Council’s HAPC 

process and is coordinating closely with 

the Council.

The Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary is also beginning a process 

to consider boundary changes. The 

potential expansion could include more 

deep-sea coral areas at Pulley Ridge. 

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill severely 

affected mesophotic and deep-sea coral 

communities in the Gulf of Mexico. 

The natural resource Trustees, led by 

NOAA, have been working together 

for more than 5 years to quantitatively 

assess the injuries. To date, injuries to 

these resources have been identified in at 

least three deep-sea coral communities8

up to 13 miles from the wellhead and 

mesophotic coral communities on 

Pinnacles reefs.9 The area containing 

mesophotic corals with observed injuries 

exceeds 4 square miles. Continued 

assessment and restoration planning for 

these critical Gulf resources is complicated 

by our limited understanding of key 

biological functions, limited experience 

with restoration at depth and with these 

species, and remote locations that limit 

accessibility. Consequently, actions to 

be taken under the Draft Programmatic 

Damage Assessment and Restoration 

Plan (DWH PDARP) will include phased 

implementation to allow for additional 

data collection, analyses, and synthesis 

to address critical uncertainties and 

adaptive decision-making. The injury 

assessment information collected thus 

far, and the extensive future restorationfocused research and monitoring 

activities supported by the DWH PDARP, 

are critical to advance understanding 

of deep-sea coral habitat function, 

including relationships to commercial 

and recreational fisheries in the Gulf. 

In addition, it will help support NOAA 

and its partners in the science-based 

identification, conservation, and 

management of important deep-sea 

habitats. The Deep Sea Coral Research 

and Technology Program’s compilation 

of existing information and continuing 

research in the region provides valuable 

context for these efforts.

The Deepwater 

Horizon Oil Spill 

damaged deepsea corals. 

8 Fisher CR, Hsing PY, Kaiser CL, Yoerger DR, Roberts HH, 

Shedd WW, Cordes EE, Shank TM, Berlet SP, Saunders 

MG, Larcom EA, Brooks JM (2014) Footprint of Deepwater 

Horizon blowout impact to deep-water coral communities. 

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the 

United States of America 111:11744-11749

9 Etnoyer PJ, Wickes LN, Silva M, Dubick JD, Balthis L, 

Salgado E, MacDonald IR (2015) Decline in condition of 

gorgonian octocorals on mesophotic reefs in the northern 

Gulf of Mexico: before and after the Deepwater Horizon oil 

spill. Coral Reefs. doi:10.1007/s00338-015-1363-2
32 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Alaska and West Coast

Both the Pacific and North Pacific Fishery 

Management Councils are conducting 

5-year essential fish habitat (EFH) 

reviews for groundfish. To the extent 

that deep-sea coral communities serve as 

habitat for federally managed groundfish 

species, these reviews would present an 

opportunity to enhance management 

measures for coral areas, should the 

reviews find further measures necessary. 

The Program and other NOAA offices 

have generated a growing body of data 

on coral and sponge distributions and the 

fishes’ associations with these habitats. 

These data are available to the Councils 

to inform habitat discussions. In addition 

to EFH measures, NOAA encourages the 

Councils to consider the use of deep-sea 

coral discretionary authority (MSA Sec. 

303(b)(2)(B)) in cases where the 5-year 

reviews reveal significant deep-sea coral 

habitats that are vulnerable to fishing 

impacts.

In 2015, NOAA expanded two sanctuaries 

in north-central California: the Cordell 

Bank National Marine Sanctuary and 

the Greater Farallones National Marine 

Sanctuary. The former was expanded from 

529 to 1,286 square miles, and the latter 

from 1,282 to 3,295 square miles. Deepsea corals have been documented by our 

Program in both the original extent of the 

An anglerfish, Chaunacops coloratus, found more 

than 3,000 feet deep in the Pacific Remote Islands 

Marine National Monument.

sanctuaries and in the expanded areas.10

Sanctuary designations provide protection 

to deep-sea corals by prohibiting seafloor 

disturbance and discharge of material, 

and they offer programmatic support for 

research and education on coral habitats. 

In the Cordell Bank sanctuary’s expanded 

area, future surveys will target Bodega 

Canyon and deep slope habitat. In the 

Greater Farallones’ expanded area, the 

Point Arena Biogenic Areas I and II are 

targets for future surveys. Other priorities 

in the Great Farallones include continued 

surveys of Cochrane Bank for black corals and exploration west of the Farallon 

Escarpment for bamboo corals.

U.S. Pacific Islands

In September 2014, President Obama 

expanded the Pacific Remote Islands 

Marine National Monument under 

the authority of the Antiquities Act 

(Proclamation 9173). The expansion 

included the waters and submerged lands 

around Jarvis and Wake Islands and 

Johnston Atoll out to the seaward limit 

of the U.S. EEZ. This expansion provides 

additional protections to approximately 

1,057,494 square kilometers (408,300 

square miles) of ocean, including many 

underwater seamounts and ridges likely 

to include important deep-sea coral 

ecosystems. NOAA manages the Pacific 

Remote Islands Monument, and the 

Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology 

Program partnered with other NOAA 

programs to begin exploring some of the 

newly protected areas around Johnston 

Atoll in 2015. 

10 Fruh E, Clarke ME, Whitmire C (2011) A characterization 

of the deep-sea coral and sponge community in Bodega 

Canyon off the coast of California from a survey using and 

autonomous underwater vehicle. NOAA. Graiff K, Roberts D, 

Howard D, Etnoyer P, Cochrane G, Hyland J, Roletto J (2011) 

A characterization of deep-sea coral and sponge communities 

on the continental slope west of Cordell Bank, Northern 

California using a remotely operated vehicle. NOAA. Etnoyer 

P J, Cochrane G, Salgado E, Graiff K, Roletto J, Williams G, 

Reyna K, Hyland J (2014) Characterization of deep coral and 

sponge communities in the Gulf of the Farallones National 

Marine Sanctuary: Rittenburg Bank, Cochrane Bank and the 

Farallon Escarpment. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS 

NCCOS 190.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 33

Surveying areas never seen before creates a wealth of knowledge and opportunity. While huge 

knowledge gaps still persist, the Program has made great strides since its inception in 2009 in 

both expanding the basic scientific understanding of deep-sea coral habitats and in providing 

management-relevant information. Building on the progress in 2014 and 2015, the Deep Sea Coral 

Research and Technology Program plans to take the following specific steps to advance deep-sea 

coral science and management in the next 2-year reporting period:

• Expand the Pacific Islands Fieldwork Initiative under the CAPSTONE partnership with surveys 

of the three largely unexplored Marine National Monuments in the Commonwealth of the 

Northern Mariana Islands (Marianas Trench), American Samoa (Rose Atoll), and Pacific Remote 

Islands.

• Complete the analyses of the extensive Northeast Fieldwork Initiative observations and 

samples, and support the New England Fishery Management Council’s development of the 

omnibus deep-sea coral amendment.

• In Alaska, complete the analyses of fieldwork observations and samples, and support the 

North Pacific Fishery Management Council’s 5-year essential fish habitat review as it relates to 

deep-sea coral and sponge habitats.

• Support the Pacific Fishery Management Council’s 5-year essential fish habitat review as it 

relates to deep-sea coral and sponge habitats.

• Develop and implement a 4-year (2016–2019) research plan for the Southeast Fieldwork 

Initiative, incorporating the priorities of the South Atlantic, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico 

Fishery Management Councils.

• Support the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council’s consideration of deep-sea coral 

sites as potential Habitat Areas of Particular Concern, with associated habitat protection 

regulations.

• Continue to expand the National Database for Deep-Sea Corals and Sponges and share the 

data on the Deep-Sea Coral Data Portal.

As the Program continues to support all the Councils with the best available science to manage 

essential and vulnerable habitats, it will also deliver high-quality scientific information on 

the distribution and abundance of deep-sea corals and sponges that will help other ocean 

management initiatives (for example, national marine sanctuary processes, or regional ocean 

planning bodies) to protect, maintain, and restore the health and biodiversity of the ocean.

Looking Forward
34 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Project Fishery Management 

Council Region Funding

Northeast Fieldwork Initiative, Year 2 of 3 New England; Mid-Atlantic $800,000

Alaska Fieldwork Initiative, Year 3 of 3 North Pacific $800,000

Bering Sea Groundtruthing Survey North Pacific $50,000

Exploring Off-Bottom Trawling and Other Approaches to Avoid 

Interactions With Structure-Forming Invertebrates During Pacific Ocean 

Perch Fishing on the Bering Sea Slope (cosponsored with the National 

Bycatch Reduction Engineering Program)

North Pacific $50,000

Taxonomic and Genetic Identification of Deep-Sea Corals and Sponges in 

Bycatch and Field Surveys Pacific; North Pacific $77,000

Visual surveys of high-bycatch areas off Oregon and California Pacific $60,000

Incorporation of American Samoa and Line Islands Deepwater Cnidarian 

Records into the Deepwater Coral Program Database Western Pacific $51,935

International Deep-Sea Coral Symposium 2016 National $10,000

National Database Development National $125,000

Deep-Sea Coral Data Management National $135,000

Program Coordination National $158,449

NMFS Management and Administration National $165,857

Total $2,483,241

Appendix 1: Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program Investments

Details on the fieldwork initiatives are available online at https://deepseacoraldata.noaa.gov/browse-studies. 

Details on other projects are available at https://deepseacoraldata.noaa.gov/browse-other.

FY2014
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 35

Project Fishery Management 

Council Region Funding

Pacific Islands Fieldwork Initiative, Year 1 of 3 Western Pacific $825,000

Northeast Fieldwork Initiative, Year 3 of 3 New England; Mid-Atlantic $779,000

Southeast Priorities Scoping Workshop South Atlantic; Caribbean; 

Gulf of Mexico $15,000

Mapping Commercial Bottom-Contact Fishing Intensity in the Gulf of 

Mexico in Relation to Deep Sea Coral Habitat Suitability Gulf of Mexico $30,000

Differences Between Mid and Outer Continental Shelf Mesophotic 

Communities Gulf of Mexico $13,000

Data-Mining Deep-Sea Coral Records from NCCOS ROV Video Missions 

in the U.S. Caribbean Caribbean $25,000

Taxonomic and Genetic Identification of Fisheries Bycatch of Deep-Sea 

Corals and Sponges Pacific; North Pacific $99,969

Role of Deep-Sea Corals and Sponges as Habitat for Managed Species Pacific; North Pacific $20,000

Do Deep-Sea Corals Have an Additive Effect on Fish Occurrence and 

Abundance When Controlling for Physical Habitat? Pacific $75,000

Characterizing the Habitat of Deep-Sea Coral and Sponges Assemblages 

and Associated Demersal Fishes in the Southern California Bight Pacific $55,000

National Database Development and Maintenance National $125,000

Deep-Sea Coral Data Management National $135,000

Program Coordination National $167,392

NMFS Management and Administration National $ 127,907

Total $2,492,268

FY2015
36 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Appendix 2: Maps of Deep-Sea Corals 

and Sponges by Region

Records of deep-sea corals and sponges shown in this appendix can be downloaded from NOAA’s Deep-Sea Coral Data Portal.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 37

Note: Deep-sea corals are known or suspected to occur in all U.S. Pacific Island jurisdictions, but very little 

research has been conducted anywhere aside from the Hawaiian Archipelago. Deep-sea sponges also form 

important habitats in the region, but their distribution is even less well documented.
38 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 39
40 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 41
42 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 43
44 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Appendix 3: Deep-Sea Coral Areas with Potential 

for Interaction with Fishing Gear

The Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program, through a review of its funded research and other scientific literature, has 

identified locations with evidence of major aggregations of structure-forming deep-sea corals, and locations where fishing gear 

interactions with deep-sea corals have been documented or remain possible because the coral habitats are open to bottom fishing. 

Directed by the MSA to help reduce interactions between fishing gear and corals, the Program is committed to supporting studies that 

help resource managers to develop and evaluate management options for these locations, as listed below.

Data used for creating this list are available from our Program upon request and may be used by the Councils in analyzing whether and 

how to designate zones to protect deep-sea corals from physical damage by fishing gear under the MSA deep-sea coral discretionary 

authority (MSA section 303(b)(2)(B)). References are provided at the end of this appendix.

Alaska Region

The EEZ around Alaska includes four major regions: the Gulf of Alaska, Aleutian Islands, eastern Bering Sea, and the Arctic (Chukchi and 

Beaufort Seas). Corals known from the U.S. Arctic Ocean are mostly limited to one small species of soft coral, and the region is currently 

closed to fishing. The North Pacific Fishery Management Council has established extensive areas in each of the other three regions to 

protect coral habitats from fishing gear impacts. Coral aggregations outside of these areas could be considered for additional protection, 

including:

A. Gulf of Alaska: Primnoa coral habitats outside currently protected areas, including, but not limited to Chirikof, the Fairweather 

Ground, Cape Ommaney/Shutter Ridge, and Dixon Entrance basin. Most of these areas are closed to bottom-trawling, but 

corals are vulnerable to other gear types operating in the region (e.g., longline gear). 

B. Aleutian Islands and Petrel Bank and Spur: The Aleutian Islands are home to some of the richest deep-sea coral habitats in 

the U.S. EEZ. The extensive Aleutian Islands Habitat Conservation Area and smaller Coral Habitat Protection Areas provide 

important protection to much coral habitat. However, surveys conducted by the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology 

Program and other newly analyzed information, along with predictive habitat modeling, suggest that certain areas, including 

many “coral garden” habitats, may currently remain open to bottom trawling. In addition, a number of relatively small areas 

within the Aleutian Islands have high levels of coral bycatch in commercial fisheries as reported by the Alaska Groundfish 

Observer Program. 

C. Parts of the Bering Sea slope, including Pribilof Canyon, were identified in previous editions of this report as coral areas 

with potential for fishing gear interaction. Since the last report, the Alaska Fishery Science Center has led predictive habitat 

modeling for corals in this area along with ground-truth surveys in partnership with the Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program. The results indicate that while corals do occur on the Eastern Bering Sea slope and canyons, their 

abundance and density are much less than in many areas of the Aleutian Islands and the Gulf of Alaska. About one quarter 

of the coral habitat predicted for the eastern Bering Sea slope occurs in Pribilof Canyon (about 10% of the total slope area). 

The predicted coral habitat also extends westward to the adjacent slope, indicating that this coral habitat concentration may 

not be unique to Pribilof Canyon. The North Pacific Council reviewed the new information in 2015 and concluded that further 

management action was not warranted at this time. 
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 45

Under current fishery management measures, approximately 50 percent of the areas around the Aleutian 

Islands predicted by the model to have a high probability of coral and sponge habitats in waters shallower 

than 500 meters (1,640 feet) are protected from bottom trawling. The distribution of probability of presence 

for coral in the Aleutian Islands is shown below, with the areas closed to mobile fishing gear shaded in grey. 

(Credit: CN Rooper, NOAA)
46 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

West Coast Region

Although a significant extent of the West Coast EEZ is protected from bottom trawling (e.g., via essential fish habitat (EFH) protections 

and the Rockfish Conservation Areas), additional areas of documented deep-sea coral presence are open to bottom-contact fishing 

activities. The spatially discrete areas listed here, based on observed coral bycatch and documented presence of coral aggregations, 

could potentially be considered by the Council for additional protection.

A. High coral bycatch area bordering Nitinat Canyon 

B. Deep-sea coral areas in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary adjacent to the current Olympic 2 EFH Conservation 

Area 

C. Deep-sea coral areas in parts of Astoria Canyon outside of the Astoria Canyon EFH Conservation Area

D. High coral bycatch areas off Central Oregon

E. High coral bycatch areas off 

Oregon/California border

F. High coral bycatch areas in Eel 

River Canyon outside of the Eel 

River Canyon EFH Conservation 

Area

G. Rittenburg and Cochrane Banks 

and Escarpment within Gulf of 

the Farallones National Marine 

Sanctuary

H. Certain areas of Monterey Bay 

National Marine Sanctuary, 

including the Ascension and Año 

Nuevo Canyon Complex 

“High coral bycatch areas” are areas with 

standardized coral bycatch (weight/km) 

in the top 1 percentile of all coral bycatch 

coast-wide reported from commercial trawl 

fisheries, based on data from the West 

Coast Groundfish Observer Program.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 47

Greater Atlantic Region

Four canyons (Norfolk, Lydonia, Oceanographer, and Veatch) have been closed to bottom trawling to protect the essential fish habitat 

of certain commercially fished species. These closures may have ancillary effects of protecting deep-sea corals that occur in these 

canyons.

In 2015, the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council proposed management measures to protect deep-sea coral habitats in 15 

discrete areas in the portion of the outer continental shelf and slope that is within the Council’s jurisdiction. These discrete areas are 

included in a much larger deep-sea coral zone (38,000 square miles) that extends from a landward extent of approximately 450 meters 

depth to the outer boundary of the U.S. EEZ. These measures were submitted to the Secretary of Commerce for review in early 2016.

In a related action, the New England Council is developing an omnibus amendment to protect deep-sea corals in submarine canyons 

and seamounts in the contiguous New England region. Areas being considered include:

A. Four New England seamounts 

within the U.S. EEZ: Bear, 

Retriever, Physalia, and Mytilus

B. A number of canyons on the 

outer continental shelf and 

slope, including Heezen, Nygren, 

Munson, Powell, Lydonia, 

Gilbert, Oceanographer, Welker, 

Hydrographer, Atlantis, and Alvin; 

also other minor canyons where 

corals have been documented in 

recent fieldwork

C. Four areas in the Gulf of Maine: 

Western Jordan Basin (114 

Fathom Bump), Outer Schoodic 

Ridge, Mount Desert Rock, and 

Lindenkohl Knolls. Corals also 

occur in central Jordan Basin, but 

in lower density.
48 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

South Atlantic Council Region

Prior to this reporting period, the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council had closed large areas to bottom fishing to protect deepsea coral habitats, including five Coral Habitat Areas of Particular Concern (CHAPCs) and the Oculina Bank HAPC. In 2015, regulations 

to implement Amendment 8 to the Coral Fishery Management Plan became effective, expanding the boundaries of two CHAPS and the 

Oculina Bank HAPC to incorporate additional coral habitats identified by the Program and partners. Coral aggregations outside of the 

protected areas that could be considered for additional protection include:

A. Deep-sea coral areas outside the Pourtalès Terrace CHAPC

B. Agassiz and Tortugas Valleys
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 49

Gulf of Mexico Region

In the Gulf of Mexico, a number of deep-sea coral aggregations have been documented in areas open to bottom fishing, as listed below. 

The majority of these areas have been reviewed by the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council’s Joint Coral Scientific and Statistical Committee and Coral Advisory Panel. Many were the subject of surveys conducted by the Flower Garden Banks National Marine 

Sanctuary, the BOEM/USGS/NOAA Lophelia II Project, and BOEM’s 4-year study “Deep-Water Reconnaissance of Potentially Sensitive 

Biological Features (PSBF’s) Surrounding Shelf-Edge Topographic Banks in the Northern Gulf of Mexico.” 

A. Western Gulf of Mexico – South Texas Banks:

1. Baker, Hospital, North Hospital, Aransas, Southern Banks

2. Dream, and Harte banks; Big Adam Rock, and Blackfish Ridge
50 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

B. Northwestern Gulf mesophotic and shelf-edge banks: 

1. Horseshoe Banks 

2. 29 Fathom and MacNeil Banks

3. Rankin/Bright Bank

4. Jakkula Bank4*

5. Geyer and Elvers Banks

6. Sonnier Bank* 

7. Bouma Bank*

8. Rezak*-Sidner Banks

9. Alderdice Bank*

* These areas are HAPCs but do not have regulations to prevent fishing 

gear from damaging coral habitat.

C. Northwestern Gulf deepwater coral habitats: 

1. Garden Banks 535

2. Garden Banks 235

3. Garden Banks 338

4. Garden Banks 299

5. Green Canyon 354 

6. Green Canyon 140 and 272

7. Green Canyon 234 

8. Green Canyon 852 

9. Mississippi Canyon 751 and 885

10. AT047 

11. AT357
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 51

D. Northeastern Gulf of Mexico mesophotic and shelf-edge banks: 

1. Alabama Alps Reef

2. Mountain Top Bank 3

3. Pinnacle 1 NW and West Pinnacle 2

4. Shark Reef; Triple Top Reef; Double Top Reef

5. L&W Pinnacles and Scamp Reef

6. Patch Reef and Solitary Mound

7. Rough Tongue Reef

8. Far Tortuga

9. Coral Trees Reef

E. Northeastern Gulf of Mexico deepwater coral habitats: 

1. Mississippi Canyon 118

2. Viosca Knoll 862/906

3. Viosca Knoll 826

4. DeSoto Canyon 583
52 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

F. Eastern Gulf of Mexico (off southwest Florida)

1. Many Mounds, Long Mound, and North Reed sites

2. Okeanos Ridge

3. South Reed site

4. Extension of Pulley Ridge outside the existing HAPC
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 53

U.S. Caribbean

Research on deep-sea habitats in the U.S. Caribbean to date is limited, and specific locations of deep-sea corals and whether fishing 

gear come in contact with them are not well known. However, a major area of deep-sea coral aggregations open to bottom fishing is:

A. Mona Passage, off the west coast of Puerto Rico, where deep-sea corals have been documented.
54 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

Pacific Islands

Bottom trawls, bottom longlines, and bottom gillnets have been prohibited throughout the U.S. Pacific Islands EEZ since 1983. Thus, 

there is little potential for bottom gear to interact with deep-sea corals here.
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 55

References for Appendix 3

Alaska – Regional summary in: Stone, R.P., and S. K. Shotwell. 2007. State of Deep Coral Ecosystems in the Alaska Region: Gulf of 

Alaska, Bering Sea and the Aleutian Islands. pp. 65–108. In: S.E. Lumsden, T.F. Hourigan, A.W. Bruckner, and G. Dorr (eds.). The State of 

Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3. Silver Spring, MD.

A. Gulf of Alaska Red Tree Coral Areas: 

• Stone RP, Masuda MM, Karinen JF (2014) Assessing the ecological importance of red tree coral thickets in the 

eastern Gulf of Alaska. ICES J Mar Sci 72:900-915. 

• Stone and Shotewell (2007).

B. Aleutian Island coral areas: 

• Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program – Alaska Coral and Sponge Initiative 2012-1014.

• NMFS Alaska Fisheries Science Center Groundfish Observer Data (http://www.afsc.noaa.gov/maps/fma/datamap/

obsmap.html)

• NMFS Alaska Fisheries Science Center Groundfish Trawl Survey and Longline Survey Data 

(http://www.afsc.noaa.gov/RACE/groundfish/survey_data/default.htm)

• Rooper CN, Zimmermann M, Prescott MM, Hermann AJ (2014) Predictive models of coral and sponge distribution, 

abundance and diversity in bottom trawl surveys of the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 503:157-176.

• Stone, R. P.(2014) The ecology of deep-sea coral and sponge habitats of the central Aleutian Islands of Alaska. 

NOAA Professional Paper.

• Stone and Shotewell (2007).

C. Bering Sea Slope and Canyons:

• Miller RJ, Juska C, Hocevar J. (2015) Submarine canyons as coral and sponge habitat on the eastern Bering Sea 

slope. Global Ecology and Conservation 4:85-94.

• Miller R J, Hocevar J, Stone R, Federov D (2012) Structure-forming corals and sponges and their use as fish habitat 

in Bering Sea submarine canyons. PLoS ONE 7(3): e33885.

• Rooper C, Sigler M, Goddard P, Malecha P, Towler R, Williams K, Wilborn R (2015) Validation of models of the 

distribution of structure-forming invertebrates in the eastern Bering Sea using an underwater stereo camera. A 

report to the North Pacific Fishery Management Council.

• Sigler MF, Rooper CN, Hoff GR, Stone RP, McConnaughey RA, Wilderbuer TK (2015) Faunal features of submarine 

canyons on the eastern Bering Sea slope. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 526:21-40.

• Sigler, M.F., Rooper, C.N., Hoff G.R., Stone R.P., McConnaughey R.A., Wilderbuer T.K. 2013. Are Bering Sea 

canyons unique habitats within the eastern Bering Sea? Draft paper presented for Review by North Pacific Fishery 

Management Council.

West Coast – Regional summaries in: 

Whitmire, C. E., & Clarke, M. E. (2007). State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the U.S. Pacific Coast: California to Washington. In S. E. Lumsden, 

T. F. Hourigan, A. W. Bruckner, & G. Dorr (Eds.), The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United States (pp. 109-154). Silver Spring, MD: 

NOAA. 

Clarke ME, Whitmire CE, Yoklavich MM (2015) State of Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems of the U.S. West Coast: 2015. In: 

Hourigan TF, Etnoyer PJ, Cairns SD, Tsao C-F (eds.) The State of Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems of the United States: 2015. 

NOAA Technical Memorandum. NOAA, Silver Spring, pp 5-1 – 5-42 (Prepublication version).

A. High coral bycatch area bordering Nitinat Canyon

a. Groundfish Essential Fish Habitat Review Committee (GEFHRC) (2012) Pacific Coast Groundfish 5-Year Review of 

Essential Fish Habitat Report to the Pacific Fishery Management Council. Phase 1: New Information. September 

2012. 427 pp. 

b. Oceana, Natural Resources Defense Council, and Ocean Conservancy (2013) Proposal to the Pacific Fishery 

Management Council to Modify Groundfish Essential Fish Habitat Designation, Conservation, and Enforcement. 183 pp.

B. Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary

a. Brancato, M. S., Bowlby, C. E., Hyland, J., Intelmann, S. S., & Brenkman, K. (2007) Observations of deep coral and 

sponge assemblages in Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary, Washington. Marine Sanctuaries Conservation 

Series NMSP-07-04. Silver Spring: NOAA.
56 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

b. Bowlby, CE, J. Bright, K. Brenkman, P. Etnoyer, S. Rooney, C. Brady. (2011) A characterization of deep-sea coral and 

sponge communities on the continental shelf of Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary, Northern Washington 

using a remotely operated vehicle in June 2010. A Report to NOAA’s Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology 

Program. 21pp.

c. Bowlby E. and Culver M. (2013). Options for Potential Modifications to Olympic 2 Groundfish Essential Fish Habitat 

Conservation Area in Washington State. Proposal to the Pacific Fishery Management Council 28 pp. (and references 

therein).

C. Parts of Astoria Canyon that have no special protections

a. Bianchi C. (2011) Abundance and distribution of megafaunal invertebrates in NE Pacific submarine canyons and their 

ecological associations with demersal fishes. MS Thesis, Washington State University, Vancouver.

b. GEFHRC (2012). 

c. Oceana, Natural Resources Defense Council, and Ocean Conservancy (2013).

D. High coral bycatch areas off Central Oregon

a. GEFHRC (2012). 

b. Oceana, Natural Resources Defense Council, and Ocean Conservancy (2013).

E. High coral bycatch areas off Oregon/California border

a. GEFHRC (2012). 

b. Oceana, Natural Resources Defense Council, and Ocean Conservancy (2013).

F. Eel River Canyon coral bycatch area

a. GEFHRC (2012). 

b. Oceana, Natural Resources Defense Council, and Ocean Conservancy (2013).

G. Rittenburg and Cochrane Banks and Farallon Escarpment within Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary

a. Etnoyer PJ, Cochrane G, Salgado E, Graiff K, Roletto J, Williams G, Reyna K, Hyland J (2014) Characterization of deep 

coral and sponge communities in the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary: Rittenburg Bank, Cochrane 

Bank and the Farallon Escarpment. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 190. 

b. NOAA (2013a) A Proposal to Consider Options for New EFH HAPC(s) and Conservation Areas Submitted by Gulf of the 

Farallones National Marine Sanctuary. 42 pp. (and references therein).

c. Oceana, Natural Resources Defense Council, and Ocean Conservancy (2013).

H. Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary deep-sea coral areas, including the Ascension and Año Nuevo Canyon 

Complex

a. NOAA (2013b) Collaborative Groundfish Essential Fish Habitat Proposal: Protecting Groundfish Essential Fish 

Habitat While Balancing Fishing Opportunities in Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, South of Año Nuevo (and 

references therein).

Northeast – Regional summary in: Packer, D. B., Boelke, D., Guida, V., & McGee, L.-A. (2007). State of Deep Coral Ecosystems in the 

Northeastern U.S. Region: Maine to Cape Hatteras. In S. E. Lumsden, T. F. Hourigan, A. W. Bruckner, & G. Dorr (Eds.), The State of Deep 

Coral Ecosystems of the United States (pp. 195-232). Silver Spring, MD: NOAA.

A. New England Seamounts:

• Packer et al. (2007).

• Kilgour MJ, Auster PJ, Packer D, Purcell M, Packard G, Dessner M, Sherrell A, Rissolo D (2014) Use of AUVs to inform 

management of deep-sea corals. Marine Technology Soc. J. 48(1):21-27.

• Watling, L., Auster, P. J., Babb, I., Skinder, C., & Hecker, B. (2003) A geographic database of deepwater alcyonaceans 

of the northeastern U.S. continental shelf and slope, Version 1.0 CD-ROM. Groton: National Undersea Research 

Center, University of Connecticut.

B. New England Canyons:

• Packer et al. (2007). 
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service 57

• Hecker, B., & Blechschmidt, G. (1980) Final historical coral report for the canyon assessment study in the Midand North Atlantic areas of the U.S. outer continental shelf: epifauna of the northeastern U.S. continental margin. 

Appendix A. In Canyon Assessment Study. No. BLM-AA551-CT8-49. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Land Management.

• Hecker, B., Logan, D. T., Gandarillas, F. E., & Gibson, P. R. (1983) Megafaunal assemblages in Lydonia Canyon, 

Baltimore Canyon, and selected slope areas. In Canyon and slope processes study: Vol. III, biological processes. 

Final report for U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service (pp. 1-140). Washington, DC: Minerals 

Management Service.

• Kinlan BP, Poti M, Drohan A, Packer DB, Nizinski M, Dorfman D, Caldow C. (2013) Digital data: Predictive models of 

deep-sea coral habitat suitability in the U.S. Northeast Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic regions. Downloadable digital data 

package. NOAA. (http://coastalscience.noaa.gov/projects/detail?key=35) 

• NOAA (2012) Deepwater Canyons 2012: Pathways to the Abyss (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/12midatlantic/welcome.html)

• NOAA (2013a) Deepwater Canyons 2013: Pathways to the Abyss (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/13midatlantic/welcome.html)

• NOAA (2013b) Okeanos Explorer Northeast U.S. Canyons Expedition 2013 (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/

explorations/ex1304/welcome.html)

• Watling et al., (2003). 

C. Gulf of Maine: 

• Auster PJ, et al. (2014) Imaging Surveys of Select Areas in the Northern Gulf of Maine for Deep-sea Corals and 

Sponges during 2013-2014. Report to the New England Fishery Management Council - 1 December 2014.

• Auster P.J., Kilgour M., Packer D., Waller R., Auscavitch S. and Watling, L. (2013) Octocoral gardens in the Gulf of 

Maine (NW Atlantic). Biodiversity, DOI: 10.1080/14888386.2013.8504469 

• Auster, P. J. (2005) Are deep-water corals important habitats for fishes? In A. Freiwald, & J. M. Roberts (Eds.), 

Cold-water Corals and Ecosystems (pp. 747-760). Berlin: Springer.

• Packer et al. (2007). 

• Watling et al., (2003).

South Atlantic: – Regional summary in: Ross S.W. and Nizinski M.S. (2007) State of Deep Coral Ecosystems in the Southeast 

Region: Cape Hatteras to Southeast Florida. Pages 233-269. In: Lumsden SE, Hourigan TF, Bruckner AW and Dorr G (eds.) The State of 

Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver Spring, MD.

A. Pourtales Terrace – Areas outside existing Deepwater Coral Habitat Area of Particular Concern.

• Reed, JK, Messing C, Walker BK, Brooke S, Correa TBS, Brower M, Udouj T, Farrington S. (2013) Habitat 

Characterization, Distribution, and Areal Extent of Deep-sea Coral Ecosystems off Florida, Southeastern U.S.A. 

Caribbean Journal of Science 47(1): 13-30.

B. Agassiz and Tortugas Valleys 

• Reed et al. (2013).

Gulf of Mexico: – Regional summaries in: 

• Brooke, S., & Schroeder, W. W. (2007) State of deep coral ecosystems in the Gulf of Mexico region: Texas to the 

Florida Straits. In S. E. Lumsden, T. F. Hourigan, A. W. Bruckner, & G. Dorr (Eds.), The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems 

of the United States (pp. 271-306). Silver Spring, MD: NOAA.

• Etnoyer, P. (2009) Distribution and Diversity of Octocorals in the Gulf of Mexico, PhD Dissertation. Corpus Christi: 

Texas A&M University. 187 pp.

• Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (2013) Workshop on Interrelationships between Coral Reefs and 

Fisheries. May 20-22, 2013; Tampa, Florida. Summary Report 54 pp. 

• Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (2015) Joint Coral Scientific and Statistical Committee and Coral 

Advisory Panel Meeting Summary May 27, 2015. Tab N, No. 4 in Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council June 

2015 Briefing Book.

A. Eastern Gulf of Mexico

• Reed, J. & Rogers S. (2011) Final Cruise Report – Florida Shelf-Edge Expedition (FLoSEE) Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 

Response: Survey of deepwater and mesophotic reef ecosystems in the eastern Gulf Of Mexico and southeastern 

Florida. Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University. 82 pp.
58 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 2016 Report to Congress

B. Northeastern Gulf of Mexico mesophotic and shelf-edge banks: 

• Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. and Texas A&M University, Geochemical and Environmental Research Group (2001) 

Mississippi/Alabama Pinnacle Trend Ecosystem Monitoring, Final Synthesis Report. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, USGS BSR 2001-0007 and Minerals Management Service, Gulf of 

Mexico Regions, New Orleans, LA, OCS Study MMS 2001-080. 415 pp. +apps. 

• Etnoyer PJ, Wickes LN, Silva M, Dubick JD, Salgado E, Balthis L, MacDonald IR (2015) Decline in condition of 

gorgonian octocorals on mesophotic reefs in the northern Gulf of Mexico: before and after the Deepwater Horizon oil 

spill. Coral Reefs. doi:10.1007/s00338-015-1363-2

• Peccini M.B. & MacDonald I.R. (2008) Correspondence of sea fan orientations with measured currents on hard 

bottom habitats of the Mississippi/Alabama continental shelf. Continental Shelf Research 28:302–308.

• Silva, M., P.J. Etnoyer, and I.R. MacDonald. (2015) Coral injuries observed at mesophotic reefs after the Deepwater 

Horizon oil discharge. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2015.05.013

• Weaver D., Dennis GD, Sulak KJ (2001) Northeastern Gulf of Mexico Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Program: 

Community structure and trophic ecology of demersal fishes on the Pinnacles Reef Track. Final Synthesis Report. 

USGS BSR-2001-0008; and MMS Gulf of Mexico OCS Region Study MMS 20022-034. 92 pp.

 C. & E. Northeastern & Northwestern Gulf of Mexico deepwater coral habitats: 

• Brooks, J.M., C. Fisher, H. Roberts, E. Cordes, I. Baums, B. Bernard, R. Church, P. Etnoyer, C. German,E. Goehring, I. 

McDonald, Harry Roberts, T. Shank, D. Warren, S. Welsh, G. Wolff. (2012) Exploration and research of northern Gulf of 

Mexico deepwater natural and artificial hard-bottom habitats with emphasis on coral communities: Reefs, rigs, and 

wrecks—“Lophelia II”: Interim report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study BOEM 2012-106. 135p.

• Cordes, E. E., M. McGinley, E. Podowski, E. L. Becker, S. Lessard-Pilon, S. T. Viada and C. R. Fisher. (2008) Coral 

communities of the deep Gulf of Mexico. Deep Sea Res. I. 55:777-787.

• CSA International, Inc. (2007) Characterization of Northern Gulf of Mexico deepwater hard bottom communities with 

emphasis on Lophelia coral. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2007-044. 169 pp. + app. 

• Schroeder, W.W. (2007) Seafloor characteristics and distribution patterns of Lophelia pertusa and other sessile 

megafauna at two upper-slope sites in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2007-035. 49 pp.

• Sulak, K. J., M. T. Randall, K. E. Luke, A. D. Norem, and J. M. Miller (Eds.). (2008) Characterization of Northern Gulf 

of Mexico Deepwater Hard Bottom Communities with Emphasis on Lophelia Coral - Lophelia Reef Megafaunal 

Community Structure, Biotopes, Genetics, Microbial Ecology, and Geology. USGS Open-File Report 2008-1148; OCS 

Study MMS 2008-015.

• White et al. (2012) Impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on a deep-water coral community in the Gulf of Mexico. 

PNAS 109(50):20303-20308.

D. Northwestern Gulf mesophotic and shelf-edge banks: 

• Gittings, S.R., Bright, T.J., Schroeder, W.W., Sager, W.W., Laswell, J.S., Rezak, R. (1992) Invertebrate assemblages and 

ecological controls on topographic features in the Northeast Gulf of Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science 50(3): 435-

455.

• NOAA (2012) Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary Final Management Plan. Silver Spring, MD. 130 pp.

• Nuttall M.F. (2013) Antipatharian diversity and habitat suitability mapping in the mesophotic zone of the Northwestern 

Gulf of Mexico. MS Thesis, Texas A&M University. 119 pp.

• Rezak, R., Bright, T.J., & McGrail, D.W. (1985) Reefs and Banks of the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico: Their Geological, 

Biological, and Physical Dynamics. New York: Wiley. 259 pp.

F. Western Gulf of Mexico – South Texas Banks:

• Nash, H. L., S. J. Furiness, and J. W. Tunnell, Jr. (2013) What is known about species richness and distribution on the 

outer-shelf South Texas Banks? Gulf and Caribbean Research, 25:9-18. 

U.S. Caribbean: 

A. Lutz, S. J., & Ginsburg, R. N. (2007) State of Deep Coral Ecosystems in the Caribbean Region: Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands. In S. E. Lumsden, T. F. Hourigan, A. W. Bruckner, & G. Dorr (Eds.), The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United 

States (pp. 307-365). Silver Spring, MD: NOAA.
USO, Unidentified Swimming Organism, east of Pacific’s Johnston Atoll. 
U.S. Secretary of Commerce

Penny Pritzker

Administrator of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and 

Undersecretary of Commerce

Kathryn D. Sullivan, Ph.D.

Assistant Administrator for Fisheries

Eileen Sobeck

June 2016

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